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2268	Chemistry of ascorbic acid	{{About\|the molecular aspects of ascorbic acid\|information about its role in nutrition\|Vitamin C}} {{cs1 config\|modecs1\|name-list-stylevanc}} {{chembox \| Verifiedfields = changed \| Watchedfields = changed \| verifiedrevid = 477350783 \| Name = {{sm\|l}}-Ascorbic acid \| ImageFile = L-Ascorbic acid.svg \| ImageClass = skin-invert-image \| ImageFile1 = Ascorbic-acid-from-xtal-1997-3D-balls.png \| IUPACName = (5R)-[(1S)-1,2-Dihydroxyethyl]-3,4-dihydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one \| OtherNames = {{ubl\|Vitamin C\|{{sm\|l}}-threo-Hex-2-enono-1,4-lactone}} \|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers \| IUPHAR_ligand = 4781 \| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite\|correct\|FDA}} \| UNII = PQ6CK8PD0R \| SMILES1 C([C@@H]([C@@H]1C(C(C(=O)O1)O)O)O)O \| CASNo = 50-81-7 \| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite\|changed\|EBI}} \| ChEMBL = 196 \| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite\|changed\|??}} \| EINECS = 200-066-2 \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite\|changed\|chemspider}} \| ChemSpiderID = 10189562 \| PubChem = 5785 \| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite\|correct\|kegg}} \| KEGG = D00018 \| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite\|changed\|EBI}} \| ChEBI = 29073 \| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite\|changed\|chemspider}} \| StdInChI = 1S/C6H8O6/c7-1-2(8)5-3(9)4(10)6(11)12-5/h2,5,7-10H,1H2/t2-,5+/m0/s1 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite\|changed\|chemspider}} \| StdInChIKey = CIWBSHSKHKDKBQ-JLAZNSOCSA-N \| SMILES OC1C(OC(O)C1O)[C@@H](O)CO }} \|Section2={{Chembox Properties \| C6 \| H8 \| O=6 \| Appearance = White or light yellow solid \| Density = 1.65{{nbsp}}g/cm<sup>3</sup> \| MeltingPtC = 190 to 192 \| MeltingPt_notes = decomposes \| Solubility = 330{{nbsp}}g/L \| Solubility1 = 20{{nbsp}}g/L \| Solvent1 = ethanol \| Solubility2 = 10{{nbsp}}g/L \| Solvent2 = glycerol \| Solubility3 = 50{{nbsp}}g/L \| Solvent3 = propylene glycol \| SolubleOther = Insoluble in diethyl ether, chloroform, benzene, petroleum ether, oils, fats \| pKa = 4.10 (first), 11.6 (second) }} \|Section6={{Chembox Pharmacology \| ATCCode_prefix = A11 \| ATCCode_suffix = GA01 \| ATC_Supplemental = {{ATC\|G01\|AD03}}, {{ATC\|S01\|XA15}} }} \|Section7={{Chembox Hazards \| ExternalSDS = [http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/a7608.htm JT Baker] \| NFPA-H = 1 \| NFPA-F = 1 \| NFPA-R = 0 \| MainHazards \| FlashPt \| AutoignitionPt \| LD50 11.9{{nbsp}}g/kg (oral, rat)<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070209221915/http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html Safety (MSDS) data for ascorbic acid]. University of Oxford</ref> }} }} Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with formula {{chem\|C\|6\|H\|8\|O\|6}}, originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves freely in water to give mildly acidic solutions. It is a mild reducing agent. Ascorbic acid exists as two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers), commonly denoted "{{sm\|l}}" (for "levo") and "{{sm\|d}}" (for "dextro"). The {{sm\|l}} isomer is the one most often encountered: it occurs naturally in many foods, and is one form ("vitamer") of vitamin C, an essential nutrient for humans and many animals. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, formerly a major disease of sailors in long sea voyages.<ref>{{cite news \|titleIs scurvy making a comeback? \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/health-35380716 \|workBBC News \|date22 January 2016}}</ref> It is used as a food additive and a dietary supplement for its antioxidant properties. The "{{sm\|d}}" form (erythorbic acid) can be made by chemical synthesis, but has no significant biological role. History <!--Please try to restrict this section to the history of the chemistry of the compound. The medical aspects belong more properly to the scurvy and vitamin C articles.--> The antiscorbutic properties of certain foods were demonstrated in the 18th century by James Lind. In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich discovered that the antiscorbutic factor was a water-soluble chemical substance, distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. Between 1928 and 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a candidate for this substance, which he called "hexuronic acid", first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. In 1932 Charles Glen King confirmed that it was indeed the antiscorbutic factor. In 1933, sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, working with samples of "hexuronic acid" that Szent-Györgyi had isolated from paprika and sent him in the previous year, deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of the compound, and in 1934 reported its first synthesis.<ref>[https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/WG/Views/Exhibit/narrative/szeged.html Story of Vitamin C's chemical discovery]. Profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved on 2012-12-04.</ref><ref>{{cite book \| last1 Davies \| first1 Michael B. \| last2 Austin \| first2 John \| last3 Partridge \| first3 David A. \| title Vitamin C: Its Chemistry and Biochemistry \| publisher The Royal Society of Chemistry \| year 1991 \| page 48 \| isbn = 0-85186-333-7}} </ref> In reference to the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi proposed to rename it "a-scorbic acid" for the compound, and later specifically {{sm\|l}}-ascorbic acid.<ref>{{citation \| first1 Joseph Louis \| last1 Svirbelf \| first2 Albert \| last2 Szent-Györgyi \| author-link2 Albert Szent-Györgyi \| url https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/WG/B/B/G/W/_/wgbbgw.pdf \| title The Chemical Nature Of Vitamin C \| journal Science \| volume 75 \| issue 1944 \| pages 357–8 \| date April 25, 1932\| bibcode 1932Sci....75..357K \| doi 10.1126/science.75.1944.357-a \| pmid 17750032 \| s2cid 33277683 }}. Part of the National Library of Medicine collection. Accessed January 2007</ref> Because of their work, in 1937 two Nobel Prizes: in Chemistry and in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Haworth and Szent-Györgyi, respectively. Chemical properties Acidity Ascorbic acid is a furan-based lactone of 2-ketogluconic acid. It contains an adjacent enediol adjacent to the carbonyl. This −C(OH)C(OH)−C(O)− structural pattern is characteristic of reductones, and increases the acidity of one of the enol hydroxyl groups. The deprotonated conjugate base is the ascorbate anion, which is stabilized by electron delocalization that results from resonance between two forms: : For this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups. Salts The ascorbate anion forms salts, such as sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, and potassium ascorbate. Esters Ascorbic acid can also react with organic acids as an alcohol forming esters such as ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate. Nucleophilic attack Nucleophilic attack of ascorbic acid on a proton results in a 1,3-diketone: : Oxidation {{More citations needed section\|date=March 2024}} {{Image frame\|width220\|content<div class"skin-invert-image">{{CSS image crop\|Image Ascorbic_acid_all.svg\|bSize 1250\|cWidth 220\|cHeight 142\|oTop 328\|oLeft 1006}}</div><!--Using cropped image until we can generate a new one-->\|alignright\|caption=Dehydroascorbate}} The ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant, typically reacting with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical. Reactive oxygen species are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. The oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage. Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble and, thus, cannot protect fats from oxidation: For this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as antioxidant food additives. Sodium-dependent active transport process enables absorption of Ascorbic acid from the intestine.<ref>{{cite web \|titleRe-evaluation of ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate as food additives {{!}} EFSA \|urlhttps://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4087 \|websitewww.efsa.europa.eu \|publisherEuropean Food Safety Authority \|languageen \|date6 May 2015}}</ref> Ascorbate readily donates a hydrogen atom to free radicals, forming the radical anion semidehydroascorbate (also known as monodehydroascorbate), a resonance-stabilized semitrione:<ref nameNjus2020>{{cite journal \|last1Njus \|first1David \|last2Kelley \|first2Patrick M. \|last3Tu \|first3Yi-Jung \|last4Schlegel \|first4H. Bernhard \|titleAscorbic acid: The chemistry underlying its antioxidant properties \|journalFree Radical Biology and Medicine \|dateNovember 2020 \|volume159 \|pages37–43 \|doi10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.07.013\|pmid32738399 }}</ref> :{{chem2\|C6H7O6- + L• -> C6H6O6<sup>•</sup>- + LH}} Loss of an electron from semidehydroascorbate to produce the 1,2,3-tricarbonyl pseudodehydroascorbate is thermodynamically disfavored, which helps prevent propagation of free radical chain reactions such as autoxidation:<ref name=Njus2020/> :{{chem2\|C6H6O6<sup>•</sup>- + O2}} <math>\not\rightarrow</math> {{chem2\|C6H6O6 + O2<sup>•</sup>-}} However, being a good electron donor, excess ascorbate in the presence of free metal ions can not only promote but also initiate free radical reactions, thus making it a potentially dangerous pro-oxidative compound in certain metabolic contexts. Semidehydroascorbate oxidation instead occurs in conjunction with hydration, yielding the bicyclic hemiketal dehydroascorbate. In particular, semidehydroascorbate undergoes disproportionation to ascorbate and dehydroascorbate:<ref name=Njus2020/> :{{chem2\|C6H6O6<sup>•</sup>- + L• + H2O + H+ -> C6H8O7 + LH}} :{{chem2\|2 C6H6O6<sup>•</sup>- + H2O + H+ -> C6H8O7 + C6H7O6-}} Aqueous solutions of dehydroascorbate are unstable, undergoing hydrolysis with a half-life of 5–15&nbsp;minutes at {{convert\|37\|C}}. Decomposition products include diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id45I3EQAAQBAJ&qdiketogulonic&pgPA311 \|title Ingredient Interactions: Effects on Food Quality, Second Edition\|isbn 9781420028133\|last1 Gaonkar\|first1 Anilkumar G.\|last2 McPherson\|first2 Andrew \|date 2016-04-19\| publisherCRC Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Linster \|first1Carole L. \|author-link1:lb:Carole Linster \|last2Van Schaftingen \|first2Emile \|titleVitamin C: Biosynthesis, recycling and degradation in mammals \|journalThe FEBS Journal \|dateJanuary 2007 \|volume274 \|issue1 \|pages1–22 \|doi10.1111/j.1742-4658.2006.05607.x\|pmid17222174 }}</ref>{{rp\|p14}} Other reactions It creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids at 90&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal \|author1Seck, S. \|author2Crouzet, J. \| title Formation of Volatile Compounds in Sugar-Phenylalanine and Ascorbic Acid-Phenylalanine Model Systems during Heat Treatment \| journal Journal of Food Science \| year 1981 \| volume 46 \| issue 3 \| pages 790–793 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1981.tb15349.x }}</ref> It is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation, though because a crude extract of animal liver is used, it is unclear which reaction catalyzed by which enzyme is being helped here.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Sealock RR, Goodland RL, Sumerwell WN, Brierly JM \| title The role of ascorbic acid in the oxidation of <small>L</small>-Tyrosine by guinea pig liver extracts \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 196 \| issue 2 \| pages 761–7 \| date May 1952 \| doi 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)52407-3 \| pmid 12981016 \| url http://www.jbc.org/content/196/2/761.full.pdf \| doi-access = free }}</ref> For known roles in enzymatic reactions, see {{section link\|Vitamin C#Pharmacodynamics}}. Because it reduces iron(III) and chelates iron ions, it enhances the oral absorption of non-heme iron.<ref name"pmid28189173">{{cite journal \|vauthorsDeLoughery TG \|titleIron deficiency anemia \|journalMed Clin North Am \|volume101 \|issue2 \|pages319–32 \|dateMarch 2017 \|pmid28189173 \|doi10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.004 \|typeReview}}</ref> This property also applies to its enantiomer.<ref>{{cite journal \| title Erythorbic acid is a potent enhancer of nonheme-iron absorption \| last Fidler \| first MC \|author2Davidsson L \|author3Zeder C \|author4Hurrell RF \| journal American Journal of Clinical Nutrition \|dateJanuary 2004 \| volume 79 \| issue 1 \| pmid 14684404 \| pages 99–102 \| doi10.1093/ajcn/79.1.99\| doi-access free }}</ref>Conversion to oxalateIn 1958, it was discovered that ascorbic acid can be converted to oxalate, a key component of calcium oxalate kidney stones.<ref name"pmid13525409">{{cite journal \|vauthorsHellman L, Burns JJ \|titleMetabolism of L-ascorbic acid-1-C14 in man \|journalThe Journal of Biological Chemistry \|volume230 \|issue2 \|pages923–30 \|dateFebruary 1958 \|doi10.1016/S0021-9258(18)70515-2 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid13525409 \|urlhttps://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)70515-2/pdf}}</ref><ref name"pmid27002809">{{cite journal \|vauthorsKnight J, Madduma-Liyanage K, Mobley JA, Assimos DG, Holmes RP \|titleAscorbic acid intake and oxalate synthesis \|journalUrolithiasis \|volume44 \|issue4 \|pages289–97 \|dateAugust 2016 \|pmid27002809 \|pmc4946963 \|doi10.1007/s00240-016-0868-7}}</ref><ref name"Kayis 2024">{{cite book \|vauthorsKayis C \|titleAscorbic Acid - Biochemistry and Functions \|chapterEffect of Ascorbic Acid on the Kidneys \|publisherIntechOpen \|year2024 \|isbn978-1-83768-562-2 \|doi10.5772/intechopen.111913 \|doi-accessfree \|urlhttps://www.intechopen.com/citation-pdf-url/87322 \|access-date12 January 2025 \|page}}</ref> The process begins with the formation of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) from the ascorbyl radical. While DHA can be recycled back to ascorbic acid, a portion irreversibly degrades to 2,3-diketogulonic acid (DKG), which then breaks down to both oxalate and the sugars L-erythrulose and threosone.<ref name"pmid27002809"/><ref name"Kayis 2024"/><ref name"pmid38089442">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBao D, Wang Y, Zhao MH \|titleOxalate Nephropathy and the Mechanism of Oxalate-Induced Kidney Injury \|journalKidney Diseases \|volume9 \|issue6 \|pages459–468 \|dateDecember 2023 \|pmid38089442 \|pmc10712969 \|doi10.1159/000533295}}</ref> Research conducted in the 1960s suggested ascorbic acid could substantially contribute to urinary oxalate content (possibly over 40%), but these estimates have been questioned due to methodological limitations.<ref name"pmid27002809"/><ref name"Kayis 2024"/><ref name"pmid14217884">{{cite journal \|vauthorsAtkins GL, Dean BM, Griffin WJ, Watts RW \|titleQuantitative Aspects Of Ascorbic Acid Metabolism In Man \|journalThe Journal of Biological Chemistry \|volume239 \|issue9\|pages2975–80 \|dateSeptember 1964 \|doi10.1016/S0021-9258(18)93840-8 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid14217884 \|urlhttps://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)93840-8/pdf}}</ref> Subsequent large cohort studies have yielded conflicting results regarding the link between vitamin C intake and kidney stone formation. The overall clinical significance of ascorbic acid consumption to kidney stone risk, however, remains inconclusive, although several studies have suggested a potential association, especially with high-dose supplementation in men.<ref name"pmid27002809"/><ref name"Kayis 2024"/><ref name"pmid36839235">{{cite journal \|vauthorsCupisti A, Giannese D, D'Alessandro C, Benedetti A, Panichi V, Alfieri C, Castellano G, Messa P \|titleKidney Stone Prevention: Is There a Role for Complementary and Alternative Medicine? \|journalNutrients \|volume15 \|issue4 \|dateFebruary 2023 \|page877 \|pmid36839235 \|pmc9959749 \|doi10.3390/nu15040877\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref name"pmid30178451">{{cite journal \|vauthorsJiang K, Tang K, Liu H, Xu H, Ye Z, Chen Z \|titleAscorbic Acid Supplements and Kidney Stones Incidence Among Men and Women: A systematic review and meta-analysis \|journalUrology Journal \|volume16 \|issue2 \|pages115–120 \|dateMay 2019 \|pmid30178451 \|doi10.22037/uj.v0i0.4275}}</ref>UsesFood additiveThe main use of {{sm\|l}}-ascorbic acid and its salts is as food additives, mostly to combat oxidation and prevent discoloration of the product during storage.<ref>{{cite news \|titleThe Use of Ascorbic Acid as a Food Additive: Technical-Legal Issues \|workNational Library of Medicine \|date2016 \|publisherNational Center for Biotechnology Information\|pmc5076701 \|volume5 \|issue1 \|page4313 \|doi10.4081/ijfs.2016.4313 \|pmid27800425 \| vauthors Varvara M, Bozzo G, Celano G, Disanto C, Pagliarone CN, Celano GV }}</ref> It is approved for this purpose in the EU with E number E300,<ref name"UK Food Standards Agency">UK Food Standards Agency: {{cite web \|urlhttp://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist \|titleCurrent EU approved additives and their E Numbers \|access-date2011-10-27}}</ref> the US,<ref name"USFDA">US Food and Drug Administration: {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/FoodAdditiveListings/ucm091048.htm \|titleListing of Food Additives Status Part I \|websiteFood and Drug Administration \|access-date2011-10-27 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120117060614/https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodIngredientsPackaging/FoodAdditives/FoodAdditiveListings/ucm091048.htm \|archive-date2012-01-17 }}</ref> Australia, and New Zealand.<ref name"Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code-2011">Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2011C00827 \|titleStandard 1.2.4 – Labelling of ingredients \|date8 September 2011 \|access-date=2011-10-27}}</ref> The "{{sm\|d}}" enantiomer (erythorbic acid) shares all of the non-biological chemical properties with the more common {{sm\|l}} enantiomer. As a result, it is an equally effective food antioxidant, and is also approved in processed foods.<ref>[http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers], Food Standards Agency</ref> Dietary supplement Another major use of {{sm\|l}}-ascorbic acid is as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.<ref name"WHO-2023">{{cite book \| vauthors ((World Health Organization)) \| title The selection and use of essential medicines 2023: web annex A: World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 23rd list (2023) \| year 2023 \| hdl 10665/371090 \| author-link World Health Organization \| publisher World Health Organization \| location Geneva \| id WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2023.02 \| hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWorld Health Organization Model list of essential medicines \|urlhttps://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/371090/WHO-MHP-HPS-EML-2023.02-eng.pdf \|publisherWorld Health Organization}}</ref> Its deficiency over a prolonged period of time could cause scurvy, which is characterized by fatigue, widespread weakness in connective tissues and capillary fragility.<ref>{{cite web \|titleOffice of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin C \|urlhttps://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/ \|websiteods.od.nih.gov \|publisherNational Institue of Health \|languageen}}</ref> It affects multiple organ systems due to its role in the biochemical reactions of connective tissue synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleScurvy: Rediscovering a Forgotten Disease \|date2023 \|publisherNational Library of Medicine\|pmc10296835 \|journalDiseases \|volume11 \|issue2 \|page78 \|doi10.3390/diseases11020078 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid37366866 \| vauthors Gandhi M, Elfeky O, Ertugrul H, Chela HK, Daglilar E }}</ref> Niche, non-food uses * Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a preservative.{{Citation needed\|date=July 2024}} * In fluorescence microscopy and related fluorescence-based techniques, ascorbic acid can be used as an antioxidant to increase fluorescent signal and chemically retard dye photobleaching.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Widengren J, Chmyrov A, Eggeling C, Löfdahl PA, Seidel CA \| title Strategies to improve photostabilities in ultrasensitive fluorescence spectroscopy \| journal The Journal of Physical Chemistry A \| volume 111 \| issue 3 \| pages 429–40 \| date January 2007 \| pmid 17228891 \| doi 10.1021/jp0646325 \| bibcode 2007JPCA..111..429W }}</ref> * It is also commonly used to remove dissolved metal stains, such as iron, from fiberglass swimming pool surfaces.{{Citation needed\|date=July 2024}} * In plastic manufacturing, ascorbic acid can be used to assemble molecular chains more quickly and with less waste than traditional synthesis methods.<ref>{{citation \|titleVitamin C, water have benefits for plastic manufacturing \|urlhttp://reliableplant.com/article.asp?pagetitleVitamin%20C,%20water%20have%20benefits%20for%20plastic%20manufacturing&articleid3133 \|publisherReliable Plant Magazine \|year2007 \|access-date2007-06-25 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927230356/http://www.reliableplant.com/article.asp?pagetitleVitamin+C%2C+water+have+benefits+for+plastic+manufacturing&articleid3133 \|archive-date2007-09-27 \|url-status dead}}</ref> * Heroin users are known to use ascorbic acid as a means to convert heroin base to a water-soluble salt so that it can be injected.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Beynon CM, McVeigh J, Chandler M, Wareing M, Bellis MA \| title The impact of citrate introduction at UK syringe exchange programmes: a retrospective cohort study in Cheshire and Merseyside, UK \| journal Harm Reduction Journal \| volume 4 \| issue 1 \| pages 21 \| date December 2007 \| pmid 18072971 \| pmc 2245922 \| doi 10.1186/1477-7517-4-21 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> * As justified by its reaction with iodine, it is used to negate the effects of iodine tablets in water purification. It reacts with the sterilized water, removing the taste, color, and smell of the iodine. This is why it is often sold as a second set of tablets in most sporting goods stores as Potable Aqua-Neutralizing Tablets, along with the potassium iodide tablets.{{Citation needed\|date=July 2024}} Intravenous high-dose ascorbate is being used as a chemotherapeutic and biological response modifying agent.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Riordan IVC Protocol for Adjunctive Cancer Care: Intravenous Ascorbate as a Chemotherapeutic and Biological Response Modifying Agent\|urlhttp://www.doctoryourself.com/RiordanIVC.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.doctoryourself.com/RiordanIVC.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|publisherRiordan Clinic Research Institut\|access-date2 February 2014\|dateFebruary 2013}}</ref> It is undergoing clinical trials.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHigh-Dose Vitamin C (PDQ): Human/Clinical Studies\|urlhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/highdosevitaminc/healthprofessional/page5\|publisherNational Cancer Institute\|access-date2 February 2014\|date=2013-02-08}}</ref> It is sometimes used as a urinary acidifier to enhance the antiseptic effect of methenamine.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1002/bdd.2510140106\|titleEffect of urine pH and ascorbic acid on the rate of conversion of methenamine to formaldehyde\|year1993\|last1Strom\|first1J. Grady\|last2Jun\|first2H. Won\|journalBiopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition\|volume14\|issue1\|pages61–69\|pmid8427945\|s2cid11151179}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1007/bf00545228\|titleEffect of urinary acidifiers on formaldehyde concentration and efficacy with methenamine therapy\|year1982\|last1Nahata\|first1M. C.\|last2Cummins\|first2B. A.\|last3McLeod\|first3D. C.\|last4Schondelmeyer\|first4S. W.\|last5Butler\|first5R.\|journalEuropean Journal of Clinical Pharmacology\|volume22\|issue3\|pages281–284\|pmid7106162\|s2cid31796137}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Murphy \|first1Francis J. \|last2Zelman \|first2Samuel \|titleAscorbic Acid as a Urinary Acidifying Agent: 1. Comparison with the Ketogenic Effect of Fasting \|urlhttps://www.auajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1016/S0022-5347%2817%2963619-X#:~:textwere%20determined%20incidentally.-,In%20doses%20of%200.5%20gm.,cal%2D%20cium%20in%20acid%20urine. \|workThe Journal of Urology \|dateSeptember 1965 \|languageEN \|doi10.1016/S0022-5347(17)63619-X}}</ref>SynthesisNatural biosynthesis of vitamin C occurs through various processes in many plants and animals.Industrial preparation ]] Seventy percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China.<ref name"Vantage Market Research-2022" /> Ascorbic acid is prepared in industry from glucose in a method based on the historical Reichstein process. In the first of a five-step process, glucose is catalytically hydrogenated to sorbitol, which is then oxidized by the microorganism Acetobacter suboxydans to sorbose. Only one of the six hydroxy groups is oxidized by this enzymatic reaction. From this point, two routes are available. Treatment of the product with acetone in the presence of an acid catalyst converts four of the remaining hydroxyl groups to acetals. The unprotected hydroxyl group is oxidized to the carboxylic acid by reaction with the catalytic oxidant TEMPO (regenerated by sodium hypochlorite{{snd}} bleaching solution). Historically, industrial preparation via the Reichstein process used potassium permanganate as the bleaching solution. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of this product performs the dual function of removing the two acetal groups and ring-closing lactonization. This step yields ascorbic acid. Each of the five steps has a yield larger than 90%.<ref>{{Ullmann \| author Eggersdorfer, M. \|display-authorsetal\| title Vitamins \| doi = 10.1002/14356007.a27_443 }}</ref> A biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s but further developed in the 1990s, bypassing acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant Erwinia, among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry in China, which supplies 70% of the world's ascorbic acid.<ref name"Vantage Market Research-2022">{{cite press release \|urlhttps://www.globenewswire.com/en/news-release/2022/11/08/2550571/0/en/Global-Vitamin-C-Market-Size-Share-to-Surpass-1-8-Bn-by-2028-China-Produces-80-of-Commercial-Vitamin-C-Vantage-Market-Research.html \|titleVantage Market Research: Global Vitamin C Market Size & Share to Surpass $1.8 Bn by 2028 \|date8 November 2022 \|websiteGlobe Newswire \|access-date21 December 2023}}</ref> Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation.<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsZhou M, Bi Y, Ding M, Yuan Y \|titleOne-Step Biosynthesis of Vitamin C in Saccharomyces cerevisiae \|journalFront Microbiol \|volume12 \|issue\|pages643472 \|date2021 \|pmid33717042 \|pmc7947327 \|doi10.3389/fmicb.2021.643472 \|url\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|vauthorsTian YS, Deng YD, Zhang WH, Yu-Wang, Xu J, Gao JJ, Bo-Wang, Fu XY, Han HJ, Li ZJ, Wang LJ, Peng RH, Yao QH \|display-authors5 \|titleMetabolic engineering of Escherichia coli for direct production of vitamin C from D-glucose \|journalBiotechnol Biofuels Bioprod \|volume15 \|issue1 \|pages86 \|dateAugust 2022 \|pmid35996146 \|pmc9396866 \|doi10.1186/s13068-022-02184-0 \|url \|doi-accessfree \|bibcode2022BBB....15...86T }}</ref> Determination The traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is by titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed. The popular iodometry approach uses iodine in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration. As an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator.<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.saps.org.uk/attachments/article/556/simple_test_for_vitamin_c.pdf \|titleA Simple Test for Vitamin C \|journalSchool Science Review \|year2002 \|volume83 \|issue305 \|page131 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160704170133/http://www.saps.org.uk/attachments/article/556/simple_test_for_vitamin_c.pdf \|archive-date=July 4, 2016}}</ref> This iodometric method has been revised to exploit the reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the potassium iodide solution produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of the process is determined by potentiometric titration like Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law. Another alternative uses N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as the oxidizing agent in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. The NBS first oxidizes the ascorbic acid; when the latter is exhausted, the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch. See also * Colour retention agent * Erythorbic acid: a diastereomer of ascorbic acid. * Mineral ascorbates: salts of ascorbic acid * Acids in wine References {{Reflist}} Further reading {{refbegin}} * {{cite book \| vauthors Clayden J, Greeves N, Warren S, Wothers P \| title Organic Chemistry \| publisher Oxford University Press \| year 2001 \| isbn 0-19-850346-6 \| url-access registration \| url = https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00clay_0 }} * {{cite book \| title Vitamin C: Its Chemistry and Biochemistry \| first1 Michael B. \| last1 Davies \| first2 John \| last2 Austin \| first3 David A. \| last3 Partridge \| publisher Royal Society of Chemistry \| isbn 0-85186-333-7\| year 1991 }} * {{cite book \| title Food: The Chemistry of Its Components \| edition 3rd \| first T. P. \| last Coultate \| year 1996 \| publisher Royal Society of Chemistry \| isbn 0-85404-513-9 \| url-access registration \| url = https://archive.org/details/foodchemistryofi0000coul }} * {{cite book \| editor1-last Gruenwald \| editor1-first J. \| editor2-last Brendler \| editor2-first T. \| editor3-last Jaenicke \| editor3-first C. \| title PDR for Herbal Medicines \| url https://archive.org/details/pdrforherbalmedi00joer_0 \| url-access registration \| edition 3rd \| publisher Thomson PDR \| location Montvale, New Jersey \| year 2004\| isbn 9781563635120 }} * {{cite book \| first1 John \| last1 McMurry \| title Organic Chemistry \| publisher Thomson Learning \| year 2008 \| edition 7e \| isbn = 978-0-495-11628-8}} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category}} {{ICSC\|0379\|03}} {{SIDS\|name<small>L</small>-Ascorbic acid\|id50817}} [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/ascorbic.htm IPCS Poisons Information Monograph (PIM) 046] [https://web.archive.org/web/20120117014447/http://www.bruker-axs.de/fileadmin/user_upload/SMART_X2S_Structure_Gallery/Structures/vitc_1006.html Interactive 3D-structure of vitamin C] with details on the x-ray structure {{Gynecological anti-infectives and antiseptics}} {{Vitamins}} {{Enzyme cofactors}} {{Antioxidants}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ascorbic Acid}} Category:Organic acids Category:Antioxidants Category:Dietary antioxidants Category:Coenzymes Category:Corrosion inhibitors Category:Furanones Category:Vitamers Category:Vitamin C Category:Biomolecules Category:3-Hydroxypropenals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry_of_ascorbic_acid	2025-04-05T18:25:58.829284
2273	AFC Ajax	{{Short description\|Association football club in Netherlands}} {{About\|men's football club\|the women's team\|AFC Ajax (women)\|other uses\|Ajax (disambiguation){{!}}Ajax}} {{pp-blp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2015}} {{Infobox football club \| clubname = Ajax \| current = 2024–25 AFC Ajax season \| image = Ajax Amsterdam.svg \| upright = 0.95 \| fullname = Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax \| nickname de Godenzonen (Sons of the Gods)<ref>{{cite book\|lastPerryman\|firstMark\|titleHooligan Wars: Causes and Effects of Football Violence\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXpzYlUPrKj0C&pgPT167\|year2013\|publisherMainstream\|isbn978-1-78057-813-2\|page167\|access-date15 December 2015\|archive-date29 April 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160429124318/https://books.google.com/books?idXpzYlUPrKj0C&pgPT167\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastStokvis\|firstRuud\|titleLege kerken, volle stadions\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvWmCAwAAQBAJ&pgPT45\|year2014\|publisherAmsterdam UP\|isbn978-90-485-2180-7\|pages45–\|access-date15 December 2015\|archive-date10 June 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160610105343/https://books.google.com/books?idvWmCAwAAQBAJ&pgPT45\|url-status=live}}</ref><br>de Joden (the Jews)<br>Lucky Ajax \| founded {{Start date and age\|dfyes\|1900\|3\|18}} \| ground = Johan Cruyff Arena \| capacity 55,865<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.johancruijffarena.nl/over-ons/spreekbeurt-1-1/\|titleHet Stadion.\|websitejohancruijffarena.nl\|access-date22 May 2019\|archive-date22 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180822004516/https://www.johancruijffarena.nl/Stadion-omgeving/Spreekbeurt.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref> \| owner = AFC Ajax N.V. ({{EuronextAmsterdam\|AJAX\|NL0000018034\|XAMS}}) \| chrtitle = CEO \| chairman = Menno Geelen (interim) \| manager = Francesco Farioli \| mgrtitle = Head coach \| league = {{Dutch football updater\|Ajax}} \| season = {{Dutch football updater\|Ajax2}} \| position = {{Dutch football updater\|Ajax3}} \| website = {{URL\|english.ajax.nl/\|ajax.nl}} \| pattern_la1 = _ajax2425h \| pattern_b1 = _ajax2425h \| pattern_ra1 = _ajax2425h \| pattern_sh1 \| pattern_so1 _ajax2425hl \| leftarm1 = FFFFFF \| body1 = FFFFFF \| rightarm1 = FFFFFF \| shorts1 = FFFFFF \| socks1 = FFFFFF \| pattern_la2 = _ajax2425a \| pattern_b2 = _ajax2425a \| pattern_ra2 = _ajax2425a \| pattern_sh2 = _ajax2425a \| pattern_so2 = _ajax2425al \| leftarm2 = 4C5F87 \| body2 = 4C5F87 \| rightarm2 = 4C5F87 \| shorts2 = 4C5F87 \| socks2 = 4C5F87 \| pattern_la3 = _ajax2425t \| pattern_b3 = _ajax2425t \| pattern_ra3 = _ajax2425t \| pattern_sh3 = _ajax2425t \| pattern_so3 = _ajax2425tl \| leftarm3 = EEEEEE \| body3 = EEEEEE \| rightarm3 = EEEEEE \| shorts3 = EEEEEE \| socks3 = EEEEEE }} {{AFC Ajax sections}} Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax ({{IPA\|nl\|ˈaːjɑks}}), also known as AFC Ajax, Ajax Amsterdam, or commonly Ajax, is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam, that plays in the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}}, the top tier in Dutch football. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) is the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 36 {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie titles\|italicno}} and 20 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} since the league's inception in 1956, and along with {{Lang\|nl\|Feyenoord\|italicno}} and {{Lang\|nl\|PSV Eindhoven\|italic=no}}, it is one of the country's "big three" clubs. Ajax was one of the most successful clubs in the world in the 20th century. According to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics, Ajax was the seventh-most successful European club of the 20th century and ''The World's Club Team of the Year'' in 1992.<ref>{{cite news \| title Europe's Club of the Century \| publisher International Federation of Football History & Statistics \| date 11 September 2009 \| url http://www.iffhs.de/?a413f0e03790c443e0f40390b41be8b01905fdcdc3bfcdc0aec70aeedb883ccb05ff1d \| access-date 12 September 2009 \| archive-url https://archive.today/20120524184019/http://www.iffhs.de/?a413f0e03790c443e0f40390b41be8b01905fdcdc3bfcdc0aec70aeedb883ccb05ff1d \| archive-date 24 May 2012 \| url-status dead }}</ref> According to German magazine Kicker, Ajax was the second-most successful European club of the 20th century. The club is one of five teams that have earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear a multiple-winner badge. In 1972, they completed the continental treble by winning the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}}, KNVB Cup, and the European Cup. They also won the first (albeit unofficial) European Super Cup against Rangers in January 1973. Ajax's most recent international trophies are the 1995 Intercontinental Cup, 1995 UEFA Super Cup and the 1995 Champions League, where they defeated Milan in the final; they lost the 1996 Champions League final on penalties to Juventus. In 1995, Ajax was crowned as World Team of the Year by World Soccer magazine. Ajax is also one of four teams to win the continental treble and the Intercontinental Cup or Club World Cup in the same season/calendar year;<ref>with Manchester United in 1999, Bayern Munich in 2013 and Barcelona twice, in 2009 and in 2015.</ref> this was achieved in the 1971–72 season.<ref name"autogenerated1">UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Supercup for the first time in 1973. In 1972 was an unofficial edition and the I Centenary of Rangers (see [http://www.uefa.com/competitions/supercup/history/index.html History of the UEFA Supercup] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081014203034/http://www.uefa.com/competitions/supercup/history/index.html \|date14 October 2008 }} in uefa.com).</ref> Ajax is one of five clubs to have won all three major UEFA club competitions.<ref>(European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Cup)</ref> They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, as well as the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962.<ref name"Intertoto">UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Intertoto Cup for the first time in 1995. In the 1960s, it was unofficial. See [https://web.archive.org/web/20051013082745/http://www.uefa.com/competitions/intertotocup/history/index.html History of UEFA Intertoto Cup] in uefa.com.</ref> Ajax plays at the Johan Cruyff Arena, which opened as the Amsterdam ArenA in 1996 and was renamed in 2018. They previously played at {{Lang\|nl\|De Meer Stadion\|italicno}} and the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium (for international matches). Throughout their history, Ajax have cultivated a reputation for scouting, spotting and developing young talent, and have remained focused on developing a youth system.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Larsen \|first1Carsten Hvid \|last2Storm \|first2Louise Kamuk \|last3Sæther \|first3Stig Arve \|last4Pyrdol \|first4Nicklas \|last5Henriksen \|first5Kristoffer \|titleA world class academy in professional football: The case of Ajax Amsterdam \|journalScandinavian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology \|date2020 \|volume2 \|pages33–43 \|doi10.7146/sjsep.v2i0.119746 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> History {{main\|History of AFC Ajax}} Ajax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918–19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.rsssf.org/miscellaneous/unbeaten.html\|titleUnbeaten during a League Season\|access-date30 December 2014\|workRSSSF\|archive-date16 December 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151216212124/http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/unbeaten.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> Throughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at the national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942–43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946–47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/334848\|titleAjax: the early years and the birth of Total Football\|date5 May 2012\|access-date3 March 2014\|workWorld Soccer\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140718091841/http://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/334848\|archive-date18 July 2014\|dfdmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-12464632\|titleAjax remembers Bury football hero Jack Reynolds\|date15 February 2011\|access-date3 March 2014\|workBBC\|archive-date26 September 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150926003055/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-12464632\|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1956, the first season of the Netherlands' new professional league, the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}}, was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions {{Lang\|hi-latn\|Vasas SC\|italicno}} 6–2 on aggregate at the quarter-final stage. The team was again {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3642832/2014/04/27/Ajax-weer-kampioen-zonder-topscorer.dhtml\|titleAjax weer kampioen zonder topscorer\|date14 April 2014\|access-date30 December 2014\|workAD.nl\|archive-date3 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303221414/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3642832/2014/04/27/Ajax-weer-kampioen-zonder-topscorer.dhtml\|url-status=live}}</ref> played at Ajax from 1959 to 1973, and from 1981 to 1983, winning 3 European Cups; his No. 14 is the only squad number Ajax has ever retired. Cruyff came back to manage the club from 1985 to 1988.]] ]] In 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national team.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/europe/8338289.stm\|titleCruyff will coach Catalonia team\|date2 November 2009\|access-date3 March 2014\|workBBC\|archive-date28 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170828152524/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/8338289.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.rnw.nl/english/article/ajax’s-youth-policy-still-its-prime-asset\|titleAjax's youth policy still its prime asset\|date18 March 2010\|access-date3 March 2013\|workRadio Netherlands Worldwide\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714171634/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/ajax%E2%80%99s-youth-policy-still-its-prime-asset\|archive-date14 July 2014\|url-statusdead\|dfdmy-all}}</ref> A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become widely regarded as the greatest Dutch footballer of all time, made his debut.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://worldsoccer.about.com/od/players/a/Cruyffrrofile.htm\|titleLegends: Johan Cruyff\|access-date3 March 2014\|workAbout.com\|archive-date25 February 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140225131543/http://worldsoccer.about.com/od/players/a/Cruyffrrofile.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}} titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups. Ajax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup final, losing to Milan. During the 1966–67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969–70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league matches and scoring 100 goals.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://voetbalcentra.nl/index_files/Eredivisierecords.htm\|titleEredivisierecords\|access-date30 December 2014\|workVoetbal Centra\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150220041208/http://voetbalcentra.nl/index_files/Eredivisierecords.htm\|archive-date20 February 2015\|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The 1970–71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup final, where they defeated {{Lang\|el\|Panathinaikos\|italicno}} 2–0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine {{Lang\|es\|Club Atlético Independiente\|italicno}} to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s. In 1973, Michels' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to Catalonia. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/picturegalleries/10211043/World-record-football-transfers.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/picturegalleries/10211043/World-record-football-transfers.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleJohann Cruyff – World record football transfers \|access-date30 December 2014\|workTelegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1976–77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}} and KNVB Cup two years later. The early 1980s saw the return of Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence of young players Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard. The team won back-to-back {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} titles in 1982 and 1983, with all three playing a significant role in the latter. After Cruyff's sale to rivals {{Lang\|nl\|Feyenoord\|italicno}} in 1983, van Basten became Ajax's key player, top scoring in the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} for four seasons between 1983–84 and 1986–87.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player41373/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140303150103/http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player41373/\|url-statusdead\|archive-date3 March 2014\|titleVan Basten, a Dutch goal machine\|access-date3 March 2014\|workFIFA}}</ref> and Rijkaard, returned as manager in 1985.]] In 1985, Cruyff returned to Ajax as manager and the team ended his first season in charge with 120 goals from 34 matches. However, Ajax still finished as runner-up to PSV by eight points. The following season, Ajax again lost out on the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} title to PSV, but won the European Cup Winners' Cup, its first continental trophy in 14 years. After this, Cruyff left the club to become manager of Barcelona and Rijkaard and van Basten were sold to Sporting CP and Milan respectively. Despite these losses, Ajax reached a second consecutive Cup Winners' Cup final in 1988, where they lost to Belgian club {{Lang\|nl\|KV Mechelen\|italicno}}.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://nos.nl/video/617897-1988-mechelen-klopt-ajax-in-finale-ec-ii.html\|title1988: Mechelen klopt Ajax in finale EC II\|access-date30 December 2014\|workNOS.nl\|archive-date31 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141231002107/http://nos.nl/video/617897-1988-mechelen-klopt-ajax-in-finale-ec-ii.html\|url-status=live}}</ref> The 1988–89 season saw Dennis Bergkamp, a young forward who had first appeared under Cruyff in 1986, establish himself as a regular goalscorer for Ajax. Bergkamp helped Ajax to the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} title and was the top scorer in the division in 1990–91, 1991–92 and 1992–93. Under the management of Louis van Gaal, Ajax won the UEFA Cup in 1992 to become the second club, after {{lang\|it\|Juventus\|italicno}}, to have won all three major European club competitions.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/video/videoid2121239.html\|titleWatch Ajax complete European sweep\|access-date30 December 2014\|workUEFA\|archive-date13 July 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713202323/http://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaleague/video/videoid2121239.html\|url-status=dead}}</ref> After the sale of Bergkamp to {{lang\|it\|Internazionale\|italicno}} in 1993, van Gaal re-signed the experienced Rijkaard to complement his young Ajax team featuring academy graduates Frank and Ronald de Boer, Edwin van der Sar, Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger and Winston Bogarde, as well as mercurial foreign talents Finidi George, Nwankwo Kanu and Jari Litmanen, and veteran captain Danny Blind.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://espnfc.com/columns/story?id827853&cc3436\|titleAjax's adolescents master men of Milan\|date30 September 2010\|access-date3 March 2014\|workESPN\|archive-date3 March 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140303153306/http://espnfc.com/columns/story?id827853&cc3436\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The team regained the Dutch championship in 1993–94, and won it again in 1994–95 and 1995–96 to become the first Ajax side to win three back-to-back championships since 1968. The height of van Gaal's success came in 1994–95, where Ajax became the first, and to date only, team to complete an entire {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} season unbeaten.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.dutch-football.com/football/eredivisie/records.shtml \|titleEredivisie – Records \|access-date3 March 2014 \|workDutch Football \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131009042444/http://www.dutch-football.com/football/eredivisie/records.shtml \|archive-date9 October 2013 }}</ref> The team also won its first European Cup since its 1970s era, defeating Milan in the 1995 UEFA Champions League final 1–0, with the winning goal scored by 18-year-old Patrick Kluivert. Ajax again reached the final one year later, and was defeated on penalties by {{lang\|it\|Juventus\|italicno}}. Ajax's return as a European force was short-lived, as van Gaal and several members of the squad soon departed to some of the continent's biggest clubs. The 2000s was a lean decade for the club, with only two {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}} championships won. However, Ajax's academy continued to produce star players such as Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart. In 2010, Frank de Boer was appointed manager of Ajax and led the club to its first league title in seven years, and record 30th title overall, in the 2010–11 season. This was followed by back-to-back wins in 2011–12 and 2012–13 to match his three consecutive titles as a player in the 1990s. In 2013–14, Ajax was again {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} champions, winning four consecutive league titles for the first time in club history.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/associationned/news/newsid2097233.html\|titleAjax secure fourth consecutive Dutch title\|date27 April 2014\|access-date29 April 2014\|workUEFA\|archive-date29 April 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140429083022/http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/associationned/news/newsid2097233.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> After finishing as runner-up to PSV in both 2014–15 and 2015–16, de Boer resigned as Ajax head coach in May 2016.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/sport/football/36273607\|titleFrank de Boer: Ajax boss leaves his role after six years\|date12 May 2016\|workBBC\|access-date12 February 2018\|archive-date10 October 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171010212508/http://www.bbc.com/sport/football/36273607\|url-status=live}}</ref> Peter Bosz took over the club and led them to the 2017 UEFA Europa League final, their first European final in 21 years. They lost to Manchester United with a lineup that was the youngest ever in a European final, averaging an age of 22 years and 282 days.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAjax side against Man United youngest ever in a major European final\|urlhttp://www.espnfc.us/ajax-amsterdam/story/3133254/ajax-side-vs-manchester-united-youngest-ever-in-a-major-european-final\|websiteESPN\|date24 May 2017\|access-date24 May 2017\|archive-date25 May 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525230331/http://www.espnfc.us/ajax-amsterdam/story/3133254/ajax-side-vs-manchester-united-youngest-ever-in-a-major-european-final\|url-statuslive}}</ref> For the third consecutive season, they finished runner-up in the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}}, this time to {{Lang\|nl\|Feyenoord\|italicno}}. The 2018–19 season for Ajax involved a remarkable run in the UEFA Champions League. Due to their runner-up finish in the 2017–18 Eredivisie, Ajax entered the tournament in the second qualifying round. After successive victories against Sturm Graz, {{Lang\|fr\|Standard Liège\|italicno}} and {{Lang\|uk\|Dynamo Kyiv\|italicno}}, they qualified for the group stage. Ajax was drawn in a group with German champions Bayern Munich, Portuguese side Benfica and Greek champions AEK Athens. Ajax finished runner-up in this group, qualifying for the knockout stages, where it was drawn against three-time defending champions Real Madrid. After losing 1–2 in the first leg, they defeated Real Madrid 4–1 in the away match, stunning the defending champions in their own stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, with an aggregate score of 5–3.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2019/mar/05/real-madrid-ajax-champions-league-match-report\|titleDusan Tadic inspires Ajax to stunning defeat of champions Real Madrid\|date5 March 2019\|workGuardian\|access-date26 April 2019\|archive-date23 April 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220423072524/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2019/mar/05/real-madrid-ajax-champions-league-match-report\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Dušan Tadić was awarded a perfect score of 10 by {{Lang\|fr\|L'Équipe}} following the match.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://bleacherreport.com/articles/2823746-dusan-tadic-joins-lionel-messi-and-neymar-in-earning-perfect-lequipe-rating\|titleDusan Tadic Joins Lionel Messi and Neymar in Earning Perfect L'Equipe Rating\|date6 March 2019\|workBleacher Report\|access-date10 May 2019\|archive-date10 May 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190510162557/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2823746-dusan-tadic-joins-lionel-messi-and-neymar-in-earning-perfect-lequipe-rating\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Thus, Ajax progressed to the quarter-finals and was drawn with Italian champions {{lang\|it\|Juventus\|italicno}}. In the first leg in the Johan Cruyff Arena, they drew 1–1. In the second leg at the Juventus Stadium, Ajax came from behind to win 2–1 and 3–2 on aggregate. Matthijs de Ligt scored the winning goal for Ajax to help the team advance to its first Champions League semi-final since 1997.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2019/apr/16/juventus-ajax-champions-league-match-report\|titleMatthijs de Ligt strikes decisive header for Ajax to overcome Juventus\|date16 April 2019\|newspaperThe Guardian\|access-date17 April 2019\|archive-date29 May 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190529230632/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2019/apr/16/juventus-ajax-champions-league-match-report\|url-status=live}}</ref> There, they would face English side Tottenham Hotspur. In the first leg of the semi-final, Ajax beat Tottenham 1–0 away from home.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://cartilagefreecaptain.sbnation.com/2019/4/30/18524468/tottenham-hotspur-ajax-champions-league-0-1-van-de-beek-goal-first-leg\|title Tottenham Hotspur 0-1 Ajax: Spurs lose first leg to early van de Beek goal\|date30 April 2019\|work SB Nation\|access-date8 May 2019\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190508194810/https://cartilagefreecaptain.sbnation.com/2019/4/30/18524468/tottenham-hotspur-ajax-champions-league-0-1-van-de-beek-goal-first-leg\|archive-date8 May 2019\|url-status dead}}</ref> In the second leg, Ajax scored twice in the first half to generate a 3–0 lead on aggregate. However, in the second half, Lucas Moura scored three times, including in the 6th minute of added time, resulting in Ajax losing via the away goals rule.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2019/may/08/ajax-v-tottenham-hotspur-champions-league-semi-final-second-leg-live\|titleAjax v Tottenham Hotspur: Champions League semi-final, second leg- live!\|workThe Guardian\|date8 May 2019\|access-date8 May 2019\|archive-date 8 May 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190508194806/https://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2019/may/08/ajax-v-tottenham-hotspur-champions-league-semi-final-second-leg-live\|url-status live}}</ref> Ajax was in first place on goal difference when the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} was declared void, preventing them being Dutch champions for the 35th time, but still qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://eredivisie.nl/nl-nl/uitgelicht/afwikkeling-voetbalseizoen-201920-een-feit \|titleAfwikkeling voetbalseizoen 2019/'20 een feit &#124; Eredivisie \|access-date24 April 2020 \|archive-date24 May 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210524145200/https://eredivisie.nl/nl-nl/uitgelicht/afwikkeling-voetbalseizoen-201920-een-feit \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In this, it was eliminated again, but in 2021 it reached the quarter-finals of the Europa League. It was eliminated against AS Roma. That season, it again won both the national title and the KNVB Cup. In the 2021–22 AFC Ajax season Ajax again became champion of the Netherlands. It had to give up the KNVB Cup and the Johan Cruijff Shield to competitor PSV because it came out on the losing end in both finals. In European terms, Ajax achieved first place in the Champions League group, all six matches were won, mostly by a wide margin. After the winter break, Ajax was narrowly eliminated in the eighth finals by the Portuguese Benfica Lisboa (Lisbon) (2–2 away, 0–1 at home).<ref>{{cite web \|titleAjax seizoensoverzicht 2021/2022 {{!}} Landskampioen en de laatste van Ten Hag \|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/artikelen/ajax-seizoensoverzicht-202122-landskampioen-en-de-laatste-van-ten-hag \|websiteAjax \|access-date12 February 2024 \|language=nl}}</ref> As of July 1, 2022, Alfred Schreuder succeeded Erik ten Hag, who left for Manchester United, as Ajax's coach. Most of the key players from previous seasons left during the summer transfer period, but there was also a lot of reinvestment. Ajax started the 2022/23 season relatively well with six consecutive victories in the Eredivisie. But Ajax was eliminated from the Champions League quite quickly in a group with Liverpool FC, SSC Napoli and Rangers FC. At home against Napoli on October 4, 2022, they even lost by 5 goals (1–6), Ajax's biggest defeat ever in European competition. After seven consecutive matches without a win head coach Alfred Schreuder was dismissed. John Heitinga succeeded Schreuder as interim. Under Heitinga, Ajax failed to turn things around despite a good start with seven wins in a row. Ajax finished third in the Eredivisie, behind champions Feyenoord and runners-up PSV. This was the club's lowest final ranking since the 2008/09 season, in which it also finished third. After the winter break, Ajax was eliminated in the first knockout phase of the Europa League by Union Berlin (3–1). Ajax did reach the final of the KNVB Cup, but lost to PSV on penalties (3–2). On May 19, 2023, Sven Mislintat took over as Ajax's sports director. He succeeded Marc Overmars, who left in early 2022. Mislintat appointed Maurice Steijn as head coach. Mislintat spent approximately 111 million euros on transfers. Ajax had its worst start to the season in fifty-nine years. On October 29, 2023, Ajax reached a historic low. Ajax lost 5–2 to PSV in Eindhoven. This put Ajax in last place, 18th place in the Eredivisie, for the first time since the club was founded. The position of director Mislintat became an embarrassment after it emerged that he had arranged a transfer through a player agent who was an investor in his company. In the evening of 24 September Mislintat was fired with immediate effect, among other things a lack of broad support within the club was one of the reasons. A day after the loss against PSV it was announced that John van 't Schip would become the head coach until the end of the season. Under the leadership of Van 't Schip Ajax managed to climb to 5th place in the Eredivisie. In the Europa League Ajax finished third, which meant a sequel in the Conference League, were it eventually lost to Aston Villa in the round of 16. In the cup Ajax was eliminated 3–2 by the third division amateurs of USV Hercules. In the summer of 2024 a rebuild began, with a new board of directors and Alex Kroes and Marijn Beuker as Technical Director and Director of Football. They hired Francesco Farioli as new head coach, the first foreign coach since 1998. Under his leadership Ajax reached the league phase of the Europa League where it finished 11th. On the 9th of February 2025 Ajax finished the weekend on the first place for the first time since November 2022. UEFA ranking {{see also\|UEFA coefficient}} {{updated\|12th of February 2025}}<ref>{{cite web \|titleUEFA rankings \|urlhttps://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/?year2025 \|websiteUEFA \|access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- \|29 \|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} \|Ajax \|66.250 \|} Academies {{main\|Ajax Youth Academy\|Ajax Hellas Youth Academy\|Ajax Coaching Academy}} The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years – Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Gerald Vanenburg, Frank Rijkaard, Dennis Bergkamp, Rafael van der Vaart, Patrick Kluivert, Marco van Basten, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, Nigel de Jong, Frenkie de Jong, and Matthijs de Ligt have come through the ranks and are just some of the talents who have played for Ajax. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local talent. Due to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina, representing Curaçao. Ajax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was set up with the help of Rob Moore. Ajax has also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, until it filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}} squad, such as South African internationals Steven Pienaar and Thulani Serero and Cameroonian international Eyong Enoh. In 1995, the year Ajax won the UEFA Champions League, the Netherlands national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with van der Sar in goal; players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defence; Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield; and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.uefa.com/trainingground/grassroots/features/video/videoid1562470.html \|titleInside the Ajax academy on \|publisherUEFA \|access-date2 August 2012 \|archive-date30 August 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110830044757/http://www.uefa.com/trainingground/grassroots/features/video/videoid1562470.html \|url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2011, Ajax opened its first youth academies outside the Netherlands when the club partnered up with George Kazianis and All Star Consultancy in Greece to open the Ajax Hellas Youth Academy. The offices are based in Nea Smyrni, Attica, with the main training facility located on the island of Corfu, hosting a total of 15 football youth academies throughout Greece and Cyprus. Eddie van Schaik heads the organization as coach and consultant, introducing the Ajax football philosophy at the various Greek football training camps.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajaxhellas.gr/youth_academy/en/index.php?optioncom_k2&viewitem&layoutitem&id1&Itemid2 \|titleThe Academy \|publisherAjaxHellas.gr \|date15 March 2011 \|access-date27 April 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714152746/http://www.ajaxhellas.gr/youth_academy/en/index.php?optioncom_k2&viewitem&layoutitem&id1&Itemid2 \|archive-date14 July 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.care24.gr/diatrofologos-ajax-hellas/ \|titleΗ νέα Κλινική Διαιτολόγος – Διατροφολόγος του Ajax Hellas \|publisherCare24.gr \|date15 March 2011 \|access-date27 April 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130320092837/http://www.care24.gr/diatrofologos-ajax-hellas/ \|archive-date20 March 2013 \|df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 2016, Ajax launched the ACA (Ajax Coaching Academy) with the intention of sharing knowledge, and setting up a variety of camps and clinics for both players and coaches.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/dit-plan-is-uniek-in-nederland.htm \|titleDit plan is uniek in Nederland \|publisherAjax.nl \|date23 February 2016 \|access-date2019-06-11 \|archive-date11 July 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190711154959/https://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/dit-plan-is-uniek-in-nederland.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Stadiums {{main\|Stadiums of AFC Ajax}} {{multiple image \|align = right \|direction = vertical \|total_width= 125 \|image1 = Ouwe Houten Stadion (Ajax) in 1917-1918.jpg \|caption1 = Het Houten Stadion, Ajax's first venue, c. 1917–18 \|image2 = Stadion De Meer 1937, Jacobus van Eck, Afb A01634001166.jpg \|caption2 = De Meer Stadion in 1937 \|image3 = Exterieur OVERZICHT GEDEELTE VAN DE TRIBUNE - Amsterdam - 20301845 - RCE.jpg \|caption3 =Olympic Stadium in 1995 \|image4 = Amsterdam ArenA 1.jpg \|caption4 = Johan Cruyff Arena, Ajax home ground since 1996 }} Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion (English: The Wooden Stadium). Ajax later also played in the Olympic Stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known in Dutch as {{Lang\|nl\|het Olympisch Stadion}}. In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, close to the location of Het Houten Stadion. It was designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures, the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators. In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam Arena, since 2018 known as the Johan Cruyff Arena. This stadium was built by the Amsterdam city authority at a cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding 55,865 spectators. The Arena has a retractable roof and set a trend for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena earned a reputation for a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. During the 2008–09 season, ground staff introduced an artificial lighting system that finally reduced this problem considerably. The much-loved De Meer Stadion was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters "AJAX", which nowadays is in place on the façade of the entrance at the Johan Cruyff Arena and a replica of the letters are at De Toekomst, near the Johan Cruyff Arena. Crest and colours Crest In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club's new outfits. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990 into an abstract version of the previous one. The new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just 11 lines, symbolizing the 11 players of a football team.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.xs4all.nl/~michielh/hetlogo.html \|titleHistory of the Ajax logo \|publisherXs4all.nl \|date20 September 1928 \|access-date4 August 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090721231604/http://www.xs4all.nl/~michielh/hetlogo.html \|archive-date21 July 2009 \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> On 17 November 2024, Ajax announced on its official website that the classic logo of 1928 will return for the 2025–26 season, making a comeback after 34 years.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleClassic Ajax logo returns permanently \|urlhttps://english.ajax.nl/articles/classic-ajax-logo-returns-permanently/ \|access-date2024-11-18 \|websiteenglish.ajax.nl \|languageen-US}}</ref><gallery> File:Ajax Crest from 1928-1990.png\|Crest of Ajax (1928–1991, 2021–2022) File:Ajax Amsterdam.svg\|Crest of Ajax (1991–present) </gallery> Colours {{Commons}} Ajax originally played in an all-black strip with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that strip was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of Amsterdam. Under manager Jack Kirwan, however, the club earned promotion to the top flight of Dutch football for the first time in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or 'First Class', later named the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}}), Ajax was forced to change its colours because Sparta Rotterdam already had exactly the same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit.FinancialAFC Ajax N.V. {{Main\|AFC Ajax N.V.}} AFC Ajax is the only Dutch club with an initial public offering (IPO). The club is registered as a Naamloze vennootschap (N.V.) listed on the stock exchange Euronext Amsterdam, since 17 May 1998. With a launch price of ƒ25,- (Guilders) the club managed to a bring its total revenue up to €54&nbsp;million (converted) in its first year on the market.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://vorige.nrc.nl/sport/ajax/article1882997.ece \|titleGod van de handel liet Ajax in de steek \|publisherNRC.nl \|access-date18 February 2008 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140202125824/http://vorige.nrc.nl/sport/ajax/article1882997.ece \|archive-date2 February 2014 \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> After short-lived success, however, the rate dropped, at one point as low as €3.50. Criticism was brought forth that the legal grid for a naamloze vennootschap would not be suitable for a Football club, and that the sports related ambitions would suffer from the new commercial interests of the now listed Ajax. Shares of the company in the year 2008 were valued at approximately €5.90 per share.<ref>[https://finance.yahoo.com/echarts?sAJAX.AS#chart2:symbolajax.as;rangemy;indicatorvolume;charttypeline;crosshairon;ohlcvalues0;logscaleon;sourceundefined AFC Ajax chart] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305204434/http://finance.yahoo.com/echarts?sAJAX.AS#chart2:symbolajax.as;rangemy;indicatorvolume;charttypeline;crosshairon;ohlcvalues0;logscaleon;sourceundefined \|date5 March 2016 }}, Yahoo.com</ref> In 2008, a Commission under guidance of honorary member Uri Coronel concluded that the IPO was of no value to the club, and that measures should be taken to exit the stock exchange by purchasing back all public shares.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110823131227/http://www.depers.nl/sport/218320/Ajax-beslist-snel-over-beursnotering.html Ajax beslist nog dit jaar over beursnotering], De Pers, 1 juli 2008</ref> Ajax remain on the stock exchange.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.hoovers.com/company-information/cs/company-profile.AFC_Ajax_NV.46101384cd08980e.html \|titleAFC Ajax NV Company Information \|publisherHoovers \|date19 October 2012 \|access-date3 September 2013 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714113519/http://www.hoovers.com/company-information/cs/company-profile.AFC_Ajax_NV.46101384cd08980e.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Sponsorship Ajax's shirts have been sponsored by TDK from 1982 to 1991, and by ABN AMRO from 1991 to 2008. AEGON then replaced ABN AMRO as the new head sponsor for a period of seven years.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id154814/contentid64367 \|titleAEGON new head sponsor AFC Ajax \|workAjax.nl \|access-date17 October 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071019015912/http://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D154814/contentid%3D64367 \|archive-date19 October 2007 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy }}</ref> On 1 April 2007, Ajax wore a different sponsor for the match against Heracles Almelo, Florius. Florius is a banking programme launched by ABN AMRO who wanted it to be the shirt sponsor for one match. The shirts have been manufactured by Le Coq Sportif (1973–1977), Puma (1977–1979),<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s28894.html \|titleAjax Away football shirt 1976 – 1978 \|date21 June 2012 \|publisheroldfootballshirts.com \|access-date23 July 2013 \|archive-date17 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140517154036/http://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s28894.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Cor du Buy (1979–1980), Le Coq Sportif (1980–1984),<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s1313.html \|titleAjax Home football shirt 1979 – 1980 \|date21 December 2006 \|publisheroldfootballshirts.com \|access-date23 July 2013 \|archive-date17 May 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140517154034/http://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s1313.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Kappa (1985–1989)<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s22371.html \|titleAjax Home football shirt 1985 – 1987 \|date16 February 2011 \|publisheroldfootballshirts.com \|access-date23 July 2013 \|archive-date26 March 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130326031707/http://www.oldfootballshirts.com/en/teams/a/ajax/old-ajax-football-shirt-s22371.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and Umbro (1989–2000) in the past, and by Adidas since 2000 (until at least 2025).<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.ajax-usa.com/news/2002-2003/contract-with-kit-sponsor-adidas.html \| titleContract with kit sponsor Adidas extended until summer 2009 \| workAJAX-USA.com \| access-date10 December 2006 \| url-statususurped \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080614164608/http://www.ajax-usa.com/news/2002-2003/contract-with-kit-sponsor-adidas.html \| archive-date14 June 2008 \| dfdmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.elfvoetbal.nl/nieuws/23896_adidas-contract-levert-ajax-70-miljoen-op \|titleAdidas-contract levert Ajax 70 miljoen op \|publisherElf Voetbal \|access-date23 July 2013 \|archive-date7 November 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141107152033/http://www.elfvoetbal.nl/nieuws/23896_adidas-contract-levert-ajax-70-miljoen-op \|url-status=live }}</ref> At the conclusion of the 2013–14 season, Ajax won the Football shirt of the Year award for its black and rose colored away shirt by Adidas. The annual award was presented by Subside Sports, which had previously given the award to Internazionale, Juventus and the Belgium national team. It was Ajax's first time winning the award.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.voetbalshirtvanhetjaar.com/eerdere-winnaars/ \|titleVoetbalshirt van het Jaar winnaars \|publishervoetbalshirtvanhetjaar.com \|access-date16 May 2014 \|archive-date11 September 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911041138/http://www.voetbalshirtvanhetjaar.com/eerdere-winnaars/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> On 7 November 2014, it was announced that Ajax had agreed to a four-and-a-half-year contract worth €8&nbsp;million annually with Dutch cable operating company Ziggo as the new shirt sponsor for the club.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3784828/2014/11/07/Ziggo-voor-8-miljoen-euro-hoofdsponsor-van-Ajax.dhtml \|titleZiggo voor 8 miljoen euro hoofdsponsor van Ajax \|publisherAD.nl \|access-date7 November 2014 \|archive-date7 November 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141107145102/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3784828/2014/11/07/Ziggo-voor-8-miljoen-euro-hoofdsponsor-van-Ajax.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Having extended its contract with AEGON for half a season until December, the club featured Fonds Gehandicaptensport, a charitable fund for handicapped sports on its away shirts for a six-month period before transitioning to Ziggo in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3640044/2014/04/23/Fonds-Gehandicaptensport-als-sponsor-op-uitshirt-Ajax.dhtml \|titleFonds Gehandicaptensport als sponsor op uitshirt Ajax \|publisherAD.nl \|access-date7 November 2014 \|archive-date7 November 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141107145221/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3640044/2014/04/23/Fonds-Gehandicaptensport-als-sponsor-op-uitshirt-Ajax.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"text-align: center" \|- !Period !Kit manufacturer !Shirt sponsor \|- \|1973–1977 \|Le Coq Sportif \|rowspan=4\|none \|- \|1977–1979 \|Puma \|- \|1979–1980 \|Cor du Buy \|- \|1980–1982 \|rowspan=2\|Le Coq Sportif \|- \|1982–1984 \|rowspan=3\|TDK \|- \|1985–1989 \|Kappa \|- \|1989–1991 \|rowspan=2\|Umbro \|- \|1991–2000 \|rowspan=2\|ABN AMRO \|- \|2000–2008 \|rowspan=4\|Adidas \|- \|2008–2014 \|\|AEGON \|- \|2014–2027 \|Ziggo \|- \|2027–2031 \|} Kit deals {{Incomplete list\|date=February 2019}} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: left" \|- ! Kit supplier !! Period !! Contract<br />announcement !! Contract<br />duration !! Value !! Notes \|- \|style="text-align:center;" \| Adidas \|style"text-align:center;" \| 2000–present<ref nameadidas>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/ajax-en-adidas-verlengen-partnership-tot-2025.htm\|titleAjax en adidas verlengen partnership tot 2025\|date13 July 2018\|access-date25 June 2019\|workAjax\|languagenl\|archive-date3 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190903000954/https://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/ajax-en-adidas-verlengen-partnership-tot-2025.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|style"text-align:center;" \| 13 July 2018<ref nameadidas /> \| 1 July 2019 – 30 June 2025<ref name=adidas /> \| €50 million for six years<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.footballshirtculture.com/Sponsorship/ajax-extends-adidas-kit-deal.html\| title Adidas Extends Ajax Kit Deal until 2025\| date 13 July 2018\| access-date 4 February 2019\| archive-date 7 August 2018\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180807014837/http://www.footballshirtculture.com/Sponsorship/ajax-extends-adidas-kit-deal.html\| url-status = live}}</ref> \| \|- \|} Other teams Reserves team {{Main\|Jong Ajax}} Jong Ajax (formerly more commonly known as Ajax 2) is the reserve team of AFC Ajax. The team is composed mostly of professional footballers, who are often recent graduates from the highest youth level (Ajax A1) serving their first professional contract as a reserve, or players who are otherwise unable to play in the first team.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/10788/Eredivisie/article/detail/3334299/2012/10/19/De-Boer-laat-herstelde-Sulejmani-bij-Jong-Ajax.dhtml \|titleDe Boer laat 'herstelde' Sulejmani bij Jong Ajax \|publisherVolkskrant \|date19 October 2012 \|access-date13 July 2013 \|archive-date25 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180125134631/https://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/10788/Eredivisie/article/detail/3334299/2012/10/19/De-Boer-laat-herstelde-Sulejmani-bij-Jong-Ajax.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Since 1992, Jong Ajax competed in the Beloften Eredivisie, competing against other reserve teams such as Jong PSV, Jong FC Groningen or Jong AZ. They have won the Beloften {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} title a record eight times, as well as the KNVB Reserve Cup three times, making them the most successful reserve squad in the Netherlands. By winning the Beloften Eredivisie title, Jong Ajax was able to qualify for the actual KNVB Cup, even advancing to the semi-finals on three occasions. Its best result in the Dutch Cup was under manager Jan Olde Riekerink in 2001–02, when a semi-final loss to Utrecht in a Penalty shoot-out after extra time, which saw Utrecht advance, and thus preventing an Ajax–Jong Ajax Dutch Cup final.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id575358&seceurope&rooteurope&cc5739 \|titleDutch KNVB Cup – ESPN Soccernet \|publisherESPN \|date24 September 2008 \|access-date3 August 2012 \|archive-date5 September 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090905015117/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id575358&seceurope&rooteurope&cc5739 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The 2013–14 season marked the Jupiler League debut of the Ajax reserves' squad, Jong Ajax.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/jong-ajax-wordt-tegen-telstar-ontgroend-in-eerste-divisie \|titleJong Ajax wordt tegen Telstar ontgroed in Eerste Divisie \|publisherAjaxlife.nl \|access-date4 July 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130923065538/http://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/jong-ajax-wordt-tegen-telstar-ontgroend-in-eerste-divisie \|archive-date23 September 2013 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> Previously playing in the Beloften Eredivisie (a separate league for reserve teams, not included in the Dutch professional or amateur league structure), players were allowed to move around freely between the reserve team and the first team during the season.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/5609/Eerste-divisie/article/detail/3446107/2013/05/23/Reserveteams-Ajax-en-Twente-in-Jupiler-League.dhtml \|titleReserveteams Ajax en Twente in Jupiler League \|publisherAD.nl \|access-date4 July 2013 \|archive-date3 March 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303210534/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/5609/Eerste-divisie/article/detail/3446107/2013/05/23/Reserveteams-Ajax-en-Twente-in-Jupiler-League.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> This is no longer the case as Jong Ajax now registers and fields a separate squad from that of Ajax first team for the Eerste Divisie, the second tier of professional football in the Netherlands. Its home matches are played at Sportpark De Toekomst, except for the occasional match in the Johan Cruyff Arena. Now regarded a semi-professional team in its own respect, the only period in which players are able to move between squads are during the transfer windows, unless the player has made less than 15 appearances for the first team, then he is still eligible to appear in both first team and second team matches during the season.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.nu.nl/sport/3492234/jong-psv-vervangt-katwijk-in-eerste-divisie.html \|titleJong PSV vervangt Katwijk in eerste divisie \|date4 June 2013 \|publisherNU.nl \|access-date4 July 2013 \|archive-date6 April 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190406121215/https://www.nu.nl/sport/3492234/jong-psv-vervangt-katwijk-in-eerste-divisie.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Furthermore, the team is not eligible for promotion to the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} or to participate in the KNVB Cup. Jong Ajax was joined in the Eerste Divisie by Jong Twente and Jong PSV, reserve teams who have also moved from the Beloften {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italicno}} to the Eerste Divisie, in place of VV Katwijk, SC Veendam and AGOVV Apeldoorn, increasing the total number of teams in the Jupiler League from 18 to 20.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://nos.nl/artikel/514357-ook-jong-psv-naar-jupiler-league.html \|titleOok Jong PSV naar Jupiler League \|date5 June 2013 \|publisherNOS.nl \|access-date4 July 2013 \|archive-date11 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130611022331/http://nos.nl/artikel/514357-ook-jong-psv-naar-jupiler-league.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> Ajax reserve squad Jong Ajax left the Beloften Eredivisie in 2013, having held a 21-year tenure in the reserves league, having also won the league title a record eight times (1994, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2009).<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.vi.nl/Competities/Competitie.htm?viewid53&dbid4283&typeofpage84136 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130222182239/http://www.vi.nl/Competities/Competitie.htm?viewid53&dbid4283&typeofpage84136 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date22 February 2013 \|titleBeloften Eredivisie Statistics \|publisherVoetbal International \|access-date4 July 2013 }}</ref>Women's team {{Main\|AFC Ajax (women)}} AFC Ajax Vrouwen (English: AFC Ajax Women) is the women's team of AFC Ajax, competing in the women's eredivisie, the highest level of women's football in the Netherlands. Founded on 18 May 2012, the women's team saw Ajax attracting many of the Netherlands top talents, with International players such as Anouk Hoogendijk, Daphne Koster and Petra Hogewoning joining the Amsterdam club in its maiden season in women's professional football.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAFC Ajax (vrouwen)\|urlhttp://nl.women.soccerway.com/teams/netherlands/afc-ajax/\|publisherSoccerway (Women soccer)\|access-date27 June 2012\|archive-date14 July 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714115303/http://nl.women.soccerway.com/teams/netherlands/afc-ajax/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The team won its first piece of silverware when they defeated PSV/FC Eindhoven 2–1 in the final of the KNVB Women's Cup.Amateur team {{Main\|AFC Ajax (amateurs)}} AFC Ajax Amateurs, better known as Ajax Zaterdag, is a Dutch amateur football club founded 18 March 1900. It is the amateur team of the professional club AFC Ajax, playing its home matches at the Sportpark De Toekomst training grounds to a capacity of 5,000. The team was promoted from the Eerste Klasse to the Hoofdklasse ahead of the 2011–12 season, the league in which it is currently competing. The team has won the Eerste Klasse title twice, as well as the KNVB District Cup West I on two occasions as well.<ref>{{cite web \|url http://www.ajaxshowtime.com/bijzaken-en-geruchten/71947/ajax-zaterdag-in-eigen-kleedkamer.html \|title Ajax Zaterdag in eigen Kleedkamer \|publisher ajax Showtime \|access-date 3 August 2013 \|archive-date 28 July 2013 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130728041431/http://www.ajaxshowtime.com/bijzaken-en-geruchten/71947/ajax-zaterdag-in-eigen-kleedkamer.html \|url-status = dead }}</ref> Furthermore, Ajax Zaterdag has also managed to qualify for the KNVB Cup on its own accord on three occasions, namely in 2004, 2005, 2008 and 2021. Even advancing to the second round before bowing out to Vitesse on 24 September 2008. Other sports Baseball {{Main\|Ajax HVA}} Ajax HVA (1922–1972) was the baseball team of AFC Ajax founded in 1922, and competed as founding members of the Honkbal Hoofdklasse, the top flight of professional baseball in the Netherlands.{{citation needed\|dateJune 2022}} Ajax won the national baseball title a total of four times (1924, 1928, 1942, 1948) before the club opted to no longer field a baseball team, and to focus solely on football in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?%2Fnl%2Fitems%2FANP01%3A12987290 \|titleAmsterdam Honkbal: Ajax-HVA \|publisherANP Historisch Archief \|access-date1 September 2013 \|archive-date13 July 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713202405/http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?%2Fnl%2Fitems%2FANP01%3A12987290 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Ajax spent a total of 50 years at the top flight of Baseball in the Netherlands from 1922 to 1972. The dissolution of Ajax baseball club resulted in the players finding a new sponsor in a mustard manufacturing company called Luycks, while merging with the Diemen Giants to become the Luycks Giants, thus replacing both former clubs.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/world/europe/20iht-journal.4.13062575.html?_r0 \|titleDutch get a kick out of baseball, too \|newspaperNY Times \|date20 May 2008 \|access-date1 September 2013 \|archive-date13 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113094106/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/20/world/europe/20iht-journal.4.13062575.html?_r0 \|url-statuslive \|last1Tagliabue \|first1John }}</ref> Esports {{Main\|AFC Ajax eSports}} In 2016, Ajax launched an esports team, with Koen Weijland as the club's first signing, making its debut on the Global stage of professional gaming. They have since signed the likes of Dani Hagebeuk, Lev Vinken, Joey Calabro and Bob van Uden, the latter spent his first season on loan to the esports team of Japanese club Sagan Tosu.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/ajax-versterkt-esports-team-met-amerikaanse-wereldtopper.htm \|titleAjax versterkt eSports team met Amerikaanse wereldtopper \|publisherAjax.nl \|access-date3 May 2018 \|archive-date4 May 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180504011400/https://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/ajax-versterkt-esports-team-met-amerikaanse-wereldtopper.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.1337.games/2017/09/wederom-nieuwe-partner-voor-ajax-esports/ \|titleWederom nieuwe partner voor Ajax eSports \|date28 September 2017 \|publisher1337.games \|access-date3 May 2018 \|archive-date4 May 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180504012408/http://www.1337.games/2017/09/wederom-nieuwe-partner-voor-ajax-esports/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.gosugamers.net/hearthstone/news/41430-afc-ajax-sign-dutch-fifa-pro-enter-esports \|titleAFC Ajax sign Dutch FIFA pro, enter eSports \|date23 September 2016 \|publisherGOSU Hearthstone \|access-date3 May 2018 \|archive-date4 May 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180504090330/https://www.gosugamers.net/hearthstone/news/41430-afc-ajax-sign-dutch-fifa-pro-enter-esports \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Affiliated clubs {{Main\|List of AFC Ajax affiliated clubs}} The following clubs are currently affiliated with AFC Ajax: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Almere City (2005–present)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id154417/contentid41719 \|titleAjax gaat technische samenwerking aan met FC Omniworld \|languagenl \|workAjax.nl \|access-date23 June 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313144531/http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D154417/contentid%3D41719 \|archive-date13 March 2012 }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Spain}} Barcelona (2007–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.soccernews.nl/news/29882/Ajax_en_Barcelona_gaan_samenwerken \| titleAjax en Barcelona gaan samenwerken \| languagenl \| workSoccernews.nl \| date2 June 2007 \| access-date1 May 2013 \| archive-date19 January 2015 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150119004941/http://www.soccernews.nl/news/29882/Ajax_en_Barcelona_gaan_samenwerken \| url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.voetbalcentraal.nl/nieuws/13792/ajax-en-fc-barcelona-gaan-samenwerken \| titleAjax en FC Barcelona gaan samenwerken \| languagenl \| workVoetbalcentraal.nl \| access-date1 May 2013 \| archive-date15 December 2018 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215122949/http://www.voetbalcentraal.nl/nieuws/13792/ajax-en-fc-barcelona-gaan-samenwerken \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Brazil}} Cruzeiro (2007–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.soccernews.nl/news/38466/Komst_Jonathas_en_Anderson_startpunt_van_samenwerking_met_Cruzeiro___ \| titleKomst Jonathas en Anderson startpunt van samenwerking met Cruzeiro \| languagenl \| workSoccernews.nl \| date14 December 2007 \| access-date30 April 2013 \| archive-date19 January 2015 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150119012950/http://www.soccernews.nl/news/38466/Komst_Jonathas_en_Anderson_startpunt_van_samenwerking_met_Cruzeiro___ \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|People's Republic of China}} Beijing Guoan (2007–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id154814/contentid65019 \| titleAjax proud of unique collaboration \| workAjax.nl \| access-date24 April 2013 \| url-statusdead \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714081153/http://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id154814/contentid65019 \| archive-date14 July 2014 \| dfdmy-all }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Brazil}} Palmeiras (2010–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.goal.com/nl/news/759/ajax/2010/01/10/1736527/palmeiras-zoveel-mogelijk-uitwisselen-met-ajax \| titlePalmeiras: "Zoveel mogelijk uitwisselen met Ajax" \| languagenl \| workGoal.com \| access-date2 May 2013 \| archive-date1 September 2021 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210901180523/https://www.goal.com/nl/news/759/ajax/2010/01/10/1736527/palmeiras-zoveel-mogelijk-uitwisselen-met-ajax \| url-statusdead }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Slovakia}} AS Trenčín (2012–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://ajax1.nl/archief/as-trencin-gaat-definitief-samenwerken-met-ajax/#more-38308 \| titleAS Trenčín gaat definitief samenwerken met Ajax \| languagenl \| workAjax1.nl \| date7 December 2012 \| access-date9 December 2012 \| archive-date18 June 2013 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130618025833/http://ajax1.nl/archief/as-trencin-gaat-definitief-samenwerken-met-ajax/#more-38308 \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|People's Republic of China}} Guangzhou R&F (2017–present)<ref>{{cite magazine \| urlhttps://www.si.com/soccer/2017/11/27/ajax-announce-5-year-partnership-chinese-super-league-club-guangzhou-rf \| titleAjax Announce 5-Year Partnership With Chinese Super League Club Guangzhou R&F \| magazineSports Illustrated \| access-date27 November 2017 \| archive-date27 July 2020 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200727202542/https://www.si.com/soccer/2017/11/27/ajax-announce-5-year-partnership-chinese-super-league-club-guangzhou-rf \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Japan}} Sagan Tosu (2018–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.ajaxshowtime.com/article/hoofdnieuws/110145/ajax-gaat-samenwerken-met-sagan-tosu \| titleAjax gaat samenwerken met Sagan Tosu \| workAjax Showtime \| date25 January 2018 \| access-date26 January 2018 \| archive-date23 April 2018 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180423033826/http://www.ajaxshowtime.com/article/hoofdnieuws/110145/ajax-gaat-samenwerken-met-sagan-tosu \| url-statuslive }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|UAE}} Sharjah FC (2020–present)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.ad.nl/nederlands-voetbal/ajax-gaat-samenwerken-met-club-uit-de-emiraten~af4df99d/\|titleAjax gaat samenwerken met club uit de Emiraten\|workAD.nl\|accessdate6 January 2020\|languagenl\|archive-date6 January 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200106094400/https://www.ad.nl/nederlands-voetbal/ajax-gaat-samenwerken-met-club-uit-de-emiraten~af4df99d/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Australia}} Sydney FC (2018–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.sydneyfc.com/news/sydney-fc-sign-historic-partnership-ajax \| titleSydney FC sign historic partnership with Ajax \| languageen \| worksydneyfc.com \| date3 April 2018 \| access-date23 August 2018 \| archive-date14 May 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190514172350/https://www.sydneyfc.com/news/sydney-fc-sign-historic-partnership-ajax \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Sparta Rotterdam (2019–present)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.ad.nl/nederlands-voetbal/ajax-investeert-in-jeugdopleiding-sparta~ac0e7d99/ \| titleAjax investeert in jeugdopleiding Sparta \| workAD.nl \| access-date20 March 2019 \| archive-date17 June 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190617105928/https://www.ad.nl/nederlands-voetbal/ajax-investeert-in-jeugdopleiding-sparta~ac0e7d99/ \| url-status=live }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Various HETT-clubs (See main article)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/Sitewide-Tabs/Verenigingssite/Nieuws/Nieuwsarchief/Artikel-Vereniging/190165/Ajax-deelt-kennis-met-HETTclubs.htm \|titleAjax deelt kennis met HETTclubs \|languagenl \|workAjax.nl \|access-date3 December 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131213104232/http://www.ajax.nl/Sitewide-Tabs/Verenigingssite/Nieuws/Nieuwsarchief/Artikel-Vereniging/190165/Ajax-deelt-kennis-met-HETTclubs.htm \|archive-date13 December 2013 }}</ref> The following clubs were affiliated with AFC Ajax in the past: * {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Germinal Beerschot (1999–2003)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/Nieuws/Nieuwsarchief/Nieuws-artikel/Ajax-en-GBA-bekrachtigen-overdracht.htm \| titleAjax en GBA bekrachtigen overdracht \| languagenl \| workAjax.nl \| access-date23 June 2006 \| url-statusdead \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313144539/http://www.ajax.nl/Nieuws/Nieuwsarchief/Nieuws-artikel/Ajax-en-GBA-bekrachtigen-overdracht.htm \| archive-date13 March 2012 \| df=dmy-all }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Ghana}} Ashanti Goldfields (1999–2003)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id154417/contentid27266 \|titleAjax zet financiële participatie in Ashanti Goldfields om in technische samenwerking \|languagenl \|workAjax.nl \|access-date23 June 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313144559/http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D154417/contentid%3D27266 \|archive-date13 March 2012 \|df=dmy }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|United States}} Ajax Orlando Prospects (2003–2007)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.orlandosentinel.com/2004/04/30/ajax-open-sunday/ \| titleAjax Open Sunday \| workOrlando Sentinel \| date30 April 2004 \| access-date30 April 2004 \| archive-date19 January 2015 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150119005234/http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2004-04-30/sports/0404300310_1_ajax-stetson-ucf-softball \| url-statuslive }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} HFC Haarlem (2006–2010)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id154417/contentid46157 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120530164841/http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id154417/contentid46157 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date30 May 2012 \|titleEdmond Claus belichaamt samenwerking Ajax en Haarlem \|languagenl \|workAjax.nl \|date7 March 2006 \|access-date=2 May 2013 }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Volendam (2007–2010)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://verusx.net/2007/07/14/ajax-tekent-convenant-met-fc-volendam/ \|titleAjax tekende het convenant met FC Volendam op 13 juli 2007 \|languagenl \|workVerus X \|date14 July 2007 \|access-date2 May 2013 }}{{dead link\|dateJune 2017 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> * {{flagicon\|South Africa}} Ajax Cape Town (1999–2020)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id154417/contentid15092 \|titleAjax Cape Town primeur in professionele sportwereld \|languagenl \|workAjax.nl \|access-date23 June 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313144518/http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D154417/contentid%3D15092 \|archive-date13 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.kickoff.com/news/articles/south-africa-news/categories/news/premiership/ajax-amsterdam-explains-decision-to-end-ajax-cape-town-partnership/686326\|titleAFC Ajax explains decision to end Ajax Cape Town partnership\|workkickoff.com\|date28 September 2020\|access-date1 October 2020\|archive-date6 September 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130906112114/http://www.kickoff.com/news/35388/comitis-brothers-sell-shares-in-ajax-cape-town-after-feud-with-efstathiou-family\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Rivalries As one of the traditional big three clubs in the Netherlands, Ajax have amassed a number of intense rivalries over the years. Listed below are the most significant of the rivalries involving Ajax. Rivalry with Feyenoord {{Main\|De Klassieker}} Feyenoord from Rotterdam is Ajax's archrival. Every year both clubs play the De Klassieker ("The Classic"), a match between the teams from the two largest cities of the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.vi.nl/dossier/alles-over-de-klassieker-ajax-dompelt-feyenoord-in-rouw.htm \|titleAlles over De Klassieker: Ajax dompelt Feyenoord in rouw \|publisherVoetbal International \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date16 September 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130916154013/http://www.vi.nl/dossier/alles-over-de-klassieker-ajax-dompelt-feyenoord-in-rouw.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Till the 1973/74-season, Ajax and Feyenoord were the only two clubs in the Netherlands who were able to clinch national titles, as well as achieve continental and even global success. From the 1974/75-season on, PSV (Eindhoven) and AZ (Alkmaar) too, competed with Ajax and Feyenoord.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.elenganche.es/2013/08/de-klassieker-ajax-feyenoord-y-el-orgullo-%E2%80%98oranje%E2%80%99.html \|titleDe Klassieker: Ajax-Feyenoord y el orgullo 'oranje' \|publisherEl Enganche \|access-date2 September 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130902173311/http://www.elenganche.es/2013/08/de-klassieker-ajax-feyenoord-y-el-orgullo-%E2%80%98oranje%E2%80%99.html \|archive-date2 September 2013 \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> A meeting between the two clubs became the measure for who was truly the best club in the Netherlands. The Klassieker is the most famous of all the rivalries in the Netherlands and the matches are always sold out.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.hpdetijd.nl/2013-08-19/ajax-feyenoord-klassiekste-niet-klassieker-in-lange-reeks-klassiekers/ \|titleAjax – Feyenoord 'klassiekste niet-Klassieker in lange reeks Klassiekers' \|date19 August 2013 \|publisherHP.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date22 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130822130351/http://www.hpdetijd.nl/2013-08-19/ajax-feyenoord-klassiekste-niet-klassieker-in-lange-reeks-klassiekers/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The fixture is seen in the public eye as "the graceful and elegant football of Ajax, against the indomitable fighting spirit of Feyenoord"; the confidence of the capital city versus the blue collar mentality of Rotterdam.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.bnr.nl/nieuws/sport/772781-1308/feyenoord-en-ajax-is-haat \|titleFeyenoord en Ajax is haat \|publisherBNR.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date18 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130818024459/http://www.bnr.nl/nieuws/sport/772781-1308/feyenoord-en-ajax-is-haat \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Matches are known for their tension and violence, both on and off the pitch. Over the years, several violent incidents have taken place involving rival supporters, leading to the current prohibition of away supporters in both stadiums.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/european/7135955/Feyenoords-latest-clash-with-Ajax-peaceful-thanks-to-absent-friends.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/european/7135955/Feyenoords-latest-clash-with-Ajax-peaceful-thanks-to-absent-friends.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleFeyenoord's latest clash with Ajax peaceful thanks to absent 'friends' \|newspaperThe Telegraph\|access-date2 September 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The lowest point was reached on 23 March 1997, when supporters of both clubs met on a field near Beverwijk, where Ajax-supporter Carlo Picornie was fatally injured, the incident is commonly referred to as the "Battle of Beverwijk".<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/5619/Feyenoord/article/detail/2118764/2008/03/20/Stervend-in-de-modder.dhtml \|titleStervend in de modder \|publisherAD.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date28 January 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130128050713/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/5619/Feyenoord/article/detail/2118764/2008/03/20/Stervend-in-de-modder.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Rivalry with PSV {{Main\|AFC Ajax–PSV Eindhoven rivalry}} PSV is also a rival of Ajax, but in terms of tension and rivalry, these matches are not as loaded as the duels with Feyenoord. The rivalry has existed for some time with PSV and stems from various causes, such as the different interpretations of whether current national and international successes of both clubs correlates and the supposed opposition between the Randstad and the province. The matches between these two teams is commonly referred to as "De Topper" ("The Topper"), and involves the two most trophy-laden sides in Dutch football and is essentially a clash of two competing schools of thought in Dutch football. Historically, PSV compete with a workmanlike ethic, preferring a more robust 4–3–1–2 or 4–2–3–1, typically shunning the frivolous 4–3–3 approach favoured in Amsterdam. While Rinus Michels and Johan Cruyff helped to innovate Total Football in the sixties and seventies, a different philosophy was honed in Eindhoven by Kees Rijvers and Guus Hiddink in the late 1970s and '80s.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/ajax-psv-philosophical-rivalry-dominates-dutch-mindset#2rZB5iOBKmfBu5ym.99 \|titleAjax-PSV: a philosophical rivalry that dominates the Dutch mindset \|date30 November 2012 \|publisherFourfourtwo.com \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714125029/http://www.fourfourtwo.com/features/ajax-psv-philosophical-rivalry-dominates-dutch-mindset#2rZB5iOBKmfBu5ym.99 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> This in turn has created one of the more philosophical rivalries in football, an ideological battleground, which is gradually becoming as heated and intense as the matches Ajax and Feyenoord partake in.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.vi.nl/nieuws/alles-over-de-topper-in-de-eredivisie-tussen-ajax-en-psv.htm \|titleAlles over de topper in de Eredivisie tussen Ajax en PSV \|date25 March 2012 \|publisherVoetbal International \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714195317/http://www.vi.nl/nieuws/alles-over-de-topper-in-de-eredivisie-tussen-ajax-en-psv.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Rivalries with other clubs {{main\|Amsterdam derby}} Aside from Feyenoord and PSV, Ajax have several other rivalries, although in most cases the sentiment is mostly felt by the opposition and is more directed towards Ajax, with one of them being Utrecht.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.voetbalcentraal.nl/nieuws/56261/rivaliteit-tussen-fans-ajax-en-fc-utrecht-opvallend \|titleRivaliteit tussen fans Ajax en FC Utrecht opvallend \|publisherVoetbalzone.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714224542/http://www.voetbalcentraal.nl/nieuws/56261/rivaliteit-tussen-fans-ajax-en-fc-utrecht-opvallend \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Although the rivalry is more felt on the Utrecht side then with Ajax, matchups between the two sides are often quite intense.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.bnr.nl/nieuws/sport/988786-1209/zo-n-rivaliteit-moeilijk-te-begrijpen \|titleZulke rivaliteit moeilijk te begrijpen \|publisherBNR.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date18 July 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130718103425/http://www.bnr.nl/nieuws/sport/988786-1209/zo-n-rivaliteit-moeilijk-te-begrijpen \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Both teams have fanatic supporters, and clashes off the pitch are more often the rule than the exception. The same goes for ADO Den Haag, with both supporter groups often getting in conflicts, when ADO-Hooligans set fire to the supporters home of Ajax, and Ajax hooligans subsequently broke into the Supporters home of ADO tensions between the two clubs rose. In 2006, supporters from both clubs were banned from attending away matches for five years due to frequent violent outbreaks and clashes.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/2686/Binnenland/article/detail/820449/2006/04/25/Poging-brandstichting-supportershome-Ajax.dhtml \|titlePoging brandstichting supportershome Ajax \|publisherVolkskrant \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714135404/http://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/2686/Binnenland/article/detail/820449/2006/04/25/Poging-brandstichting-supportershome-Ajax.dhtml \|url-status=live }}</ref> Further teams who share a rivalry with Ajax include Twente, Vitesse Arnhem, Groningen and AZ, although the latter is often regarded by Ajax supporters as the club's "little brother".<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid193936 \|titleAjax is de buurman, rivaliteit is groot, het betekent iets voor de mensen \|date10 August 2013 \|publisherVoetbalzone.nl \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date13 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130813011425/http://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid193936 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> With AZ being from nearby Alkmaar and therefore situated in the same province as Ajax, match-ups between the two sides are commonly known as the "De Noord-Hollandse Derby" ("North Holland Derby") and are often very competitive, intense and loaded fixtures.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.goal.com/nl/match/46410/afc-ajax-vs-az/report \|titleNoord-Hollandse derby makkelijke prooi Ajax \|publisherGoal.com \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date1 July 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180701084715/http://www.goal.com/nl/match/46410/afc-ajax-vs-az/report \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Past rivalries include local Amsterdam derbies between Ajax and clubs such as Blauw-Wit, DWS and De Volewijckers (which later merged to become FC Amsterdam in 1972).<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/2844/Archief/archief/article/detail/424276/1996/03/30/Blauw-Wit-de-club-van-het-Stadion-kwam-zag-en-verdween.dhtml \|titleBlauw Wit, de club van het Stadion, kwam, zag en verdween \|publisherVolkskrant \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date29 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029185903/http://www.volkskrant.nl/vk/nl/2844/Archief/archief/article/detail/424276/1996/03/30/Blauw-Wit-de-club-van-het-Stadion-kwam-zag-en-verdween.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However, the tension between the local sides lessened as the division of the clubs through playing in different leagues over time became greater. Years of not competing in the same league resulted in less frequent match-ups, until tensions finally settled between the Amsterdam clubs.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.vi.nl/webshop/product/sporen-van-ajax.htm \|titleSporen van Ajax \|publisherVoetbal International \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date29 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029193752/http://www.vi.nl/webshop/product/sporen-van-ajax.htm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The last Amsterdam derby to take place in an official league match was when Ajax defeated FC Amsterdam 5–1 on 19 March 1978.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/923-Europe/6986-dutch-derby-days \|titleDutch derby days \|publisherWhen Saturday Comes \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date29 October 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029185215/http://www.wsc.co.uk/the-archive/923-Europe/6986-dutch-derby-days \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Supporters {{Main\|A.F.C.A (hooligans)\|F-side\|North Up Alliance\|South Crew\|VAK410}} Ajax is known for having fanatic core supporter-groups, of which F-Side and VAK410 are the most famous. The F-Side was founded on 3 October 1976, and is situated right behind the goal in the Johan Cruyff Arena, on the southern end of the stadium in rows 125–129. Its name is derived from the group's former location on the F-side of the old De Meer Stadion.<ref name"ff">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vpUtZieCU2_g\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110101104653/http://www.youtube.com/watch?vpUtZieCU2_g\| archive-date2011-01-01\|titleYouTube\|websitewww.youtube.com\|access-date2019-05-29}}</ref> The F-side supporters are responsible for a big part of the atmosphere in the stadium, and are also known for rioting during and after matches. If in any match Ajax should win the coin toss, the second half of the match Ajax always play towards the south-end of the stadium.<ref name"fg">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v-XKZuLqnxK0\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140612022604/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v-XKZuLqnxK0\| archive-date2014-06-12\|titleYouTube\|websitewww.youtube.com\|access-date2019-05-29}}</ref> VAK410 (English: Row 410) was founded in 2001 and is situated in the Zuidhoek (South corner) of the stadium on the upper ring in rows 424–425. The group was originally situated on the North-West side of the stadium in row 410, from where it derives its name, until relocating to their current place in the stands in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/minuutje-actiebeeld-van-zuid-en-vak410\|titleMinuutje actiebeeld van Zuid en Vak410\|publisherAjaxlife\|access-date3 September 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130907044356/http://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/minuutje-actiebeeld-van-zuid-en-vak410\|archive-date7 September 2013\|url-statusdead\|dfdmy-all}}</ref> Members of VAK410 are known to perform various stunts, which include massive banners, to enhance the atmosphere in the stadium. Neither F-Side or VAK410 have seats in their sections of the stadium, and both groups stand for the duration of the match.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajaxshowtime.com/hoofdnieuws/69159/pieloor-trommels-horen-niet-bij-f-side-.html\|titlePieloor: 'Trommels horen niet bij F-side'\|publisherAjax Showtime\|access-date3 September 2013\|archive-date25 May 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525071705/http://www.ajaxshowtime.com/hoofdnieuws/69159/pieloor-trommels-horen-niet-bij-f-side-.html\|url-status=dead}}</ref> Through the official Football Top 20 of Dutch sports research group SPORT+MARKT, it was revealed in 2010 that Ajax had approximately 7.1&nbsp;million supporters throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.playthegame.org/uploads/media/20100909_SPORT_MARKT_Football_Top_20_2010_Abstract_Press.pdf\|titleSPORT+MARKT Football Top 20\|publisherPlay The Game\|access-date3 September 2013\|archive-date7 December 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131207115708/http://www.playthegame.org/uploads/media/20100909_SPORT_MARKT_Football_Top_20_2010_Abstract_Press.pdf\|url-statusdead}}</ref> This is significantly more than rivals Feyenoord and PSV (each 1.6 and 1.3 million, respectively), which puts Ajax as the club with the 15th-most supporters across Europe. The study also revealed that approximately 39% of the Netherlands were Ajax supporters.<ref>[http://www.sportundmarkt.com/fileadmin/Mailing/PK_Football_Top_20_2010/20100909_SPORT_MARKT_Football_Top_20_2010_Abstract_Press.pdf Ajax wint nog meer fans, Barça populairste club] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120403084318/http://www.sportundmarkt.com/fileadmin/Mailing/PK_Football_Top_20_2010/20100909_SPORT_MARKT_Football_Top_20_2010_Abstract_Press.pdf \|date3 April 2012 }}</ref> Not only does Ajax have many supporters, but several fans attend their matches in European competition, with an average attendance of 48,677 spectators for every international match Ajax played, putting the team at 12th place in Europe for highest attendance, ahead of high-profile clubs such as Milan and Chelsea. It is noteworthy that not all stadiums share the capacity of the Johan Cruyff Arena.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid159601\|titleAjax en Feyenoord best bezochte Nederlandse clubs in Europa\|date22 February 2012\|publisherVoetbalzone.nl\|access-date22 February 2012\|archive-date24 February 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120224041923/http://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid159601\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Supporters clubs {{Main\|AFCA Supportersclub\|Ajax Business Associates\|Supportersvereniging Ajax}} The Supporters Club Ajax ({{langx\|nl\|Supportersvereniging Ajax}}) is officially the largest supporters club in the Netherlands with 94,000 members.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.inyourpocket.com/Netherlands/Amsterdam/Ajax:-the-most-loved-and-loathed-club-in-Holland_72693f \|titleAjax: the most loved and loathed club in Holland \|publisherIn Your Pocket \|access-date7 September 2013 \|archive-date27 September 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927193203/http://www.inyourpocket.com/Netherlands/Amsterdam/Ajax:-the-most-loved-and-loathed-club-in-Holland_72693f \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Founded on 7 May 1992, the supporters club organize big monthly events throughout the Netherlands, and particularly around the official Ajax Open Training Day, which attracts thousands of supporters each year.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.rtvnh.nl/sport/112511/Zonnige+open+dag+bij+Ajax\|titleZonnige open dag bij Ajax\|publisherRTV Noord Holland\|access-date3 September 2013\|archive-date31 July 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130731005906/http://www.rtvnh.nl/sport/112511/Zonnige+open+dag+bij+Ajax\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Furthermore, the supporters group is responsible for the Ajax Life website, as well as the fanzine which is issued 20 times a year.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/de-club/ajax-life/ajax-life.htm\|titleAjaxlife: Eens Ajacied, Altijd Ajacied\|publisherAjax.nl\|access-date3 September 2013\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728144157/https://www.ajax.nl/De-Club/Ajax-Life/Ajax-Life.htm\|archive-date28 July 2013\|dfdmy-all}}</ref> In 2006, the AFCA Supportersclub was introduced as the club's second official supporters' association, through the merger of the Onafhankelijke Fanclub Ajax (OFA) and the Ajax Supporters Delegatie (ASD).<ref>{{cite web \|titleAjax feliciteert de AFCA Supportersclub \|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/173535/Ajax-feliciteert-de-AFCA-Supportersclub.htm \|publisherAjax.nl \|access-date26 March 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140328000131/http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/173535/Ajax-feliciteert-de-AFCA-Supportersclub.htm \|archive-date28 March 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The AFCA Supportersclub has a reported 42,000 members, as well as a former member on the Board of Administration of Ajax, in Ronald Pieloor.<ref>{{cite web \|titleOldenhof en ex-F-sider Pieloor in bestuursraad Ajax \|urlhttp://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3228541/2012/03/20/Oldenhof-en-ex-F-sider-Pieloor-in-bestuursraad-Ajax.dhtml \|publisherAD.nl \|access-date26 March 2014 \|archive-date27 March 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140327204128/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/3228541/2012/03/20/Oldenhof-en-ex-F-sider-Pieloor-in-bestuursraad-Ajax.dhtml \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The third official supporters club is the Ajax Business Associates (ABA). Founded in 1991 the ABA is the Business club of Ajax. Members occupy the skyboxes in the Stadium and can make use of the clubs' amenities and luxury suites including the ABA club and lounge.<ref>{{cite web\|titleHoe het werkt : Amsterdam ArenA\|urlhttp://www.amsterdamarena.nl/Stadion-omgeving/Beschikbare-certificaten/Hoe-het-werkt.htm\|publisherAmsterdamArenA.nl\|access-date12 April 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140413142050/http://www.amsterdamarena.nl/Stadion-omgeving/Beschikbare-certificaten/Hoe-het-werkt.htm\|archive-date13 April 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The ABA is also responsible for hosting the annual Ajax Business Golf Trophy, an amateur golf tournament where several active and former Ajax players, as well as prominent people and members of the ABA, participate.<ref>{{cite web\|titleMooie 1e editie Ajax Business Golf Trophy\|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/mooie-1e-editie-ajax-business-golf-trophy.htm\|publisherAFC Ajax\|date3 May 2016\|access-date7 June 2019\|archive-date12 July 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190712144553/https://www.ajax.nl/streams/actueel/mooie-1e-editie-ajax-business-golf-trophy.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Average attendance This graph displays the average attendance for home matches of Ajax from 1988 to 2018, whereby the difference in capacity of the De Meer Stadion and the Johan Cruyff Arena (est. 1996) is clearly visible. <div style="overflow-x:auto;"> {\| Cellpadding"0" CellSpacing"1" style="font-size:100%; border:1px solid #a0a0a0; padding:1px; text-align:center;" \|- valign="bottom" \| {{BarVertical\|2.3852\|11926\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|3.3170\|16585\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|4.4764\|22382\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|3.7988\|18994\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|4.2976\|21488\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|4.5484\|22742\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|4.7200\|23600\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|4.3844\|21922\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.6138\|48069\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.6846\|48423\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|8.2550\|41275\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|8.1422\|40711\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|7.2694\|36347\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|7.1168\|35584\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.5142\|47571\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.7992\|48996\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.8706\|49353\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.3824\|46912\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.7124\|48562\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.8178\|49089\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.8028\|49014\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.7362\|48681\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.4632\|47316\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|10.0294\|50147\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|10.0980\|50490\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|10.1814\|50907\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.8806\|49403\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.8966\|49483\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.9240\|49620\|#C0FFC0}} \| {{BarVertical\|9.9400\|49711\|#C0FFC0}} \| \|- aligncenter style"font-size:80%;" \|88/89\|\|89/90\|\|90/91\|\|91/92\|\|92/93\|\|93/94\|\|94/95\|\|95/96\|\|96/97\|\|97/98\|\|98/99\|\|99/00\|\|00/01\|\|01/02\|\|02/03\|\|03/04\|\|04/05\|\|05/06\|\|06/07\|\|07/08\|\|08/09\|\|09/10\|\|10/11\|\|11/12\|\|12/13\|\|13/14\|\|14/15\|\|15/16\|\|16/17\|\|17/18\|\| \|}</div> {{Clear}} Mascot * Lucky Lynx, is the official team mascot.<ref name"lucky bio">"[http://www.ajax.nl/Sitewide-Tabs/Kids-Club/Lucky.htm Lucky Lynx Bio] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130615182637/http://www.ajax.nl/Sitewide-Tabs/Kids-Club/Lucky.htm \|date15 June 2013 }}", Ajax.nl, accessed 7 August 2013.</ref> (2000–present)Jewish connection in 2008]] Historically, Ajax was popularly seen as having "Jewish roots". While it had fewer Jewish players than WV-HEDW, Ajax has had a Jewish image since the 1930s when the home stadium was located next to a Jewish neighbourhood of Amsterdam-Oost and opponents saw many supporters walking through the Nieuwmarkt/Waterloopleinbuurt (de Jodenhoek—the "Jews' corner") to get to the stadium.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sportgeschiedenis.nl/2006/12/09/ajax-en-de-joden.aspx \|titlede alternatieve bron voor sportnieuws \|publisherSportgeschiedenis.nl \|access-date2 August 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120311033954/http://www.sportgeschiedenis.nl/2006/12/09/ajax-en-de-joden.aspx \|archive-date11 March 2012 }}</ref> The city of Amsterdam was historically referred to as a Mokum city,{{citation needed \|dateMarch 2024}} Mokum (מקום) being the Yiddish word for "place" or "safe haven",<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.yiddishdictionaryonline.com/dictionary/m \|workYiddish Dictionary Online \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713202443/http://www.yiddishdictionaryonline.com/dictionary/m \|archive-date13 July 2015 \|titleM }}</ref> and as anti-Semitic chants and name calling developed and intensified at the old De Meer Stadion from frustrated supporters of opposing clubs, Ajax fans (few of whom are Jewish)<ref name"nyt">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/a-dutch-soccer-riddle-jewish-regalia-without-jews.html\|titleA Dutch Soccer Riddle: Jewish Regalia Without Jews\|firstCraig S.\|lastSmith \|workThe New York Times \|dateMarch 28, 2005 \|access-date2 February 2023 }}</ref> responded by embracing Ajax's "Jewish" identity: calling themselves "super Jews", chanting "Jews, Jews" ("Joden, Joden") at games, and adopting Jewish symbols such as the Star of David and the Israeli flag, similar to what supporters of the English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur did with the term "yid"<ref name"nyt" /><ref name"understanding">{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi21W_KN_iUMC&dqajax%20jews&pgPA196 \|titleUnderstanding football hooliganism: A Comparison of Six Western European Clubs \|firstRamon \|lastSpaaij \|year2006 \|publisherAmsterdam University Press \|isbn9789056294458 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleWhy are Ajax and Spurs fans so connected to Jewish symbolism?\|date30 April 2019\|websitenss-sports.com\|urlhttps://www.nss-sports.com/en/lifestyle/18438/super-jews-yid-army-ajax-tottenham\|access-date27 March 2025}}</ref> This Jewish imagery eventually became a central part of Ajax fans' culture.<ref name"understanding" /> At one point, ringtones of "Hava Nagila", a Hebrew folk song, could be downloaded from the club's official website.<ref name"nyt" /> Beginning in the 1980s, fans of Ajax's rivals escalated their anti-Semitic rhetoric, chanting slogans like "Hamas, Hamas/Jews to the gas" ("Hamas, hamas, joden aan het gas"), hissing to imitate the flow of gas, giving Nazi salutes, and other things.<ref name"nyt" /><ref>{{cite web \|titleAjax and the Jewish Issue \|urlhttp://www.ajax-usa.com/desk/ajax-and-the-jewish-issue.html \|websiteajax-usa.com \|access-date20 May 2013 \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070113235308/http://www.ajax-usa.com/desk/ajax-and-the-jewish-issue.html \|archive-date13 January 2007 }}</ref> The eventual result was that many genuinely Jewish Ajax fans stopped going to games.<ref name="nyt" /> In the 2000s, the club began trying to persuade fans to drop its Jewish image.<ref name"nyt2">{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/a-dutch-soccer-riddle-jewish-regalia-without-jews.html?pagewanted2 \| workThe New York Times \| titleAmsterdam Journal; A Dutch Soccer Riddle: Jewish Regalia Without Jews \| firstCraig S. \| lastSmith \| date28 March 2005 \| access-date23 April 2010 \| archive-date27 July 2018 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180727130041/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/28/world/europe/a-dutch-soccer-riddle-jewish-regalia-without-jews.html?pagewanted2 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2013, a documentary titled Superjews was released by NTR and Viewpoint Productions which premiered at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA). The film was directed by Nirit Peled, an Israeli living in Amsterdam, and an independent film maker who offers a very personal view into the game, the lore of Ajax and its relation to Judaism from both the supporters as well as from a Jewish perspective.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.idfa.nl/industry/daily/2013/interviews/nirit-peled-discusses-superjews.aspx\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140116122118/http://www.idfa.nl/industry/daily/2013/interviews/nirit-peled-discusses-superjews.aspx\|url-statusdead\|archive-date16 January 2014\|titleInterview: Superjews\|publisherIDFA.nl\|access-date16 January 2014}}</ref> {{Main\|November 2024 Amsterdam riots}} Before and after a UEFA Europa League game between the Israeli team Maccabi Tel Aviv and Ajax on Thursday 7 November 2024 in the Johan Cruyff Arena, tensions surrounding the Gaza war erupted into violence.<ref> Relatively neutral news coverage includes: * {{Cite news \|lastSampson \|firstEve \|dateNov 8, 2024 \|othersClaire Moses contributed reporting. \|titleWhat to Know About the Attacks on Israeli Soccer Fans in Amsterdam \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/08/world/europe/amsterdam-israel-soccer-fans-attacks.html \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workThe New York Times \|department=The Israel Hamas War, Ajax (Soccer Team), Maccabi Tel Aviv}} * {{Cite news \|last1Buckingham \|first1Philip \|last2Millar \|first2Colin \|dateNov 9, 2024 \|orig-dateThis article has been updated with additional verified reporting since it was first published \|titleExplained: What happened with Maccabi Tel Aviv fans in Amsterdam and how will football react? \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/athletic/5908576/2024/11/09/maccabi-tel-aviv-fans-attacked-why/ \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workThe Athletic \|publisher=The Athletic Media Company, A New York Times Company}} * {{Cite news \|date9 November 2024 \|orig-dateEditor's Note: The video in this piece is a re-edit of a previous version which didn't meet Sky News' standards for balance and impartiality. \|titleWhat we know about violence involving football fans in Amsterdam: Verified footage shows how violent disorder unfolded in Amsterdam on Thursday. Before Maccabi Tel Aviv fans were attacked in the city, Palestinian flags were pulled down from buildings. \|urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/what-we-know-about-violence-involving-football-fans-in-amsterdam-13250618 \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workSky News \|departmentWorld News; Related Topics: Data and Forensics, The Netherlands \|formatExplainer}} * {{Cite news \|lastCorder \|firstMike \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|othersAssociated Press reporters Julia Frankel and Ibrahim Hazboun in Jerusalem, Lee Keath in Cairo, Graham Dunbar in Geneva, and Raf Casert in Brussels, contributed to this report. \|titleIsraeli soccer fans were attacked in Amsterdam. The violence was condemned as antisemitic \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/maccabi-tel-aviv-amsterdam-violence-protests-palestinian-bcea212281f682098c4c77ef552af5f1 \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workAP News \|department=World News}} * {{Cite news \|lastFink \|firstRachel \|last2Cohen \|first2Ido David \|dateNov 10, 2024 \|titleIsraeli and Foreign Media Outlets Revise Coverage of Amsterdam Attacks on Israeli Soccer Fans: The U.K.'s Sky News and Israel's Channel 12 removed references to anti-Arab behavior after facing criticism over their coverage of soccer match violence \|urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/2024-11-10/ty-article/.premium/israeli-foreign-media-outlets-revise-coverage-of-amsterdam-attacks-on-israeli-soccer-fans/00000193-16d9-dded-abb3-fedf03e40000 \|url-statuslive \|access-date2024-11-11 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20241110193659/https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/2024-11-10/ty-article/.premium/israeli-foreign-media-outlets-revise-coverage-of-amsterdam-attacks-on-israeli-soccer-fans/00000193-16d9-dded-abb3-fedf03e40000 \|archive-date2024-11-10 \|workHaaretz \|department=World News {{!}} Europe}} * {{Cite news \|date8 November 2024 \|titlePalestinians blame Amsterdam attacks on Maccabi fans despite Telegram calls for violence \|urlhttps://nltimes.nl/2024/11/08/palestinians-blame-amsterdam-attacks-maccabi-fans-despite-telegram-calls-violence \|access-date2024-11-12 \|workNL Times \|departmentCategories: Crime, Politics; Tags: Femke Halsema, Maccabi Tel Aviv, AFC Ajax, WAFA, Palestinian mission in the Netherlands, Israel, Rokin, Palestine}} Generally pro-Jewish/anti-Arab news coverage includes: * {{Cite news \|last1Deutsch \|first1Anthony \|last2Meijer \|first2Bart H. \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|others{{small\|Reporting by Enas Alashray in Cairo, Ahmed Elimam in Dubai; Bart Meijer, Charlotte Van Campenhout and Toby Sterling in Amsterdam; additional reporting by Emily Rose and Jonathan Saul in Jerusalem, Michelle Nicols in New York and Mahezabin Syed in Bangalore; Writing by Michael Georgy and Anthony Deutsch; Editing by Clarence Fernandez, Lincoln Feast, Michael Perry and Kevin Liffey}} \|titleAmsterdam bans protests after 'antisemitic squads' attack Israeli soccer fans \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/israels-pm-aware-very-violent-incident-against-israelis-amsterdam-his-office-2024-11-08/ \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workReuters \|departmentWorld {{!}} Israel and Hamas at War \|locationAmsterdam}} * {{Cite news \|last1Sadeh \|first1Shaked \|last2Baranovski \|first2Raanan \|last3Walla! Sports \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|othersMaya Gur Arieh contributed to this report. \|title'They started hitting me—kicking my head': Israelis recount Amsterdam attacks, use of stun grenades \|urlhttps://www.jpost.com/bds-threat/article-828204 \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workThe Jerusalem Post \|departmentJerusalem Post > Diaspora > Antisemitism}} * {{Cite news \|last1Perets \|first1Shir \|last2Heller \|first2Mathilda \|last3Greyman-Kennard \|first3Danielle \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|title'We were ambushed': Pogrom in Amsterdam wounds several \|urlhttps://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-828103 \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workThe Jerusalem Post \|departmentJerusalem Post > Israel News}} * {{Cite news \|lastO'Neill \|firstBrendan \|date2024-11-08 \|titlePogroms have returned to Europe, and the 'anti-racist' Left are silent \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/11/08/pogrom-amsterdam-football-fans-violence-jews/ \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workThe Telegraph \|departmentRelated Topics: Israel-Hamas War, Anti-Semitism, Amsterdam \|language=en-GB}} * {{Cite news \|last1Morris \|first1Loveday \|last2Han \|first2Jintak \|last3Rom \|first3Alon \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|titleAttacks on Israeli soccer fans a 'black night' for Amsterdam, mayor says \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/11/08/amsterdam-attack-israel-soccer-match-violence/ \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workThe Washington Post \|departmentWorld: Europe}} * {{Cite news \|lastMcDonald \|firstScott \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|othersFox News' Greg Norman contributed to this report. \|titleIsrael sends evacuation planes to Amsterdam after 'shocking' attack on Israeli soccer fans \|urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/world/netanyahu-asks-dutch-leader-increased-security-after-attacks-idf-plans-rescue-mission-amsterdam \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workFox News \|department=World: Israel}} * {{Cite news \|last1Yosef \|first1Eugenia \|last2Szekeres \|first2Edward \|last3Kent \|first3Lauren \|last4Tanno \|first4Sophie \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|othersCNN’s Matthew Chance, Kareem Khadder, Niamh Kennedy and Lauren Izso contributed to this report. \|titleAmsterdam bans protests for three days following violent attacks on Israeli soccer fans \|trans-titleThis story and headline have been updated with additional details. \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/11/07/europe/israel-soccer-fans-attacked-amsterdam-intl-hnk/index.html \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workCNN \|departmentWorld / Europe}} * {{Cite news \|lastPomeroy \|firstGabriela \|date2024-11-08 \|othersAdditional reporting by Shaina Oppenheimer in Jerusalem \|title'They shouted Jewish, IDF': Israeli football fans describe attack in Amsterdam \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgv4mdr9y8o \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workBBC News}} * {{Cite news \|last1Douglas \|first1Steve \|last2Dunbar \|first2Graham \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|othersAssociated Press writers Dusan Stojanovic in Belgrade, Serbia, and Julia Frankel in Jerusalem contributed. \|titleIsraeli teams can't play international games at home. Now, are Maccabi's away games at risk? \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/israel-soccer-maccabi-palestinians-gaza-925c40c2c82a8f41b7b5a7fc00ba186a \|access-date2024-11-09 \|workAP News \|department=Sports}} Generally pro-Arab/anti-Jewish coverage includes: * {{Cite news \|date8–9 Nov 2024 \|titleIsraeli football fans clash with protesters in Amsterdam: Amsterdam city council member says 'Maccabi hooligans' instigated violence and attacked Palestinian supporters. \|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/8/israeli-football-fans-clash-with-protesters-in-amsterdam \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workAl Jazeera \|departmentNews {{!}} Israel-Palestine conflict}} * {{Cite news \|date2024-11-08 \|titleMaccabi Tel Aviv Fans Boo Silence for DANA Victims \|urlhttps://www.footboom1.com/en/news/football/2039579-maccabi-tel-aviv-fans-boo-silence-for-dana-victims \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workfootboom1.com \|departmentNews > Football; Related topics: Ajax, Maccabi Tel Aviv, UEFA Europa League, UEFA Champions League}} * {{Cite news \|last1Fayyad \|first1Huthifa \|last2Ullah \|first2Areeb \|date8 November 2024 \|titleIsraeli hooligans provoke clashes in Amsterdam after chanting anti-Palestinian slogans \|urlhttps://www.middleeasteye.net/news/israeli-hooligans-provoke-clashes-amsterdam-after-chanting-anti-palestinian-slogans \|access-date2024-11-11 \|workMiddle East Eye \|departmentNews {{!}} Israel's war on Gaza \|issn=2634-2456}} * {{Cite news \|date10 November 2024 \|titleFootage shows Maccabi supporters attack Amsterdammers \|urlhttps://nltimes.nl/2024/11/10/footage-shows-maccabi-supporters-attack-amsterdammers \|access-date2024-11-12 \|workNL Times \|departmentCategory: Politics; Tags: Femke Halsema, Amsterdam, AFC Ajax, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Israel, riots, Israeli football supporters, attacks, slogans, Palestinian flag}} * {{Cite news \|date8 November 2024 \|titleForeign ministry condemns anti-Arab chants and assaults on Palestinian flag by Israeli football fans in Amsterdam \|urlhttps://english.wafa.ps/Pages/Details/151459 \|access-date2024-11-12 \|workWAFA (Palestinian News & Info Agency) \|departmentPolitics \|publisher=Palestinian National Authority}} * {{Cite news \|date7–9 November 2024 <!-- "4 days ago" --> \|titleHamas: Israeli crimes in Gaza led to Amsterdam unrest : The unrest following a European League match between Ajax Amsterdam and Maccabi Tel Aviv were sparked by offensive behaviour and racial slurs from pro-Israel demonstrators. \|urlhttps://www.trtworld.com/middle-east/hamas-israeli-crimes-in-gaza-led-to-amsterdam-unrest-18230058 \|access-date2024-11-12 \|workTRT World \|departmentMiddle East \|agency=AA}} </ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastFoer \|firstFranklin \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|titleThe Strange History Behind the Anti-Semitic Dutch Soccer Attacks \|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2024/11/jewish-history-behind-dutch-soccer-attacks/680601/ \|access-date2024-11-09 \|departmentCulture \|magazineThe Atlantic}}</ref> Players Current squad {{updated\|5 February 2025}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://english.ajax.nl/teams/ajax-1/\|publisherAFC Ajax \|access-date6 September 2023 \|titleAll information about Ajax 1 - Ajax.nl }}</ref> {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no2\|natBRA\|posDF\|nameLucas Rosa}} {{Fs player\|no3\|natDEN\|posDF\|nameAnton Gaaei}} {{Fs player\|no4\|natNED\|posDF\|nameJorrel Hato}} {{Fs player\|no5\|natNED\|posDF\|nameOwen Wijndal}} {{Fs player\|no6\|natENG\|posMF\|nameJordan Henderson\|other=captain}} {{Fs player\|no8\|natNED\|posMF\|nameKenneth Taylor}} {{Fs player\|no9\|natNED\|posFW\|nameBrian Brobbey}} {{Fs player\|no11\|natBEL\|posMF\|nameMika Godts}} {{Fs player\|no12\|natNED\|posGK\|nameJay Gorter}} {{Fs player\|no13\|natTUR\|posDF\|nameAhmetcan Kaplan}} {{Fs player\|no15\|natNED\|posDF\|nameYouri Baas}} {{Fs player\|no16\|natBRA\|posGK\|nameMatheus\|other={{small\|on loan from Braga}}}} {{Fs player\|no17\|natNOR\|posMF\|nameOliver Edvardsen}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no18\|natNED\|posMF\|nameDavy Klaassen\|other=vice-captain}} {{Fs player\|no20\|natBFA\|posMF\|nameBertrand Traoré}} {{Fs player\|no21\|natNED\|posMF\|nameBranco van den Boomen}} {{Fs player\|no22\|natNED\|posGK\|nameRemko Pasveer}} {{Fs player\|no23\|natNED\|posMF\|nameSteven Berghuis\|other=third captain}} {{Fs player\|no24\|natITA\|posDF\|nameDaniele Rugani\|other={{small\|on loan from Juventus}}}} {{Fs player\|no25\|natNED\|posFW\|nameWout Weghorst}} {{Fs player\|no28\|natNED\|posMF\|nameKian Fitz-Jim}} {{Fs player\|no29\|natDEN\|posMF\|nameChristian Rasmussen}} {{Fs player\|no31\|natBEL\|posMF\|nameJorthy Mokio}} {{Fs player\|no36\|natNED\|posDF\|nameDies Janse}} {{Fs player\|no37\|natCRO\|posDF\|nameJosip Šutalo}} {{Fs player\|no44\|natNED\|posMF\|nameYouri Regeer}} {{Fs end}} Players out on loan {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posDF\|nameGerald Alders\|other={{small\|at Twente until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natARG\|posDF\|nameGastón Ávila\|other={{small\|at Fortaleza until 31 December 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posDF\|nameTristan Gooijer\|other={{small\|at PEC Zwolle until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natCRO\|posDF\|nameJakov Medić\|other={{small\|at VfL Bochum until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs Player\|no\|natCRO\|posDF\|nameBorna Sosa\|other={{small\|at Torino until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no\|natISL\|posMF\|nameKristian Hlynsson\|other={{small\|at Sparta Rotterdam until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNOR\|posMF\|nameSivert Mannsverk\|other={{small\|at Cardiff City until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natPOR\|posMF\|nameCarlos Forbs\|other={{small\|at Wolves until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natENG\|posFW\|nameChuba Akpom\|other={{small\|at Lille until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs end}} Retired numbers {{main\|List of retired numbers in association football\|l1=Retired numbers in association football}} 14 – {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Johan Cruyff (Forward, 1964–73, 1981–83). ''Number retired on 25 April 2007 at Cruyff's 60th birthday celebration match.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.deondernemer.nl/sport/55948/Voetballegende-Cruijff-60.html \|titleCruijff viert 60ste verjaardag lo \|publisherDe Ondernemer \|date25 April 2007 \|access-date25 October 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131015070608/http://www.deondernemer.nl/sport/55948/Voetballegende-Cruijff-60.html \|archive-date15 October 2013 \|df=dmy-all }}</ref> {{refn\|Number 34 has not been reissued since Abdelhak Nouri (who played for Ajax from 2015 to 2017) suffered extreme cardiac arrhythmia in a friendly match against Werder Bremen,<ref>[https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2720492-abdelhak-nouri-collapses-on-pitch-during-ajax-friendly-vs-werder-bremen Abdelhak Nouri Collapses on Pitch During Ajax Friendly vs. Werder Bremen] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210515111459/https://bleacherreport.com/articles/2720492-abdelhak-nouri-collapses-on-pitch-during-ajax-friendly-vs-werder-bremen \|date15 May 2021 }} on Bleach Report, 8 July 2017</ref> but the number is not officially retired.\|groupnote\|namefourtyfour}} Notes: {{reflist\|groupnote}}Youth/reserves squadFor the reserve squad of Ajax see: Jong Ajax.Notable former players {{Main\|List of AFC Ajax players}} {{For\|a list of all Ajax players with a Wikipedia article\|Category:AFC Ajax players}} Board and staff Current board ;Executive Board Chairman: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ernst Boekhorst *Board members: 7 – ({{flagicon\|Netherlands}} John Busink, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marjon Eijlers, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Giovanni Fränkel, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Pim van Dord, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} René Zegerius, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Edo Ophof, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Christian Visser. ;Board of Directors Chief executive officer: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Menno Geelen (ad interim) Chief financial officer: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Baboeram Panday Chief commercial officer: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Cas Biesta (ad interim)'' Technical Director: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Alex Kroes Director of Football: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marijn Beuker ;Supervisory Board Chairman: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Carolien Gehrels Board members: 4 – ({{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Danny Blind, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Sirik Goeman, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Dirk Anbeek, {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Hermine Voûte. Current staff ;Coaching staff Head coach: {{flagicon\|Italy}} Francesco Farioli Assistant coaches: {{flagicon\|Italy}} Daniele Cavalletto<br />{{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Dave Vos<br />{{flagicon\|Spain}} Felipe Sanchez Mateos Goalkeeping coach: {{flagicon\|Finland}} Jarkko Tuomisto Goalkeeping coach: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Erik Heijblok Performance coach: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Sam Feringa Video analyst: {{flagicon\|Turkey}} Osman Kul Video analyst: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Kevin Keij ;Medical staff Team doctor: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Bas Peijs Head physio: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Maarten Gozeling Club doctor: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Niels Wijne Fitness coach: {{flagicon\|England}} Callum Walsh Fitness coach: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Maikel van Wijk Physiotherapist: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frank van Deursen ;Accompanying staff Team manager: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Siemerink Players supervisor: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Herman Pinkster Loan coach: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Michel Kreek Press officer: {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Miel Brinkhuis List of Ajax chairmen {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Floris Stempel (1900–08) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Chris Holst (1908–10) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Han Dade (1910–12) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Chris Holst (1912–13) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Willem Egeman (1913–25) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frans Schoevaart (1925–32) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marius Koolhaas (1932–56) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Wim Volkers (1956–58) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Melchers (1958–64) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jaap van Praag (1964–78) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ton Harmsen (1978–88) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Michael van Praag (1989–2003) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} John Jaakke (2003–08) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Uri Coronel (2008–11) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Hennie Henrichs (2011–20) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frank Eijken (2020–2023) * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ernst Boekhorst (2023–present) {{div col end}} List of Ajax coaches {{div col\|colwidth=28em}} * {{Flagicon\|IRE\|1783}} Jack Kirwan (1910–15) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Jack Reynolds (1915–25) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Harold Rose (1925–26) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Stanley Castle (1926–28) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Jack Reynolds (1928–40) * {{Flagicon\|HUN\|1920}} Vilmos Halpern (1940–41) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Wim Volkers (1941–42) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Dolf van Kol (1942–45) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Jack Reynolds (1945–47) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Robert Smith (1947–48) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Walter Crook (1948–50) * {{Flagicon\|SCO}} Robert Thomson (1950–52) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Karel Kaufman (1952–53) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Walter Crook (1953–54) * {{Flagicon\|AUT}} Karl Humenberger (1954–59) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Vic Buckingham (1959–61) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Keith Spurgeon (1961–62) * {{Flagicon\|AUT}} Joseph Gruber (1962–63) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Jack Rowley (1963–64) * {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Vic Buckingham (1964–65) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Rinus Michels (1965–71) * {{Flagicon\|ROU\|1965}} Ștefan Kovács (1971–73) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} George Knobel (1973–74) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Bobby Haarms (1974, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans Kraay (1974–75) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Jan van Daal (1975, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Rinus Michels (1975–76) * {{Flagicon\|SFR Yugoslavia}} Tomislav Ivić (1976–78) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Cor Brom (1978–79) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Leo Beenhakker (1979–81) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Aad de Mos (1981, interim) * {{Flagicon\|FRG}} Kurt Linder (1981–82) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Aad de Mos (1982–85) * {{Flagicon\|LUX}} Antoine Kohn, {{Flagicon\|NED}} Tonny Bruins Slot and {{Flagicon\|NED}} Cor van der Hart (1985, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Johan Cruyff (1985–88) * {{Flagicon\|FRG}} Kurt Linder (1988) * {{Flagicon\|LUX}} Antoine Kohn, {{Flagicon\|NED}} Bobby Haarms and {{Flagicon\|NED}} Barry Hulshoff (1988–89, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Leo Beenhakker (1989–91) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Louis van Gaal (1991–97) * {{Flagicon\|DEN}} Morten Olsen (1997–99) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Jan Wouters (1999–2000) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans Westerhof (2000, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Co Adriaanse (2000–01) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Ronald Koeman (2001–05) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Ruud Krol (2005, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Danny Blind (2005–06) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Henk ten Cate (2006–07) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Adrie Koster (2007–08, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Marco van Basten (2008–09) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} John van 't Schip (2009, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Martin Jol (2009–10) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Frank de Boer (2010–16) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Peter Bosz (2016–17) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Marcel Keizer (2017) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Erik ten Hag (2017–2022) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} Alfred Schreuder (2022–2023) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} John Heitinga (2023) * {{flagicon\|NED}} Maurice Steijn (2023) * {{flagicon\|NED}} Hedwiges Maduro (2023, interim) * {{Flagicon\|NED}} John van 't Schip (2023–2024, interim) * {{Flagicon\|ITA}} Francesco Farioli (2024–present) {{div col end}} Honours {{Main\|List of AFC Ajax honours}} {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;" !style="width: 10%;"\|Type !style="width: 10%;"\|Competition !style="width: 5%;"\|Titles !style="width: 30%;"\|Seasons \|- \| rowspan="3" \|Domestic ! scope=col\| Eredivisie \|style="background-color:gold"\|36 \| 1917–18, 1918–19, 1930–31, 1931–32, 1933–34, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1946–47, 1956–57, 1959–60 , 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82 , 1982–83, 1984–85, 1989–90, 1993–94, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2010–11 , 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2018–19, 2020–21, 2021–22 \|- ! scope=col\| KNVB Cup \|style="background-color:gold"\|20 \| 1916–17, 1942–43, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1969-70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1985–86, 1986–87, 1992–93, 1997–98, 1998–99, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2009–10, 2018–19, 2020–21 \|- ! scope=col \|Johan Cruyff Shield \|9 \| 1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2013, 2019 \|- \| rowspan="4" \|Continental ! scope=col\|UEFA Champions League \|4 \|1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1994–95 \|- ! scope=col\|UEFA Europa League \|1 \| 1991–92 \|- ! scope=col\|UEFA Cup Winners' Cup \|1 \| 1986–87 \|- ! scope=col\|UEFA Super Cup \|2 \| 1973, 1995 \|- \|Worldwide ! scope=col\|Intercontinental Cup \| 2 \|1972, 1995 \|} * {{legend\|gold\|record}} * {{smallsup\|s}} shared record Ajax also won in 1972, however UEFA only sanctioned the UEFA Super Cup for the first time in 1973 so the 1972 edition was an unofficial one. Played against Rangers, winners of the 1971–72 European Cup Winners' Cup, it went ahead as 'a celebration of the Centenary of Rangers F.C.' (see below) because Rangers was serving a one-year ban at the time, imposed by UEFA for the misbehaviour of its fans. That victory meant Ajax had won every tournament (5 in total) they entered that year, a feat Celtic achieved in 1967 (with 6 trophies), Barcelona in 2009 (6 trophies), and Bayern in 2020 (also 6 trophies). Other trophies Ajax have won numerous friendly tournaments, unsanctioned by UEFA or FIFA, including the Amsterdam Tournament, Bruges Matins Trophy, Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu, Eusébio Cup, Ted Bates Trophy, Jalkapalloturnaus and Chippie Polar Cup (for a complete list, see: list of AFC Ajax honours). Club awards '''World Soccer World Team of the Year : 1 :: 1995 France Football European Team of the Year : 4 :: 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973 Dutch Sports Team of the Year : 5 :: 1968, 1969, 1972, 1987, 1995<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.nocnsf.nl/nocnsf.nl/olympische-droom/verkiezingen/sportploeg-van-het-jaar \|titleSportploeg van het Jaar \|publisherNOCNSF.nl \|access-date3 August 2013 \|archive-date21 May 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130521204255/http://www.nocnsf.nl/nocnsf.nl/olympische-droom/verkiezingen/sportploeg-van-het-jaar \|url-status=live }}</ref> Sports Team of the Year : 1 :: 1990 IFFHS The World's Club Team of the Year : 1 :: 1992 Dick van Rijn Trophy : 1 :: 1995 Amsterdam Sportsteam of the year: 3 :: 2011, 2013, 2014<ref>{{cite news \| url http://www.rtvnh.nl/sport/129705/Ellen+van+Dijk+sportvrouw+Amsterdam,+Ajax+sportploeg \| title Ellen van Dijk sportvrouw Amsterdam, Ajax sportploeg \| publisher rtvnh.nl \| date 17 December 2013 \| access-date 17 December 2013 \| language nl \| archive-date 17 December 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131217224602/http://www.rtvnh.nl/sport/129705/Ellen+van+Dijk+sportvrouw+Amsterdam,+Ajax+sportploeg \| url-status = live }}</ref> ING Fair Play Award : 2' :: 2013, 2014<ref>[http://knvb.nl/nieuws/29413/ajax-wint-ing-fair-play-prijs Ajax wint ING Fair Play-prijs] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140506070441/http://knvb.nl/nieuws/29413/ajax-wint-ing-fair-play-prijs \|date6 May 2014 }}, website knvb.nl (14 May 2013)</ref><ref>[https://archive.today/20140505183151/http://www.knvb.nl/nieuws/34805/ajax-winnaar-ing fair-play-prijs Ajax winnaar ING Fair Play-prijs], website knvb.nl (5 May 2014)</ref> Fair Play Cup : 1 :: 1995 FIFA Club of the Century : shared 5th place :: 20th Century 'kicker Sportmagazin Club of the Century: 2nd place :: 20th Century Best Dutch club after 50 years of professional football : 1 :: 2004<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/Ajax-beste-club-betaald-voetbal.htm \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130805053927/http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/Ajax-beste-club-betaald-voetbal.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-date5 August 2013 \|titleAjax beste club betaald voetbal \|publisherAjax.nl \|access-date=3 August 2013 }}</ref> Football shirt of the Year : Ajax away shirt by adidas :: 2013–14<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.voetbalshirtvanhetjaar.com/\|titleFootball shirt of the year\|publisherSubside Sports\|access-date17 May 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140411194721/http://www.voetbalshirtvanhetjaar.com/\|archive-date11 April 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Four-Four-Two Greatest Club Side Ever : Ajax (1965–1973) :: 2013<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.inthestands.co.uk/featured/the-four-four-two-greatest-club-side-ever-list.html\|titleThe Four-Four-Two Greatest Club Side Ever List\|publisherIn The Stands\|access-date15 October 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140205212935/http://www.inthestands.co.uk/featured/the-four-four-two-greatest-club-side-ever-list.html\|archive-date5 February 2014\|url-statusdead\|dfdmy-all}}</ref> VVCS Best Pitch of the Year : 1''' :: 2012 Honorary club members Ajax have a total of 50 honorary club members, from people who have been invested within the club's administrative engagements, to committed players who have excelled in the athletic department. Of those 50 members 41 have since died. Nine members still remain, including Louis van Gaal. He was made honorary member in 2024.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.ajax.nl/artikelen/louis-van-gaal-benoemd-tot-erelid-ben-zeer-verrast/ \|titleLouis van Gaal benoemd tot erelid: 'Ben zeer verrast' \|languageDutch \|publisherAFC Ajax \|date17 November 2024 \|access-date20 January 2025}}</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Hennie Henrichs * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Arie van Os * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Michael van Praag * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Rob Been sr. * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Sjaak Swart * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Hans Bijvank * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Leo van Wijk * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Buskermolen * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Louis van Gaal {{div col end}} The remaining 41 honorary members who have since died:<ref>[http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id66083/langid43 Overleden Ereleden van Ajax] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121025025854/http://www.ajax.nl/web/show/id66083/langid43 \|date25 October 2012 }} Ajax.nl</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Floris Stempel * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Han Dade * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Chris Holst * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} L.W. van Fliet * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} K.W.F. van der Lee * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Henk Alofs * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frans Schoevaart * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Grootmeijer * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} J. Oudheusden * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Willem Egeman * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Schoevaart * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marius Koolhaas * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jordanus Roodenburgh * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Theo Brokmann * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} F.H.W. de Bruijn * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan de Boer * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frans Couton * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} A.L. Desmit * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Wim Anderiesen * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Wim Volkers * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Elzenga * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Roef Vunderink * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Kick Geudeker * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} G. de Jongh * {{Flagicon\|England}} Jack Reynolds * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ferry Dukker * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Arie de Wit * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} W.F.C. Bruijnesteijn * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Westrik * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jaap van Praag * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Henk Hordijk * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} M.J.W. Middendorp * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Rinus Michels * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Henk Timman * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Potharst * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Bobby Haarms * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} André Kraan * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Willem Schoevaart * {{Flagicon\|Netherlands}} Johan Cruyff * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Uri Coronel * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Tijn Middendorp {{div col end}} Results Domestic results Below is a table with Ajax's domestic results since the introduction of the {{Lang\|nl\|Eredivisie\|italic=no}} in 1956. {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"width: 100%; text-align: center;" \|- ! colspan=5 \| Domestic results since 1956 \|- ! style="width:20%;"\|Domestic league ! style="width:20%;"\|League result ! style="width:20%;"\|Qualification to ! style="width:20%;"\|KNVB Cup season ! style="width:20%;"\|Cup result \|- \|2023–24 Eredivisie \| 5th \|Europa League (Q2) \|2023–24 \|second round \|- \|2022–23 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|Europa League (Q4) \|2022–23 \|style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|2021–22 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2021–22 \|style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|2020–21 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2020–21 \|style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2019–20 Eredivisie \| 1st (no title awarded) \|Champions League \|2019–20 \|style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|2018–19 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2018–19 \|style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2017–18 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q2) \|2017–18 \|round of 16 \|- \|2016–17 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2016–17 \|third round \|- \|2015–16 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2015–16 \|third round \|- \|2014–15 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2014–15 \|round of 16 \|- \|2013–14 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2013–14 \|style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|2012–13 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2012–13 \|style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|2011–12 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2011–12 \|fourth round \|- \|2010–11 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2010–11 \| style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|2009–10 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q2) \|2009–10 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2008–09 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|Europa League (Q4) \|2008–09 \|third round \|- \|2007–08 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup (after losing CL-play-offs) \|2007–08 \|round of 16 \|- \|2006–07 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3) \|2006–07 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2005–06 Eredivisie \|4th \|Champions League (winning CL-play-offs) (Q3) \|2005–06 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2004–05 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2004–05 \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|2003–04 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2003–04 \|round of 16 \|- \|2002–03 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2002–03 \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|2001–02 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|2001–02 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|2000–01 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|Champions League (Q3) \|2000–01 \|round of 16 \|- \|1999–2000 Eredivisie \|5th \|UEFA Cup \|1999–2000 \|round of 16 \|- \|1998–99 Eredivisie \|6th \|UEFA Cup \|1998–99 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1997–98 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|1997–98 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1996–97 Eredivisie \|4th \|UEFA Cup \|1996–97 \|second round \|- \|1995–96 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|1995–96 \|round of 16 \|- \|1994–95 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|1994–95 \|quarter final \|- \|1993–94 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|Champions League \|1993–94 \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|1992–93 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1992–93 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1991–92 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1991–92 \|quarter final \|- \|1990–91 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1990–91 \|quarter final \|- \|1989–90 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|DSQ \|1989–90 \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|1988–89 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1988–89 \|quarter final \|- \|1987–88 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1987–88 \|second round \|- \|1986–87 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1986–87 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1985–86 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1985–86 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1984–85 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1984–85 \|round of 16 \|- \|1983–84 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|1983–84 \|round of 16 \|- \|1982–83 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1982–83 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1981–82 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1981–82 \|round of 16 \|- \|1980–81 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1980–81 \| style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|1979–80 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1979–80 \| style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|1978–79 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1978–79 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1977–78 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1977–78 \| style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|1976–77 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1976–77 \|second round \|- \|1975–76 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|1975–76 \|quarter final \|- \|1974–75 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|1974–75 \|round of 16 \|- \|1973–74 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|1973–74 \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final \|- \|1972–73 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup (R2) \|1972–73 \|second round \|- \|1971–72 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup (R2) \|1971–72 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1970–71 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|European Cup \|1970–71 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1969–70 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1969–70 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1968–69 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \|Inter-Cities Fairs Cup \|1968–69 \|round of 16 {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1967–68 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1967–68 \| style="background:silver;"\|final \|- \|1966–67 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1966–67 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1965–66 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1965–66 \|quarter final {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1964–65 Eredivisie \|13th \| – \|1964–65 \|first round {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1963–64 Eredivisie \|5th \| – \|1963–64 \| style"background:#cd7f32;"\|semi-final {{Citation needed\|dateJuly 2011}} \|- \|1962–63 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \| – \|1962–63 \|round of 16 {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1961–62 Eredivisie \|4th \| – \|1961–62 \|? {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1960–61 Eredivisie \| style="background:silver;"\|2nd \| – \|1960–61 \| style="background:gold;"\|winners \|- \|1959–60 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|not held \|not held \|- \|1958–59 Eredivisie \|6th \| – \|1958–59 \|? {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1957–58 Eredivisie \| style="background:#cd7f32;"\|3rd \| – \|1957–58 \|? {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|- \|1956–57 Eredivisie \| style="background:gold;"\|1st \|European Cup \|1956–57 \|? {{Citation needed\|date=July 2011}} \|} Continental results {{main\|AFC Ajax in European football}} Team records {{main\|List of AFC Ajax records and statistics}} * Most match appearances: 463 – Sjaak Swart * Most goals scored: 273 – Piet van Reenen * Most goals scored in a season: 41 – Henk Groot * First Ajax player to receive an International cap: Gerard Fortgens for the Netherlands in 1911 * First Ajax player to score a goal for the national team: Theo Brokmann for the Netherlands in 1919 Club van 100 {{main\|Club van 100 (AFC Ajax)}} The Club van 100 is the official list of Football players who have appeared in one hundred or more official matches for AFC Ajax. The club currently has a total of over 150 members.<ref>[http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/Blind-150ste-in-Club-van-100.htm Blind 150ste in Club van 100 (Dutch)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130821064158/http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/Blind-150ste-in-Club-van-100.htm \|date21 August 2013 }} Ajax.nl, 18 August 2013</ref> The record for league appearances is held by Mr. Ajax himself Sjaak Swart, who appeared in 463 league matches for Ajax.<ref>[http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/1948009/2010/07/28/Suarez-in-club-van-100-bij-Ajax.dhtml Suarez in 'club van 100' bij Ajax (Dutch)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131016040920/http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1441/Ajax/article/detail/1948009/2010/07/28/Suarez-in-club-van-100-bij-Ajax.dhtml \|date16 October 2013 }} AD.nl, 28 July 2010</ref> There is a beneficiary team called Lucky Ajax, which was initiated by Sjaak Swart. Lucky Ajax participate in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity, and commonly at football ceremonies to bid farewell to retiring players. One of the prerequisites for playing on Lucky Ajax, which is invitational only, is that you are a member of the Club van 100, having made at least 100 official match appearances for Ajax in the first team of the club.<ref>[http://www.telegraaf.nl/telesport/voetbal/ajax/21511585/__Sjaak_Swart_wordt_75_jaar__.html Swart wordt 75 jaar in Olympisch Stadion (Dutch)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303222211/http://www.telegraaf.nl/telesport/voetbal/ajax/21511585/__Sjaak_Swart_wordt_75_jaar__.html \|date3 March 2016 }} De Telegraaf, 25 April 2013</ref> Lucky Ajax Lucky Ajax is a beneficiary team that was initiated by Sjaak Swart in the seventies, competing in at least one match a year, usually in the name of charity and/or to bid farewell to retiring former Ajax players. The team is made up of various members of the Club van 100 of Ajax who will come out of retirement for this match to face the Ajax squad that is current of that year.<ref>[https://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/181839/Lucky-Ajax-speelt-altijd-om-de-eer.htm Lucky Ajax speelt altijd om de eer (Dutch)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202233257/https://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/181839/Lucky-Ajax-speelt-altijd-om-de-eer.htm \|date2 December 2013 }} Ajax.nl, 15 April 2012</ref> Past participants have included Barry Hulshoff, Sonny Silooy, Simon Tahamata, Ronald Koeman, Tscheu La Ling, Gerrie Mühren, John van 't Schip, Brian Roy, Stanley Menzo, Peter van Vossen and Fred Grim.<ref>[http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/184835/Lucky-Ajax-wint-unieke-Oude-Klassieker.htm Lucky Ajax wint unieke 'Oude Klassieker' (Dutch)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202225055/http://www.ajax.nl/Ajax-Nieuws/Ajax-nieuwsarchief/Ajax-nieuwsartikel/184835/Lucky-Ajax-wint-unieke-Oude-Klassieker.htm \|date2 December 2013 }} Ajax.nl, 15 April 2012</ref> The name Lucky Ajax is derived from the famous "Lucky Ajax" nickname from how people used to refer to the club when Ajax would either win a match by chance, by a decision of a referee, or by coincidence such as was said to be the case during the infamous Mistwedstrijd ("Fog Match").<ref>[https://archive.today/20131125042826/http://www.bequickzutphen.nl/columns-2/396-column-sjaak-swart-hoe-nu-verder Column: Sjaak Swart; hoe nu verder? (Dutch)] SVV Be Quick.nl, 15 April 2012</ref> Number 14 shirt {{Main\|list of retired numbers in association football}} As of the 2007–08 season, no player could wear the number 14 shirt at Ajax after the club decided to retire the shirt out of respect for Johan Cruyff,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id154814/contentid62523 \|titleAjax retire number 14 \|access-date18 April 2007 \|publisherAjax.nl \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070501141653/http://english.ajax.nl/web/show/id%3D154814/contentid%3D62523 \|archive-date1 May 2007 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> "the legendary number fourteen".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/13/AJAX/article/detail/1069545/2010/12/07/Ajax-met-Frank-de-Boer-naar-Milaan.dhtml\|titleAjax met Frank de Boer naar Milaan\|date7 December 2010\|workHet Parool\|languagenl\|access-date16 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141216023044/http://www.parool.nl/parool/nl/13/AJAX/article/detail/1069545/2010/12/07/Ajax-met-Frank-de-Boer-naar-Milaan.dhtml\|archive-date16 December 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Cruyff himself laughed off the tribute, saying the club had to let its best player play with number 14.<ref>[http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/50172,ajax-retires-cruyffs-14.aspx "Ajax Retires number 14"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131015164358/http://au.fourfourtwo.com/news/50172,ajax-retires-cruyffs-14.aspx \|date15 October 2013 }}, FourFourTwo website, 19 April 2007</ref> Spanish midfielder Roger was the last player to wear the number. Marvin Zeegelaar wore the shirt number in preparation for the 2011–12 season in one preseason match, while Aras Özbiliz wore the number 14 shirt in one pre-season match ahead of the 2011–12 season as well. The club stated that this was, in fact, not done in error.<ref>[http://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid141373 Özbiliz: 'Ik kreeg rugnummer veertien en ze zeiden dat het klopte'] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131015052744/http://www.voetbalzone.nl/doc.asp?uid141373 \|date=15 October 2013 }} Voetbalzone, 3 juli 2011</ref> Below is a list of all players to wear the number 14 shirt since Johan Cruyff's departure.<ref>[http://www.sportgeschiedenis.nl/2007/04/21/alle-ajacieden-met-nummer-veertien-sinds-johan-cruijff.aspx Alle Ajacieden met nummer veertien sinds Johan Cruijff] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131015053355/http://www.sportgeschiedenis.nl/2007/04/21/alle-ajacieden-met-nummer-veertien-sinds-johan-cruijff.aspx \|date15 October 2013 }} Sportgeschiedenis, 21 April 2007</ref> {\| \| valigntop width450 \| * {{flagicon\|Hungary}} Zoltán Varga – 1973–74 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Mulder – 1974–75 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Geert Meijer – 1975–76 season * {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Frank Arnesen – 1976–77 and 1977–78 seasons * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Tscheu La Ling – 1978–79 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Karel Bonsink – 1979–80 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Frank Rijkaard – 1980–81 season (uncertain) * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Sonny Silooy – 1981–82 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marco van Basten – 1982–83 season From 1983 to 1997, reserves no longer received permanent shirt numbers. \| valigntop width450 \| * {{flagicon\|Portugal}} Dani – 1997–98 and 1998–99 seasons * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Martijn Reuser – 1999–00 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands Antilles}} Brutil Hosé – 2000–01 season * {{flagicon\|Georgia}} Shota Arveladze – 2001–02 season * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan van Halst – 2002–03 season * {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Jelle Van Damme – 2003–04 season * {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Thomas Vermaelen – 2004–05 season * {{flagicon\|Brazil}} Maxwell – 2005–06 season * {{flagicon\|Spain}} Roger – 2006–07 season \|} Former captains {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders unsortable" \|- !scope="col"\|Tenure !scope="col"\|Player \|- \|1964–1967 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Frits Soetekouw \|- \|1967–1970 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Gert Bals \|- \|1970–1971 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|YUG}} Velibor Vasović \|- \|1971–1972 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Piet Keizer \|- \|1972–1973 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Johan Cruyff \|- \|1973–1974 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Piet Keizer \|- \|1974–1980 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Ruud Krol \|- \|1980–1981 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|DEN}} Frank Arnesen \|- \|1981–1983 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|DEN}} Søren Lerby \|- \|1983–1985 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Dick Schoenaker \|- \|1985 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Frank Rijkaard \|- \|1985–1987 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Marco van Basten \|- \|1987–1990 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} John van 't Schip \|- \|1990–1999 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Danny Blind \|- \|1999–2001 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Aron Winter \|- \|2001–2003 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|ROM}} Cristian Chivu \|- \|2003–2004 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|FIN}} Jari Litmanen \|- \|2004–2005 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Rafael Van der Vaart \|- \|2005–2006 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|CZE}} Tomáš Galásek \|- \|2006–2007 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Jaap Stam \|- \|2007–2009 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Klaas-Jan Huntelaar \|- \|2009 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|BEL}} Thomas Vermaelen \|- \|2009–2011 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|URU}} Luis Suárez \|- \|2011 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Maarten Stekelenburg \|- \|2011–2012 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|BEL}} Jan Vertonghen \|- \|2012–2014 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Siem de Jong \|- \|2014–2015 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|FIN}} Niklas Moisander \|- \|2015–2017 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Davy Klaassen \|- \|2017–2018 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Joël Veltman \|- \|2018–2019 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Matthijs de Ligt \|- \|2019–2023 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|SER}} Dušan Tadić \|- \|2023–2024 \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Steven Bergwijn \|- \|2024– \|scope="row"\|{{flagicon\|ENG}} Jordan Henderson \|} Team tournaments Amsterdam Tournament {{main\|Amsterdam Tournament}} Established in 1975 as the Amsterdam 700 Tournament to celebrate 700 years of history in the city.<ref name"RSSSF">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/amsterdam.html \|titleAmsterdam Tournament \|first1Andrea \|last1Veronese \|first2Karel \|last2Stokkermans \|publisherRec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation \|date9 July 2009 \|access-date28 August 2010 \|archive-date25 June 2003 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030625133313/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesa/amsterdam.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The tournament was hosted annually each summer by Ajax until 1992, when the last edition of the original tournament was played. It returned in 1999 with the backing of the International Event Partnership (IEP).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.manutd.com/default.sps?newsid298269&page1&pagegid{F9E570E6-407E-44BC-800F-4A3110258114} \|titleReds to play in Amsterdam Tournament \|firstAdam \|lastBostock \|publisherManchester United \|date25 January 2006 \|access-date28 August 2010}}</ref> Four teams participated in the competition, played in a league format since 1986.<ref name"RSSSF"/> Since its return,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/s/sunderland/8083463.stm "Black Cats to compete in Ajax cup"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090608010246/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/s/sunderland/8083463.stm \|date8 June 2009 }}. BBC Sport. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 28 August 2010.</ref> the tournament used an unusual point scoring system. As with most league competitions, three points were awarded for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. An additional point, however, was awarded for each goal scored.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/4730005.stm "Arsenal strike late to sink Ajax"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060223115452/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/4730005.stm \|date23 February 2006 }}. BBC Sport. 29 July 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</ref> The system was designed to reward teams that adopted a more attacking style of play.<ref>[http://www.sunderlandecho.com/sport/Sunderland-play-in-Amsterdam-tournament.5336813.jp "Sunderland play in Amsterdam tournament"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090607020418/http://www.sunderlandecho.com/sport/Sunderland-play-in-Amsterdam-tournament.5336813.jp \|date7 June 2009 }}. Sunderland Echo. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</ref> Each entrant played two matches, with the winner being the club that finished at the top of the table.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/4732453.stm "FC Porto 1–2 Arsenal"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061223151717/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/4732453.stm \|date23 December 2006 }}. BBC Sport. 31 July 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</ref> The original competition was held at Het Olympisch Stadion where Ajax played the bigget games until 1996.<ref>[http://english.ajax.nl/The-Club/The-club.htm "The club"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101204110742/http://english.ajax.nl/The-Club/The-club.htm \|date4 December 2010 }}. Ajax. Retrieved 10 September 2010.</ref> The Amsterdam Arena (now Johan Cruyff Arena) played host to the event since its return until the last edition was played in 2009. Ajax is the most successful team of the tournament, having won it a record ten times, while Benfica from Portugal was the last team to win the tournament, in 2009. Copa Amsterdam {{main\|Copa Amsterdam}} Established in 2005, the Copa Amsterdam is an international friendly football tournament for Under-19 youth teams, that is organized by Ajax and the Amsterdam city council, which takes place at the Olympic Stadium as part of the annual Amsterdam Sports Weekend, a citywide sponsored initiative to promote 'sports and recreation' within the city of Amsterdam.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/Ndtrc/Amsterdamse%20Sportweekend \|titleAmsterdam Sport Weekend \|publisherI Amsterdam \|access-date23 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202231932/http://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/Ndtrc/Amsterdamse%20Sportweekend \|archive-date2 December 2013 }}</ref> Each Summer the city of Amsterdam and Ajax invite U-19 teams from various top clubs from around the World to participate in the tournament. Seven teams are invited and play in the competition every year. Over the years, clubs such as Barcelona, Juventus, Chelsea and Real Madrid have had their senior youth teams participate in the tournament.<ref name"Copa Amsterdam">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/Ndtrc/Copa%20Amsterdam \|titleCopa Amsterdam \|publisherI Amsterdam \|access-date23 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202224253/http://www.iamsterdam.com/en-GB/Ndtrc/Copa%20Amsterdam \|archive-date2 December 2013 }}</ref> Cruzeiro from Brazil is the most successful club in the history of the tournament, having won it three times in total.Future Cup {{main\|Future Cup}} Established in 2010, the AEGON Future Cup is an international friendly tournament for Under-17 youth teams, which is organized by AFC Ajax and their main sponsor, the insurance company AEGON. The tournament is held each year at the Johan Cruyff Arena and at the Sportpark De Toekomst, the team's training ground, which also inspired the name of the competition, since De Toekomst in Dutch means The Future.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/ajax-b1-na-drie-zeges-groepswinnaar-op-future-cup \|titleAjax B1 na drie zeges groepswinnaar op Future Cup \|publisherAjaxlife \|access-date3 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129034741/http://www.ajaxlife.nl/updates/ajax-b1-na-drie-zeges-groepswinnaar-op-future-cup \|archive-date29 November 2014 \|url-statusdead \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> Every year during the Easter weekend, six U-17 teams are invited to participate in the competition, while the seventh place for the contesters is reserved for the winners of the "Craques Mongeral AEGON Future Cup" in Brazil, the sister competition of the tournament in South America.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.mongeralaegonfuturecup.com.br/CMS/index.php/craques-mongeral-aegon \|titleResponsabilidade Social no Esporte \|publisherCraques Mongeral Aegon \|access-date3 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141215032655/http://www.mongeralaegonfuturecup.com.br/CMS/index.php/craques-mongeral-aegon \|archive-date15 December 2014 \|dfdmy }}</ref> Youth teams from top clubs such as Manchester United, Bayern Munich, Milan and many more have participated in the competition over the years.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://english.ajax.nl/News/Archive/Article/AEGON-Future-Cup-Ajax-Bayern-Munchen.htm \|titleAEGON Future Cup: Ajax & Bayern München \|publisherAjax.nl \|access-date3 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130511122414/http://english.ajax.nl/News/Archive/Article/AEGON-Future-Cup-Ajax-Bayern-Munchen.htm \|archive-date11 May 2013 \|dfdmy }}</ref> Ajax is the most successful club of the tournament, having won the trophy a total of five times. See also {{Portal bar\|Association football\|Netherlands}} * List of football clubs in the Netherlands * List of world champion football clubs Bibliography {{in lang\|nl}} David Endt, De godenzonen van Ajax, Rap, Amsterdam, 1993, {{ISBN\|90-6005-463-6}} {{in lang\|nl}} Jan Baltus Kok, Naar Ajax. Mobiliteitspatronen van bezoekers bij vier thuiswedstrijden van Ajax, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, 1992, {{ISSN\|0922-5625}} Simon Kuper, Ajax, The Dutch, The War. Football in Europe during the Second World War, Orion Books, London (Translation of: Ajax, de Joden en Nederland ("Ajax, the Jews, The Netherlands)",<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.hardgras.nl/?s113022245391705092597&s2&cntID72#77 \|titleHardgras \|publisherHardgras.nl \|access-date4 August 2012 \|archive-date6 August 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160806185238/http://www.hardgras.nl/?s113022245391705092597&s2&cntID72#77 \|url-status=live }}</ref> 2003, {{ISBN\|0-7528-4274-9}} {{in lang\|nl}} Evert Vermeer, 95 jaar Ajax. 1900–1995, Luitingh-Sijthoff, Amsterdam, 1996, {{ISBN\|90-245-2364-8}} External links {{Commons category}} {{Official website\|english.ajax.nl}} [http://www.weltfussballarchiv.com/club_profile.php?ID3661 AFC Ajax] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131114013815/http://www.weltfussballarchiv.com/club_profile.php?ID3661 \|date14 November 2013 }} at weltfussballarchiv *[https://int.soccerway.com/teams/netherlands/afc-ajax/1515/ AFC Ajax] at soccerway References {{reflist\|30em}} {{AFC Ajax}} {{AFC Ajax Board}} {{Navboxes \|titlestyle = border:2px solid #d2122e; background: white; \|list1 = {{Eredivisie}} {{G-14}} {{ECA}} {{Football clubs in Amsterdam}} {{UEFA Champions League winners}} {{UEFA Cup Winners' Cup winners}} {{UEFA Europa League winners}} {{UEFA Super Cup winners}} {{Intercontinental Cup winners}} {{KNVB Cup Winners 1899-1960}} {{KNVB Cup Winners 1961-present}} {{Dutch Supercup / Johan Cruijff Shield winners}} }} {{coord\|52\|18\|51\|N\|4\|56\|31\|E\|display=title\|region:NL_source:nlwiki}} {{Eredivisie}} {{Amsterdam}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Afc Ajax}} Category:Football clubs in Amsterdam Category:Football clubs in the Netherlands Category:1900 establishments in the Netherlands Category:Association football clubs established in 1900 Category:G-14 clubs Aj Aj Aj Aj A	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFC_Ajax	2025-04-05T18:25:58.958215
2274	Arthur Eddington	{{short description\|British astrophysicist (1882–1944)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2020}} {{Use British English\|date=April 2012}} {{Infobox scientist \| honorific_prefix = Sir \| name = Arthur Eddington \| honorific_suffix {{postnominals\|size100%\|country=GBR\|OM\|FRS}} \| image = Arthur Stanley Eddington.jpg \| caption \| birth_name Arthur Stanley Eddington \| birth_date {{birth date\|1882\|12\|28\|dfy}} \| death_date {{death date and age\|1944\|11\|22\|1882\|12\|28\|dfy}} \| birth_place = Kendal, Westmorland, England \| death_place = Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England \| fields = Astrophysics \| workplaces = Trinity College, Cambridge \| alma_mater = University of Manchester<br />Trinity College, Cambridge \| doctoral_advisor = <!--There was no PhD at Cambridge before 1919--> \| academic_advisors = {{Plainlist\| * E. T. Whittaker * Alfred North Whitehead * Ernest William Barnes * Robert Alfred Herman }} \| doctoral_students Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar<ref>{{MathGenealogy\|id18250}}</ref><br />Leslie Comrie<br />Hermann Bondi \| notable_students = Georges Lemaître<br />Vibert Douglas<br />George C. McVittie \| known_for = Arrow of time<br />Eddington approximation<br />Eddington experiment<br />Eddington's affine geometry<br />Eddington limit<br />Eddington number<br />Eddington valve<br />Eddington–Dirac number<br />Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates<br />Eddington stellar model<br />Eddington–Sweet circulation \| author_abbrev_bot \| author_abbrev_zoo \| awards = Royal Society Royal Medal (1928)<br /> Smith's Prize (1907) <br /> RAS Gold Medal (1924)<br />Henry Draper Medal (1924) <br /> Bruce Medal (1924)<br />Knight Bachelor (1930)<br />Order of Merit (1938) \| signature = <!--(filename only)--> }} Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, {{postnominals\|countryGBR\|size100%\|sep=,\|OM\|FRS}} (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was an English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician. He was also a philosopher of science and a populariser of science. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour. Around 1920, he foreshadowed the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".<ref nameeddington>The Internal Constitution of the Stars A. S. Eddington The Scientific Monthly Vol. 11, No. 4 (Oct., 1920), pp. 297–303 {{JSTOR\|6491}}</ref><ref nameeddington2>{{cite journal\|bibcode1916MNRAS..77...16E\|titleOn the radiative equilibrium of the stars\|journalMonthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society\|volume77\|pages16–35\|last1Eddington\|first1A. S.\|year1916\|doi10.1093/mnras/77.1.16\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington was the first to correctly speculate that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium. Eddington wrote a number of articles that announced and explained Einstein's theory of general relativity to the English-speaking world. World War I had severed many lines of scientific communication, and new developments in German science were not well known in England. He also conducted an expedition to observe the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 on the Island of Príncipe that provided one of the earliest confirmations of general relativity, and he became known for his popular expositions and interpretations of the theory. Early years Eddington was born 28 December 1882 in Kendal, Westmorland (now Cumbria), England, the son of Quaker parents, Arthur Henry Eddington, headmaster of the Quaker School, and Sarah Ann Shout.<ref>{{cite book\|titleBiographical Index of Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002\|year2006\|publisherThe Royal Society of Edinburgh\|isbn090219884X\|urlhttps://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf\|access-date1 April 2016\|archive-date24 January 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130124115814/http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf\|url-status=dead}}</ref> His father taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the typhoid epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother was left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The family moved to Weston-super-Mare where at first Stanley (as his mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school. The family lived in a house called Varzin, at 42 Walliscote Road, Weston-super-Mare. A commemorative plaque on the building explains Eddington's contributions to science. In 1893 Eddington entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most capable scholar, particularly in mathematics and English literature. His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester (what was later to become the University of Manchester), in 1898, which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but he turned to physics for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and mathematics teachers, Arthur Schuster and Horace Lamb. At Manchester, Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting influence of the Quaker mathematician J. W. Graham. His progress was rapid, winning him several scholarships, and he graduated with a BSc in physics with First Class Honours in 1902. Based on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1902. His tutor at Cambridge was Robert Alfred Herman and in 1904 Eddington became the first ever second-year student to be placed as Senior Wrangler. After receiving his M.A. in 1905, he began research on thermionic emission in the Cavendish Laboratory. This did not go well, and meanwhile he spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students. This hiatus was brief. Through a recommendation by E. T. Whittaker, his senior colleague at Trinity College, he secured a position at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where he was to embark on his career in astronomy, a career whose seeds had been sown even as a young child when he would often "try to count the stars".<ref name=Douglas1956 /> , 1913]] Astronomy In January 1906, Eddington was nominated to the post of chief assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. He left Cambridge for Greenwich the following month. He was put to work on a detailed analysis of the parallax of 433 Eros on photographic plates that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907. The prize won him a fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. In December 1912, George Darwin, son of Charles Darwin, died suddenly, and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in early 1913. Later that year, Robert Ball, holder of the theoretical Lowndean chair, also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire Cambridge Observatory the next year. In May 1914, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society: he was awarded the Royal Medal in 1928 and delivered the Bakerian Lecture in 1926.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIniDserve.ini&dsqAppArchive&dsqCmdShow.tcl&dsqDbPersons&dsqPos0&dsqSearch%28Surname%3D%27eddington%27%29\| title Library and Archive Catalogue\| publisher Royal Society\| access-date29 December 2010}}</ref> Eddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for Cepheid variable stars. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star (thermodynamic anisotropy), and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates. Eddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his results, particularly his important mass–luminosity relation. This had the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including giants and dwarfs, behaved as ideal gases. In the process of developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, which was based on classical mechanics, while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and quantitative consequences of possible proton–electron annihilation and nuclear fusion processes. Around 1920, he anticipated the discovery and mechanism of nuclear fusion processes in stars, in his paper "The Internal Constitution of the Stars".<ref nameeddington/><ref nameeddington2/> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was fusion of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation {{nowrap\|1E mc<sup>2</sup>}}. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even the fact that stars are largely composed of hydrogen (see metallicity), had not yet been discovered. Eddington's paper, based on knowledge at the time, reasoned that: # The leading theory of stellar energy, the contraction hypothesis (cf. the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism), should cause stars' rotation to visibly speed up due to conservation of angular momentum. But observations of Cepheid variable stars showed this was not happening. # The only other known plausible source of energy was conversion of matter to energy; Einstein had shown some years earlier that a small amount of matter was equivalent to a large amount of energy. # Francis Aston had also recently shown that the mass of a helium atom was about 0.8% less than the mass of the four hydrogen atoms which would, combined, form a helium atom, suggesting that if such a combination could happen, it would release considerable energy as a byproduct. # If a star contained just 5% of fusible hydrogen, it would suffice to explain how stars got their energy. (We now know that most "ordinary" stars contain far more than 5% hydrogen.) # Further elements might also be fused, and other scientists had speculated that stars were the "crucible" in which light elements combined to create heavy elements, but without more-accurate measurements of their atomic masses nothing more could be said at the time. All of these speculations were proven correct in the following decades. With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. In 1924, he discovered the mass–luminosity relation for stars (see Lecchini in {{section link\|#Further reading}}). Despite some disagreement, Eddington's models were eventually accepted as a powerful tool for further investigation, particularly in issues of stellar evolution. The confirmation of his estimated stellar diameters by Michelson in 1920 proved crucial in convincing astronomers unused to Eddington's intuitive, exploratory style. Eddington's theory appeared in mature form in 1926 as The Internal Constitution of the Stars, which became an important text for training an entire generation of astrophysicists. Eddington's work in astrophysics in the late 1920s and the 1930s continued his work in stellar structure, and precipitated further clashes with Jeans and Edward Arthur Milne. An important topic was the extension of his models to take advantage of developments in quantum physics, including the use of degeneracy physics in describing dwarf stars. Dispute with Chandrasekhar on the mass limit of stars {{main\|Chandrasekhar–Eddington dispute}} The topic of extension of his models precipitated his dispute with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was then a student at Cambridge. Chandrasekhar's work presaged the discovery of black holes, which at the time seemed so absurdly non-physical that Eddington refused to believe that Chandrasekhar's purely mathematical derivation had consequences for the real world. Eddington was wrong and his motivation is controversial. Chandrasekhar's narrative of this incident, in which his work is harshly rejected, portrays Eddington as rather cruel and dogmatic. Chandra benefited from his friendship with Eddington. It was Eddington and Milne who put up Chandra's name for the fellowship for the Royal Society which Chandra obtained. An FRS meant he was at the Cambridge high-table with all the luminaries and a very comfortable endowment for research. Eddington's criticism seems to have been based partly on a suspicion that a purely mathematical derivation from relativity theory was not enough to explain the seemingly daunting physical paradoxes that were inherent to degenerate stars, but to have "raised irrelevant objections" in addition, as Thanu Padmanabhan puts it.<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 Padmanabhan \| first1 T.\| title The dark side of astronomy\| doi 10.1038/435020a\| journal Nature\| volume 435\| issue 7038\| pages 20–21\| year 2005\|bibcode 2005Natur.435...20P \| doi-access free}}</ref>RelativityDuring World War I, Eddington was secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters and papers from Willem de Sitter regarding Einstein's theory of general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general relativity, but owing to his internationalist and pacifist views inspired by his Quaker religious beliefs,<ref nameDouglas1956>{{cite book \|titleThe Life of Arthur Eddington \|firstA. Vibert \|lastDouglas \|pages92–95 \|publisherThomas Nelson and Sons \|year1956 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBw0XAQAAMAAJ&pgPA92 }}</ref><ref nameChandrasekhar1983>{{cite book\|titleEddington: The Most Distinguished Astrophysicist of His Time \|firstSubrahmanyan\|lastChandrasekhar\|pages25–26\|publisherCambridge University Press\|date1983\|isbn978-0521257466}}</ref> one of the few at the time who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of relativity in Britain. He and Astronomer Royal Frank Watson Dyson organized two expeditions to observe a solar eclipse in 1919 to make the first empirical test of Einstein's theory: the measurement of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field. In fact, Dyson's argument for the indispensability of Eddington's expertise in this test was what prevented Eddington from eventually having to enter military service.<ref nameDouglas1956 /><ref name=Chandrasekhar1983 /> When conscription was introduced in Britain on 2 March 1916, Eddington intended to apply for an exemption as a conscientious objector.<ref nameDouglas1956 /> Cambridge University authorities instead requested and were granted an exemption on the ground of Eddington's work being of national interest. In 1918, this was appealed against by the Ministry of National Service. Before the appeal tribunal in June, Eddington claimed conscientious objector status, which was not recognized and would have ended his exemption in August 1918. A further two hearings took place in June and July, respectively. Eddington's personal statement at the June hearing about his objection to war based on religious grounds is on record.<ref nameDouglas1956 /> The Astronomer Royal, Sir Frank Dyson, supported Eddington at the July hearing with a written statement, emphasising Eddington's essential role in the solar eclipse expedition to Príncipe in May 1919. Eddington made clear his willingness to serve in the Friends' Ambulance Unit, under the jurisdiction of the British Red Cross, or as a harvest labourer. However, the tribunal's decision to grant a further twelve months' exemption from military service was on condition of Eddington continuing his astronomy work, in particular in preparation for the Príncipe expedition.<ref nameDouglas1956 /><ref nameChandrasekhar1983 /> The war ended before the end of his exemption. , presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success, confirming Einstein's theory that light "bends"]] After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe off the west coast of Africa to watch the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars (several stars in the Hyades cluster, including Kappa Tauri of the constellation Taurus) whose line of sight from the Earth happened to be near the Sun's location in the sky at that time of year.<ref name="Eddington1920"/> This effect is noticeable only during a total solar eclipse when the sky is dark enough to see stars which are normally obscured by the Sun's brightness. According to the theory of general relativity, stars with light rays that passed near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. Eddington showed that Newtonian gravitation could be interpreted to predict half the shift predicted by Einstein. Eddington's observations published the next year<ref name"Eddington1920">{{cite journal\|lastDyson\|author2Eddington, A.S.\|author3Davidson, C.R. \|date1920 \|titleA Determination of the Deflection of Light by the Sun's Gravitational Field, from Observations Made at the Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919\|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A\|volume220\|issue571–581\|pages 291–333\|bibcode1920RSPTA.220..291D\|doi10.1098/rsta.1920.0009\|first F.W.\|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1432106\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> allegedly confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as evidence of general relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific relations.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSponsel\|firstAlistair\|date2002\|titleConstructing a 'Revolution in Science': The Campaign to Promote a Favourable Reception for the 1919 Solar Eclipse Experiments\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/4028276\|journalThe British Journal for the History of Science\|volume35\|issue4\|pages439–467\|doi10.1017/S0007087402004818\|jstor4028276\|s2cid145254889\|issn0007-0874}}</ref> It has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor quality, and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at Sobral, Brazil, which appeared closer to the Newtonian model, but a 1979 re-analysis with modern measuring equipment and contemporary software validated Eddington's results and conclusions.<ref>{{Cite journal\|titleNot Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition\|firstDaniel\|lastKennefick\|journalStudies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A \|date5 September 2007\|doi10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010\|arxiv0709.0685\|bibcode 2007arXiv0709.0685K\|s2cid119203172}}</ref> The quality of the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of the results from the expedition to Brazil was due to a defect in the telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well understood by contemporary astronomers.<ref name"PhysToday">{{Cite journal\|titleTesting relativity from the 1919 eclipse – a question of bias\|firstDaniel\|lastKennefick\|date1 March 2009\|journalPhysics Today\|volume62\|issue3\|pages37–42\|doi10.1063/1.3099578\|bibcode 2009PhT....62c..37K\|doi-access=free}}</ref> Throughout this period, Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the Mathematical Theory of Relativity in 1923, which Albert Einstein suggested was "the finest presentation of the subject in any language." He was an early advocate of Einstein's general relativity, and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humour and personal intellectual investment: Ludwik Silberstein, a physicist who thought of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the Royal Society's (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended Einstein's relativity with his Brazil-Príncipe solar eclipse calculations with some degree of scepticism, and ruefully charged Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself and Einstein as the other). When Eddington refrained from replying, he insisted Arthur not be "so shy", whereupon Eddington replied, "Oh, no! I was wondering who the third one might be!"<ref name"autogenerated1">As related by Eddington to Chandrasekhar and quoted in Walter Isaacson "Einstein: His Life and Universe", p. 262</ref>CosmologyEddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both Lemaître's 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble's work on the recession of the spiral nebulae. He felt the cosmological constant must have played the crucial role in the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. In The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, Eddington interpreted the cosmological constant to mean that the universe is "self-gauging". Fundamental theory and the Eddington number <!-- This section is linked from Chandrasekhar limit & redirect Fundamental theory (Eddington) --> During the 1920s until his death, Eddington increasingly concentrated on what he called "fundamental theory" which was intended to be a unification of quantum theory, relativity, cosmology, and gravitation. At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost numerological analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants. His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 10<sup>40</sup>, its square, or its square root. He was convinced that the mass of the proton and the charge of the electron were a "natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe" and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, Paul Dirac, also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Srinivasan \|first1G. \|titleWhat Are the Stars? \|date2014 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|locationBerlin \|isbn978-3642453021 \|page31 }}</ref> A somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the fine-structure constant, α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the degrees of freedom, so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the Eddington number.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastWhittaker\|firstEdmund\|date1945\|titleEddington's Theory of the Constants of Nature\|journalThe Mathematical Gazette\|volume29\|issue286\|pages137–144\|doi10.2307/3609461\|jstor3609461\|s2cid125122360 }}</ref> Wags at the time started calling him "Arthur Adding-one".<ref>{{cite book\|authorKean, Sam\|titleThe Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Madness, Love, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements\|year2010\|locationNew York\|publisherLittle, Brown and Co\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCky2x4wWvEUC&pgPT241\|isbn978-0316089081}}</ref> This change of stance detracted from Eddington's credibility in the physics community. The current CODATA value is 1/{{physconst\|alphainv\|after=.}} Eddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for fundamental physics, which he termed "E-numbers" (representing a certain group&nbsp;– a Clifford algebra). These in effect incorporated spacetime into a higher-dimensional structure. While his theory has long been neglected by the general physics community, similar algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a grand unified theory. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. In particular, he predicted a number of hydrogen atoms in the Universe {{nowrap\|136 × 2<sup>256</sup>}} ≈ {{val\|1.57\|e79}}, or equivalently the half of the total number of particles protons + electrons.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Barrow \|first1J. D. \|last2Tipler \|first2F. J. \|titleThe Anthropic Cosmological Principle \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationOxford \|year1986 \|isbn978-0198519492 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAgvg1qD7lUkC }}</ref> He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944; his book Fundamental Theory was published posthumously in 1948. Eddington number for cycling Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist's long-distance riding achievements. The Eddington number in the context of cycling is defined as the maximum number E such that the cyclist has cycled at least E miles on at least E days.<ref nameJeffers2005>{{cite journal \|last1Jeffers \|first1David \|last2Swanson \|first2John \|dateNovember 2005 \|titleHow high is your E? \|urlhttps://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/30 \|journalPhysics World \|volume18 \|issue10 \|pages21 \|doi10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/30 \|access-date2022-09-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://tlatet.blogspot.com/2008/03/eddington-number.html\|titleEddington number\|date=16 March 2008}}</ref> For example, an Eddington number of 70 would imply that the cyclist has cycled at least 70 miles in a day on at least 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult, since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will (probably) require more than five new long-distance rides, since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. Eddington's own life-time E-number was 84.<ref>{{cite journal \|author<!--Editorial; no by-line.--> \|dateJuly 2012 \|titlePhysics and sport \|journalPhysics World \|volume25 \|issue7 \|pages15 \|doi10.1088/2058-7058/25/07/24 \|bibcode2012PhyW...25g..15. \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The Eddington number for cycling is analogous to the h-index that quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist.<ref nameJeffers2005/>PhilosophyIdealism{{more citations needed section\|dateMay 2016}} Eddington wrote in his book The Nature of the Physical World that "The stuff of the world is mind-stuff." {{Blockquote\|The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds ... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it ... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness ... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature ... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference.\|Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, 276–81.}} The idealist conclusion was not integral to his epistemology but was based on two main arguments. The first derives directly from current physical theory. Briefly, mechanical theories of the ether and of the behaviour of fundamental particles have been discarded in both relativity and quantum physics. From this, Eddington inferred that a materialistic metaphysics was outmoded and that, in consequence, since the disjunction of materialism or idealism are assumed to be exhaustive, an idealistic metaphysics is required. The second, and more interesting argument, was based on Eddington's epistemology, and may be regarded as consisting of two parts. First, all we know of the objective world is its structure, and the structure of the objective world is precisely mirrored in our own consciousness. We therefore have no reason to doubt that the objective world too is "mind-stuff". Dualistic metaphysics, then, cannot be evidentially supported. But, second, not only can we not know that the objective world is nonmentalistic, we also cannot intelligibly suppose that it could be material. To conceive of a dualism entails attributing material properties to the objective world. However, this presupposes that we could observe that the objective world has material properties. But this is absurd, for whatever is observed must ultimately be the content of our own consciousness, and consequently, nonmaterial. Eddington believed that physics cannot explain consciousness - "light waves are propagated from the table to the eye; chemical changes occur in the retina; propagation of some kind occurs in the optic nerves; atomic changes follow in the brain. Just where the final leap into consciousness occurs is not clear. We do not know the last stage of the message in the physical world before it became a sensation in consciousness".<ref>{{cite book \|last1De Konick \|first1Charles \|titleThe Writings of Charles De Koninck Volume 1 \|date2016 \|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press}}</ref> Ian Barbour, in his book Issues in Science and Religion (1966), p.&nbsp;133, cites Eddington's The Nature of the Physical World (1928) for a text that argues the Heisenberg uncertainty principle provides a scientific basis for "the defense of the idea of human freedom" and his Science and the Unseen World (1929) for support of philosophical idealism, "the thesis that reality is basically mental". Charles De Koninck points out that Eddington believed in objective reality existing apart from our minds, but was using the phrase "mind-stuff" to highlight the inherent intelligibility of the world: that our minds and the physical world are made of the same "stuff" and that our minds are the inescapable connection to the world.<ref name="de Koninck">{{Cite book \| publisher = University of Notre Dame Press \| isbn = 978-0-268-02595-3 \| last = de Koninck \| first = Charles \| author-link=Charles De Koninck \| title = The Writings of Charles de Koninck \| location = Notre Dame, Ind. \| date = 2008 \| oclc = 615199716 \| chapter = The philosophy of Sir Arthur Eddington and The problem of indeterminism }}</ref> As De Koninck quotes Eddington, {{Blockquote\|There is a doctrine well known to philosophers that the moon ceases to exist when no one is looking at it. I will not discuss the doctrine since I have not the least idea what is the meaning of the word existence when used in this connection. At any rate the science of astronomy has not been based on this spasmodic kind of moon. In the scientific world (which has to fulfill functions less vague than merely existing) there is a moon which appeared on the scene before the astronomer; it reflects sunlight when no one sees it; it has mass when no one is measuring the mass; it is distant 240,000 miles from the earth when no one is surveying the distance; and it will eclipse the sun in 1999 even if the human race has succeeded in killing itself off before that date.\|Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, 226}} Science {{see also\|Indeterminism\|Indeterminism#Science\|label 2=Indeterminism in science}} Against Albert Einstein and others who advocated determinism, indeterminism—championed by Eddington—says that a physical object has an ontologically undetermined component that is not due to the epistemological limitations of physicists' understanding. The uncertainty principle in quantum mechanics, then, would not necessarily be due to hidden variables but to an indeterminism in nature itself.<ref name"de Koninck"/> Eddington proclaimed "It is a consequence of the advent of the quantum theory that physics is no longer pledged to a scheme of deterministic law".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Bell \|first1Ian F.A. \|titleCritic as Scientist The Modernist Poetics of Ezra Pound \|date2023 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|page=1898}}</ref> Eddington agreed with the tenet of logical positivism that "the meaning of a scientific statement is to be ascertained by reference to the steps which would be taken to verify it".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Stanesby \|first1Derek \|titleScience, Reason and Religion \|date2013 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|pages38–9}}</ref> Popular and philosophical writings Eddington wrote a parody of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, recounting his 1919 solar eclipse experiment. It contained the following quatrain:<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Life of Arthur Eddington \|firstA. Vibert \|lastDouglas \|page44 \|publisherThomas Nelson and Sons \|year1956 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBw0XAQAAMAAJ }}</ref> <div style="text-align: center;"> {{poemquote \|Oh leave the Wise our measures to collate One thing at least is certain, LIGHT has WEIGHT, One thing is certain, and the rest debate— Light-rays, when near the Sun, DO NOT GO STRAIGHT.}} </div> In addition to his textbook The Mathematical Theory of Relativity, during the 1920s and 30s, Eddington gave numerous lectures, interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity, and later, quantum mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including The Nature of the Physical World and New Pathways in Science. His use of literary allusions and humour helped make these difficult subjects more accessible. One familiar image drawn by Eddington consisted of his "two tables",<ref>Crane, T., and Mellor, H., [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2254959 There is No Question of Physicalism], Mind, volume 99, No. 394 (April 1990), p. 189, accessed on 7 February 2025</ref> which represent a paradox concerned with what really exists: one table is the familiar and commonplace one, with properties of extension, colour, and permanence, it is "substantial" in the sense that it is constituted of "substance"; the other is his 'scientific' one, nothing but myriad minute particles in empty space: the table which "modern physics has by delicate test and remorseless logic assured me . . . is the only one which is really there ... wherever 'there' may be." He began the lectures where he discussed this paradox in 1927 with an allusion to these two tables:{{quote\|I have settled down to the task of writing these lectures and have drawn up my chairs to my two tables. Two tables! Yes; there are duplicates of every object about me - two tables, two chairs, two pens.}} The second table is mostly emptiness, with numerous electric charges moving around at great speed, and this table is not "substantial" in any way. Eddington portrays the two tables as a recent innovation: physicists "used to borrow the raw material of [their] world from the familiar world", but for the new concepts, such as the electron, quantum or potential, there is no "familiar counterpart to these things" in "the world of commonplace experience".<ref>Arthur Eddington (1928), "The Nature of the Physical World": [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Extras/Eddington_Gifford/ Preface and Introduction] (from Eddington’s Gifford Lectures, given in Edinburgh, January-March 1927): Eddington’s two tables, updated in March 2006, accessed on 19 February 2025</ref> Eddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public, not only because of his clear exposition, but also for his willingness to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new physics. He argued for a deeply rooted philosophical harmony between scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the positivist nature of relativity and quantum physics provided new room for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide proof of religious propositions. His popular writings made him a household name in Great Britain between the world wars. Death Eddington died of cancer in the Evelyn Nursing Home, Cambridge, on 22 November 1944.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idokRzDwAAQBAJ&qEddington+Evelyn+Nursing+Home%2C+Cambridge%2C+on+22+November+1944.&pgPT320 \|titleProving Einstein Right: The Daring Expeditions that Changed How We Look at the Universe\|first1 S. James\|last1Gates \|first2Cathie \|last2Pelletier\|publisherPublic Affairs\|isbn978-1541762251\|year2019}}</ref> He was unmarried. His body was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium (Cambridgeshire) on 27 November 1944; the cremated remains were buried in the grave of his mother in the Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge. Cambridge University's North West Cambridge development has been named Eddington in his honour. Eddington was played by David Tennant in the television film Einstein and Eddington, with Einstein played by Andy Serkis. The film was notable for its groundbreaking portrayal of Eddington as a somewhat repressed gay man. It was first broadcast in 2008. The actor Paul Eddington was a relative, mentioning in his autobiography (in light of his own weakness in mathematics) "what I then felt to be the misfortune" of being related to "one of the foremost physicists in the world".<ref>Quakers and the Arts: "Plain and Fancy"- An Anglo-American Perspective, David Sox, Sessions Book Trust, 2000, p. 65</ref> Paul's father Albert and Sir Arthur were second cousins, both great-grandsons of William Eddington (1755–1806). Honours Awards and honors * Smith's Prize (1907) * International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1922)<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-02-09 \|titleArthur Stanley Eddington \|urlhttps://www.amacad.org/person/arthur-stanley-eddington \|access-date2023-07-05 \|websiteAmerican Academy of Arts & Sciences \|languageen}}</ref> * Bruce Medal of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924)<ref>{{cite web\|titlePast Winners of the Catherine Wolfe Bruce Gold Medal\|urlhttp://astrosociety.org/membership/awards/pastbruce.html\|publisherAstronomical Society of the Pacific\|access-date19 February 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721092933/http://astrosociety.org/membership/awards/pastbruce.html\|archive-date21 July 2011\|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Henry Draper Medal of the National Academy of Sciences (1924)<ref nameDraper>{{cite web\|titleHenry Draper Medal \|urlhttp://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/awards/henry-draper-medal.html \|publisherNational Academy of Sciences \|access-date19 February 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130126003930/http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/awards/henry-draper-medal.html \|archive-date26 January 2013 }}</ref> * Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1924) * International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences (1925)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleArthur Eddington \|urlhttp://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001256.html \|access-date2023-07-05 \|websitewww.nasonline.org}}</ref> * Foreign membership of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1926)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetypeauthorDetail&aIdPE00000084 \|titleA.S. Eddington (1882–1944) \|publisherRoyal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences \|access-date25 January 2016}}</ref> * Prix Jules Janssen of the Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) (1928) * Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1928) * Knighthood (1930) * International Member of the American Philosophical Society (1931)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAPS Member History \|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorArthur+S.+Eddington&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced \|access-date2023-07-05 \|websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref> * Order of Merit (1938) * Honorary member of the Norwegian Astronomical Society (1939)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.astronomi.no/?page_id149 \| title=Generalforsamling – Norsk Astronomisk Selskap }}</ref> * Hon. Freeman of Kendal, 1930<ref name"WhosWho">''Who's who'' entry for A.S. Eddington.</ref>Named after him * Lunar crater Eddington * asteroid 2761 Eddington * Royal Astronomical Society's Eddington Medal * Eddington mission, now cancelled * Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the University of Essex * Eddington Astronomical Society, an amateur society based in his hometown of Kendal * Eddington, a house (group of students, used for in-school sports matches) of Kirkbie Kendal School * Eddington, new suburb of North West Cambridge, opened in 2017 * Eddington Community Interest Company (CIC), 2003. A Community Centre focusing on Climate Information and projects, including a Waste Food Community Café and Larder, in partnership with SLACC (South Lakes Action on Climate Change), converting the former United Reform Church in Kendal<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.thewestmorlandgazette.co.uk/news/23996579.kendal-town-council-aids-relocation-food-redistribution-project/ \| titleKendal's Waste into Wellbeing project finds new home \| date19 December 2023 }}</ref>Service * Gave the Swarthmore Lecture in 1929 * Chairman of the National Peace Council 1941–1943 * President of the International Astronomical Union; of the Physical Society, 1930–32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921–23<ref name="WhosWho"/> * Romanes Lecturer, 1922<ref name="WhosWho"/> * Gifford Lecturer, 1927<ref name"WhosWho"/>In popular culture * Eddington is a central figure in the short story "The Mathematician's Nightmare: The Vision of Professor Squarepunt" by Bertrand Russell, a work featured in The Mathematical Magpie by Clifton Fadiman. * He was portrayed by David Tennant in the television film Einstein and Eddington, a co-production of the BBC and HBO, broadcast in the United Kingdom on Saturday, 22 November 2008, on BBC2. * His thoughts on humour and religious experience were quoted in the adventure game The Witness, a production of the Thelka, Inc., released on 26 January 2016. * Time placed him on the cover on 16 April 1934.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19340416,00.html\|titleSir Arthur Eddington \|magazine=Time}}</ref> * The song “In Transit”, from the 2023 album Signs Of Life by Neil Gaiman and Fourplay String Quartet was written in memory of him. Publications * 1914. Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe. London: Macmillan. * 1918. [https://archive.org/details/reportontherelat028829mbp Report on the relativity theory of gravitation]. London, Fleetway Press, Ltd. * 1920. Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-33709-7}} * 1922. The theory of relativity and its influence on scientific thought * 1923. 1952. The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge University Press. * 1925. The Domain of Physical Science. 2005 reprint: {{ISBN\|1-4253-5842-X}} * 1926. [http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html Stars and Atoms]. Oxford: British Association. * 1926. The Internal Constitution of Stars. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-33708-9}} * 1928. The Nature of the Physical World. MacMillan. 1935 replica edition: {{ISBN\|0-8414-3885-4}}, University of Michigan 1981 edition: {{ISBN\|0-472-06015-5}} (1926–27 Gifford lectures) * 1929. [https://archive.org/stream/scienceunseenwor00eddi#page/n5/mode/2up Science and the Unseen World]. US Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin. 1980 Reprint Arden Library {{ISBN\|0-8495-1426-6}}. 2004 US reprint&nbsp;– Whitefish, Montana : Kessinger Publications: {{ISBN\|1-4179-1728-8}}. 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin {{ISBN\|978-0-901689-81-8}} (Swarthmore Lecture), with a new foreword by George Ellis. * 1930. Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDjjY8CW4QMC Arrow/scrollable preview.] * 1933. ''The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900–1931. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-521-34976-1}} * 1935. New Pathways in Science. Cambridge University Press. * 1936. Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons. Cambridge Univ. Press. * 1939. Philosophy of Physical Science. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|0-7581-2054-0}} (1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge) * 1946. Fundamental Theory. Cambridge University Press. See also Astronomy * Chandrasekhar limit * Eddington luminosity (also called the Eddington limit) * Gravitational lens * Outline of astronomy * Stellar nucleosynthesis * Timeline of stellar astronomy * List of astronomers Science * Arrow of time * Classical unified field theories * Degenerate matter * Dimensionless physical constant * Dirac large numbers hypothesis (also called the Eddington–Dirac number) * Eddington number * Introduction to quantum mechanics * Luminiferous aether * Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism * Special relativity * Theory of everything (also called "final theory" or "ultimate theory") * Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity * List of experiments People * List of science and religion scholars Other * Infinite monkey theorem * Numerology * Ontic structural realism<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#Rel "Structural Realism"]: entry by James Ladyman in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading * Durham, Ian T., "Eddington & Uncertainty". Physics in Perspective (September&nbsp;– December). Arxiv, History of Physics'' * {{cite book \|authorKilmister, C. W. \|titleEddington's Search for a Fundamental Theory \|publisherCambridge Univ. Press \|date1994 \|isbn=978-0-521-37165-0 }} * Lecchini, Stefano, "How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass–Luminosity Relation" Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, pp.&nbsp;224. (2007) * {{cite book \|authorVibert Douglas, A. \|titleThe Life of Arthur Stanley Eddington \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofarthurstan0000doug \|url-accessregistration \|publisherThomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. \|date1956 }} * Stanley, Matthew. "An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919 Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer." Isis 94 (2003): 57–89. * Stanley, Matthew. "So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington, and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology" in British Journal for the History of Science, 2007, 40: 53–82. * {{cite book \|authorStanley, Matthew \|titlePractical Mystic: Religion, Science, and A.S. Eddington \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|date2007 \|isbn978-0-226-77097-0 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226770970 }} External links {{Sister project links\|auto1\|author1\|d=1}} * {{Gutenberg author \| id=34163}} * {{FadedPage\|idEddington, Arthur Stanley\|nameArthur Stanley Eddington\|author=yes}} * {{Internet Archive author \|snameArthur Stanley Eddington \|birth1882 \|death=1944}} * [http://www.trinitycollegechapel.com/about/memorials/brasses/eddington/ Trinity College Chapel] * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051221113602/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html \|date21 December 2005 }}. University of St Andrews, Scotland. * [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html Quotations by Arthur Eddington] * [http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur Stanley Eddington] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150501073727/http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ \|date1 May 2015 }} The Bruce Medalists. * Russell, Henry Norris, "[http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928092625/http://www.cosmobrain.com.br/cosmoforum/viewtopic.php?t=118 Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space] project in proceeding in fórum astronomical. * {{MacTutor Biography\|id=Eddington}} * [http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu/BruceMedalists/Eddington/index.html Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley Eddington] * [http://www.allais.wiki/priorartdocs/eddington.htm Eddington books: The Nature of the Physical World, The Philosophy of Physical Science, Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons, and Fundamental Theory] Obituaries * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html Obituary 1] by Henry Norris Russell, Astrophysical Journal 101 (1943–46) 133 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html Obituary 2] by A. Vibert Douglas, Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 39 (1943–46) 1 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html Obituary 3] by Harold Spencer Jones and E. T. Whittaker, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 105 (1943–46) 68 * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html Obituary 4] by Herbert Dingle, The Observatory 66 (1943–46) 1 * The Times, Thursday, 23 November 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D: Obituary (unsigned)&nbsp;– Image of cutting available at {{MacTutor Biography\|id=Eddington}} {{relativity}} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|Physics\|Mathematics\|Astronomy\|Stars\|Spaceflight\|Outer space\|Solar System\|Science}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Eddington, Arthur Stanley}} Category:1882 births Category:1944 deaths Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:Alumni of the Victoria University of Manchester Category:British anti–World War I activists Category:British astrophysicists Category:British conscientious objectors Category:British Christian pacifists Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925) Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Category:British cosmologists Category:British Quakers Category:20th-century British astronomers Category:Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge Category:Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Members of the Order of Merit Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:People from Kendal Category:Presidents of the Physical Society Category:Presidents of the Royal Astronomical Society Category:Recipients of the Bruce Medal Category:Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Category:British relativity theorists Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Senior Wranglers Category:20th-century British physicists Category:Plumian Professors of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy Category:Presidents of the International Astronomical Union Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Eddington	2025-04-05T18:25:59.000241
2275	Apple II (original)	{{Short description\|First model in the Apple II computer series}} {{About\|the first mass-produced Apple computer\|the series of computers\|Apple II}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=June 2019}} {{Infobox information appliance \| logo = Apple2Logo.svg \| image = Apple II typical configuration 1977.png \| caption = A common 1977 configuration, with a 9" monochrome monitor, game paddles, and a Red Book-recommended Panasonic RQ-309DS cassette deck \| developer = Steve Wozniak (lead designer) \| manufacturer = Apple Computer, Inc. \| family = Apple II \| releasedate {{Start date and age\|1977\|6}}<ref name"hist70">{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|date2010-07-10 \|title1969-1977 \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb1/ \|access-date2016-10-02 \|publisherApple II History \|archive-dateMay 17, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220517004444/http://www.apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb1/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> \| price {{US$\|1298\|1977\|round-1}} \| discontinued = {{End date and age\|1979\|5}} \| os = Integer BASIC / Apple DOS \| cpu = MOS Technology 6502 <br /> @ {{nowrap\|1.023 MHz}} \| storage = Audio cassette,<br />Disk II (5.25-inch, 140&nbsp;KB, Apple) \| memory = 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 36, 48, or 64&nbsp;KiB \| display = NTSC video out (built-in RCA connector) \| graphics Lo-res: 40×48, 16-color<br />Hi-res: 280×192, 8-color<ref name"laboratorium.net">{{cite web \| urlhttp://laboratorium.net/archive/2009/03/08/why_did_the_applie_ii_have_six_colors#comment-70109 \| titleThe Laboratorium : Why Did the Apple II Have Six Colors? }}</ref> \| sound = 1-bit speaker (built-in)<br />1-bit cassette input (built-in microphone jack)<br />1-bit cassette output (built-in headphone jack) \| input = Upper-case keyboard, 52 keys \| controllers = Paddles \| connectivity = Parallel port card (Apple and third party); Serial port card (Apple and third party); SCSI \| predecessor = Apple I \| successor = Apple II Plus }} ]] The Apple II (stylized as {{nowrap\|apple ][}}) is a personal computer released by Apple Inc. in June 1977. It was one of the first successful mass-produced microcomputer products and is widely regarded as one of the most important personal computers of all time due to its role in popularizing home computing and influencing later software development.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/id%2C126692-page%2C10-c%2Csystems/article.html\|magazinePC World\|titleThe 25 Greatest PCs of All Time\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511194506/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,126692-page,10-c,systems/article.html#II\|archive-date2008-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2012-09-25 \|title10 Most Popular Computers in History \|urlhttps://computer.howstuffworks.com/10-most-popular-computers-in-history.htm \|access-date2024-03-06 \|websiteHowStuffWorks \|languageen-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2021-08-12 \|titleThe Most Important PCs in History, Ranked \|urlhttps://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/most-important-personal-computers-in-history/ \|access-date2024-03-06 \|websiteDigital Trends \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastStuart \|firstKeith \|date2020-09-07 \|titleThe 20 greatest home computers – ranked! \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/games/2020/sep/07/the-20-greatest-home-computers-ranked \|access-date2024-03-06 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastReimer \|firstJeremy \|dateDecember 14, 2005 \|titleTotal share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures \|workArs Technica \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/3 \|access-dateMay 25, 2010 \|archive-dateDecember 4, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081204091105/http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/3 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Apple II was designed primarily by Steve Wozniak. The system is based around the 8-bit MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. Jerry Manock designed the foam-molded plastic case,<ref name"JobsBio1">{{Cite book \|lastIsaacson \|firstWalter \|titleSteve Jobs \|title-linkSteve Jobs (book) \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|year2011 \|isbn9781451648546 \|oclc859338048 \|author-linkWalter Isaacson}}</ref> Rod Holt developed the switching power supply,<ref name"wozorg">{{Cite web \|lastWozniak \|firstSteve \|titleComment From e-mail: Why didn't the early Apple II's use Fans? \|urlhttp://archive.woz.org/letters/general/35.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151226203330/http://archive.woz.org/letters/general/35.html \|archive-date2015-12-26 \|access-date2015-05-10 \|publisherwoz.org}}</ref> while Steve Jobs was not involved in the design of the computer.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2015-09-02 \|titleSteve Jobs 'played no role at all' in designing the Apple I or Apple II computers, Woz says \|urlhttp://finance.yahoo.com/news/steve-jobs-played-no-role-212749041.html \|access-date2023-12-05 \|websiteYahoo Finance \|languageen-US}}</ref> It was introduced by Jobs and Wozniak at the 1977 West Coast Computer Faire, and marks Apple's first launch of a computer aimed at a consumer market—branded toward American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal \|lastStein \|firstJesse Adams \|year2011 \|titleDomesticity, Gender and the 1977 Apple II Personal Computer \|journalDesign and Culture \|volume3 \|issue2 \|pages193–216 \|doi10.2752/175470811X13002771867842 \|hdl-accessfree \|hdl10453/30296 \|s2cid=143648126}}</ref> Byte magazine referred to the Apple II, Commodore PET 2001, and TRS-80 as the "1977 Trinity".<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateSeptember 1995 \|titleMost Important Companies \|magazineByte \|urlhttp://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm \|access-date2008-06-10 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080618072507/http://www.byte.com/art/9509/sec7/art15.htm \|archive-date2008-06-18}}</ref> As the Apple II had the defining feature of being able to display color graphics, the Apple logo was redesigned to have a spectrum of colors.<ref>{{cite web\|titleApple II History Chapter 4 \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah04.html \|authorSteven Weyhrich \|dateApril 21, 2002 \|access-dateNovember 16, 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060925003021/http://apple2history.org/history/ah04.html \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleInterview with Rob Janoff, designer of the Apple logo \|urlhttps://creativebits.org/interview/interview_rob_janoff_designer_apple_logo/ \|dateJuly 20, 2020 \|access-dateSeptember 12, 2020 \|archive-dateOctober 24, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171024013734/http://creativebits.org/interview/interview_rob_janoff_designer_apple_logo \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Apple II was the first in a series of computers collectively referred to by the Apple II name. It was followed by the Apple II+, Apple IIe, Apple IIc, Apple IIc Plus, and the 16-bit Apple IIGS—all of which remained compatible. Production of the last available model, the Apple IIe, ceased in November 1993.<ref name"hist90">{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|dateMay 16, 2003 \|title1990-1995 \|urlhttps://apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb5/ \|access-dateMay 25, 2010 \|publisherApple II History \|archive-dateAugust 19, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100819190221/http://apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb5/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref>HistoryBy 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced product designer Jerry Manock (who had formerly worked at Hewlett Packard designing calculators) to create the "shell" for the Apple II—a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that concealed the internal mechanics.<ref name":0" /> The earliest Apple II computers were assembled in Silicon Valley and later in Texas;<ref>{{Cite book \|lastRose \|firstFrank \|titleWest of Eden \|publisherArrow Books \|year1989 \|isbn0-09-976200-5 \|page3}}</ref> printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland and Singapore. The first computers went on sale on June 10, 1977<ref name"Apple II intro date">{{Cite web \|titleJune 10, 1977 - Apple II Released Today \|urlhttp://www.computerhistory.org/tdih/June/10/ \|access-dateAugust 3, 2012 \|websiteThis Day in History \|publisherComputer History Museum \|locationMountain View, CA \|archive-dateJune 20, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120620175048/http://www.computerhistory.org/tdih/June/10/ \|url-statuslive }} June 10, 1977 was a Friday.</ref><ref name"Apple II History">{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|title4-The Apple II, cont. - Product Introduction \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah04/ \|access-dateAugust 3, 2012 \|websiteApple II History \|dateDecember 2008 \|publisherApple2History.org \|quoteThe first motherboard-only Apple II computers shipped on May 10, 1977, for those who wanted to add their own case, keyboard, and power supply (or wanted to update their Apple-1 'system' with the latest and greatest). A month later, on June 10, 1977, Apple began shipping full Apple II systems. \|archive-dateMay 22, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150522020820/http://apple2history.org/history/ah04/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> with an MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor running at 1.023 MHz ({{frac\|2\|7}} of the NTSC color subcarrier), two game paddles<ref name"helmers197803" /> (bundled until 1980, when they were found to violate FCC regulations),<ref name"ccvag1983spring">{{Cite magazine \|last1Ahl \|first1David H. \|author-linkDavid H. Ahl \|last2Rost \|first2Randi J. \|year1983 \|titleBlisters And Frustration: Joysticks, Paddles, Buttons and Game Port Extenders for Apple, Atari and VIC \|urlhttps://www.atarimagazines.com/cva/v1n1/joysticks.php \|magazineCreative Computing Video & Arcade Games \|volume1 \|issue1 \|pages106ff \|access-date2021-01-28 \|author2-linkRandi J. Rost \|archive-dateFebruary 24, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224144058/https://www.atarimagazines.com/cva/v1n1/joysticks.php \|url-status=live }}</ref> 4&nbsp;KiB of RAM, an audio cassette interface for loading programs and storing data, and the Integer BASIC programming language built into ROMs. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of monochrome, uppercase-only text on the screen (the original character set matches ASCII characters 20<sub>h</sub> to 5F<sub>h</sub>), with NTSC composite video output suitable for display on a video monitor or on a regular TV set (by way of a separate RF modulator). The original retail price of the computer with 4 KiB of RAM was {{US$\|1298\|1977\|round-1}}<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Forster \|first1Winnie \|authorlink1Winnie Forster \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Consoles, Handhelds & Home Computers 1972–2005 \|publisherGameplan \|year2005 \|isbn3-00-015359-4 \|page19}}</ref> and with the maximum 48&nbsp;KiB of RAM, it was {{US$\|2638\|1977\|round-1}}<ref name"Avidd Pricelist">1977 Apple II price list A-VIDD Electronics Co., 1977 Long Beach, CA.</ref> To reflect the computer's color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|dateApril 21, 2002 \|title4-The Apple II, cont. \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah04.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060925003021/http://apple2history.org/history/ah04.html \|archive-dateSeptember 25, 2006 \|access-dateNovember 16, 2006 \|publisherApple II History}}</ref> which remained a part of Apple's corporate logo until early 1998. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries; it opened the doors to software marketed at consumers.<ref name":0" /> Certain aspects of the system's design were influenced by Atari, Inc.'s arcade video game Breakout (1976), which was designed by Wozniak, who said: "A lot of features of the Apple II went in because I had designed Breakout for Atari. I had designed it in hardware. I wanted to write it in software now".<ref>Connick, Jack: "...And Then There Was Apple". Call-A.P.P.L.E. Oct 1986: 24.</ref> This included his design of color graphics circuitry, the addition of game paddle support and sound, and graphics commands in Integer BASIC, with which he wrote Brick Out, a software clone of his own hardware game.<ref name"wozniak20140501">{{cite web \| urlhttps://gizmodo.com/how-steve-wozniak-wrote-basic-for-the-original-apple-fr-1570573636 \| titleHow Steve Wozniak Wrote BASIC for the Original Apple From Scratch \| publisherGizmodo \| date2014-05-01 \| access-date2 May 2014 \| authorWozniak, Steve \| archive-dateMay 2, 2014 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140502050217/http://gizmodo.com/how-steve-wozniak-wrote-basic-for-the-original-apple-fr-1570573636 \| url-statuslive }}</ref> Wozniak said in 1984: "Basically, all the game features were put in just so I could show off the game I was familiar with—Breakout—at the Homebrew Computer Club. It was the most satisfying day of my life [when] I demonstrated Breakout&mdash;totally written in BASIC. It seemed like a huge step to me. After designing hardware arcade games, I knew that being able to program them in BASIC was going to change the world."<ref name"wozniak198412">{{cite magazine \| urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1984-12/1984_12_BYTE_09-13_Communications#page/n461/mode/2up \| titleThe Apple Story / Part 1: Early History \| magazineBYTE \| volume9 \| issue13 \| dateDecember 1984 \| access-date23 October 2013 \|author1Williams, Gregg \|author2Moore, Rob \| pagesA67 \| typeinterview}}</ref> Overview In the May 1977 issue of Byte, Steve Wozniak published a detailed description of his design; the article began, "To me, a personal computer should be small, reliable, convenient to use, and inexpensive."<ref name"wozniak197705">{{Cite magazine \|lastWozniak \|firstSteve \|dateMay 1977 \|titleSystem Description / The Apple-II \|pages34–43 \|magazineBYTE \|volume2 \|issue5 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1977-05/1977_05_BYTE_02-05_Interfacing#page/n35/mode/2up \|access-date=October 17, 2013}}</ref> The Apple II used peculiar engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs, such as: * Taking advantage of the way the 6502 processor accesses memory: it occurs only on alternate phases of the clock cycle; video generation circuitry memory access on the otherwise unused phase avoids memory contention issues and interruptions of the video stream; * This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for DRAM chips, as video transfer accessed each row of dynamic memory within the timeout period. In addition, it did not require separate RAM chips for video RAM, while the PET and TRS-80 had SRAM chips for video; * Apart from the 6502 CPU and a few support chips, the vast majority of the semiconductors used were 74LS low-power Schottky chips; * Rather than use a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Wozniak used a simple timer circuit, built around a quad 555 timer IC called a 558, whose period is proportional to the resistance of the game controller, and he used a software loop to measure the timers; * A single 14.31818&nbsp;MHz master oscillator (f<sub>M</sub>) was divided by various ratios to produce all other required frequencies, including microprocessor clock signals (f<sub>M</sub>/14), video transfer counters, and color-burst samples (f<sub>M</sub>/4). A solderable jumper on the main board allowed to switch between European 50&nbsp;Hz and USA 60&nbsp;Hz video. The text and graphics screens have a complex arrangement. For instance, the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory. This complexity was reportedly due to Wozniak's realization that the method would allow for the refresh of dynamic RAM as a side effect (as described above). This method had no cost overhead to have software calculate or look up the address of the required scanline and avoided the need for significant extra hardware. Similarly, in high-resolution graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and thus can be implemented in software, saving Wozniak the chips needed to convert bit patterns to colors. This also allowed the ability to draw text with subpixel rendering, since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green and purple pixels.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGibson \|firstSteve \|titleThe origins of sub-pixel font rendering \|urlhttp://www.grc.com/ctwho.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060721130149/http://www.grc.com/ctwho.htm \|archive-dateJuly 21, 2006 \|access-dateAugust 4, 2006 \|publisher=Gibson Research Corporation}}</ref> The Apple II at first used data cassette storage, like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978, the company introduced an external {{frac\|5\|1\|4}}-inch floppy disk drive, called Disk II (stylized as Disk ][), attached through a controller card that plugs into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6). The Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWeyhrich \|firstSteven \|dateDecember 28, 2001 \|title5-The Disk II \|urlhttp://apple2history.org/history/ah05.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061201122002/http://apple2history.org/history/ah05.html \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2006 \|access-dateNovember 16, 2006 \|publisherApple II History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Freiberger \|first1Paul \|titleFire In The Valley, Part Two \|last2Swaine \|first2Michael \|dateJanuary 1985 \|workA+ Magazine \|page45 \|typeBook excerpt \|author-linkPaul Freiberger \|author-link2=Michael Swaine (technical author)}}</ref> The approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniak's designs. With a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM (programmable read-only memory), he created a functional floppy disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations. Case design The first production Apple II computers had hand-molded cases; these had visible bubbles and other lumps in them from the imperfect plastic molding process, which was soon switched to machine molding.<ref>{{Cite book \|editor-last1Laurel \|editor-first1Brenda \|editor-last2Mountford \|editor-first2S. Joy \|urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/490225229 \|titleThe art of human-computer interface design \|date1990 \|publisherAddison-Wesley Pub. Co \|isbn0-201-51797-3 \|oclc490225229}}</ref> In addition, the initial case design had no vent openings, causing high heat buildup from the PCB and resulting in the plastic softening and sagging. Apple added vent holes to the case within three months of production; customers with the original case could have them replaced at no charge. PCB revisions The Apple II's printed circuit board (PCB) underwent several revisions, as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6,000 units shipped used it. Later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in an undefined mode and had garbage on-screen, requiring the user to press Reset. This was eliminated in later board revisions. Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors in hi-res mode, but Wozniak was able to increase this to six hi-res colors on later board revisions. (Technically it was eight, but only six were visible.<ref name"laboratorium.net">{{cite web \| urlhttp://laboratorium.net/archive/2009/03/08/why_did_the_applie_ii_have_six_colors#comment-70109 \| title=The Laboratorium : Why Did the Apple II Have Six Colors? }}</ref>) The PCB had three RAM banks for a total of 24 RAM chips. Original Apple IIs had jumper switches to adjust RAM size, and RAM configurations could be 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32, 36, or 48&nbsp;KiB. The three smallest memory configurations used 4kx1 DRAMs, with larger ones using 16kx1 DRAMs, or mix of 4-kilobyte and 16-kilobyte banks (the chips in any one bank have to be the same size). The early Apple II+ models retained this feature, but after a drop in DRAM prices, Apple redesigned the circuit boards without the jumpers, so that only 16kx1 chips were supported. A few months later, they started shipping all machines with a full 48&nbsp;KiB complement of DRAM. Unlike most machines, all integrated circuits on the Apple II PCB were socketed; although this cost more to manufacture and created the possibility of loose chips causing a system malfunction, it was considered preferable to make servicing and replacement of bad chips easier. The Apple II PCB lacks any means of generating an interrupt request, although expansion cards may generate one. Program code had to stop everything to perform any I/O task; like many of the computer's other idiosyncrasies, this was due to cost reasons and Steve Wozniak assuming interrupts were not needed for gaming or using the computer as a teaching tool. Display and graphics {{Main\|Apple II graphics}} Color on the Apple II series uses a quirk of the NTSC television signal standard, which made color display relatively easy and inexpensive to implement. The original NTSC television signal specification was black and white. Color was added later by adding a 3.58-megahertz subcarrier signal that was partially ignored by black-and-white TV sets. Color is encoded based on the phase of this signal in relation to a reference color burst signal. The result is that the position, size, and intensity of a series of pulses define color information. These pulses can translate into pixels on the computer screen, with the possibility of exploiting composite artifact colors. The Apple II display provides two pixels per subcarrier cycle. When the color burst reference signal is turned on and the computer attached to a color display, it can display green by showing one alternating pattern of pixels, magenta with an opposite pattern of alternating pixels, and white by placing two pixels next to each other. Blue and orange are available by tweaking the pixel offset by half a pixel-width in relation to the color-burst signal. The high-resolution display offers more colors by compressing more (and narrower) pixels into each subcarrier cycle. The coarse, low-resolution graphics display mode works differently, as it can output a pattern of dots per pixel to offer more color options. These patterns are stored in the character generator ROM, and replace the text character bit patterns when the computer is switched to low-res graphics mode. The text mode and low-res graphics mode use the same memory region and the same circuitry is used for both. A single HGR page occupied 8&nbsp;KiB of RAM; in practice this meant that the user had to have at least 12&nbsp;KiB of total RAM to use HGR mode and 20&nbsp;KiB to use two pages. Early Apple II games from the 1977–79 period often ran only in text or low-resolution mode in order to support users with small memory configurations; HGR not being near universally supported by games until 1980. Sound Rather than a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II contains a toggle circuit that can only emit a click through a built-in speaker or a line-out jack. More complex sounds, such as music or audio samples, are generated by software manually toggling the speaker at an appropriate frequency. This technique requires careful and precise timing, rendering it difficult to display moving graphics while sound is playing. Third party expansion cards were later released which addressed this problem. A similar technique is used for cassette storage: cassette output works the same as the speaker, and input uses a simple zero-crossing detector as a 1-bit audio digitizer. Routines in machine ROM encode and decode data in frequency-shift keying for the cassette. Programming languages {{More citations needed section\|date=August 2022}} Initially, the Apple II was shipped with Integer BASIC encoded in the motherboard ROM chips. Written by Wozniak, the interpreter enabled users to write software applications without needing to purchase additional development utilities. Written with game programmers and hobbyists in mind, the language only supported the encoding of numbers in 16-bit integer format. Since it only supported integers between -32768 and +32767 (signed 16-bit integer), it was less suitable to business software, and Apple soon received complaints from customers. Because Steve Wozniak was busy developing the Disk II hardware, he did not have time to modify Integer BASIC for floating point support. Apple instead licensed Microsoft's 6502 BASIC to create Applesoft BASIC. Disk users normally purchased a so-called Language Card, which had Applesoft in ROM, and was located below the Integer BASIC ROM in system memory. The user could switch between either BASIC by typing {{code\|FP}} or {{code\|INT}} in BASIC prompt. Apple also offered a different version of Applesoft for cassette users, which occupied low memory, and was started by using the {{code\|LOAD}} command in Integer BASIC. As shipped, Apple II incorporated a machine code monitor with commands for displaying and altering the computer's RAM, either one byte at a time, or in blocks of 256 bytes at once. This enabled programmers to write and debug machine code programs without further development software. The computer powers on into the monitor ROM, displaying a {{code\|}} prompt. From there, {{key press\|Ctrl\|B}} enters BASIC, or a machine language program can be loaded from cassette. Disk software can be booted with {{key press\|Ctrl\|P}} followed by {{key press\|6}}, referring to Slot 6 which normally contained the Disk II controller. A 6502 assembler was soon offered on disk,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHyde \|firstRandall \|titleUsing 6502 Assembly Language: How Anyone Can Program the Apple II \|year1981 \|publisherDatamost \|isbn9780881900033 \|edition1st}}</ref> and later the UCSD compiler and operating system for the Pascal language were made available. The Pascal system requires a 16&nbsp;KiB RAM card to be installed in the language card position (expansion slot 0) in addition to the full 48&nbsp;KiB of motherboard memory.Manual The first 1,000 or so Apple IIs shipped in 1977 with a 68-page mimeographed "Apple II Mini Manual", hand-bound with brass paper fasteners. This was the basis for the Apple II Reference Manual, which became known as the Red Book for its red cover, published in January 1978. All existing customers who sent in their warranty cards were sent free copies of the Red Book. The Apple II Reference Manual contained the complete schematic of the entire computer's circuitry, and a complete source listing of the "Monitor" ROM firmware that served as the machine's BIOS. An Apple II manual signed by Steve Jobs in 1980 with the inscription "Julian, your generation is the first to grow up with computers. Go change the world." sold at auction for $787,484 in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAn Apple II Manual Sells At Auction For $787,484 \|languageen \|workNPR.org \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2021/08/23/1030223394/an-apple-ii-manual-sells-at-auction-for-787-484#:~:textAn%20Apple%20II%20Manual%20Sells%20At%20Auction%20For%20$787,484%20:%20NPR&textAn%20Apple%20II%20Manual%20Sells%20At%20Auction%20For%20$787,484%20The,owner%20of%20the%20Indianapolis%20Colts. \|access-date2022-09-04 \|archive-dateSeptember 4, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220904120132/https://www.npr.org/2021/08/23/1030223394/an-apple-ii-manual-sells-at-auction-for-787-484#:~:textAn%20Apple%20II%20Manual%20Sells%20At%20Auction%20For%20$787,484%20:%20NPR&textAn%20Apple%20II%20Manual%20Sells%20At%20Auction%20For%20$787,484%20The,owner%20of%20the%20Indianapolis%20Colts. \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Operating system The original Apple II came with an 8&nbsp;KiB ROM containing a BASIC variant called Integer BASIC as well as a resident monitor called the Apple System Monitor. Initially, only cassette tape was available for storage, which was considered too slow and unreliable for business use. In late 1977, Apple began to develop the Disk II floppy disk drive and required an operating system to utilize it. The existing standard at the time was CP/M, but due to incompatibility with the 6502 processor and a perceived clunkiness, Apple contracted Shepardson Microsystems for $13,000 to write Apple DOS.<ref name"Apple DOS commissioned">{{cite web\|titleThe untold story behind Apple's $13,000 operating system\|urlhttp://news.cnet.com/8301-13579_3-57577597-37/the-untold-story-behind-apples-$13000-operating-system/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130404095756/http://news.cnet.com/8301-13579_3-57577597-37/the-untold-story-behind-apples-$13000-operating-system/\|archive-dateApril 4, 2013\|access-dateApril 4, 2013\|websiteCNET\|locationSan Francisco, CA\|dfmdy-all}}</ref><ref name"Apple DOS contract">{{cite web\|titleDigiBarn Docs: "How Apple Booted Up" Key Documents in the Creation of Apple's First Operating System (Apple II DOS, 1978)\|urlhttp://www.digibarn.com/collections/business-docs/apple-II-DOS/index.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130403083337/http://www.digibarn.com/collections///business-docs/apple-II-DOS/index.html\|archive-dateApril 3, 2013\|access-dateApril 4, 2013\|publisherDigiBarn\|locationCA\|dfmdy-all}}</ref> At Shepardson, Paul Laughton developed the software in just 35 days, a remarkably short deadline, even for the time.<ref name"Apple DOS developer">{{cite web\|titleApple Computer The Early Days A Personal Perspective\|urlhttp://www.laughton.com/Apple/Apple.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130725020604/http://www.laughton.com/Apple/Apple.html\|archive-dateJuly 25, 2013\|access-dateApril 4, 2013\|publisherPaul Laughton\|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Disk II and Apple DOS were released in late 1978. The final and most popular version of this software was Apple DOS 3.3. Apple DOS was superseded by ProDOS, which supported a hierarchical filesystem and larger storage devices. With an optional third-party Z80-based expansion card,<ref name="z80" /> the Apple II could boot into the CP/M operating system and run WordStar, dBase II, and other CP/M software. Apple released Applesoft BASIC in 1977, a more advanced variant of the language which users could run instead of Integer BASIC for more capabilities, such as the ability to use floating point numbers. Some commercial Apple II software came on self-booting disks and did not use standard DOS disk formats. This discouraged the copying or modifying of the software on the disks, and improved loading speed. Third-party devices and applications When the Apple II initially shipped in June 1977, no expansion cards were available for the slots. This meant that the user did not have any way of connecting a modem or a printer. One popular hack involved connecting a teletype machine to the cassette output. Wozniak's open-architecture design and Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices, including peripheral cards, such as serial controllers, display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, networking components, and real-time clocks. There were plug-in expansion cards—such as the Z-80 SoftCard—that permitted Apple II to use the Z80 processor and run programs for the CP/M operating system,<ref name"z80">{{Cite magazine \|lastPetersen \|firstMarty \|dateFebruary 6, 1984 \|titleReview: Premium Softcard IIe \|magazineInfoWorld \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgC4EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA64 \|volume6 \|issue6 \|pages64–66 \|quoteSeveral manufacturers, however, make Z80 coprocessor boards that plug into the Apple II. \|access-dateSeptember 20, 2021 \|archive-dateMarch 10, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230310062207/https://books.google.com/books?idgC4EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA64 \|url-status=live }}</ref> including the dBase II database and the WordStar word processor. The Z80 card also allowed the connection to a modem, and thereby to any networks that a user might have access to. In the early days, such networks were scarce. But they expanded significantly with the development of bulletin board systems in later years. There was also a third-party 6809 card that allowed OS-9 Level One to be run. Third-party sound cards greatly improved audio capabilities, allowing simple music synthesis and text-to-speech functions. Apple II accelerator cards doubled or quadrupled the computer's speed. Early Apple IIs were often sold with a Sup'R'Mod, which allowed the composite video signal to be viewed in a television. The Soviet Union radio-electronics industry designed Apple II-compatible computer Agat. Roughly 12,000 Agat 7 and 9 models were produced and they were widely used in Soviet schools.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.computer-museum.ru/histsoft/informatika_sorucom_2011.htm \| titleШкольная информатика в России – техническая база начального периода \| languageru \| access-dateFebruary 1, 2019 \| archive-dateSeptember 23, 2015 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923210225/http://www.computer-museum.ru/histsoft/informatika_sorucom_2011.htm \| url-status=live }}</ref> Agat 9 computers could run "Apple II" compatibility and native modes. "Apple II" mode allowed to run a wider variety of (presumably pirated) Apple II software, but at the expense of less RAM. Because of that Soviet developers preferred native mode over "Apple II" compatibility mode. In 1978, Bob Bishop of Apple Computer, Inc. programmed 9 Apple II computers to run the gameboard on the TV game show Tic-Tac-Dough;.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.computingpioneers.com/index.php/Bob_Bishop \|titleR&D on the Apple Frontier \|lastMaginnis \|firstMike \|dateJune 2009 \|magazineJuiced.GS \|pages5&ndash;9\|viacomputingpioneers.com \|access-dateApril 15, 2024}}</ref> Each Apple was responsible for displaying various contents for each box of the gameboard (category, X, O, bonus game numbers and amounts, TIC, TAC or Dragon, as well displaying custom messages and an active screensaver), and in turn controlled by an Altair 8800 system. It was the first game show to use computerized graphics.<ref>{{Cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsMB1MHrE3oYC&qTic+Tac+Dough+first+game+show+computer&pgPA327 \| titleWho was Who on TV\| isbn9781456824563\| last1Chance\| first1Norman\| date2011-01-07\| publisherXlibris Corporation}}</ref>ReceptionJesse Adams Stein wrote, "As the first company to release a 'consumer appliance' micro-computer, Apple Computer offers us a clear view of this shift from a machine to an appliance." But the company also had "to negotiate the attitudes of its potential buyers, bearing in mind social anxieties about the uptake of new technologies in multiple contexts. The office, the home and the 'office-in-the-home' were implicated in these changing spheres of gender stereotypes and technological development."<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastStein \|firstJesse Adams \|year2011 \|titleIn Memoriam: Domesticity, Gender and the 1977 Apple II Personal Computer \|magazineDesign and Culture \|volume3 \|issue2 \|page194}}</ref> After seeing a crude, wire-wrapped prototype demonstrated by Wozniak and Steve Jobs in November 1976,<ref name"helmers197803">{{Cite magazine \|lastHelmers \|firstCarl \|dateMarch 1978 \|titleAn Apple to Byte \|pages18 \|magazineBYTE \|volume3 \| issue3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-03/1978_03_BYTE_03-03_Computer_Music_Systems#page/n19/mode/2up \|access-dateOctober 17, 2013}}</ref> Byte predicted in April 1977, that the Apple II "may be the first product to fully qualify as the 'appliance computer' ... a completed system which is purchased off the retail shelf, taken home, plugged in and used". The computer's color graphics capability especially impressed the magazine.<ref name"helmers197704">{{Cite magazine \|lastHelmers \|firstCarl \|dateApril 1977 \|titleA Nybble on the Apple \|pages10 \|magazineBYTE \| volume2 \| issue4 \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1977-04/1977_04_BYTE_02-04_Baudot_Machines#page/n11/mode/2up \|access-dateOctober 16, 2013}}</ref> The magazine published a favorable review of the computer in March 1978, concluding: "For the user that wants color graphics, the Apple II is the only practical choice available in the 'appliance' computer class."<ref name"helmers197803" /> Personal Computer World in August 1978 also cited the color capability as a strength, stating that "the prime reason that anyone buys an Apple II must surely be for the colour graphics". While mentioning the "oddity" of the artifact colors that produced output "that is not always what one wishes to do", it noted that "no-one has colour graphics like this at this sort of price". The magazine praised the sophisticated monitor software, user expandability, and comprehensive documentation. The author concluded that "the Apple II is a very promising machine" which "would be even more of a temptation were its price slightly lower ... for the moment, colour is an Apple II".<ref name"pcw197808">{{Cite magazine \|last1Coll \|first1John \|last2Sweeten \|first2Charles \|dateAugust 1978 \|titleColour is an Apple II \|pages50 \|magazinePersonal Computer World \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/Personal_Computer_World_1978-08_Apple_II_Review#page/n0/mode/2up \|access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref> Although it sold well from the launch, the initial market was to hobbyists and computer enthusiasts. Sales expanded exponentially into the business and professional market, when the spreadsheet program VisiCalc was launched in mid-1979. VisiCalc is credited as the defining killer app in the microcomputer industry. By the end of 1977 Apple had sales of {{US$\|longno\|775,000}} for the fiscal year, which included sales of the Apple I. This puts Apple clearly behind the others of the "holy trinity" of the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, even though the TRS-80 was launched last of the three.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBadgnall \|firstBrian \|titleCommodore \|dateMay 24, 2024 \|publisherVariant Press \|isbn978-0973864960}}</ref> However, during the first five years of operations, revenues doubled about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980, annual sales grew from {{US$\|longno\|775,000}} to {{US$\|longno\|118 million}}.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMalone \|firstMichael S. \|titleInfinite Loop \|date1999 \|publisherDoubleday Business \|isbn0-385-48684-7 \|page157}}</ref> During this period the sole products of the company were the Apple II and its peripherals, accessories, and software. In 2006, PC World wrote that the Apple II was the greatest PC of all time.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/id,126692-page,10-c,systems/article.html#II\|titleThe 25 Greatest PCs of All Time\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511194506/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,126692-page,10-c,systems/article.html#II \|archive-dateMay 11, 2008 }}</ref> References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons category\|Apple II}} [http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/apple/apple_II/ Additional documentation in Bitsavers PDF Document archive] * [https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c68&st1 Apple II on Old-computers.com] * [https://sites.google.com/a/my.sduhsd.net/apple-ii-resource/ Online Apple II Resource] * [http://apple2history.org/appendix/ahb/ahb2 Apple2History.org] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VStscvYLYLs <nowiki>How the Apple ][ Works!</nowiki>] – on YouTube by the 8-Bit Guy {{Apple hardware before 1998}} {{Steve Wozniak}} {{Authority control}} Category:Apple II computers Category:Computer-related introductions in 1977 Category:6502-based home computers Category:8-bit computers Category:Products and services discontinued in 1979 Category:1977 establishments in the United States Category:1979 disestablishments in the United States ca:Apple II	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II_(original)	2025-04-05T18:25:59.017506
2279	April 3	{{pp-move}} {{pp-pc}} {{calendar}} {{This date in recent years}} {{Day}} Events Pre-1600 * 686 &ndash; Maya king Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk' assumes the crown of Calakmul.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Martin\|first1Simon\|last2Grube\|first2Nikolai\|titleChronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya\|locationLondon\|publisherThames & Hudson\|date2008\|isbn9780500287262\|page110}}</ref> 1043 &ndash; Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBarlow\|firstFrank\|titleEdward the Confessor\|locationNew Haven, Conn.\|publisherYale University Press\|date1997\|isbn9780300071566\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDSuFAwAAQBAJ\|page61}}</ref> 1077 &ndash; The Patriarchate of Friûl, the first Friulian state, is created.<ref>{{cite book\|lastColuzzii\|firstPaolo\|titleMinority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the Situation of Friulian, Cimbrian and Western Lombard With Reference to Spanish Minority Languages\|locationOxford, UK\|publisherPeter Lang\|date2007\|isbn9783039110414\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyTQnOahQ4T4C\|page171}}</ref> 1559 &ndash; The second of two treaties making up the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis is signed, ending the Italian Wars.<ref>{{cite book\|lastRamcharan\|firstBertrand G.\|titleInternational Peace Conferences\|locationLeiden\|publisherBrill Nijhoff\|date2015\|isbn9789004245891\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSVOeBQAAQBAJ\|pages19–20}}</ref> 1589 &ndash; The janissaries revolt in response to the debasement of coins.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Somel \|first1Selcuk Aksin \|titleHistorical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire \|date13 February 2003 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn978-0-8108-6606-5 \|pagexxxiii \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjGZQL41tg_oC \|access-date22 October 2024 \|languageen}}</ref>1601–19001721 &ndash; Robert Walpole becomes, in effect, the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, though he himself denied that title.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastMarples\|firstAlice\|date1 April 2021\|titleSir Robert Walpole: Britain's first Prime Minister\|urlhttps://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/sir-robert-walpole-britains-first-prime-minister\|url-statuslive\|access-date3 April 2021\|websiteThe National Archives\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210401162823/https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/sir-robert-walpole-britains-first-prime-minister/ \|archive-date=2021-04-01 }}</ref> 1851 &ndash; Rama IV is crowned King of Thailand after the death of his half-brother, Rama III.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBowman\|firstJohn Stewart\|titleColumbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture\|locationNew York\|publisherColumbia University Press\|date2000\|isbn9780231110044\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYkqsAgAAQBAJ\|page515\|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book\|last1Soonthornthum\|first1Boonrucksar\|last2Orchiston\|first2Wayne\|chapterKing Rama IV: Astronomer and 'The Father of Thai Science'\|titleExploring the History of Southeast Asian Astronomy: A Review of Current Projects and Future Prospects and Possibilities\|editor-last1Soonthornthum\|editor-first1Boonrucksar\|editor-last2Orchiston\|editor-first2Wayne\|locationCham, Switzerland\|publisherSpringer\|date2021\|isbn9783030627775\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaUw2EAAAQBAJ\|page253}}</ref> 1860 &ndash; The first successful United States Pony Express run from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, begins.<ref>{{cite book\|lastCorbett\|firstChristopher\|titleOrphans Preferred: The Twisted Truth and Lasting Legend of the Pony Express\|locationNew York\|publisherBroadway Books\|date2003\|isbn9780767906920\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvGE9DwAAQBAJ\|pages46–48}}</ref> 1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Union forces capture Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederate States of America.<ref>{{cite book\|lastMcPherson\|firstJames\|titleBattle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era\|locationNew York\|publisherOxford University Press\|date2006\|isbn9780195038637\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGXfGuNAvm7AC\|page837}}</ref> 1882 &ndash; American Old West: Robert Ford kills Jesse James.<ref>{{cite book\|lastStiles\|firstT.J.\|titleJesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War\|locationNew York\|publisherVintage Books\|date2003\|isbn9780375705588\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlQ5FmmamezsC\|pages3–4}}</ref> 1885 &ndash; Gottlieb Daimler is granted a German patent for a light, high-speed, four-stroke engine, which he uses seven months later to create the world's first motorcycle, the Daimler Reitwagen.<ref>{{cite book\|lastAvery\|firstDerek\|titleMotorcycles\|locationLondon\|publisherCaxton Editions\|date2003\|isbn9781840673203\|page4\|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book\|lastMangone\|firstGerard J.\|titleMarine Policy for America\|locationNew York\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|date1988\|isbn9780844815374\|page=41}}</ref> 1888 &ndash; Jack the Ripper: The first of 11 unsolved brutal murders of women committed in or near the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London, occurs.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Keppel\|first1Robert D.\|last2Birnes\|first2William J.\|titleSerial Violence: Analysis of Modus Operandi and Signature Characteristics of Killers\|locationBoca Raton, Fla.\|publisherCRC Press\|date2009\|isbn9781420066326\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMC_5RNi2Yc0C\|pages41–42}}</ref> 1895 &ndash; The trial in the libel case brought by Oscar Wilde begins, eventually resulting in his imprisonment on charges of homosexuality.<ref>{{cite book\|lastGrech\|firstLeanne\|titleOscar Wilde's Aesthetic Education: The Oxford Classical Curriculum\|locationCham, Switzerland\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|date2019\|isbn9783030143749\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4niQDwAAQBAJ\|page210}}</ref> 1901–present 1920 &ndash; Attempts are made to carry out the failed assassination attempt on General Mannerheim, led by Aleksander Weckman by order of Eino Rahja, during the White Guard parade in Tampere, Finland.<ref>[http://www.mikkoporvali.fi/index.php?page1038&lang1 Mikko Porvali : Murhayritys joka jäi tekemättä] (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://walkhelsinki.fi/mannerheimin-murhayrityksen-jalkinaytos-kaytiin-vallilassa/ Mannerheimin murhayrityksen jälkinäytös käytiin Vallilassa] (in Finnish)</ref> 1922 &ndash; Joseph Stalin becomes the first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 1933 &ndash; First flight over Mount Everest, the British Houston-Mount Everest Flight Expedition, led by the Marquis of Clydesdale and funded by Lucy, Lady Houston.<ref>{{cite web \|titleWINGS OVER EVEREST: The Story of the Houston - Mt. Everest Flight\|urlhttps://movingimage.nls.uk/film/7075#:~:textDescription%3A%20The%20first%20flight%20over,was%20funded%20by%20Lady%20Houston.\|websitemovingimage.nls.ukwww.parliament.uk \|access-date=March 22, 2024}}</ref> 1936 &ndash; Bruno Richard Hauptmann is executed for the kidnapping and death of Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr., the infant son of pilot Charles Lindbergh.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLindbergh Kidnapping\|urlhttps://www.fbi.gov/history/famous-cases/lindbergh-kidnapping\|websitefbi.gov \|access-dateMarch 22, 2024}}</ref> 1942 &ndash; World War II: Japanese forces begin an assault on the United States and Filipino troops on the Bataan Peninsula. 1946 &ndash; Japanese Lt. General Masaharu Homma is executed in the Philippines for leading the Bataan Death March. 1948 &ndash; Cold War: U.S. President Harry S. Truman signs the Marshall Plan, authorizing $5&nbsp;billion in aid for 16 countries.<ref>{{cite web \|date2022-06-29 \|titleMarshall Plan (1948)\|urlhttps://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/marshall-plan#:~:textOn%20April%203%2C%201948%2C%20President,economic%20infrastructure%20of%20postwar%20Europe. \|websitewww.archives.gov \|access-dateMarch 23, 2024}}</ref> 1948 &ndash; In Jeju Province, South Korea, a civil-war-like period of violence and human rights abuses known as the Jeju uprising begins. 1955 &ndash; The American Civil Liberties Union announces it will defend Allen Ginsberg's book Howl against obscenity charges. 1956 &ndash; Hudsonville–Standale tornado: The western half of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan is struck by a deadly F5 tornado. 1968 &ndash; Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech; he was assassinated the next day.<ref>{{cite web \|title"I've Been to the Mountaintop" \|urlhttps://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/ive-been-mountaintop \|websitestanford.edu \|publisherThe Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute \|access-date=March 23, 2024}}</ref> 1969 &ndash; Vietnam War: United States Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird announces that the United States will start to "Vietnamize" the war effort. 1973 &ndash; Martin Cooper of Motorola makes the first handheld mobile phone call to Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs. 1974 &ndash; The 1974 Super Outbreak occurs, the second largest tornado outbreak in recorded history (after the 2011 Super Outbreak). The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured. 1975 &ndash; Vietnam War: Operation Babylift, a mass evacuation of children in the closing stages of the war begins.<ref>Martin, Allison, The Legacy of Operation Babylift, Adoption Today journal, Volume 2, Number 4 March 2000. "On April 3rd, a combination of private and military transport planes began to fly more children out of Vietnam as part of the operation. Numbers vary, but it appears that at least 2,000 children were flown to the United States and approximately 1,300 children were flown to Canada, Europe and Australia."</ref> 1975 &ndash; Bobby Fischer refuses to play in a chess match against Anatoly Karpov, giving Karpov the title of World Champion by default. 1980 &ndash; US Congress restores a federal trust relationship with the 501 members of the Shivwits, Kanosh, Koosharem, and the Indian Peaks and Cedar City bands of the Paiute people of Utah.<ref name":0">{{Cite book\|titleThe Native North American Almanac\|lastChampagne\|firstDuane\|publisherGale Group\|year2001\|isbn0787616559\|locationFarmington Hills, MI}}</ref> 1981 &ndash; The Osborne 1, the first successful portable computer, is unveiled at the West Coast Computer Faire in San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web \|titleOsborne launches the first portable computer, the Osborne 1\|urlhttps://www.computinghistory.org.uk/det/5941/The-first-portable-computer-is-launched/\|websitewww.computinghistory.org.uk \|access-dateMarch 23, 2024}}</ref> 1989 &ndash; The US Supreme Court upholds the jurisdictional rights of tribal courts under the Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 in Mississippi Choctaw Band v. Holyfield.<ref name=":0" /> 1993 &ndash; The outcome of the Grand National horse race is declared void for the first (and only) time<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.grandnational.org.uk/news/the-grand-national-that-never-was/\|titleThe Grand National That Never Was\|date27 January 2020 \|websiteGrand National \|first1John \|last1Hill \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326033310/https://www.grandnational.org.uk/news/the-grand-national-that-never-was/ \|archive-date= Mar 26, 2023 }}</ref> 1996 &ndash; Suspected "Unabomber" Theodore Kaczynski is captured at his Montana cabin in the United States. 1996 &ndash; A United States Air Force Boeing T-43 crashes near Dubrovnik Airport in Croatia, killing 35, including Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRanter \|firstHarro \|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing T-43A (737-200) 73-1149 Dubrovnik Airport (DBV) \|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19960403-0 \|websiteaviation-safety.net \|publisherAviation Safety Network\|access-date2 April 2022}}</ref> 1997 &ndash; The Thalit massacre begins in Algeria; all but one of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas. 2000 &ndash; United States v. Microsoft Corp.: Microsoft is ruled to have violated United States antitrust law by keeping "an oppressive thumb" on its competitors. 2004 &ndash; Islamic terrorists involved in the 2004 Madrid train bombings are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves. 2007 &ndash; Conventional-Train World Speed Record: A French TGV train on the LGV Est high speed line sets an official new world speed record of 574.8&nbsp;km/h (159.6&nbsp;m/s, 357.2&nbsp;mph). 2008 &ndash; ATA Airlines, once one of the ten largest U.S. passenger airlines and largest charter airline, files for bankruptcy for the second time in five years and ceases all operations. 2008 &ndash; Texas law enforcement cordons off the FLDS's YFZ Ranch. Eventually 533 women and children will be taken into state custody. 2009 &ndash; Jiverly Antares Wong opens fire at the American Civic Association immigration center in Binghamton, New York, killing thirteen and wounding four before committing suicide. 2010 &ndash; Apple Inc. released the first generation iPad, a tablet computer. 2013 &ndash; More than 50 people die in floods resulting from record-breaking rainfall in La Plata and Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2016 &ndash; The Panama Papers, a leak of legal documents, reveals information on 214,488 offshore companies. 2017 &ndash; A bomb explodes in the St Petersburg metro system, killing 14 and injuring several more people. 2018 &ndash; YouTube headquarters shooting: A 38-year-old gunwoman opens fire at YouTube Headquarters in San Bruno, California, injuring three people before committing suicide.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleYouTube headquarters shooting: How the attack unfolded \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/shooting-youtubes-calif-headquarters-unfolded/story?id54227873 \|access-date2022-04-03 \|websiteABC News \|languageen}}</ref> Births <!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.--> Pre-1600 1016 &ndash; Xing Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1055) 1151 &ndash; Igor Svyatoslavich, Kievan Rus' prince<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Igor-Svyatoslavich</ref> (d. 1202) 1395 &ndash; George of Trebizond, Greek philosopher, scholar and humanist (d. 1486)<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqiQbRJw_nLEC&dq%2B%22George+of+Trebizond%22+%2B%223+april%22&pgPA4 \| titleGeorge of Trebizond: A Biography and a Study of His Rhetoric and Logic \| isbn9004043705 \| last1Monfasani \| first1John \| year1976 \| publisherBRILL }}</ref> 1438 &ndash; John III of Egmont, Dutch nobleman (d. 1516) 1529 &ndash; Michael Neander, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1581) 1540 &ndash; Maria de' Medici, Italian noblewoman, the eldest daughter of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Eleonora di Toledo. (d. 1557) 1593 &ndash; George Herbert, English poet (d. 1633) 1601–1900 1643 &ndash; Charles V, duke of Lorraine (d. 1690) 1682 &ndash; Valentin Rathgeber, German organist and composer (d. 1750) 1693 &ndash; George Edwards, English ornithologist and entomologist (d. 1773) 1715 &ndash; William Watson, English physician, physicist, and botanist (d. 1787) 1764 &ndash; John Abernethy, English surgeon and anatomist (d. 1831) 1769 &ndash; Christian Günther von Bernstorff, Danish-Prussian politician and diplomat (d. 1835) 1770 &ndash; Theodoros Kolokotronis, Greek general (d. 1843) 1778 &ndash; Pierre Bretonneau, French doctor who performed the first successful tracheotomy (d. 1862) 1781 &ndash; Swaminarayan, Indian religious leader (d. 1830) 1782 &ndash; Alexander Macomb, American general (d. 1841) 1783 &ndash; Washington Irving, American short story writer, essayist, biographer, historian (d. 1859) 1791 &ndash; Anne Lister, English diarist, mountaineer, and traveller (d. 1840) 1798 &ndash; Charles Wilkes, American admiral, geographer, and explorer (d. 1877) 1807 &ndash; Mary Carpenter, English educational and social reformer (d. 1877)<ref>{{cite book\|firstJoseph Estlin\|lastCarpenter\|titleThe Life and Work of Mary Carpenter\|locationLondon\|publisherMacmillan\|year1879\|page1\|oclc1043956884}}</ref> 1814 &ndash; Lorenzo Snow, American religious leader, 5th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1901) 1822 &ndash; Edward Everett Hale, American minister, historian, and author (d. 1909) 1823 &ndash; George Derby, American lieutenant and journalist (d. 1861) * 1823 &ndash; William M. Tweed, American politician (d. 1878) 1826 &ndash; Cyrus K. Holliday, American businessman (d. 1900) 1837 &ndash; John Burroughs, American botanist and author (d. 1921) 1842 &ndash; Ulric Dahlgren, American colonel (d. 1864) 1848 &ndash; Arturo Prat, Chilean lawyer and captain (d. 1879) 1852 &ndash; Talbot Baines Reed, English author (d. 1893)<ref>{{cite book\|lastMorison\|first Stanley\|titleTalbot Baines Reed: Author, Bibliographer, Typefounder\|publisher Published by Stanley Morison: printed privately by the Cambridge University Press\|locationCambridge, England\|year 1960 \|pages=1&ndash;3}}</ref> 1858 &ndash; Jacob Gaudaur, Canadian rower (d. 1937) 1860 &ndash; Frederik van Eeden, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 1932) 1864 &ndash; Emil Kellenberger, Swiss target shooter (d. 1943) 1875 &ndash; Mistinguett, French actress and singer (d. 1956) 1876 &ndash; Margaret Anglin, Canadian actress, director, and producer (d. 1958) * 1876 &ndash; Tomáš Baťa, Czech businessman, founded Bata Shoes (d. 1932) 1880 &ndash; Otto Weininger, Jewish-Austrian philosopher and author (d. 1903) 1881 &ndash; Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1954) 1882 &ndash; Philippe Desranleau, Canadian archbishop (d. 1952) 1883 &ndash; Ikki Kita, Japanese philosopher and author (d. 1937) 1885 &ndash; Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1981) 1885 &ndash; Bud Fisher, American cartoonist (d. 1954) * 1885 &ndash; Marie-Victorin Kirouac, Canadian botanist and academic (d. 1944) * 1885 &ndash; St John Philby, English colonial and explorer (d. 1960) 1886 &ndash; Dooley Wilson, American actor and singer (d. 1953) 1887 &ndash; Ōtori Tanigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 24th Yokozuna (d. 1956) * 1887 &ndash; Nishizō Tsukahara, Japanese admiral (d. 1966) 1888 &ndash; Thomas C. Kinkaid, American admiral (d. 1972) 1889 &ndash; Grigoraș Dinicu, Romanian violinist and composer (d. 1949) 1893 &ndash; Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943) 1895 &ndash; Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Italian-American composer and educator (d. 1968) * 1895 &ndash; Zez Confrey, American pianist and composer (d. 1971) 1897 &ndash; Joe Kirkwood Sr., Australian golfer (d. 1970) 1897 &ndash; Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos, Greek general (d. 1989) 1898 &ndash; David Jack, English footballer and manager (d. 1958) 1898 &ndash; George Jessel, American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1981) * 1898 &ndash; Henry Luce, American publisher, co-founded Time magazine (d. 1967) 1900 &ndash; Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (d. 1987) 1900 &ndash; Albert Walsh, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1958) 1901–present * 1903 &ndash; Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Indian social reformer and freedom fighter (d. 1988) 1904 &ndash; Iron Eyes Cody, American actor and stuntman (d. 1999) 1904 &ndash; Sally Rand, American dancer (d. 1979) * 1904 &ndash; Russel Wright, American furniture designer (d. 1976) 1905 &ndash; Robert Sink, American general (d. 1965) 1910 &ndash; Ted Hook, Australian public servant (d. 1990) 1911 &ndash; Nanette Bordeaux, Canadian-American actress (d. 1956) 1911 &ndash; Michael Woodruff, English-Scottish surgeon and academic (d. 2001) * 1911 &ndash; Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (d. 1980) 1912 &ndash; Dorothy Eden, New Zealand-English author (d. 1982) 1912 &ndash; Grigoris Lambrakis, Greek physician and politician (d. 1963) 1913 &ndash; Per Borten, Norwegian politician, 18th Prime Minister of Norway (d. 2005) 1914 &ndash; Ray Getliffe, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008) * 1914 &ndash; Sam Manekshaw, Indian field marshal (d. 2008) 1915 &ndash; Piet de Jong, Dutch politician and naval officer, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2016) 1915 &ndash; İhsan Doğramacı, Turkish physician and academic (d. 2010) 1916 &ndash; Herb Caen, American journalist and author (d. 1997) 1916 &ndash; Cliff Gladwin, English cricketer (d. 1988) * 1916 &ndash; Louis Guglielmi, Catalan composer (d. 1991) 1918 &ndash; Mary Anderson, American actress (d. 2014) 1918 &ndash; Louis Applebaum, Canadian composer and conductor (d. 2000) 1919 &ndash; Ervin Drake, American songwriter and composer (d. 2015) 1919 &ndash; Clairette Oddera, French-Canadian actress and singer (d. 2008) 1920 &ndash; Stan Freeman, American composer and conductor (d. 2001) 1920 &ndash; Yoshibayama Junnosuke, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 43rd Yokozuna (d. 1977) 1921 &ndash; Robert Karvelas, American actor (d. 1991) 1921 &ndash; Jan Sterling, American actress (d. 2004) 1922 &ndash; Yevhen Bulanchyk, Ukrainian hurdler (d. 1996) 1922 &ndash; Doris Day, American singer and actress (d. 2019) 1923 &ndash; Daniel Hoffman, American poet and academic (d. 2013) 1924 &ndash; Marlon Brando, American actor and director (d. 2004) * 1924 &ndash; Roza Shanina, Russian sergeant and sniper (d. 1945) 1925 &ndash; Tony Benn, English pilot and politician, Secretary of State for Industry (d. 2014) 1926 &ndash; Alex Grammas, American baseball player, manager, and coach (d. 2019) * 1926 &ndash; Gus Grissom, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1967)<ref>{{cite web \|titleVirgil I. Grissom {{!}} American astronaut \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Virgil-I-Grissom \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date19 January 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> * 1927 &ndash; Wesley A. Brown, American general and engineer (d. 2012) 1928 &ndash; Don Gibson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003) 1928 &ndash; Emmett Johns, Canadian priest, founded Dans la Rue (d. 2018) * 1928 &ndash; Earl Lloyd, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015) * 1928 &ndash; Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television personality (d. 1999) 1929 &ndash; Fazlur Rahman Khan, Bangladeshi engineer and architect, co-designed the Willis Tower and John Hancock Center (d. 1982) 1929 &ndash; Poul Schlüter, Danish lawyer and politician, 37th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 2021) 1930 &ndash; Lawton Chiles, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 41st Governor of Florida (d. 1998) 1930 &ndash; Helmut Kohl, German politician, Chancellor of Germany (d. 2017) * 1930 &ndash; Mario Benjamín Menéndez, Argentinian general and politician (d. 2015) * 1930 &ndash; Wally Moon, American baseball player and coach (d. 2018) 1931 &ndash; William Bast, American screenwriter and author (d. 2015) 1933 &ndash; Bob Dornan, American politician * 1933 &ndash; Rod Funseth, American golfer (d. 1985) 1934 &ndash; Pamela Allen, New Zealand children's writer and illustrator 1934 &ndash; Jane Goodall, English primatologist and anthropologist<ref>{{cite web \|lastMicalizio \|firstCaryl-Sue \|date2024-02-28 \|titleJane Goodall\|urlhttps://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/jane-goodall/\|websitenationalgeographic.org \|access-date=March 23, 2024}}</ref> * 1934 &ndash; Jim Parker, American football player (d. 2005) 1935 &ndash; Harold Kushner, American rabbi and author (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/28/books/rabbi-harold-s-kushner-dead.html\|titleRabbi Harold S. Kushner, Reassuring Best-Selling Author, Dies at 88\|lastRoberts\|firstSam\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateApril 28, 2023\|access-date=April 28, 2023}}</ref> 1936 &ndash; Jimmy McGriff, American organist and bandleader (d. 2008) * 1936 &ndash; Harold Vick, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 1987) 1938 &ndash; Jeff Barry, American singer-songwriter, and producer 1938 &ndash; Phil Rodgers, American golfer (d. 2018) 1939 &ndash; François de Roubaix, French composer (d. 1975) 1939 &ndash; Hawk Taylor, American baseball player and coach (d. 2012) * 1939 &ndash; Paul Craig Roberts, American economist and politician 1941 &ndash; Jan Berry, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004) 1941 &ndash; Philippé Wynne, American soul singer (d. 1984) 1942 &ndash; Marsha Mason, American actress 1942 &ndash; Wayne Newton, American singer * 1942 &ndash; Billy Joe Royal, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015) 1943 &ndash; Mario Lavista, Mexican composer (d. 2021) 1943 &ndash; Jonathan Lynn, English actor, director, and screenwriter * 1943 &ndash; Richard Manuel, Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1986) * 1943 &ndash; Hikaru Saeki, Japanese admiral, the first female star officer of the Japan Self-Defense Forces 1944 &ndash; Peter Colman, Australian biologist and academic 1944 &ndash; Tony Orlando, American singer 1945 &ndash; Doon Arbus, American author and journalist 1945 &ndash; Bernie Parent, Canadian ice hockey player and coach * 1945 &ndash; Catherine Spaak, French actress (d. 2022) 1946 &ndash; Nicholas Jones, English actor 1946 &ndash; Dee Murray, English bass player (d. 1992) * 1946 &ndash; Marisa Paredes, Spanish film actress (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWilliams \|firstAlex \|dateDecember 20, 2024 \|titleMarisa Paredes, Acclaimed Diva of Spanish Cinema, Is Dead at 78 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/20/movies/marisa-paredes-dead.html \|access-dateDecember 20, 2024 \|work=The New York Times}}</ref> * 1946 &ndash; Hanna Suchocka, Polish politician, Prime Minister of Poland<ref>{{cite web \|titleHanna Suchocka \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/explore/100women/profiles/hanna-suchocka \|websiteBritannica Presents 100 Women Trailblazers \|access-date28 July 2021 \|languageen \|date25 February 2020}}</ref> 1947 &ndash; Anders Eliasson, Swedish composer (d. 2013) 1948 &ndash; Arlette Cousture, Canadian author and screenwriter * 1948 &ndash; Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, Dutch academic, politician, and diplomat, 11th Secretary General of NATO * 1948 &ndash; Hans-Georg Schwarzenbeck, German footballer * 1948 &ndash; Carlos Salinas de Gortari, Mexican economist and politician, 53rd President of Mexico<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.buscabiografias.com/biografia/verDetalle/6092/Carlos%20Salinas%20de%20Gortari\|titleCarlos Salinas de Gortari\|publisherBusca Biografias\|access-dateMay 30, 2019\|language=es}}</ref> 1949 &ndash; Lyle Alzado, American football player and actor (d. 1992) 1949 &ndash; A. C. Grayling, English philosopher and academic * 1949 &ndash; Richard Thompson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 &ndash; Indrajit Coomaraswamy, Sri Lankan cricketer and economist 1951 &ndash; Brendan Barber, English trade union leader * 1951 &ndash; Annette Dolphin, British academician and educator * 1951 &ndash; Mitch Woods, American singer-songwriter and pianist 1952 &ndash; Mike Moore, American lawyer and politician 1953 &ndash; Sandra Boynton, American author and illustrator * 1953 &ndash; Wakanohana Kanji II, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 56th Yokozuna (d. 2022) * 1953 &ndash; James Smith, American boxer 1954 &ndash; Elisabetta Brusa, Italian composer 1954 &ndash; K. Krishnasamy, Indian physician and politician 1956 &ndash; Kalle Kulbok, Estonian politician 1956 &ndash; Boris Miljković, Serbian director and producer * 1956 &ndash; Miguel Bosé, Spanish musician and actor * 1956 &ndash; Ray Combs, American game show host (d. 1996) 1958 &ndash; Alec Baldwin, American actor, comedian, producer and television host<ref>{{cite web \|lastPiccotti \|firstTyler \|date2024-01-23 \|titleAlec Baldwin\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/actors/alec-baldwin/\|websitebiogrpahy.com \|access-date=March 23, 2024}}</ref> 1958 &ndash; Adam Gussow, American scholar, musician, and memoirist * 1958 &ndash; Francesca Woodman, American photographer (d. 1981) 1959 &ndash; David Hyde Pierce, American actor and activist 1960 &ndash; Arjen Anthony Lucassen, Dutch singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1961 &ndash; Tim Crews, American baseball player (d. 1993) 1961 &ndash; Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian 1962 &ndash; Dave Miley, American baseball player and manager 1962 &ndash; Mike Ness, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1962 &ndash; Jaya Prada, Indian actress and politician 1963 &ndash; Les Davidson, Australian rugby league player 1963 &ndash; Ricky Nixon, Australian footballer and manager * 1963 &ndash; Criss Oliva, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1993) 1964 &ndash; Marco Ballotta, Italian footballer and manager 1964 &ndash; Nigel Farage, English politician * 1964 &ndash; Claire Perry, English banker and politician * 1964 &ndash; Bjarne Riis, Danish cyclist and manager * 1964 &ndash; Andy Robinson, English rugby player and coach * 1964 &ndash; Jay Weatherill, Australian politician, 45th Premier of South Australia 1965 &ndash; Nazia Hassan, Pakistani pop singer-songwriter, lawyer and social activist (d. 2000)<ref>{{cite news \|last1Kumar \|first1Jai \|titleNazia Hassan \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/aug/23/guardianobituaries \|access-date4 April 2023 \|workThe Guardian \|date=23 August 2000}}</ref> 1966 &ndash; John de Vries, Australian race car driver 1967 &ndash; Cat Cora, American chef and author 1967 &ndash; Pervis Ellison, American basketball player * 1967 &ndash; Brent Gilchrist, Canadian ice hockey player * 1967 &ndash; Cristi Puiu, Romanian director and screenwriter * 1967 &ndash; Mark Skaife, Australian race car driver and sportscaster 1968 &ndash; Sebastian Bach, Bahamian-Canadian singer-songwriter and actor 1968 &ndash; Charlotte Coleman, English actress (d. 2001) * 1968 &ndash; Jamie Hewlett, English director and performer * 1968 &ndash; Tomoaki Kanemoto, Japanese baseball player 1969 &ndash; Rodney Hampton, American football player 1969 &ndash; Peter Matera, Australian footballer and coach * 1969 &ndash; Ben Mendelsohn, Australian actor * 1969 &ndash; Lance Storm, Canadian wrestler and trainer 1971 &ndash; Vitālijs Astafjevs, Latvian footballer and manager 1971 &ndash; Emmanuel Collard, French race car driver * 1971 &ndash; Picabo Street, American skier 1972 &ndash; Jennie Garth, American actress and director 1972 &ndash; Catherine McCormack, English actress * 1972 &ndash; Sandrine Testud, French tennis player 1973 &ndash; Nilesh Kulkarni, Indian cricketer 1973 &ndash; Adam Scott, American actor 1974 &ndash; Marcus Brown, American basketball player 1974 &ndash; Lee Williams, Welsh model and actor 1975 &ndash; Shawn Bates, American ice hockey player 1975 &ndash; Michael Olowokandi, Nigerian-American basketball player * 1975 &ndash; Aries Spears, American comedian and actor * 1975 &ndash; Yoshinobu Takahashi, Japanese baseball player * 1975 &ndash; Koji Uehara, Japanese baseball player 1976 &ndash; Nicolas Escudé, French tennis player 1978 &ndash; Matthew Goode, English actor * 1978 &ndash; Tommy Haas, German-American tennis player * 1978 &ndash; John Smit, South African rugby player 1979 &ndash; Simon Black, Australian footballer and coach 1980 &ndash; Andrei Lodis, Belarusian footballer * 1980 &ndash; Megan Rohrer, American pastor and transgender activist 1981 &ndash; Aaron Bertram, American trumpet player 1981 &ndash; DeShawn Stevenson, American basketball player 1982 &ndash; Jared Allen, American football player 1982 &ndash; Iain Fyfe, Australian footballer * 1982 &ndash; Cobie Smulders, Canadian actress 1983 &ndash; Ben Foster, English footballer 1983 &ndash; Stephen Weiss, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 &ndash; Jonathan Blondel, Belgian footballer 1984 &ndash; Maxi López, Argentinian footballer 1985 &ndash; Jari-Matti Latvala, Finnish race car driver 1985 &ndash; Leona Lewis, English singer-songwriter and producer 1986 &ndash; Amanda Bynes, American actress 1986 &ndash; Stephanie Cox, American soccer player * 1986 &ndash; Annalisa Cucinotta, Italian cyclist * 1986 &ndash; Sergio Sánchez Ortega, Spanish footballer 1987 &ndash; Rachel Bloom, American actress, writer, and producer 1987 &ndash; Jay Bruce, American baseball player * 1987 &ndash; Yileen Gordon, Australian rugby league player * 1987 &ndash; Jason Kipnis, American baseball player * 1987 &ndash; Martyn Rooney, English sprinter * 1987 &ndash; Julie Sokolow, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1987 &ndash; Yuval Spungin, Israeli footballer<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://eu-football.info/_player.php?id27216\|titleYuval Spungin, international football player\|websiteeu-football.info}}</ref> 1988 &ndash; Kam Chancellor, American football player 1988 &ndash; Brandon Graham, American football player * 1988 &ndash; Peter Hartley, English footballer * 1988 &ndash; Tim Krul, Dutch footballer 1989 &ndash; Romain Alessandrini, French footballer 1989 &ndash; Israel Folau, Australian rugby player and footballer * 1989 &ndash; Joel Romelo, Australian rugby league player * 1989 &ndash; Thisara Perera, Sri Lankan cricketer 1990 &ndash; Karim Ansarifard, Iranian footballer 1990 &ndash; Madison Brengle, American tennis player * 1990 &ndash; Sotiris Ninis, Greek footballer * 1990 &ndash; Natasha Negovanlis, Canadian actress and singer 1991 &ndash; Hayley Kiyoko, American actress and singer 1992 &ndash; Simone Benedetti, Italian footballer * 1992 &ndash; Yuliya Yefimova, Russian swimmer 1993 &ndash; Pape Moussa Konaté, Senegalese footballer 1994 &ndash; Kodi Nikorima, New Zealand rugby league player * 1994 &ndash; Dylann Roof, American mass murderer<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhat We Know About South Carolina Shooting Suspect Dylann Roof \|date18 June 2015 \|urlhttps://time.com/3926263/charleston-church-shooting-dylann-roof/ \|publisherTime Magazine \|access-date=3 April 2023}}</ref> 1996 &ndash; Mayo Hibi, Japanese tennis player 1997 &ndash; Gabriel Jesus, Brazilian footballer 1998 &ndash; Paris Jackson, American actress, model and singer 1999 &ndash; Chanel Harris-Tavita, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/chanel-harris-tavita/summary.html\|title Chanel Harris-Tavita - Career Stats & Summary - Rugby League Project}}</ref> <!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.--> Deaths Pre-1600 * 33 &ndash; Jesus of Nazareth<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Humphreys \|first1Colin J. \|last2Waddington \|first2W. G. \|date22 December 1983 \|titleDating the Crucifixion \|urlhttp://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v306/n5945/abs/306743a0.html \|journalNature \|volume306 \|issue5945 \|pages743–46 \|bibcode1983Natur.306..743H \|doi10.1038/306743a0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Humphreys \|first1C. J. \|last2Waddington \|first2W. G. \|date1992 \|titleThe Jewish calendar, a lunar eclipse and the date of Christ's crucifixion \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/265114769 \|journalTyndale Bulletin \|volume43 \|issue2 \|pages331–351 \|doi10.53751/001c.30487}}</ref><ref name"Maier, P.L. 1968 3–13">{{cite journal \|authorMaier, P.L. \|year1968 \|titleSejanus, Pilate, and the Date of the Crucifixion \|journalChurch History \|volume37 \|issue1 \|pages3–13 \|doi10.2307/3163182 \|jstor3163182 \|s2cid162410612}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|authorFotheringham, J.K. \|year1934 \|titleThe evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion \|journalJournal of Theological Studies \|volume35 \|issue138 \|pages146–162 \|doi10.1093/jts/os-XXXV.138.146 \|s2cid162258391}}</ref><ref name"WPCleanerAuto1">Blinzler, J. Der Prozess Jesu, fourth edition, Regensburg, Pustet, 1969, pp101-126</ref><ref name"humphreyssupper">{{Cite book \|lastHumphreys \|firstColin J. \|titleThe Mystery of the Last Supper \|date2011 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0521732000 \|pages77 and 189}}</ref><ref name"bbcsupper">{{Cite web \|dateApril 18, 2011 \|titleLast Supper 'was on a Wednesday' \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-13114124 \|publisherBBC \|locationUnited Kingdom}}</ref> * 963 &ndash; William III, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 915) 1153 &ndash; al-Adil ibn al-Sallar, vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate 1171 &ndash; Philip of Milly, seventh Grand Master of the Knights Templar (b. {{Circa\|1120}}) 1203 &ndash; Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (b. 1187) 1253 &ndash; Saint Richard of Chichester 1287 &ndash; Pope Honorius IV (b. 1210)<ref>{{cite web \|titleHonorius IV {{!}} pope \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Honorius-IV \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date11 January 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> 1325 &ndash; Nizamuddin Auliya, Sufi saint (b. 1238) 1350 &ndash; Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1295) 1538 &ndash; Elizabeth Boleyn, Countess of Wiltshire (b. 1480) 1545 &ndash; Antonio de Guevara, Spanish chronicler and moralist (b. 1481) 1601–1900 1606 &ndash; Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1563) 1630 &ndash; Christopher Villiers, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English noble (b. c. 1593) 1637 &ndash; Joseph Yuspa Nördlinger Hahn, German rabbi<ref>{{Cite Jewish Encyclopedia\|titleHAHN, JOSEPH YUSPA NÖRDLINGER (JOSEPH BEN PHINEHAS NÖRDLINGEN)\|urlhttps://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/7048-hahn-joseph-yuspa-nordlinger-joseph-ben-phinehas-nordlingen\|volume6\|page152}}</ref> 1680 &ndash; Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Indian emperor, founded the Maratha Empire (b. 1630) 1682 &ndash; Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1618) 1691 &ndash; Jean Petitot, French-Swiss painter (b. 1608) 1695 &ndash; Melchior d'Hondecoeter, Dutch painter (b. 1636) 1717 &ndash; Jacques Ozanam, French mathematician and academic (b. 1640) 1728 &ndash; James Anderson, Scottish lawyer and historian (b. 1662) 1792 &ndash; George Pocock, English admiral (b. 1706) 1804 &ndash; Jędrzej Kitowicz, Polish priest, historian, and author (b. 1727) 1826 &ndash; Reginald Heber, English priest (b. 1783)<ref>{{cite book\|lastHughes\|first Derrick\|titleBishop Sahib: A Life of Reginald Heber\|publisher Churchman Publishing\|locationWorthing, UK\|year 1986 \| isbn 978-1-85093-043-3 \|pages178&ndash;180}}</ref> 1827 &ndash; Ernst Chladni, German physicist and academic (b. 1756) 1838 &ndash; François Carlo Antommarchi, French physician and author (b. 1780) 1844 &ndash; Edward Bigge, English cleric, 1st Archdeacon of Lindisfarne (b. 1807) 1846 &ndash; William Braine, English soldier and explorer (b. 1814) 1849 &ndash; Juliusz Słowacki, Polish-French poet and playwright (b. 1809) 1868 &ndash; Franz Berwald, Swedish composer and surgeon (b. 1796) 1880 &ndash; Felicita Vestvali, German actress and opera singer (b. 1831) 1882 &ndash; Jesse James, American criminal and outlaw (b. 1847) 1897 &ndash; Johannes Brahms, German pianist and composer (b. 1833) 1901–present 1901 &ndash; Richard D'Oyly Carte, English composer and talent agent (b. 1844) 1902 &ndash; Esther Hobart Morris, American lawyer and judge (b. 1814) 1930 &ndash; Emma Albani, Canadian-English operatic soprano (b. 1847) 1936 &ndash; Richard Hauptmann, German-American murderer (b. 1899) 1941 &ndash; Tachiyama Mineemon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 22nd Yokozuna (b. 1877) 1941 &ndash; Pál Teleki, Hungarian academic and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1879) 1943 &ndash; Conrad Veidt, German actor, director, and producer (b. 1893) 1946 &ndash; Masaharu Homma, Japanese general (b. 1887) 1950 &ndash; Kurt Weill, German-American composer and pianist (b. 1900) 1950 &ndash; Carter G. Woodson, American historian, author, and journalist, founded Black History Month (b. 1875) 1951 &ndash; Henrik Visnapuu, Estonian poet and playwright (b. 1890) 1952 &ndash; Miina Sillanpää, Finnish minister and politician (b. 1866) 1957 &ndash; Ned Sparks, Canadian-American actor (b. 1883) 1958 &ndash; Jaan Kärner, Estonian poet and author (b. 1891) 1962 &ndash; Manolis Kalomiris, Greek composer and educator (b. 1883) 1970 &ndash; Avigdor Hameiri, Israeli author (b. 1890) 1971 &ndash; Joseph Valachi, American gangster (b. 1904) 1972 &ndash; Ferde Grofé, American pianist and composer (b. 1892) 1975 &ndash; Mary Ure, Scottish-English actress (b. 1933) 1976 &ndash; David M. Dennison, American physicist and academic (b. 1900) * 1976 &ndash; Claude-Henri Grignon, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1894) 1978 &ndash; Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (b. 1903) 1978 &ndash; Winston Sharples, American composer (b. 1909) 1981 &ndash; Juan Trippe, American businessman, founded Pan American World Airways (b. 1899) 1982 &ndash; Warren Oates, American actor (b. 1928) 1983 &ndash; Jimmy Bloomfield, English footballer and manager (b. 1934) 1986 &ndash; Peter Pears, English tenor and educator (b. 1910) 1987 &ndash; Tom Sestak, American football player (b. 1936) 1988 &ndash; Milton Caniff, American cartoonist (b. 1907) 1990 &ndash; Sarah Vaughan, American singer (b. 1924) 1991 &ndash; Charles Goren, American bridge player and author (b. 1901) * 1991 &ndash; Graham Greene, English novelist, playwright, and critic (b. 1904) 1993 &ndash; Pinky Lee, American television host (b. 1907) 1994 &ndash; Frank Wells, American businessman (b. 1932) 1995 &ndash; Alfred J. Billes, Canadian businessman, co-founded Canadian Tire (b. 1902) 1996 &ndash; Ron Brown, American captain and politician, 30th United States Secretary of Commerce (b. 1941) 1997 &ndash; John Ugelstad, Norwegian chemical engineer and inventor (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|titleJohn Ugelstad \|first \|last\|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon \|date26 April 2023\|editor-lastBolstad \| editor-firstErik \|publisherNorsk nettleksikon \|locationOslo \|urlhttps://snl.no/John_Ugelstad \|languageno\|access-date24 March 2024}}</ref> 1998 &ndash; Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic (b. 1900) 1999 &ndash; Lionel Bart, English composer (b. 1930) 1999 &ndash; Geoffrey Walsh, Canadian general (b. 1909) 2000 &ndash; Terence McKenna, American botanist and philosopher (b. 1946) 2000 &ndash; Dina Abramowicz, Librarian and YIVO and Yiddish language expert (b. 1909)<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/09/nyregion/dina-abramowicz-90-librarian-and-yiddish-expert-dies.html\|titleDina Abramowicz, 90, Librarian and Yiddish Expert, Dies\|lastBerger\|firstJoseph\|newspaperNew York Times\|date9 April 2000 \|access-date2018-10-17\|languageen}}</ref> 2005 &ndash; François Gérin, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1944) 2007 &ndash; Nina Wang, Chinese businesswoman (b. 1937) 2008 &ndash; Hrvoje Ćustić, Croatian footballer (b. 1983) 2012 &ndash; Mingote, Spanish cartoonist and journalist (b. 1919) * 2012 &ndash; Richard Descoings, French civil servant (b. 1958) * 2012 &ndash; Govind Narain, Indian politician, 8th Governor of Karnataka (b. 1917) * 2012 &ndash; Chief Jay Strongbow, American wrestler (b. 1928) * 2012 &ndash; José María Zárraga, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1930) 2013 &ndash; Mariví Bilbao, Spanish actress (b. 1930) 2013 &ndash; Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German-American author and screenwriter (b. 1927) 2014 &ndash; Régine Deforges, French author, playwright, and director (b. 1935) 2014 &ndash; Fred Kida, American illustrator (b. 1920) * 2014 &ndash; Prince Michael of Prussia (b. 1940) * 2014 &ndash; Jovan Pavlović, Serbian metropolitan (b. 1936) * 2014 &ndash; Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith, American guitarist, fiddler, and composer (b. 1921) 2015 &ndash; Sarah Brady, American activist and author (b. 1942) 2015 &ndash; Bob Burns, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1950) * 2015 &ndash; Shmuel Wosner, Austrian-Israeli rabbi and author (b. 1913) 2016 &ndash; Cesare Maldini, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1932) 2016 &ndash; Joe Medicine Crow, American anthropologist, historian, and author (b. 1913) * 2016 &ndash; Koji Wada, Japanese singer and songwriter (b. 1974) 2017 &ndash; Kishori Amonkar, Indian classical vocalist (b. 1931) 2021 &ndash; Stan Stephens, Canadian-American politician, 20th Governor of Montana (b. 1929)<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://billingsgazette.com/news/state-and-regional/former-montana-gov-stan-stephens-dies-at-91/article_ab9cf8bd-8dba-5bd0-8f80-bcea6e98d5e9.html\|title Former Montana Gov. Stan Stephens dies at 91\| date=5 April 2021 }}</ref> 2022 &ndash; June Brown, English actress (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite web \|titleJune Brown: EastEnders veteran who became a mainstay of British soaps \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/june-brown-eastenders-dot-cotton-dead-b1994718.html \|websiteThe Independent \|access-date4 April 2022 \|languageen \|date4 April 2022}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Bob Lanigan, Australian rugby league player (b. 1942)<ref>{{cite news \|titleVale Bob Lanigan \|urlhttps://www.nrl.com/news/2024/04/04/vale-bob-lanigan/ \|access-date4 April 2024 \|publisherNRL \|date=4 April 2024}}</ref> * 2024 &ndash; Gaetano Pesce, Italian architect and designer (b. 1939)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAton \|firstFrancesca \|date2024-04-04 \|titleGaetano Pesce, Italian Architect and Designer Celebrated for Surreal Creations, Has Died at 84 \|urlhttps://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/italian-architect-and-designer-gaetano-pesce-dead-at-84-1234701769/ \|access-date2024-04-07 \|websiteARTnews.com \|languageen-US}}</ref> <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not add fictional characters to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances * Christian feast day: Agape, Chionia, and Irene Burgundofara Luigi Scrosoppi Richard of Chichester ** April 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/3 BBC: On This Day] * {{NYT On this day\|month4\|day3}} * [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/3 Historical Events on April 3] {{months}} Category:Days of April	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_3	2025-04-05T18:25:59.057238
2282	Alexis Korner	{{short description\|British blues musician and radio broadcaster (1928–1984)}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2013}} {{More citations needed\|date=June 2014}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2017}} {{Infobox musical artist \| name = Alexis Korner \| image = Alexis-Korner.jpg \| caption = Alexis Korner, Musikhalle Hamburg, November 1972 \| birth_name = Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner \| alias = "Father of British Blues" \| birth_date {{birth date\|dfyes\|1928\|04\|19}} \| birth_place = Paris, France \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfyes\|1984\|01\|01\|1928\|04\|19}} \| death_place = London, England \| instrument Vocals, acoustic & electric guitar, mandolin, piano<ref name"AKInstruments">{{cite web \|title'The Alexis Korner Collection' \|urlhttp://freshonthenet.co.uk/2010/12/alexis/ \|websiteFreshonthenet.co.uk \|date2 December 2010 \|access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref> \| genre = Blues, blues rock \| occupations = Musician, singer-songwriter, historian, broadcaster \| years_active = 1955–1984 \| label = Decca, Polydor, Spot Records, CBS Records, Transatlantic Records, Fontana, RAK Records, Tempo, Brain Records, Liberty, Atlantic/Metronome, 77 Records, Warner Bros., Charisma \| past_member_of = Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated, Free At Last, CCS, Snape \| website = }} Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner (19 April 1928 – 1 January 1984), known professionally as Alexis Korner, was a British blues musician and radio broadcaster, who has sometimes been referred to as "a founding father of British blues".<ref>{{Google books\|iDE0dH6ZLwUC\|Then, now and rare British beat 1960–1969 by Terry Rawlings\|page115}}</ref> A major influence on the sound of the British music scene in the 1960s,<ref name"ibndjr"/> he was instrumental in the formation of several notable British bands including The Rolling Stones and Free. Korner was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the musical influence category in 2024. Early career Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner was born on 19 April 1928 in Paris, France,<ref name"Larkin">{{cite book\|titleThe Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music\|editorColin Larkin\|editor-linkColin Larkin (writer)\|publisherVirgin Books\|date1997\|editionConcise\|isbn1-85227-745-9\|page723}}</ref> to an Austrian Jewish father<ref>Jack Hamilton, Just Around Midnight: Rock and Roll and the Racial Imagination, 2016, p.111</ref> and a mother of Greek, Turkish and Austrian descent.<ref>{{cite web \|authoriTunes\|titleAlexis Korner Biography\|websiteiTunes \|urlhttps://music.apple.com/gb/artist/alexis-korner/3194103\|access-date3 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|publisherRolling Stone\|titleFricke's Picks: Free, Bluesman Alexis Korner, "Scandinavia Action Jazz"\|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/blogs/alternate-take/frickes-picks-free-bluesman-alexis-korner-scandinavia-action-jazz-20061117\|access-date3 October 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140122212120/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/blogs/alternate-take/frickes-picks-free-bluesman-alexis-korner-scandinavia-action-jazz-20061117\|quoteHe was also the unlikely ground zero of British R&B; -- a Paris-born singer-guitarist of very non-Delta roots (Korner was part Greek, Turkish and Austrian) \|archive-date22 January 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> He spent his childhood in France, Switzerland and North Africa, and arrived in London in 1940 after the start of the Second World War. One memory of his youth was listening to a record by black pianist Jimmy Yancey during a German air raid. Korner said, "From then on all I wanted to do was play the blues."<ref name"tsxbpf">{{cite web \|lastEder \|firstBruce \|titleAlexis Korner &#124; Biography \|urlhttp://www.allmusic.com/artist/alexis-korner-mn0000001020/biography \|publisherAllMusic \|access-date=27 June 2014}}</ref> After the war, Korner played piano and guitar (his first guitar was built by friend and author Sydney Hopkins, who wrote Mister God, This Is Anna) and in 1949 joined Chris Barber's Jazz Band<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rocksbackpagesblogs.com/2009/09/chris-barber-father-of-british-rb/\|authorJohn Pigeon\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100128073947/http://www.rocksbackpagesblogs.com/2009/09/chris-barber-father-of-british-rb/\|publisherRocks Back Pages\|titleChris Barber: Father of British R&B\|date28 September 2009\|archive-date28 January 2010}}</ref> where he met blues harmonica player Cyril Davies. They started playing together as a duo, started the influential London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in 1955 and made their first record together in 1957.<ref name"Larkin"/> Korner made his first official record on Decca Records DFE 6286 in the company of Ken Colyer's Skiffle Group. His talent extended to playing mandolin on one of the tracks of this British EP, recorded in London on 28 July 1955. Korner encouraged many American blues artists, previously virtually unknown in Britain, to perform at the London Blues and Barrelhouse Club, which he established with Davies at the Round House pub in Soho.<ref>{{Google books\|4y-oDmH2YzYC\|The Beatles, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band by Allan F. Moore\|page9}}</ref>The 1960s {{Main\|Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated}} In 1961, Korner and Davies formed Blues Incorporated,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rocksbackpagesblogs.com/2009/09/blues-incorporated-how-british-rb-trashed-trad\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110728141506/http://www.rocksbackpagesblogs.com/2009/09/blues-incorporated-how-british-rb-trashed-trad\|archivedate28 July 2011\|firstJohn\|lastPidgeon\|date24 Sep 2009\|titleBlues Incorporated: How British R&B Trashed Trad}}</ref> initially a loose-knit group of musicians with a shared love of electric blues and R&B music.<ref name"Larkin"/> The group included, at various times, Charlie Watts, Jack Bruce, Ginger Baker, Long John Baldry, Graham Bond, Danny Thompson and Dick Heckstall-Smith.<ref name"Larkin"/> It also attracted a wider crowd of mostly younger fans, some of whom occasionally performed with the group, including Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Brian Jones, Geoff Bradford, Rod Stewart, John Mayall, and Jimmy Page.<ref nameShapiro1997>{{cite book\|last Shapiro \|first Harry \|title Alexis Korner: The Biography \|year1997\|publisher Bloomsbury \|isbn 0-7475-3163-3}}</ref> Although Cyril Davies left the group in late 1962, Blues Incorporated continued to record, with Korner at the helm, until 1966. However, by that time its originally stellar line-up (and crowd of followers) had mostly left to start their own bands. While his one-time acolytes, the Rolling Stones and Cream, made the front pages of music magazines all over the world, Korner was relegated to the role of 'elder statesman'.<ref name="Larkin"/> In 1966, Korner formed the trio Free At Last with Hughie Flint and Binky McKenzie.<ref name"Larkin"/> Flint later recalled "I played with Alexis, right after leaving The Bluesbreakers, in a trio, which Alexis named Free At Last, a sort of mini and slightly restricted version of Blues Incorporated. Playing with Alexis was very loose. We would play anything from Percy Mayfield's ‘River's Invitation' to Charles Mingus' ‘Better Get It In Your Soul' – with lots of freaky guitar and bass solos. Alexis, like John Mayall had the most eclectic taste in music, very knowledgeable, and generous, and I am indebted to both of them for my wide approach to music".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://blues.gr/m/blogpost?id1982923%3ABlogPost%3A227958 \|titleVeteran British drummer Hughie Flint talks about the Blues, Jazz, Beano album, and Buddha's teaching \|publisherMichael Limnios Blues Network \|date 9 September 2015 \|access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref> Although Free At Last was short-lived, Korner ensured its name lived on in part by christening another young group of aspiring musicians, Free. Korner was instrumental in the formation of the band in April 1968, and continued to mentor them until they secured a deal with Island Records.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2022}}<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBlake \|firstMark \|date19 March 2024 \|titlePaul Kossoff: The Spectacular Rise and the Tragic Fall of a True Guitar Legend \|urlhttps://www.loudersound.com/features/paul-kossoff-story \|access-date13 April 2024 \|websiteLouder Sound}}</ref> Although he himself was a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians during the blues boom of the late 1960s for their blind adherence to Chicago blues, as if the music came in no other form. He liked to surround himself with jazz musicians and often performed with a horn section drawn from a pool that included, among others, saxophone players Art Themen, Mel Collins, Dick Heckstall-Smith, and Lol Coxhill.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://reocities.com/SunsetStrip/Palladium/9932/chodg_s.htm \|titleColin Hodgkinson sessions (The Musicians' Olympus) \|publisherReocities.com \|access-date27 June 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029203249/http://reocities.com/SunsetStrip/Palladium/9932/chodg_s.htm \|archive-date29 October 2013 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> While touring Scandinavia he formed the band New Church with guitarist and singer Peter Thorup.<ref name"Larkin"/> They subsequently were one of the support bands at the Rolling Stones Free Concert in Hyde Park, London, on 5 July 1969. Jimmy Page reportedly found out about a new singer, Robert Plant, who had been jamming with Korner, who wondered why Plant had not yet been discovered. Plant and Korner were recording an album with Plant on vocals until Page had asked him to join "the New Yardbirds", a.k.a. Led Zeppelin. Only two songs are in circulation from these recordings: "Steal Away" and "Operator".<ref name"Shapiro1997"/> Korner gave one of his last radio interviews to BBC Midlands on the Record Collectors Show with Mike Adams and Chris Savory. Broadcasting In the 1960s Korner began a media career, working initially as a showbusiness interviewer and then on ITV's ''Five O'Clock Club'', a children's TV show.<ref name"Larkin"/> Korner also wrote about blues for the music papers, and continued to maintain his own career as a blues artist, especially in Europe. Korner's main career in the 1970s was in broadcasting. In 1973, he presented a six-part documentary on BBC Radio 1, The Rolling Stones Story,<ref name"ibndjr">{{cite web\|urlhttp://radiorewind.co.uk/alexis_korner_page.htm\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070403083203/http://radiorewind.co.uk/alexis_korner_page.htm\|archivedate3 April 2007\|title Radio Rewind - BBC Radio 1 People - Alexis Korner - Blues Man \|date1984}}</ref> and in 1977 he established a Sunday-night show on Radio 1, ''Alexis Korner's Blues and Soul Show'', which ran until 1981.<ref name"Larkin"/> He also used his gravelly voice to great effect as an advertising voice-over artist. In 1983, Korner presented the 13 part BBC Radio 1 series, Guitar Greats, interviewing each of the artists, and playing their music. 1970s CCS period {{main\|CCS (band)}} in Bremen]] In 1970, Korner and Thorup formed a big-band ensemble, CCS – short for "The Collective Consciousness Society" – which had several hit singles produced by Mickie Most, including a version of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love", which was used as the theme for BBC's Top of the Pops between 1970 and 1981. Another instrumental called "Brother" was used as the theme to the BBC Radio 1 Top 20/40 when Tom Browne/Simon Bates presented the programme in the 1970s. It was also used in the 1990s on Radio Luxembourg for the Top 20 Singles chart. This was the period of Korner's greatest commercial success in the UK.<ref name"Shapiro1997"/> In 1973, he provided a voice part for the Hot Chocolate single release Brother Louie.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id10625 \|titleBrother Louie by Hot Chocolate \|websiteSongfacts.com \|access-date5 November 2017}}</ref> 1970s to 1984 In 1973, he and Peter Thorup formed another group, Snape, with Boz Burrell, Mel Collins, and Ian Wallace, who were previously together in King Crimson.<ref name"Larkin"/> Korner also played on B.B. King's In London album, and cut his own, similar "supersession" album; Get Off My Cloud, with Keith Richards, Steve Marriott, Peter Frampton, Nicky Hopkins and members of Joe Cocker's Grease Band. In the mid-1970s, while touring Germany, Korner established an intensive working relationship with bassist Colin Hodgkinson who played for the support act Back Door.<ref name"Larkin"/> They would continue to collaborate right up until Korner's death.<ref name="Shapiro1997"/> In 1978, for Korner's 50th birthday, an all-star concert was held featuring many of his above-mentioned friends, as well as Eric Clapton, Paul Jones, Chris Farlowe, Zoot Money and others, which was later released as The Party Album, and as a video.<ref name="Larkin"/> In 1981, Korner joined another "supergroup", Rocket 88, a project led by Ian Stewart based on boogie-woogie keyboard players, which featured a rhythm section comprising Jack Bruce and Charlie Watts, among others, as well as a horn section.<ref name"Larkin"/> They toured Europe and released an album on Atlantic Records. He played in Italy with Paul Jones and the Blues Society of Italian bluesman Guido Toffoletti.Family life and death In 1950, Korner married Roberta Melville (died 2021), daughter of art critic Robert Melville.<ref>The Times, Obituaries: Alexis Korner, 3 January 1984</ref> He had a daughter, singer Sappho Gillett Korner (died 2006), and two sons, guitarist Nicholas 'Nico' Korner (died 1989) and sound engineer Damian Korner (died 2008). Alexis Korner died in London from lung cancer on 1 January 1984, at the age of 55.<ref name="Larkin"/> Korner was posthumously inducted, by Keith Richards, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2024 in the musical influence category.<ref name"rrhof24">{{cite web \|title2024 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees \|urlhttps://rockhall.com/2024-inductees/ \|websiteRock & Roll Hall of Fame \|access-date2024-04-22 \|date2024-04-22}}</ref><ref name"hofgreene">{{cite magazine \|last1Greene \|first1Andy \|titleCher, Ozzy Osbourne, Dave Matthews Band, Mary J. Blige Lead Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 2024 Class \|urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/rock-hall-fame-2024-cher-ozzy-osbourne-dave-matthews-band-mary-j-blige-1235007784/ \|magazineRolling Stone \|access-date2024-04-22 \|date2024-04-22}}</ref><ref name"Alexis Korner RRHF 2024 Biography">{{cite web \|title2024 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Inductees - Alexis Korner Biography \|urlhttps://rockhall.com/inductees/alexis-korner/ \|access-date2024-10-23 }}</ref> Album discography (selected UK and other releases) * Blues from the Roundhouse 10-inch (1957) – Alexis Korner's Breakdown Group * R&B from the Marquee (1962) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated * Red Hot from Alex (1964) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated * At the Cavern (1964) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated * ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated'' (1965) – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated * Sky High (1966) – Alexis Korner Blues Incorporated * I Wonder Who (1967) * ''Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated (re-issue of Sky High'') – Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated * A New Generation of Blues (1968) * Both Sides (1970) – New Church * CCS 1st (1970) – CCS * Alexis Korner (1971) * Bootleg Him! (1972) * CCS 2nd (1972) – CCS * Accidentally Borne in New Orleans<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://alexis-korner.net/snape.html \|title"Accidentally Born in New Orleans" SNAPE \|publisherAlexis-korner.net \|access-date27 June 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150705163145/http://alexis-korner.net/snape.html \|archive-date5 July 2015 \|dfdmy-all}}</ref> (1972) – with Peter Thorup; Snape * Live on Tour in Germany (1973) – with Peter Thorup; Snape * The Best Band in the Land (1973) – CCS * Alexis Korner (1974) * Get Off My Cloud (1975) * The Lost Album (1977) * Just Easy (1978) * The Party Album (1979) – Alexis Korner and Friends * Me (1980) * Rocket 88 (1981) – Rocket 88 * Juvenile Delinquent (1984) * Testament (1985) – with Colin Hodgkinson * Live in Paris (1988) – with Colin Hodgkinson Bibliography * Bob Brunning (1986), Blues: The British Connection, London: Helter Skelter, 2002. {{ISBN\|1-900924-41-2}} * Bob Brunning, The Fleetwood Mac Story: Rumours and Lies, Omnibus Press, 2004; foreword by B.B. King * Dick Heckstall-Smith (2004), The Safest Place in the World: A Personal History of British Rhythm and Blues, Clear Books. {{ISBN\|0-7043-2696-5}}. First Edition: Blowing the Blues – Fifty Years Playing the British Blues * Christopher Hjort, Strange Brew: Eric Clapton and the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970, foreword by John Mayall, Jawbone, 2007. {{ISBN\|1-906002-00-2}} * Harry Shapiro, Alexis Korner: The Biography, London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 1997; Discography by Mark Troster. {{ISBN\|0-7475-3163-3}} References {{reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Alexis Korner}} * [{{AllMusic\|classartist\|idp412\|pure_url=yes}} Biography] at AllMusic * [http://www.britishmusicexperience.com/?PageID=98 Biography at British Music Experience] * [http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/radio1/alexis_korner_page.htm Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind] * [https://vimeo.com/62745824 BBC Radio 2 radio documentary about Alexis Korner] on Vimeo * {{discogs artist\|Alexis Korner}} * {{IMDb name\|id=0180309}} {{2024 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Korner, Alexis}} Category:1928 births Category:1984 deaths Category:20th-century British guitarists Category:20th-century British male singers Category:BBC Radio 1 presenters Category:Blues Incorporated members Category:Blues revival musicians Category:British DJs Category:British blues guitarists Category:British blues singers Category:British male guitarists Category:British male singer-songwriters Category:British radio presenters Category:British rhythm and blues boom musicians Category:CCS (band) members Category:Charisma Records artists Category:Columbia Records artists Category:Deaths from lung cancer in England Category:Decca Records artists Category:English people of Austrian-Jewish descent Category:English people of Greek descent Category:English people of Turkish descent Category:Fontana Records artists Category:Liberty Records artists Category:Musicians from London Category:Polydor Records artists Category:Transatlantic Records artists Category:Warner Records artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Korner	2025-04-05T18:25:59.068540
2284	Assault gun	{{Short description\|Class of self-propelled artillery}} {{distinguish\|assault rifle\|assault weapon}} {{More citations needed\|date=January 2013}} {{Multiple image \| total_width = 410 \| perrow = 2 \| header = {{large\|Assault gun}} \| image1 = StuG III Ausf. G.jpg \| image2 = Sherman Tank WW2.jpg \| image3 = Ikv 90 rolling (cropped).jpg \| image4 = JGSDF Type 16.jpg \| footer = Top left: German WWII Stug III assault guns in Finnish service.<br />Top right: US WWII M4A3 (105) assault gun.<br />Lower left: Swedish Cold War Ikv 91 assault gun.<br />Lower right: Japanese Type 16 maneuver combat vehicle {{nowrap\|({{langx\|ja\|16式機動戦闘車}})}} modern assault gun. }} An assault gun (from {{langx\|de\|Sturmgeschütz}}, {{literally\|storm gun}}, meaning "assault gun")<ref nameWehrmacht1/><ref name"Bull">{{cite book \|lastBull \|firstStephen \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmi0000bull \|titleEncyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|year2004 \|isbn978-1573565578 \|edition2004 \|page229 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> is a type of armored infantry support vehicle and self-propelled artillery, mounting an infantry support gun on a protected self-propelled chassis,<ref name"Bradford">{{cite book \|lastBradford \|firstJames \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000unse_m8i3 \|titleInternational Encyclopedia of Military History \|publisherRoutledge Books \|year2006 \|isbn978-0415936613 \|edition2006 \|pages123–124 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> intended for providing infantry with heavy direct fire support during engagement, especially against other infantry or fortified positions, secondarily also giving some armored protection and anti-armor capability.<ref nameWehrmacht1>{{cite book \|lastBlennemann \|firstDirk \|titleHitler's Army: The Evolution And Structure Of German Forces 1933-1945 \|date2003 \|pages66–63 \|publisherDa Capo Press \|locationBoston \|isbn978-0306812606 }}</ref> Assault guns were pioneered by the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany during the 1930s, initially being self-propelled guns with direct fire in mind (such as the Soviet SU-5-1), with Germany introducing the first purpose-built (and purpose-named) assault gun, the {{Lang\|de\|Sturmgeschütz III}}, in 1940.<ref nameWehrmacht1/> Concept, doctrine and design The concept of the assault gun can be simplified into: a protected self propelled infantry gun, intended for the infantry brigades, in order to give infantry: mobile heavy direct fire capability against protected enemy positions and threats, which can move with infantry in assaults, and secondarily give some armored protection against enemy fire. Historically, the concept of assault guns was very similar to that of the infantry tank, as both were combat vehicles intended to accompany infantry formations into battle, but where assault gun designs often skipped tank features and design elements deemed unnecessary for reasons of cost and doctrine.<ref name"Gudmundsson">{{cite book \|lastGudmundsson \|firstBruce \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrUs-hHd89xAC&pgPA114 \|titleOn Armor \|date2004 \|publisherPrager Books \|isbn978-0812216202 \|locationWestport, Connecticut \|pages114–126}}</ref> However, during World War II assault guns were more mobile than tanks and could be utilized as both direct and indirect fire artillery.<ref nameGudmundsson/> Although they could approximate the firepower of a tank, assault guns mostly fired high explosive shells at relatively low velocities, which were well suited for their role of knocking out hard points such as fortified positions and buildings.<ref nameGudmundsson/> They were not intended to be deployed as tank substitutes or dedicated tank destroyers.<ref nameGudmundsson/> Nevertheless, as the conflict progressed, the increasing proliferation of tanks on the battlefield forced many assault gun units to engage armor in defense of the infantry, and led to armies becoming more dependent on multipurpose designs which combined the traditionally separate roles of an assault gun and a tank destroyer.<ref nameWehrmacht2>{{cite book\|lastTucker-Jones\|firstAnthony\|titleGerman Assault Guns and Tank Destroyers 1940 - 1945: Rare Photographs from Wartime Archives\|date2016\|page114\|publisherPen & Sword Books, Ltd\|locationBarnsley, South Yorkshire\|isbn978-1473845992}}</ref> German and Soviet assault guns introduced during World War II usually carried their main armament in a fully enclosed casemate rather than a gun turret.<ref name"Levine">{{cite book \|lastLevine \|firstMark \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id68hFznwxoNIC&pgPA21 \|titleD-Day to Berlin: The Northwest Europe Campaign, 1944-45 \|date2000 \|publisherStackpole Books \|isbn978-0811733861 \|locationMechanicsburg \|pages21–22}}</ref> Although this limited the field of fire and traverse of the armament, it also had the advantage of a reduced silhouette and simplified the manufacturing process.<ref nameLevine/> The United States never developed a purpose-built assault gun during the war, although it did modify preexisting armored fighting vehicles for that role, including the M4 Sherman (as the M4(105)), the M5 Stuart (as the M8 Scott), and the M3 half-track (as the T19 Howitzer Motor Carriage).<ref name"Colt">{{cite book \|last1Gabel \|first1Christopher \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/campcolttodesert0000unse \|titleCamp Colt to Desert Storm: The History of U.S. Armored Forces \|last2Estes \|first2Kenneth \|dateAugust 1999 \|publisherUniversity Press of Kentucky \|isbn978-0813121307 \|editor1-lastHoffman \|editor1-firstGeorge \|locationLexington, Kentucky \|pages149–156, 479–481 \|editor2-lastStarry \|editor2-firstDonn \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> The classic assault gun concept was largely abandoned during the postwar era in favor of tanks or multipurpose tank destroyers attached to infantry formations, which were also capable of providing direct fire support as needed. In the United States and most Western countries, the assault gun ceased to be recognized as a unique niche, with individual examples being classified either as a self-propelled howitzer or a tank,<ref name"Knox1">{{cite journal \|lastUnderhill \|firstGarrett \|dateNovember–December 1972 \|titleThe Story Of Soviet Armor: Assault Guns And Self-Propelled Artillery \|journalArmor \|locationFort Knox, Kentucky \|publisherUS Army Armor Center \|pages28–38}}</ref> one exception being Sweden, which continued to develop casemate assault guns post-war, such as the Infanterikanonvagn 72, all the way into the 1960s before settling on a turreted design in 1968, becoming the Infanterikanonvagn 91.<ref name"fromtheswedisharchives ikv91">{{cite web \|lastsp15 \|dateSep 29, 2018 \|titleSwedish tanks: Ikv 91 revisited \|urlhttps://fromtheswedisharchives.wordpress.com/2018/09/29/swedish-tanks-ikv-91-revisited/ \|access-date2022-05-16 \|websiteFrom the swedish archives \|publisherWordPress.com}}</ref> The Soviet Union continued funding development of new assault guns as late as 1967, although few of its postwar designs were adopted in large numbers.<ref name"Knox2">{{cite journal \|lastWarford \|firstJames \|dateJuly–September 2016 \|titleArmored Vehicle Development Behind The Curtain: The Secret Life Of The Soviet SU-122-54 Assault Gun \|journalArmor \|locationFort Knox, Kentucky \|publisherUS Army Armor Center \|pages12–14}}</ref> In Soviet and Eastern European armies, the traditional assault gun was primarily superseded by tank destroyers, such as the SU-100, which is capable of supporting either infantry or armor.<ref name"Knox1"/> Since the 1980s, the multi-purpose assault gun concept has seen a resurgence, mainly in the form of turreted wheeled designs, such as the South African Rooikat and Italian B1 Centauro. Today, modern assault guns include the Japanese Type 16 maneuver combat vehicle and the American M1128 Stryker and M10 Booker. History World War II was easily constructed in small factories incapable of producing proper tanks.]] Assault guns were primarily developed during World War II by the forces of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Early in the war, the Germans began to create makeshift assault guns by mounting their infantry support weapons on the bed of a truck or on obsolete tanks with the turret removed. Later in the war, both the Germans and the Soviets introduced fully armoured purpose-built assault guns into their arsenals. Early on, the Soviets built the KV-2, a variant of the KV-1 heavy tank with a short-barreled 152 mm howitzer mounted in an oversized turret. This was not a success in battle, and was replaced with a very successful series of turretless assault guns: the SU-76, SU-122, and the heavy SU-152, which were followed by the ISU-122 and ISU-152 on the new IS heavy tank chassis. assault gun, here in one of its early configurations, armed with a 75 mm StuK 37 howitzer]] The primary German assault gun was the {{Lang\|de\|Sturmgeschütz III}} (StuG III). At about the same time (March 1942) as the howitzer-like KwK 37 gun was dropped from the Panzer IV's use, its Sturmkanone equivalent in the StuG III up to that time, was likewise replaced with a longer-barreled, high-velocity dual-purpose 75 mm gun that had also been derived from the successful PaK 40 anti-tank towed artillery piece. The Germans also built a number of other fully armoured turretless assault guns, including the StuG IV, StuIG 33B, {{Lang\|de\|Brummbär}} and {{Lang\|de\|Sturmtiger}}. This last one was a very heavy vehicle, and was built only in small quantities. Battalions of assault guns, usually StuG IIIs, commonly replaced the intended panzer battalion in the German {{Lang\|de\|panzergrenadier}} divisions due to the chronic shortage of tanks, and were sometimes used as makeshifts even in the panzer divisions.<ref>Thomas L. Jentz (1996): Panzertruppen: The Complete Guide to the Creation & Combat Employment of Germany's Tank Force, vol.2, 1943-1945, p.68</ref> Independent battalions were also deployed as "stiffeners" for infantry divisions, and the StuG III's anti-tank capabilities bolstered dwindling tank numbers on the Eastern and Western fronts. assault gun M8 Scott]] US and UK forces also deployed vehicles designed for a close support role, but these were conventional tanks whose only significant modification was the replacement of the main gun with a howitzer. Two versions of the American Sherman tank were armed with the M4 105 mm howitzer, the M4(105) and the M4A3(105); these were designated assault guns in US usage of the term. The M8 Scott, based on the chassis of the M5 Stuart light tank, was also an assault cannon and carried a 75 mm short howitzer. The Churchill, Centaur and Cromwell tanks were all produced in versions armed with 95&nbsp;mm howitzers: the Churchill Mark V and Mark VIII, the Centaur Mark IV and the Cromwell Mark VI. Earlier British tanks, such as the Crusader cruiser tank and the Matilda II Infantry tank were produced in versions armed with the 3-inch howitzer; the first versions of the Churchill tank also had this gun in a hull mounting. American tank destroyer units were often used in the assault gun role for infantry support. The AVRE version of the Churchill tank was armed with a spigot mortar that fired a {{convert\|40\|lb\|kg\|abbron}} HE-filled projectile (nicknamed the Flying Dustbin) {{convert\|150\|yd\|m}}. Its task was to attack fortified positions such as bunkers at close range (see Hobart's Funnies). Since World War II In the post-World War II era, most vehicles fitting into an "assault gun" category were developed as a light-weight, air-deployable, direct fire combat vehicles for use with airborne troops. Those weapons were either based on light utility vehicles or small tracked vehicles and the airborne troops thus always fought at a distinct disadvantage in terms of heavy weapons. The Soviet Union and the United States were the most attracted to the idea of providing this capability to traditionally light airborne forces. Their answers to the problem were similar, with the United States developing the M56 Scorpion and the Soviet Union developing the ASU-57, both essentially airdroppable light anti-tank guns. air-deployable assault gun]] The Soviets went on to develop an improved airdroppable assault gun, the ASU-85, which served through the 1980s, while their SU-100 remained in service with Communist countries, including Vietnam and Cuba, years after World War II. The US M56 and another armoured vehicle, the M50 Ontos, were to be the last of the more traditional assault guns in US service. Improvised arrangements such as M113 personnel carriers with recoilless rifles were quickly replaced by missile carrier vehicles in the anti-tank role. The only vehicle with the qualities of an assault gun to be fielded after the removal of the M50 and M56 from service within the US military was the M551 Sheridan. The Sheridan's gun was a low-velocity weapon suitable in the assault role, but with the addition of the Shillelagh missile could double in the anti-tank role as well. The Sheridan, however, was not developed as an assault gun but as a light reconnaissance vehicle. assault gun]] Currently, there appears to be a move toward wheeled vehicles fitting a "tank destroyer" or "assault gun" role, such as the M1128 mobile gun system of the United States Army, the B1 Centauro wheeled tank destroyer of the Italian and Spanish Armies, the Chinese anti-tank gun PTL-02 and ZBL08 assault gun, and the French AMX-10 RC heavy armoured car. While these vehicles might be useful in a direct fire role, none were developed with this specifically in mind, reminiscent of the use of tank destroyers by the US military in the assault gun role during World War II. Assault guns per nation Germany ]] * 1940 – Sturmgeschütz III * 1940 – Sturmpanzer I Bison * 1941 – Sturmpanzer II * 1942 – Sturmpanzer III * 1942 – Sturm-Infanteriegeschütz 33B * 1943 – Sturmhaubitze 42 * 1943 – Sturmgeschütz IV * 1943 – Sturmpanzer IV Stupa * 1943 – Sturmpanzer 38(t) Grille Ausf. H * 1944 – Sturmpanzer 38(t) Grille Ausf. K * 1944 – Sturmpanzer VI Sturmtiger Hungary ]] * 1943 – 43M Zrínyi II * 1944 – 44M Zrínyi I Sweden ]] * 1943 – Stormpjäs fm/43 * 1944 – Stormpjäs fm/43-44 * 1944 – Stormartillerivagn m/43 * 1953 – Infanterikanonvagn 72 * 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 73 * 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 102 * 1957 – Infanterikanonvagn 103 * 1976 – Infanterikanonvagn 91 * 1994 – Stridsfordon 90105{{citation needed\|date=January 2025}} * 1998 – Stridsfordon 90120{{citation needed\|dateJanuary 2025}} USA ]] * 1941 – T18 HMC<ref>{{cite web \|title75 mm Howitzer Motor Carriage T18 \|urlhttps://tanks-encyclopedia.com/75-mm-howitzer-motor-carriage-t18/ \|websitetanks-encyclopedia.com \|access-date2025-01-24}}</ref> * 1942 – M8 Scott * 1944 – M4 Sherman 105 * 1953 – M56 Scorpion<ref name"Estes">{{cite book \|last1Estes \|first1Kenneth W. \|titleM50 Ontos and M56 Scorpion 1956–70: US Tank Destroyers of the Vietnam War \|pages=4, 33, 36}}</ref> * 1956 – M50 Ontos<ref name="Estes"/> * 1969 – M551 Sheridan<ref>{{cite web \|titleM551 Armored Reconnaissance/Airborne Assault Vehicle \|urlhttps://www.inetres.com/gp/military/cv/tank/M551.html \|websiteinetres.com \|access-date2025-01-24}}</ref> * 1985 – CCVL<ref name"Freeman">{{cite thesis \|lastFreeman \|firstMajor Marshall A. \|date5 April 1991 \|titleThe Army Needs a Strategic Armored Gun System—Now! \|typeWar College Individual Study Project \|publisherU.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks \|urlhttps://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA236965.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220512222853/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA236965.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-dateMay 12, 2022 \|access-date10 March 2022 \|pages=12–14, 16}}</ref> * 1992 – M8 AGS<ref name="Freeman"/> * 2002 – M1128 Stryker (LAV-105)<ref name="Freeman"/> * 2021 – XM1302 MPF{{efn\|By extension of the M8 AGS program and the following MPF program.}} * 2022 – M10 Booker<ref name"Moran 2023-01-08">{{cite web \|author1Nicholas Moran\|titleInside the Chieftain's Hatch Snapshot: XM10 Booker \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vBdPmpidUbWo \|websiteyoutube.com \|publisherThe Chieftain \|access-date2025-01-24 \|date2023-01-08 }}</ref><ref name"Moran 2023-01-19">{{cite web \|author1Nicholas Moran \|titleTen Responses to the MPF Discussion \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vmF_5jnVre90 \|websiteyoutube.com \|publisherThe Chieftain \|access-date2025-01-24 \|date2023-01-19 }}</ref> See also * {{Lang\|de\|Jagdpanzer}} * {{Lang\|de\|Panzerjäger}} * {{Lang\|de\|Sturmgeschütz}} * List of infantry support guns Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Assault Gun}}	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_gun	2025-04-05T18:25:59.078736
2286	Tank destroyer	thumb\|Two American M10 tank destroyers in Belgium during World War II A tank destroyer, tank hunter or tank killer is a type of armoured fighting vehicle, predominantly intended for anti-tank duties. They are typically armed with a direct fire artillery gun, also known as a self-propelled anti-tank gun, or missile launcher, also called an anti-tank missile carrier. The vehicles are designed specifically to engage and destroy enemy tanks, often with limited operational capacities. While tanks are designed for front-line combat, combining operational mobility and tactical offensive and defensive capabilities and performing all primary tasks of the armoured troops, the tank destroyer is specifically designed to take on enemy tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. Many are based on a tracked tank chassis, while others are wheeled. Since World War II, gun-armed powerful tank destroyers have fallen out of favor as armies have favored multirole main battle tanks. However, lightly armoured anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) carriers are commonly used for supplementary long-range anti-tank work. The resurgence of expeditionary warfare in the first two decades of the 21st century has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called "protected gun systems", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low-intensity operations, as was done in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. World War II Dedicated anti-tank vehicles made their first major appearance in the Second World War as combatants developed effective armoured vehicles and tactics. Some were little more than stopgap solutions, mounting an anti-tank gun on a tracked vehicle to give mobility, while others were more sophisticated designs. An example of the development of tank destroyer technology throughout the war is the Marder III and Jagdpanzer 38 vehicles, which were very different in spite of being based on the same chassis: Marder was straightforwardly an anti-tank gun on tracks, whereas the Jagdpanzer 38 traded some firepower (its 7.5 cm Pak 39, designed to operate within the confines of a fully armoured fighting compartment, fires the same projectiles from a reduced propellant charge compared to Marder's 7.5 cm Pak 40) for better armour protection and ease of concealment on the battlefield. Except for most American designs, all tank destroyers were turretless vehicles with fixed or casemate superstructures. When a tank destroyer was used against enemy tanks from a defensive position such as by ambush, the lack of a rotating turret was not particularly critical, while the lower silhouette was highly desirable. The turretless design allowed accommodation of a more powerful gun, typically a dedicated anti-tank gun (in lieu of a regular tank's general-purpose main gun that fired both anti-tank and high explosive ammunition) that had a longer barrel than could be mounted in a turreted tank on the same chassis. The lack of a turret increased the vehicle's internal volume, allowing for increased ammunition stowage and crew comfort. Eliminating the turret let the vehicle carry thicker armour, and also let this armour be concentrated in the hull. Sometimes there was no armoured roof (only a weather cover) to keep the overall weight down to the limit that the chassis could bear. The absence of a turret meant that tank destroyers could be manufactured significantly cheaper, faster, and more easily than the tanks on which they were based, and they found particular favor when production resources were lacking. Germany thumb\|Panzerjäger I The first German tank destroyers were the Panzerjäger ("Tank Hunters"), which mounted an existing anti-tank gun on a convenient chassis for mobility, usually with just a three-sided gun shield for crew protection. For instance, 202 obsolete Panzer I light tanks were modified by removing the turret and were rebuilt as the Panzerjäger I self-propelled 4.7 cm PaK(t). Similarly, Panzer II tanks were used on the eastern front. Captured Soviet anti-tank guns were mounted on modified Panzer II chassis, producing the Marder II self-propelled anti-tank gun. The most common mounting was a German anti-tank gun on the Czech Panzer 38(t) chassis as the Marder III. The Panzer 38(t) chassis was also used to make the Jagdpanzer 38 casemate style tank destroyer. The Panzerjäger series continued up to the equipped Nashorn. German tank destroyers based on the Panzer III medium tank and later German tanks had more armour than their tank counterparts. One of the more successful German tank destroyers was designed as a self-propelled artillery gun, the Sturmgeschütz III. Based on the Panzer III tank chassis, the Sturmgeschütz III was originally fitted with a short barreled low-velocity howitzer-like gun, and was assigned to the artillery arm for infantry fire support as an assault gun. Later, after encountering Soviet tanks, it was refitted with a comparatively short-barreled high-velocity anti-tank gun, usually with a muzzle brake, enabling it to function as a tank destroyer. The Sturmgeschütz III from its 1938 origin used a new casemate-style superstructure with an integrated design, similar to the later Jagdpanzer vehicle designs' superstructure, to completely enclose the crew. It was employed in infantry support and offensive armoured operations as well as in the defensive anti-tank role. The StuG III assault gun was Germany's most-produced fully tracked armoured fighting vehicle during World War II, and second-most produced German armoured combat vehicle of any type after the Sd.Kfz. 251 half-track. thumb\|right\|Jagdpanther Although the early German Panzerjäger carried more effective weapons than the tanks on which they were based, they were generally lacking in protection for the crew, having thinly armoured open-topped superstructures. The "open-topped" design format of the Panzerjäger vehicles was succeeded by the Jagdpanzer ("hunting tanks"), which mounted the gun in true casemate-style superstructures, completely enclosing the crew compartment in armor that was usually integral to the hull. The first of these Jagdpanzers was the 70-ton Ferdinand (later renamed Elefant), based on the chassis, hulls, and drive systems of ninety-one Porsche VK4501 (P) heavy tanks, mounting a long-barreled 88 mm cannon in an added casemate, more like the earlier Panzerjägers had with their added-on armour shielding for the gun crew, but in the Ferdinand completely enclosing the gun and firing crew in the added casemate, as the later purpose-built Jagdpanzers would. However, the Ferdinand was mechanically unreliable and difficult to maneuver, and once all ninety-one unturreted "Porsche Tiger" hulls/drive systems were converted, no more were built. The German Army had more success with the Jagdpanther. Introduced in mid-1944, the Jagdpanther, of which some 415 examples were produced, was considered the best of the casemate-design Jagdpanzer designs. It featured the same powerful PaK 43 88 mm cannon used on the unwieldy Elefant, now fitted to the chassis of the medium Panther tank, providing greatly improved armour-penetrating capability in a medium-weight vehicle. Facing an increasingly defensive war, the German Army turned to larger and more powerfully armed Jagdpanzer designs, and in July 1944 the first Jagdtiger rolled off the production line; it was the heaviest German armoured fighting vehicle to go into active service. If the vehicle became immobilized due to engine failure or track damage, it could not rotate its gun to counter opposing tanks, making it highly vulnerable to counterfire. This vulnerability was later exploited by opposing tank forces. Even the largest and most powerful of German tank destroyers were found abandoned on the field after a battle, having been immobilized by one or more hits by high explosive (HE) or armour-piercing (AP) shells to the track or front drive sprocket. Italy thumb\|Semovente da 75/18 The most famous Italian tank destroyer of the Second World War was a self-propelled gun. The Semovente da 75/18, based on the M13/40 frame, was developed to support front-line infantry, and therefore had fixed armament: a 75 mm gun in casemate. However, thanks to its low height (185 cm) and the caliber of its gun the 75/18 also had good results in anti-tank combat, fighting against British and American (but not Soviet) units. After the Armistice of 1943, the 75/18 remained in use by German forces. Built on the same frame, the Semovente da 105/25 was equipped with a 105 mm gun and known as "bassotto" (Italian for dachshund) due to its lower height. As manufacturing began in 1943, the 105/25 was used by German forces. A further development was the Semovente da 75/46, which had a longer gun than the 75/18 and inclined armour 100 mm thick, making it similar to Sturmgeschütz III. Only 11 of these were manufactured. Before the Semovente da 75/18, the L40, built on an L6/40 light tank chassis, saw action in Africa and in Russia, but with disappointing results. Japan thumb\|Type 3 Ho-Ni III The Type 1 Ho-Ni I was the first self-propelled gun design of the Imperial Japanese Army. They were meant to be self-propelled artillery and tank destroyers for armoured divisions. The plan was for the Type 1 Ho-Ni I gun tank to form part of a fire support company in each of the tank regiments. The Type 1 Ho-Ni I was developed by using the existing Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tank chassis and engine, and replacing the gun turret with a Type 90 75 mm field gun mounted in an open casemate with frontal and side armour only. They entered service in 1942 and were first deployed in combat at the Battle of Luzon in the Philippines in 1945. Some were used in static entrenched positions. A variant, known as the Type 1 Ho-Ni II mounted a Type 91 105 mm howitzer and had a slightly changed superstructure as far as the side armor with re-positioned observation visors. Production began in 1943, with only 54 completed. The other variant produced was the Type 3 Ho-Ni III, which mounted a Type 3 75 mm tank gun in a completely enclosed armored casemate to address the issue of crew protection in close combat. The welded superstructure had sloped armour and the gun mount had additional stamped armour plate. The total number produced of all three types in the Ho-Ni series were 111 units. Most of the Ho-Ni units were retained within the Japanese home islands to form part of the defenses against the projected American invasion, and did not see combat before the surrender of Japan. The Type 2 Ho-I Gun tank used the Type 1 Chi-He medium tank chassis. It was designed as a self-propelled howitzer, mounting a short barreled Type 99 75 mm gun to provide close-in fire support. For deployment, the gun tank was intended to be used in a fire support company for each of the tank regiments. No Type 2 Ho-I gun tanks are known to have engaged in combat prior to Japan's surrender. The prototype was built in 1942 and 31 units were produced in 1944. The Type 4 Ho-Ro self-propelled artillery used a modified Type 97 chassis. On to this platform, a Type 38 150 mm howitzer was mounted. The main gun could fire Type 88 APHE rounds and HEAT rounds. Given its breech loader, the maximum rate of fire was only 5 rounds per minute. The gun's elevation was restricted to 30 degrees by the construction of the chassis. Other design issues included the fact that although the gun crew was protected by a gun shield with armour thickness of 25 mm at the front, the shield only extended a very short distance on the sides; leaving the rest of the sides and back exposed. They were rushed into service, deployed and saw combat during the Philippines Campaign in the last year of World War II. Remaining units were deployed to Okinawa in ones and twos for island defense during the Battle of Okinawa, but were severely outnumbered by American artillery. Soviet Union thumb\|Soviet SU-100 in the Military Historical Museum of Artillery, Engineers and Signal Corps As with the Germans of 1943, most of the Soviet designs mounted anti-tank guns, with limited traverse in casemate-style turretless hulls, in a general design format looking much like the Germans' own Jagdpanzer vehicles. The results were smaller, lighter, and simpler to build weapons that could carry larger guns than any contemporary tank, including the King Tiger. The Soviets produced high numbers of the SU-85 and SU-100 self-propelled guns based on the same chassis as the T-34 medium tank; the heavier-duty powertrain and hull of the IS-2 heavy tank were instead used to produce the heavier-hitting -armed ISU-122 and -armed ISU-152, both of which had impressive anti-tank capabilities earning each of them the Russian nickname Zveroboy ("beast killer") for their ability to destroy German Tigers, Panthers and Elefants. The predecessor of the ISU 152 was the SU-152, built on the KV-1s chassis and shared many similarities (including its gun) with the ISU-152. The ISU-152 built as a heavy assault gun, relied on the weight of the shell fired from its M-1937/43 howitzer to defeat tanks. In 1943, the Soviets also shifted all production of light tanks like the T-70 to much simpler and better-armed SU-76 self-propelled guns, which used the same drive train. The SU-76 was originally designed as an anti-tank vehicle, but was soon relegated to the infantry-support role. United States U.S. Army and counterpart British designs were very different in conception. U.S. doctrine was based, in light of the fall of France, on the perceived need to defeat German blitzkrieg tactics, and U.S. units expected to face large numbers of German tanks, attacking on relatively narrow fronts. These were expected to break through a thin screen of anti-tank guns, hence the decision that the main anti-tank units—the Tank Destroyer (TD) battalions—should be concentrated and very mobile. In practice, such German attacks rarely happened. Throughout the war, only one battalion ever fought in an engagement like that originally envisaged (the 601st, at the Battle of El Guettar). The Tank Destroyer Command eventually numbered over 100,000 men and 80 battalions each equipped with 36 self-propelled tank destroyers or towed guns. thumb\|The first US tank destroyer was a 75 mm gun on a half-track chassis right\|thumb\|M10 tank destroyer Only a few shots were expected to be fired from any firing position. Strong reconnaissance elements were provided so that TDs could use pre-arranged firing positions to best advantage. Flanking fire by TDs was emphasized, both to penetrate thinner enemy side armour, and to reduce the likelihood of accurate enemy return fire. All American tank destroyers were officially known by exactly the same collective term used for American self-propelled artillery ordnance, "gun motor carriage". The designs were intended to be very mobile and heavily armed. Most of the tank-hull based designs used special open-topped turrets of a differing design from the original tank it was based on, which was meant to both save weight and to accommodate a larger gun. The earliest expedient design was mounting a 75 mm M1897 field gun in a limited-traverse mount on an M3 half-track, which was designated 75 mm gun motor carriage M3. Another, considerably less successful, early design was the M6 gun motor carriage which mounted the US 37 mm anti-tank gun facing to the rear on the bed of a Dodge 3/4-ton light truck. The M3 was first used against the Japanese in the Philippines and then in the Tunisian campaign of the war in North Africa. Some were supplied to British units who used them within armoured car reconnaissance regiments for fire support. The M6 GMC was unarmoured and the 37 mm gun was ineffective against most enemy tanks by the time it entered service. By far the most common US design, and the first that was fully tracked and turreted (which became the American hallmark of World War II "tank destroyer" design) was the 3-inch gun motor carriage M10, later supplemented by the 90 mm gun motor carriage M36—both based on the M4 Sherman hull and powertrain—and the 76 mm gun motor carriage M18 (Hellcat), based on a unique hull and powertrain design, with a slight visual resemblance to what was used for the later M24 Chaffee light tank. The M18 came closest to the US ideal; the vehicle was very fast, small, and mounted a gun in a roofless open turret. The M36 Jackson GMC possessed the only American-origin operational gun that could rival the German 8.8 cm Pak 43 anti-tank gun and its tank mounted variant, the 90 mm M3 gun, and the M36 remained in service well after World War II. The only dedicated American casemate hull design fighting vehicle of any type built during the war, that resembled the German and Soviet tank destroyers in hull and general gun mounting design, was the experimental T28 super-heavy tank, which mounted a 105 mm T5E1 long-barrel cannon. This gun had a maximum firing range of 12 miles (20 km), and the vehicle was originally designed as a very heavily armoured self-propelled assault gun to breach Germany's Siegfried Line defenses. Of these tank destroyers, only the gun of the M36 proved effective against the frontal armour of Germans' larger armored vehicles at long range. The open top and light armour made these tank destroyers vulnerable to anything greater than small-arms fire. As the number of German tanks encountered by American forces steadily decreased throughout the war, most battalions were split up and assigned to infantry units as supporting arms, fighting as assault guns or being used essentially as tanks. In this sense they were an alternative to the Independent tank battalions that were attached to various Infantry Divisions. The expectation that German tanks would be engaged in mass formation was a failed assumption. In reality, German attacks effectively used combined arms on the ground, fighting cohesively. American tank destroyer battalions comprised three tank destroyer companies supported by nine security sections. The single-purpose tactics of the tank destroyer battalion failed to account for non-tank threats. In the 1950s the goal of providing airborne forces with a parachute-capable self-propelled anti-tank weapon led to the deployment of the M56 Scorpion and M50 Ontos. The concept later led to the M551 Sheridan light tank of the mid-1960s. United Kingdom thumb\|A British Achilles self-propelled anti-tank gun on the east bank of the Rhine following Operation Plunder British tanks in the early years of the war, both infantry tanks and cruiser tanks, were (with the exception of the pre-war Matilda I design) equipped with a gun capable of use against contemporary enemy tanks—the 40 mm Ordnance QF 2 pounder. This was replaced with the 57 mm Ordnance QF 6 pounder when that became available. There was extra impetus given to the development of anti-tank weaponry, which culminated in the 76mm Ordnance QF 17 pounder, widely considered one of the best anti-tank guns of the war. Towed anti-tank guns were the domain of the Royal Artillery and vehicles adapted to mount artillery, including anti-tank self-propelled guns such as the Deacon (6pdr on an armoured wheeled truck chassis) and Archer (17pdr on tracked chassis) and US-supplied vehicles, were their preserve rather than the Royal Armoured Corps. The self-propelled guns that were built in the "tank destroyer" mould came about through the desire to field the QF 17 pounder anti-tank gun and simultaneous lack of suitable standard tanks to carry it. As a result, they were of a somewhat extemporized nature. Mounting the gun on the Valentine tank chassis in a fixed superstructure gave the Archer, looking somewhat like the light-chassis German Marder III in appearance. The 17 pounder was also used to re-equip the US-supplied M10 tank destroyer, replacing the American 3-inch gun to produce the 17pdr SP Achilles. In 1942 the General Staff agreed on investigating self-propelled mountings of the 6-pounder, 17-pounder, 3-inch 20cwt guns and the 25-pounder field gun/howitzer on the Matilda II, Valentine, Crusader and Cavalier (Cruiser Mark VII) tank chassis. In October 1942 it was decided to progress using the Valentine chassis with a 17-pdr (which would become Archer) and 25-pdr (which entered service as Bishop). While there was a general move to a general purpose gun that was usable against both tanks and in supporting infantry, there was a need to put the 17 pdr into a tank for use against the enemy's heavy tanks. The Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger was a project to bring a 17 pdr tank into use to support the Cromwell cruiser tank. Delays led to it being outnumbered in use by the Sherman Firefly—but a derivative of Challenger was the more or less open-topped variant Avenger, which was delayed until post war before entering service. A cut-down 17 pdr, the 77mmHV was used to equip the Comet tank in the last year of the war. thumb\|Self-propelled 17pdr, Valentine, Mk I, Archer. The gun faced to the rear. The closest the British came to developing an armoured tank destroyer in the vein of the German Jagdpanzers or Soviet ISU series was the Churchill 3-inch gun carrier—a Churchill tank chassis with a boxy superstructure in place of the turret and mounting a 3-inch anti-aircraft gun. Although a number were ordered and fifty delivered in 1942, they were not put into service as the immediate threat passed. The design was rejected in favor of developing a 17 pounder armed Cromwell tank variant, ultimately leading to the Comet tank. The Tortoise "heavy assault tank", intended for use in breaking through fixed defensive lines, was well armoured and had a very powerful 32-pounder (94 mm) gun, but did not reach service use. By 1944, a number of the Shermans in British use were being converted to Sherman Fireflies by adding the QF 17 pounder gun. Initially this gave each troop (platoon) of Shermans one powerfully armed tank. By war's end—through the production of more Fireflies and the replacement of Shermans by British tanks—about 50% of Shermans in British service were Fireflies. The Sherman Firefly, however, is not considered a tank destroyer since it could still perform the other duties of the regular M4 Sherman, albeit the Firefly was less capable due to the late development of a HE round for the QF 17 pounder. Romania thumb\|The Romanian Mareșal tank destroyer, developed starting in late 1942, is proposed to have inspired the German Hetzer's design. Until 1942, the Romanian tank force was equipped exclusively with obsolete R-1, R-2 and R35 tanks. Having faced big problems against Soviet T-34 and KV-1 tanks on the Eastern Front, the Romanian Army leadership sought for ways to improve its anti-tank capabilities. The initial plan was the creation of a tank comparable in characteristics to the T-34; instead, Romania went for a number of tank destroyers, since they were more adequate for its industry. The Mareșal is probably the best known Romanian AFV from the war; historians Steven Zaloga and Mark Axworthy state that it inspired the design of the later German Hetzer. Standing at only around 1.5 m tall, which would have made it very difficult to hit for its enemies, the Mareșal was a lightly armored, but highly mobile vehicle. It was armed with the Romanian 75 mm Reșița M1943 anti-tank gun, which proved to be among the best of its class during World War II, according to Mark Axworthy. During tests, the Mareșal proved to be superior in many aspects to the StuG III G, against which it competed. Those facts suggest that the Mareșal would have been an effective tank destroyer, had it been deployed into combat. There were, however, also critics of the vehicle, especially among high-ranking Romanian officials. It never saw action because the invading Soviet army had stopped its production. Other Romanian tank destroyers include the TACAM R-2 and TACAM T-60, which were converted from R-2 and T-60 light tanks respectively. Both of them saw action. One TACAM R-2 survives today and is displayed at the National Military Museum in Bucharest. Another conversion was the VDC R-35, Romania's only turreted tank destroyer. Two other proposed tank destroyers existed: the TACAM R-1 and TACAM T-38. Poland Variants of the Polish TKS and TK-3 tankettes up-armed with 20 mm gun (23–26 vehicles) were operationally deployed in the invasion of Poland. They were used as an anti-tank component of the reconnaissance units. There were also 37 mm armed TKS-D (2 experimental vehicles) and 47 mm armed TKD (4 experimental vehicles). It is not certain whether they were used operationally at all. France Due to the quick defeat of France, few French vehicles were built. The Laffly W15 TCC (Chasseur de chars) was an attempt to quickly build a light tank destroyer by mounting a 47 mm SA37 anti-tank gun onto a lightly armoured Laffly W15T artillery tractor. Other French tank destroyers were being developed, including the SOMUA SAu-40, ARL V39 and various ad hoc conversions of the Lorraine 37L. Subsequent developments Missile-based tank destroyers thumb\|A Norwegian anti-tank platoon equipped with NM142 TOW missile launchers thumb\|Mowag Piranha–based, TOW-armed ATGM carrier of the Swiss Army thumb\|NAMICA, a contemporary Indian Tank destroyer based on the BMP-2 chassis and equipped with the NAG anti-tank missiles. In the face of the Warsaw Pact, a general need for extra firepower was identified. In the late 1960s, West Germany developed the Kanonenjagdpanzer, essentially a modernized World War II Jagdpanzer mounting a gun. As Soviet designs became more heavily armoured, the gun became ineffective and the Kanonenjagdpanzers were retrofitted for different roles or retired. Some provisions were made for the fitting of a 105 mm cannon, and many of the vehicles were modified to fire HOT or TOW missiles in place of a main gun. These upgraded variants remained in service into the 1990s. With the development of flexible anti-tank missiles, which were capable of installation on almost any vehicle in the 1960s, the concept of the tank destroyer has morphed into light vehicles with missiles. With the weight of main battle tanks growing to the forty to seventy-tonne range, airborne forces were unable to deploy reasonable anti-tank forces. The result was a number of attempts to make a light vehicle, including the conventional ASU-85, M56 Scorpion, the recoilless rifle-armed Ontos, and missile-armed Humber Hornet armoured truck and Sheridan light assault vehicle. The recent entries into that category are the 2S25 Sprut-SD, armed with a current-issue 125 mm tank gun that is also capable of launching missiles like the 9M119 Svir, and Israeli-modified Pandur IIs, which is to enter service with the Philippine Army by 2022 armed with an Elbit Turret and a 105 mm gun. Many forces' infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) carry anti-tank missiles in every infantry platoon, and attack helicopters have also added anti-tank capability to the modern battlefield. But there are still dedicated anti-tank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, and ones intended for airborne use. There have also been dedicated anti-tank vehicles built on ordinary armoured personnel carrier or armored car chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 ITV (Improved TOW Vehicle) and the Norwegian NM142, both on an M113 chassis, several Soviet ATGM launchers based on the BRDM reconnaissance car, the British FV438 Swingfire and FV102 Striker and the German Raketenjagdpanzer series built on the chassis of the HS 30 and Marder IFV. India fields the NAMIS (Nag Missile System) equipped with Nag Missiles on certain modified BMP-2 IFV's called NAMICA. A US Army combined arms battalion has two infantry companies with TOW missile-armed Bradley IFVs and can bring a large concentration of accurate and lethal fire to bear on an attacking enemy unit that uses AFVs. They can be complemented by mobile units of AH-64 Apache helicopters armed with Hellfire antitank missiles. Missile carrying vehicles are often referred to as anti-tank missile carriers instead of tank destroyers. Postwar gun-based tank destroyers thumb\|Chinese-built PTL-02 tank destroyer armed with a cannon, being used by the Senegalese military near the Gambian border in 2017. Despite the proliferation of ATGMs, some gun-armed tank destroyers remain in use. China has developed the tracked PTZ89 and the wheeled PTL02 tank destroyers. The PTZ89 is armed with a smoothbore cannon while the PTL02, developed by NORINCO for the PLA's new light (rapid reaction) mechanized infantry divisions, carries a one (a version armed with a 105 mm rifled gun is available for export). The PTL02 is built on the 6×6 wheeled chassis of the WZ551 APC. Italy and Spain use the Italian-built B1 Centauro, a wheeled tank destroyer with a cannon. Russia, meanwhile, uses the Russian-built 2S25 Sprut-SD, operating as an amphibious light tank/tank destroyer armed with a cannon. The Sabrah Pandur II is a wheeled tank destroyer variant of the Sabrah light tank developed by the Elbit Systems of Israel for the Philippine Army's future combat systems. See also Armoured warfare Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon Self-propelled artillery Notes References Harry Yeide, (2005) The Tank Killers: A History of America's World War II Tank Destroyer Force. Havertown, PA: Casemate. . External links Tankdestroyer.net Popular Science, April 1940, Tanks Can Be Destroyed article on early US Army concepts for tank destroyers Tank Destroyer List Category:Anti-tank weapons ms:Pemusnah kereta kebal	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_destroyer	2025-04-05T18:25:59.117358
2287	Armored car (military)	thumb\|upright=1.2\|U.S. T17E1 Staghound armoured car of World War II thumb\|NMSS 4x4 Yörük, a modern armoured car of the Turkish Land Forces. A military armored (also spelled armoured) car is a wheeled armoured fighting vehicle, historically employed for reconnaissance, internal security, armed escort, and other subordinate battlefield tasks. With the gradual decline of mounted cavalry, armored cars were developed for carrying out duties formerly assigned to light cavalry. Following the invention of the tank, the armoured car remained popular due to its faster speed, comparatively simple maintenance and low production cost. It also found favor with several colonial armies as a cheaper weapon for use in underdeveloped regions. During World War II, most armoured cars were engineered for reconnaissance and passive observation, while others were devoted to communications tasks. Some equipped with heavier armament could even substitute for tracked combat vehicles in favorable conditions—such as pursuit or flanking maneuvers during the North African campaign. History Precursors During the Middle Ages, war wagons covered with steel plate, and crewed by men armed with primitive hand cannon, flails and muskets, were used by the Hussite rebels in Bohemia. These were deployed in formations where the horses and oxen were at the centre, and the surrounding wagons were chained together as protection from enemy cavalry. With the invention of the steam engine, Victorian inventors designed prototype self-propelled armored vehicles for use in sieges, although none were deployed in combat. H. G. Wells' short story "The Land Ironclads" provides a fictionalized account of their use. Armed car thumb\|F.R. Simms' Motor Scout, built in 1898 as an armed car The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F.R. Simms in 1898. It was the first armed petrol engine-powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar. An iron shield in front of the car protected the driver. Another early armed car was invented by Royal Page Davidson at Northwestern Military and Naval Academy in 1898 with the Davidson-Duryea gun carriage and the later Davidson Automobile Battery armored car. However, these were not "armored cars" as the term is understood today, as they provided little protection for their crews from enemy fire. First armoured cars At the beginning of the 20th century, the first military armored vehicles were manufactured by adding armor and weapons to existing vehicles. thumb\|left\|F.R. Simms' 1902 Motor War Car, the first armored car to be built The first armored car was the Simms' Motor War Car, designed by F.R. Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim of Barrow on a special Coventry-built Daimler chassis The prototype was finished in 1902, It had a crew of four. Simms' Motor War Car was presented at the Crystal Palace, London, in April 1902. Another early armored car of the period was the French Charron, Girardot et Voigt 1902, presented at the Salon de l'Automobile et du cycle in Brussels, on 8 March 1902. The vehicle was equipped with a Hotchkiss machine gun, and with armour for the gunner. One of the first operational armored cars with four wheel (4x4) drive and partly enclosed rotating turret, was the Austro-Daimler Panzerwagen built by Austro-Daimler in 1904. It was armored with thick curved plates over the body (drive space and engine) and had a thick dome-shaped rotating turret that housed one or two machine-guns. It had a four-cylinder engine giving it average cross country performance. Both the driver and co-driver had adjustable seats enabling them to raise them to see out of the roof of the drive compartment as needed. The Spanish Schneider-Brillié was the first armored vehicle to be used in combat, being first used in the Kert Campaign. The vehicle was equipped with two machineguns and built from a bus chassis. An armored car known as the Death Special was built at the CFI plant in Pueblo and used by the Badlwin-Felts detective agency during the Colorado Coalfield War. thumb\|right\|Austro-Daimler four-wheel-drive Armoured Car (1904) World War I A great variety of armored cars appeared on both sides during World War I and these were used in various ways. Generally, armored cars were used by more or less independent car commanders. However, sometimes they were used in larger units up to squadron size. The cars were primarily armed with light machine guns, but larger units usually employed a few cars with heavier guns. As air power became a factor, armored cars offered a mobile platform for antiaircraft guns. thumb\|left\|Belgium Minerva Armored car 1914 The first effective use of an armored vehicle in combat was achieved by the Belgian Army in August–September 1914. They had placed Cockerill armour plating and a Hotchkiss machine gun on Minerva touring cars, creating the Minerva Armored Car. Their successes in the early days of the war convinced the Belgian GHQ to create a Corps of Armoured Cars, who would be sent to fight on the Eastern front once the western front immobilized after the Battle of the Yser. The British Royal Naval Air Service dispatched aircraft to Dunkirk to defend the UK from Zeppelins. The officers' cars followed them and these began to be used to rescue downed reconnaissance pilots in the battle areas. They mounted machine guns on them and as these excursions became increasingly dangerous, they improvised boiler plate armoring on the vehicles provided by a local shipbuilder. In London Murray Sueter ordered "fighting cars" based on Rolls-Royce, Talbot and Wolseley chassis. By the time Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars arrived in December 1914, the mobile period on the Western Front was already over. More tactically important was the development of formed units of armored cars, such as the Canadian Automobile Machine Gun Brigade, which was the first fully mechanized unit in the history. The brigade was established on September 2, 1914, in Ottawa, as Automobile Machine Gun Brigade No. 1 by Brigadier-General Raymond Brutinel. The brigade was originally equipped with eight Armoured Autocars mounting two machine guns. By 1918 Brutinel's force consisted of two motor machine gun brigades (each of five gun batteries containing eight weapons apiece). The brigade, and its armored cars, provided yeoman service in many battles, notably at Amiens. The RNAS section became the Royal Naval Armoured Car Division reaching a strength of 20 squadrons before disbanded in 1915. and the armoured cars passing to the army as part of the Machine Gun Corps. Only NO.1 Squadron was retained; it was sent to Russia. As the Western Front turned to trench warfare unsuitable to wheeled vehicles, the armoured cars were moved to other areas. The 2nd Duke of Westminster took No. 2 Squadron of the RNAS to France in March 1915 in time to make a noted contribution to the Second Battle of Ypres, and thereafter the cars with their master were sent to the Middle East to play a part in the British campaign in Palestine and elsewhere The Duke led a motorised convoy including nine armoured cars across the Western Desert in North Africa to rescue the survivors of the sinking of the SS Tara which had been kidnapped and taken to Bir Hakiem. In Africa, Rolls Royce armoured cars were active in German South West Africa and Lanchester Armoured Cars in British East Africa against German forces to the south. Armored cars also saw action on the Eastern Front. From 18 February - 26 March 1915, the German army under General Max von Gallwitz attempted to break through the Russian lines in and around the town of Przasnysz, Poland, (about 110 km / 68 miles north of Warsaw) during the Battle of Przasnysz (Polish: Bitwa przasnyska). Near the end of the battle, the Russians used four Russo-Balt armored cars and a armored car to break through the Germans' lines and force the Germans to retreat. World War II The British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Middle East was equipped with Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars and Morris tenders. Some of these vehicles were among the last of a consignment of ex-Royal Navy armored cars that had been serving in the Middle East since 1915. In September 1940 a section of the No. 2 Squadron RAF Regiment Company was detached to General Wavell's ground forces during the first offensive against the Italians in Egypt. During the actions in the October of that year the company was employed on convoy escort tasks, airfield defense, fighting reconnaissance patrols and screening operations. thumb\|upright\|American troops in an M8 Greyhound passing the Arc de Triomphe after the liberation of Paris During the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War, some of the units located in the British Mandate of Palestine were sent to Iraq and drove Fordson armored cars. "Fordson" armored cars were Rolls-Royce armored cars which received new chassis from a Fordson truck in Egypt. By the start of the new war, the German army possessed some highly effective reconnaissance vehicles, such as the Schwerer Panzerspähwagen. The Soviet BA-64 was influenced by a captured Leichter Panzerspähwagen before it was first tested in January 1942. In the second half of the war, the American M8 Greyhound and the British Daimler Armoured Cars featured turrets mounting light guns (40 mm or less). As with other wartime armored cars, their reconnaissance roles emphasized greater speed and stealth than a tracked vehicle could provide, so their limited armor, armament and off-road capabilities were seen as acceptable compromises. Military use A military armored car is a type of armored fighting vehicle having wheels (from four to ten large, off-road wheels) instead of tracks, and usually light armor. Armored cars are typically less expensive and on roads have better speed and range than tracked military vehicles. They do however have less mobility as they have less off-road capabilities because of the higher ground pressure. They also have less obstacle climbing capabilities than tracked vehicles. Wheels are more vulnerable to enemy fire than tracks, they have a higher signature and in most cases less armor than comparable tracked vehicles. As a result, they are not intended for heavy fighting; their normal use is for reconnaissance, command, control, and communications, or for use against lightly armed insurgents or rioters. Only some are intended to enter close combat, often accompanying convoys to protect soft-skinned vehicle. Light armored cars, such as the British Ferret are armed with just a machine gun. Heavier vehicles are armed with autocannon or a large caliber gun. The heaviest armored cars, such as the German, World War II era Sd.Kfz. 234 or the modern, US M1128 mobile gun system, mount the same guns that arm medium tanks. Armored cars are popular for peacekeeping or internal security duties. Their appearance is less confrontational and threatening than tanks, and their size and maneuverability is said to be more compatible with tight urban spaces designed for wheeled vehicles. However, they do have a larger turning radius compared to tracked vehicles which can turn on the spot and their tires are vulnerable and are less capable in climbing and crushing obstacles. Further, when there is true combat they are easily outgunned and lightly armored. The threatening appearance of a tank is often enough to keep an opponent from attacking, whereas a less threatening vehicle such as an armored car is more likely to be attacked. Many modern forces now have their dedicated armored car designs, to exploit the advantages noted above. Examples would be the M1117 armored security vehicle of the USA or Alvis Saladin of the post-World War II era in the United Kingdom. Alternatively, civilian vehicles may be modified into improvised armored cars in ad hoc fashion. Many militias and irregular forces adapt civilian vehicles into AFVs (armored fighting vehicles) and troop carriers, and in some regional conflicts these "technicals" are the only combat vehicles present. On occasion, even the soldiers of national militaries are forced to adapt their civilian-type vehicles for combat use, often using improvised armor and scrounged weapons. Scout cars In the 1930s, a new sub-class of armored car emerged in the United States, known as the scout car. This was a compact light armored car which was either unarmed or armed only with machine guns for self-defense. Scout cars were designed as purpose-built reconnaissance vehicles for passive observation and intelligence gathering. Examples of armored cars also classified as scout cars include the Soviet BRDM series, the British Ferret, the Brazilian EE-3 Jararaca, the Hungarian D-442 FÚG, and the American Cadillac Gage Commando Scout. See also thumb\|A preserved, World War II, German Sd.Kfz. 234/4 heavy armored car (German Tank Museum, 2006) Armored bus Armored personnel carrier Armored car (valuables) Armored car (VIP) Armoring: Aramid Bulletproof glass Twaron Vehicle armor Gun truck SWAT vehicle Tankette Technical (vehicle) Notes References Crow, Duncan, and Icks, Robert J., Encyclopedia of Armored Cars, Chatwell Books, Secaucus, NJ, 1976. . Category:Armoured fighting vehicles by type Category:Internal security vehicles Category:Paramilitary vehicles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored_car_(military)	2025-04-05T18:25:59.135458
2288	Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon	{{short description\|Mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability}} {{Redirect\|SPAA\|other uses\|SPAA (disambiguation)}} {{more citations needed\|date=August 2023}} "Shilka" in California during a USMC exercise, 1997]] {{History of the tank\|state-uncllopsed}} An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability. Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, autocannons, larger guns, or surface-to-air missiles, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles (e.g. the Pantsir missile system). Platforms used include both trucks and heavier combat vehicles such as armoured personnel carriers and tanks, which add protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire for front line deployment. Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing turret with a high rate of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. In addition, most anti-aircraft guns can be used in a direct-fire role against surface targets to great effect. Today, surface-to-air missiles (generally mounted on similar turrets) have largely supplanted anti-aircraft guns, but they may return as a cheap way to counter unmanned aerial systems (drones), cruise missiles, and ultralight aircraft. History World War I {{Multiple image \| total_width = 400 \| image1 3inch20cwtAAgunPeerlessLorryWWI.jpg \| caption1 A World War 1, British, truck-mounted, QF 3 inch gun \| image2 Pierce-Arrow armoured AA lorry 2.jpg \| caption2 Pierce-Arrow armoured AA lorry }} Anti-aircraft machine guns have long been mounted on trucks, and these were quite common during World War I. A predecessor of the WWII German "88" anti-aircraft gun, the WWI German 77&nbsp;mm anti-aircraft gun, was truck-mounted and used to great effect against British tanks. The British QF 3 inch 20 cwt was mounted on trucks for use on the Western Front. The British also had a first dedicated anti aircraft weapon, the QF 1-pounder pom-pom. Mounted on an armoured truck titled the Pierce-Arrow armoured AA lorry, which was produced in limited numbers and only seeing service throughout 1915. Towards the end of the war Germany produced three prototype SPAAGs with AA guns mounted on A7V chassis known as the A7V Flakpanzer.<ref nameZaloga>{{cite book \|lastZaloga \|firstSteven J \|author-linkSteven Zaloga \|date2006 \|titleGerman Panzers 1914–18 \|url\|location \|publisherOsprey Publishing \|pages13–14 \|isbn9781472802347 }}</ref>Inter-war period{{Unreferenced section\|dateNovember 2024}} Between the two World Wars, the United Kingdom developed the Birch gun, a general-purpose artillery piece on an armoured tracked chassis capable of maintaining formation with their current tanks over terrain. The gun could be elevated for anti-aircraft use. The first tracked SPAAG-design to be manufactured in series was most likely the British/Siamese Vickers Armstrong "Type 76" (per Buddhist year 2476 = 1933 CE), as named by the Royal Siamese Army, a SPAAG based on the chassis of the Dragon, Medium, Mark IV artillery tractor (Vickers Mk.E 6-ton light tank derivative), mounting a revolving Vickers 40&nbsp;mm QF 2 pounder pom-pom autocannon in an open fighting compartment. About 26 were sold to Siam in 1932 and saw action as infantry support guns and AA guns during the Franco-Thai war (1940–1941) along with 30 Vickers Mk.E Type B 6-ton tanks. Despite being the first tracked SPAAG en masse, the open-top design of the Vickers Type 76 made it outdated even by the early 1930s. The first modern SPAAG to be produced was most likely the Swedish Landsverk L-62 Anti in 1936, featuring a tracked armoured body with a revolving turret, a so-called anti-aircraft tank. It was based on a widened chassis of the Landsverk L-60 light tank and was armed with a Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60 in an open-top revolving turret. The design was bought by Hungary just prior to the war and Finland ordered a refined model in 1941, known as the Anti II. By the late 1930s, the British had developed a version of the Mk.VI Light Tank armed with four machine guns that were known as Light Tank AA Mk.I, and also a twin 15&nbsp;mm version based on the Light Tank Mk.V was built. Among early pre-war pioneers of self-propelled AA guns were the Germans. By the time of the war, they fielded the Sd.Kfz. 10/4 and Sd.Kfz. 6/2, cargo half-tracks mounting single 20&nbsp;mm or 37&nbsp;mm AA guns (respectively). Later in the war similar German half-tracks mounted quadruple 20&nbsp;mm weapons. World War II {{Unreferenced section\|date=November 2024}}" - a 20 mm Flakvierling quadmount on a Panzer IV chassis.]] Larger guns followed on larger trucks, but these mountings generally required off-truck setup in order to unlimber the stabilizing legs these guns needed. One exception to this rule was the Italian Cannone da 90/53 which was highly effective when mounted on trucks, a fit known as the "autocannoni da 90/53". The 90/53 was a feared weapon, notably in the anti-tank role, but only a few hundred had been produced by the time of the armistice in 1943. Other nations tended to work on truck chassis. Starting in 1941, the British developed the "en portee" method of mounting an anti-tank gun (initially a 2 pounder) on a truck. This was to prevent the weapon from being damaged by long-distance towing across rough, stony deserts, and it was intended only to be a carrying method, with the gun unloaded for firing. However, crews tended to fire their weapons from their vehicles for the mobility this method provided, with consequent casualties. This undoubtedly inspired their Morris C9/B (officially the "Carrier, SP, 4x4, 40 mm AA"), a Bofors 40&nbsp;mm AA gun mounted on a chassis derived from the Morris "Quad" Field Artillery Tractor truck. Similar types, based on 3-ton lorries, were produced in Britain, Canada and Australia, and together formed the most numerous self-propelled AA guns in British service. The U.S. Army brought truck-towed Bofors 40&nbsp;mm AA guns along with truck-mounted units fitted with mechanized turrets when they sailed, first for Great Britain and then onto France. The turrets carried four .50&nbsp;inch (12.7&nbsp;mm) machine guns, which were designed to be adjusted to converge at the single point where enemy aircraft were expected to appear at low altitude in conduction of strafing runs directed at large infantry and field artillery units. Interest in mobile AA turned to heavier vehicles with the mass and stability needed to easily train weapons of all sizes. Probably the desire, particularly in German service, for anti-aircraft vehicles to be armoured for their own protection also assisted this trend. anti-aircraft battery.]] The concept of using armored SPAAG (anti-aircraft tanks) en masse was pioneered by Hungary during World War II with the production of the 40M Nimrod, a license-produced version of the previously mentioned late 1930s Landsverk L-62 Anti I SPAAG. Germany followed later with their "Flakpanzer''" series. German World War II SPAAGs include the Möbelwagen, Wirbelwind, Ostwind and Kugelblitz. Other forces followed with designs of their own, notably the American M16 created by mounting quadruple M2HB Browning machine guns on a M3 Half-track. The British developed their own SPAAGs throughout the war mounting multiple machine guns and light cannon on various tank and armoured car chassis and by 1943, the Crusader AA tanks, which mounted the Bofors 40 mm gun or two-three Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Although used during the Normandy landings, by that point German aircraft were contained by the Allies own air forces and they were largely unneeded. Cold War and later {{Unreferenced section\|date=November 2024}} developed in the late 1950s.]] , combining radars, fire control and two 35&nbsp;mm guns in a new turret mounted on a Leopard chassis.]] mounts both missiles and cannons.]]The introduction of jet engines and the subsequent rough doubling of aircraft speeds greatly reduced the effectiveness of the SPAAG against attack aircraft.{{dubious \| date=July 2014}} A typical SPAAG round might have a muzzle velocity on the order of {{convert\|1000\|m/s\|foot/s}} and might take as long as two to three seconds to reach a target at its maximum range. An aircraft flying at {{convert\|1000\|km/h\|mph}} is moving at a rate of about {{convert\|280\|m/s\|foot/s}}. This means the aircraft will have moved hundreds of meters during the flight time of the shells, greatly complicating the aiming problem to the point where close passes were essentially impossible to aim using manual gunsights. This speed also allowed the aircraft to rapidly fly out of range of the guns; even if the aircraft passes directly over the SPAAG, it would be within its firing radius for under 30 seconds. SPAAG development continued through the early 1950s with ever-larger guns, improving the range and allowing the engagement to take place at longer distances where the crossing angle was smaller and aiming was easier. Examples including the 40&nbsp;mm U.S. M42 Duster and the 57&nbsp;mm Soviet ZSU-57-2. However, both were essentially obsolete before they entered service, and found employment solely in the ground-support role. The M42 was introduced to the Vietnam War to counter an expected North Vietnamese air offensive, but when this failed to materialize it was used as an effective direct-fire weapon. The ZSU-57 found similar use in the Yugoslav Wars, where its high-angle fire was useful in the mountainous terrain. By the late 1950s, the US Army had given up on the SPAAG concept, considering all gun-based weapons to be useless against modern aircraft. This belief was generally held by many forces, and the anti-aircraft role turned almost exclusively to missile systems. The Soviet Union remained an outlier, beginning the development of a new SPAAG in 1957, which emerged as the ZSU-23-4 in 1965. This system included search-and-track radars, fire control, and automatic gun-laying, greatly increasing its effectiveness against modern targets. The ZSU-23 proved very effective when used in concert with SAMs; the presence of SAMs forced aircraft to fly low to avoid their radars, placing them within range of the ZSUs. The success of the ZSU-23 led to a resurgence of SPAAG development. This was also prompted by the introduction of attack helicopters in the 1970s, which could hide behind terrain and then "pop up" for an attack lasting only a few tens of seconds; missiles were ineffective at low altitudes, while the helicopters would often be within range of the guns for a rapid counterattack. Notable among these later systems is the German Gepard, the first western SPAAG to offer performance equal to or better than the ZSU. This system was widely copied in various NATO forces. SPAAG development continues, with many modern examples often combining both guns and short-range missiles. Examples include the Soviet/Russian Tunguska-M1, which supplanted the ZSU-23 in service, the newer versions of the Gepard, the Chinese Type 95 SPAAA, and the British Marksman turret, which can be used on a wide variety of platforms. Some forces, like the US Army and USMC have mostly forgone self-propelled guns in favor of systems with short-range infrared-guided surface-to-air missiles in the AN/TWQ-1 Avenger and M6 Linebacker, which do not require radar to be accurate and are generally more reliable and cost-effective to field, though their ability to provide ground support is more limited. The U.S. Army did use the M163 VADS and developed the prototype design of the M247 Sergeant York. Present day Modern SPAAGs usually have short-range missiles for longer range engagement. The Pantsir system from Russia is primarily a missile battery, although it does have twin cannons as secondary armament. Some examples of modern SPAAG:<!-- In alphabetic order of countries, then in alphabetic order of systems --> {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%;" !style="text-align: left;"\|Model !Manufacturer !Image !style="text-align: left;"\|Origin !style="text-align: left;"\|Platforms !style="text-align: left;"\|Weapons ! style="text-align: left;" \|Caliber and ammunitions !Number built !style="text-align: left;"\|Notes \|- \|CS/SA5 SPAAG \|Norinco \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|{{flag\|China}} \|Type 08 \|1 × Gatling gun <small>(6 barrels)</small> 2 × FN-6A \|30 × 113&nbsp;mm — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-11-26 \|titleChina has unveiled new short-range air defence systems that target drones \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3201007/china-has-unveiled-new-short-range-air-defence-systems-target-drones \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastHelfrich \|firstEmma \|date2022-11-18 \|titleThis Is China's Beastly New Air Defense Vehicle \|urlhttps://www.twz.com/this-is-chinas-beastly-new-chinese-air-defense-vehicle \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteThe War Zone \|languageen-US}}</ref> \|- \|PGZ-95 SPAAA \| rowspan="2" \|Norinco \| rowspan="2" \| \| rowspan="2" \|{{flag\|China}} \| rowspan="2" \|— \|4 × PG-87 4 × QW-2 IR missiles \| rowspan="2" \|25 x 183 mmB \| rowspan"2" style"text-align: center;" \|~ 270 <ref name"IISS_2023">{{Cite book \|last1For Strategic Studies (Iiss) \|first1The International Institute \|titleThe Military Balance 2023 \|date15 February 2023 \|workThe International Institute for Strategic Studies \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn9781003400226 \|locationLondon \|chapter6 Asia \|doi=10.4324/9781003400226}}</ref> \|<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|titlePGZ95 \|urlhttps://weaponsystems.net/system/918-PGZ95 \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteWeaponsystems.net \|languageen}}</ref> \|- \|PGZ-04/A SPAAA \|4 × Type 87 4 × FN-6 IR missiles \|Upgraded variant of PGZ-95 SPAAA<ref name=":1" /> \|- \|PGZ-09 SPAAA \|Norinco \| \|{{flag\|China}} \|PLZ-05 chassis \|2 × PG99 {{refn\|group=note\|License produced Oerlikon GDF-002 by China.}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePGZ-09 35mm guns \|urlhttps://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/pgz-09.htm \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websitewww.globalsecurity.org}}</ref><ref>Page 216 https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/atp7-100-3.pdf</ref> \|- \|PGZ 625 <small>PGL-XX (Code name 625)</small> \|Norinco \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|{{flag\|China}} \|Type 08 \|1 × Gatling gun <small>(6 barrels)</small> 4 to 8 × FN-16 <small>(for PGZ 625E)</small> \|25 × 287&nbsp;mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://defence-blog.com/china-unveils-type-625-air-defense-system/ \| titleChina shows its drone-killing monster in action \| date29 December 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|date4 February 2021 \|title625 Strikes Back, why PLA choose 625 8x8 anti-air system for Medium Combined Arms Brigade \|urlhttps://www.163.com/dy/article/G3KFD7K30543OQYO.html \|websiteNetEase 163 News \|languageChinese \|access-date1 July 2024 \|archive-date12 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220712191527/https://www.163.com/dy/article/G3KFD7K30543OQYO.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> \|- \|PGL-12 (Type 12) \|Norinco \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|{{flag\|China}} \|Type 08 \|1 × Revolver Canon 35mm 4 × FN-6#Variant in PGZ-04A pod. \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://defence-blog.com/china-unveils-type-625-air-defense-system/ \| titleChina shows its drone-killing monster in action \| date=29 December 2023 }}</ref> \|- \|Machbet \|IAI <small>(Israeli Aircraft Industries)</small> \| \|<small>{{flag\|Israel}}</small> \|M113 \|1 × M61A1 Vulcan <small>Gatling gun (6 barrels)</small> 4 × FIM-92 Stinger \|20 × 102 mm — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|Entered service in 1997, retired in 2006 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleMachbet \|urlhttps://weaponsystems.net/system/68-Machbet \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteWeaponsystems.net \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|OTOMATIC <small>"OTO Main Anti-aircraft Tank for Intercept and Combat"</small> \|OTO-Melara \| \|{{flag\|Italy}} \|Hulls of the: * Leopard 1A2 * OF-40 Mk.2 * Palmaria \|1 × Cannone 76/62 OTO-Breda Super Rapido \|76 × 636 mmR \| style="text-align: center;" \|2 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGiusti \|firstArturo \|date2020-10-17 \|titleOTOMATIC \|urlhttps://tanks-encyclopedia.com/otomatic/ \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteTank Encyclopedia \|languageen-US}}</ref> \|- \|SIDAM 25 \|OTO Breda \| \|{{flag\|Italy}} \|M113 \|4 × Oerlikon KBA \|25 × 137 mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|275 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSIDAM 25 \|urlhttps://weaponsystems.net/system/71-SIDAM+25 \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteWeaponsystems.net \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|Stryker M-SHORAD <small>"Maneuver Short Range Air Defense"</small> \|Leonardo DRS \| \|<small>{{flag\|Italy}}</small><small>{{flag\|United States}}</small> \|Stryker \|1 × XM914 <small>(M230LF chain gun)</small> 1 M240 (7.62mm) 4 × FIM-92 Stinger 2 × AGM-114L Hellfire \|30 × 113&nbsp;mm 7.62 × 51 mm — — \| style="text-align: center;" \|312 to 361 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleU.S. Army's Maneuver Short-Range Air Defense (M-SHORAD) System \|urlhttps://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/IF12397.html \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitewww.everycrsreport.com \|language=en}}</ref> \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleManeuver Short Range Air Defense (M-SHORAD) \|urlhttps://www.leonardodrs.com/what-we-do/products-and-services/m-shorad/ \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websiteLeonardo DRS \|language=en-US}}</ref> \|- \|Type 87 SPAAG \|MHI <small>(Mitsubishi Heavy Industries)</small> \| \|<small>{{flag\|Japan}}</small> \|Type 74 tank \|2 × Oerlikon KDA {{refn\|groupnote\|namesecond}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} HEI ammunition \| style="text-align: center;" \|52 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|title87式自走高射機関砲 \|urlhttps://combat1.sakura.ne.jp/87SHIKI-T.htm \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websitecombat1.sakura.ne.jp}}</ref> \|- \|Kongsberg RS6 MADIS RWS MK2 <small>"Marine Air Defense Integrated System US Marine Corps Ground Based Air Defense"</small> \|Kongsberg \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<small>{{flag\|Norway}}</small> \|Oshkosh JLTV \|1 × XM914E1 <small>(M230LF chain gun)</small> 1 × M240C (7.62mm) 2 × Air-to-Air Stinger \|30 × 113 mm 7.62 × 51 mm — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|Future USMC SHORAD system<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-06-14 \|titleU.S. Marine Corps C-UAS Program Kicks off U.S. Production \|urlhttps://www.kongsberg.com/kda/news/news-archive/2022/u.s.-marine-corps-c-uas-program-kicks-off-u.s.-production \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitewww.kongsberg.com \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleProduction starts on US Marine Corps C-UAS programme {{!}} Shephard \|urlhttps://www.shephardmedia.com/news/landwarfareintl/us-marine-corps-c-uas-programme-starts-us-production/ \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websitewww.shephardmedia.com \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|PZA Loara \|{{ill\|Radwar\|pl\|Radwar}} \| \|<small>{{flag\|Poland}}</small> \|T-72M chassis \|2 × Oerlikon KDA {{refn\|groupnote\|namesecond}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} HEI ammunition \| style="text-align: center;" \|2 - 4 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-09-08 \|titleSamobieżny zestaw przeciwlotniczy PZA i PZR Loara {{!}} \|urlhttp://militarium.net/samobiezny-zestaw-przeciwlotniczy-pza-pzr-loara/ \|access-date2024-07-01 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190908222753/http://militarium.net/samobiezny-zestaw-przeciwlotniczy-pza-pzr-loara/ \|archive-date2019-09-08 }}</ref> \|- \|SA-35 \|PIT-RADWAR PGZ <small>(Polska Grupa Zbrojeniowa)</small> \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<small>{{flag\|Poland}}</small> \|Jelcz 6×6 \|1 × Oerlikon KDA \|35 x 228 mm Air burst programmable rounds \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-09-03 \|titleMSPO 2024: Armata przeciwlotnicza 35 mm z PIT-Radwaru dla polskiego wojska \|urlhttps://milmag.pl/mspo-2024-armata-przeciwlotnicza-35-mm-z-pit-radwaru-dla-polskiego-wojska/ \|access-date2024-09-04 \|websiteMILMAG \|languagepl-PL}}</ref> Developed from AM-35K naval gun. \|- \|ZSU-23-4MP Biała \|ZMT SA <small>(Zakłady Mechaniczne Tarnów)</small> \| \|<small>{{flag\|Poland}}</small> \|— \|4 × AZP-23 4 × Grom IR missiles \|23 × 152 mm — \| style="text-align: center;" \|~ 70 \|Polish modernised variant <ref>{{Cite web \|date2021-12-12 \|titlePrzeciwlotnicze Białe do naprawy \|urlhttps://defence24.pl/sily-zbrojne/przeciwlotnicze-biale-do-naprawy \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websitedefence24.pl \|languagepl}}</ref> \|- \|Mangart 25 \|Valhalla Turrets \| \|<small>{{flag\|Slovenia}}</small> \|Oshkosh JLTV \|1 × Oerlikon KBA 1 × FN MAG Option for short-range IR missiles \|25 × 137 mm 7.62 × 51 mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-06-13 \|titleMangart 25 – Valhalla Turrets mit der Entwicklung eines 25-mm-Flugabwehrkanonensystems für 4x4-Fahrzeuge beauftragt \|urlhttps://soldat-und-technik.de/2023/06/bewaffnung/35065/mangart-25-valhalla-turrets-mit-der-entwicklung-eines-25-mm-flugabwehrkanonensystems-fuer-4x4-fahrzeuge-beauftragt/ \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitesoldat-und-technik.de \|languagede-DE}}</ref> \|- \|K263 Cheongoong SPAAG \|Doosan \| \|<small>{{flag\|South Korea}}</small> \|K200A1 KIFV \|1 × KM167 A1 VADS Gatling gun (6 barrels) \|20 × 102 mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|200 \|<ref name":0">{{cite web\| page 38 \| website mags.shephardmedia.com \| year 2018 \| title THE CONCISE GLOBAL INDUSTRY GUIDE: ARTILLERY AND AIR DEFENCE \| url https://mags.shephardmedia.com/HB-samples-2018/AAD5-webmag.pdf \| issue = 5 }}</ref> \|- \|K30 Bi Ho <small>"Flying Tiger"</small> \|Doosan \| \|<small>{{flag\|South Korea}}</small> \|K200A1 KIFV \|2 × Oerlikon KCB \|30 × 170 mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|176 \|<ref name=":0" /> \|- \|K30 Bi Ho Hybrid <small>"Flying Tiger"</small> \|Hanwha Aerospace LIG Nex1 \| \|<small>{{flag\|South Korea}}</small> \|K808 White Tiger \|2 × Oerlikon KCB 2 × LIG Nex1 Chiron \|30 × 170 mm — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.deagel.com/Armies/WAV/a002459\|titleNone}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastNg \|firstJr \|date2020-07-08 \|titleSouth Korea acquires new anti-air gun system \|urlhttps://www.asianmilitaryreview.com/2020/07/south-korea-acquires-new-anti-air-gun-system/ \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websiteAsian Military Review \|languageen-US}}</ref> \|- \|K30 Bi Ho II <small>"Flying Tiger"</small> \|Joint Venture Hanwha Aerospace SAMI <small>(Saudi Arabian Military Industries)</small> \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<small>{{flag\|South Korea}}</small> <small>{{flag\|Saudi Arabia}}</small> \|K808 White Tiger \|1 × Oerlikon KCB-B 4 SAM \|30 × 170 mm Air burst programmable munitions — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|In development <ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-01-07 \|titleSaudi SAMI-Hanwha JV and Biho II air defense system \|urlhttps://www.tacticalreport.com/daily/59200-saudi-sami-hanwha-jv-and-biho-ii-air-defense-system \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websiteTactical Report \|languageen}}</ref> \|- \|Lvkv 9040 <small>Luftvärnskanonvagn 9040</small> \|BAE Systems Bofors \| \|<small>{{flag\|Sweden}}</small> \|CV90 \|1 × 40 mm Bofors L/70B autocanon \|40 × 365&nbsp;mm \| style="text-align: center;" \|30 \|<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.forsvarsmakten.se/sv/information-och-fakta/materiel-och-teknik/mark/luftvarnskanonvagn-90/\|titleLuftvärnskanonvagn 90 - Försvarsmakten}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleCV 90 TriAD \|urlhttps://weaponsystems.net/system/62-CV+90+TriAD \|access-date2024-06-26 \|websiteWeaponsystems.net \|language=en}}</ref> \|- \|Flakpanzer Gepard \| rowspan="2" \|Oerlikon Contraves {{ill\|Siemens-Albis\|de\|Albiswerk Zürich}} Krauss-Maffei \| \| rowspan="2" \|<small>{{flag\|Switzerland}}</small><small>{{flag\|Germany}}</small> \| rowspan="2" \| * Leopard 1 \|2 × Oerlikon KDA {{refn\|groupnote\|namesecond\|Canon used on the GDF-001, GDF-002, GDF-003 and GDF-005, without programmable ammunition capacity, using HE rounds.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://weaponsystems.net/system/283-35mm+Oerlikon+KDA \| title35mm Oerlikon KDA}}</ref>}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} HEI ammunition \| rowspan"2" style"text-align: center;" \|570 <ref>{{Cite web \|titleGEPARD 1 A2 - KNDS \|urlhttps://www.knds.de/en/systems-products/tracked-vehicles/air-defence-systems/gepard-1-a2/ \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitewww.knds.de}}</ref> \| rowspan"2" \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleFlakpanzer Gepard A1 \|urlhttps://www.panzer-modell.de/referenz/in_detail/gepard_a1/gepard.htm \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitewww.panzer-modell.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-09-17 \|titleGepard-Panzer in der Ukraine: "Holt die Drohnen wie Früchte vom Himmel" \|urlhttps://www.merkur.de/politik/russland-krieg-gepard-panzer-flak-flugabwehr-deutschland-lieferung-ukraine-zr-92510512.html \|access-date2024-06-28 \|websitewww.merkur.de \|language=de}}</ref> \|- \|Flakpanzer Gepard 1A2 \| \|2 × {{ill\|Rheinmetall KDG 35/1000\|de\|Rheinmetall KDG-Revolverkanone}} {{refn\|groupnote\|namefirst\|Canon used since Oerlikon GDF-006 series with AHEAD programmable ammunition capacity.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://defence-industry.eu/threat-adequate-and-highly-mobile-rheinmetalls-oerlikon-skyranger-35-video/ \| titleThreat-adequate and highly mobile: Rheinmetall's Oerlikon Skyranger 35 \| date=13 September 2023}}</ref>}} \|35 x 228 mm Airburst programmable rounds AHEAD \|- \|Skyranger 30 \|Rheinmetall Air Defence (Oerlikon) \| \|<small>{{flag\|Switzerland}}</small><small>{{flag\|Germany}}</small> \| * Boxer A3 / tracked * KF-41 Lynx * Pandur 6×6 EVO * Piranha IV and V * PMMC G5 \|Oerlikon KCE Option for short-range IR missiles (FIM-92 Stinger or Mistral) \|30 × 173 mm Air burst programmable rounds AHEAD — \| style="text-align: center;" \|93 ordered <small>(48 more planned, 9 in option)</small> <small><ref>{{Cite web \|lastHöller \|firstLinus \|date2024-02-26 \|titleAustrian Pandur vehicles to schlep slimmed Skyranger air defense gun \|urlhttps://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2024/02/26/austrian-pandur-vehicles-to-schlep-slimmed-skyranger-air-defense-gun/ \|access-date2024-05-15 \|websiteDefense News \|languageen}}</ref><ref name":02">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rheinmetall.com/en/media/news-watch/news/2023/12/2023-12-20-lynx-with-skyranger-30-for-hungary\|titleRheinmetall\|websiteRheinmetall}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastFiorenza \|firstNicholas \|titleBundeswehr orders Skyranger 30 mounted on Boxer \|urlhttps://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/bundeswehr-orders-skyranger-30-mounted-on-boxer \|websiteJanes\|dateMarch 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleKiszivárgott: újfajta légvédelmi rendszerek beszerzését fontolgatja Magyarország \|date22 March 2021 \|urlhttps://www.portfolio.hu/global/20210322/kiszivargott-ujfajta-legvedelmi-rendszerek-beszerzeset-fontolgatja-magyarorszag-475148}}</ref><ref name":7">{{Cite web \|date2025-01-29 \|titleDefensie versterkt luchtverdediging met anti-drone kanonsystemen - Nieuwsbericht - Defensie.nl \|trans-titleMinistry of Defence strengthens air defence with anti-drone gun system \|urlhttps://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2025/01/29/defensie-versterkt-luchtverdediging-met-anti-drone-kanonsystemen \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20250129214828/https://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2025/01/29/defensie-versterkt-luchtverdediging-met-anti-drone-kanonsystemen \|archive-date2025-01-29 \|access-date2025-01-29 \|websitewww.defensie.nl \|languagenl-NL}}</ref></small> \|<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|titleRheinmetall \|urlhttps://www.rheinmetall.com/de/produkte/flugabwehr/flugabwehrsysteme/mobile-flugabwehr-skyranger#anchor-skyranger-familie \|access-date2024-07-01 \|websiteRheinmetall \|languagede}}</ref><ref name"edr3march21">[https://www.edrmagazine.eu/rheinmetall-air-defence-unveils-its-skyranger-30 Rheinmetall Air Defence unveils its Skyranger 30 (upgraded)]. European Defence Review. 3 March 2021.</ref><ref name"edr1july22">[https://www.edrmagazine.eu/countering-ram-drones-and-other-flying-objects-with-highly-mobile-assets-rheinmetalls-solutions Countering RAM, drones and other flying objects with highly mobile assets, Rheinmetall’s solutions]. European Defence Review. 1 July 2022.</ref> \|- \|Skyranger 35 \|Rheinmetall Air Defence (Oerlikon) \| \|<small>{{flag\|Switzerland}}</small><small>{{flag\|Germany}}</small> \| * Boxer A3 / tracked * KF-41 Lynx * Leopard 2 * Piranha IV and V \|1 × {{ill\|Rheinmetall KDG 35/1000\|de\|Rheinmetall KDG-Revolverkanone}} {{refn\|groupnote\|namefirst}} \|35 x 228 mm Air burst programmable rounds AHEAD \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|Turret based on Skyshield / MANTIS<ref name=":2" /> \|- \|GÜRZ \|Aselsan \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|<small>{{flag\|Turkey}}</small> \|Seyit 8×8 (Anadolu Savunma) \|1 × KDC-02 4 × Bozdoğan IR missile \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} ATOM airburst — \| style="text-align: center;" \|— \|Comparable to Pantsir, in development<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAselsan's GÜRZ Air and Missile Defense System Debut at WDS \|urlhttps://www.defenceturkey.com/en/content/aselsan-s-gurz-air-and-missile-defense-system-debut-at-wds-5867 \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websitewww.defenceturkey.com}}</ref> \|- \|KORKUT \|Aselsan \|<small>''</small> <small>(Turret adapted to land platform)''</small> \|<small>{{flag\|Turkey}}</small> \| * ACV-30 (FNSS) * Arma 8×8 (Otokar) \|2 × KDC-02 {{refn\|group=note\|License produced Oerlikon GDF-002 by MKE using the programmable ATOM 35mm ammunition.}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} ATOM airburst \| style="text-align: center;" \|13 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTürk Silahlı Kuvvetlerine 10 yeni Korkut teslimatı \|urlhttps://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ekonomi/turk-silahli-kuvvetlerine-10-yeni-korkut-teslimati/1642523 \|access-date2024-06-29 \|websitewww.aa.com.tr}}</ref> \|- \|Marksman \|Marconi Electronic Systems \| \|<small>{{flag\|United Kingdom}}</small> \| * T-55AM * Leopard 2A4 \|2 × Oerlikon KDA {{refn\|groupnote\|namesecond}} \|{{ill\|35 x 228 mm\|de\|35 x 228 mm}} HEI ammunition \| style="text-align: center;" \|7 \|<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://catcha.fi/en/domains/ilmatorjuntaupseeriyhdistys.fi\|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070928003602/http://www.ilmatorjuntaupseeriyhdistys.fi/4_2004/tekstit/panssari.htm\|url-statusdead\|titleilmatorjuntaupseeriyhdistys.fi\|archivedateSeptember 28, 2007}}</ref><ref name"PSPR2015">{{cite web \|date5 August 2015 \|titleMAAVOIMIEN LIIKKUVUUDEN JA TULIVOIMAN ROLL OUT PANSSARIPRIKAATISSA 5.8.2015 – Esiteltävä kalusto \|urlhttp://puolustusvoimat.fi/wcm/a2748e00495d6be1a9e0a98833fba23b/Toimintanaytoksen_materiaalitiedot_5+8+2015.pdf?MODAJPERES \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151005155147/http://www.puolustusvoimat.fi/wcm/a2748e00495d6be1a9e0a98833fba23b/Toimintanaytoksen_materiaalitiedot_5%2B8%2B2015.pdf?MODAJPERES \|archive-date5 October 2015 \|accessdate4 May 2016 \|publisherFinnish Defence Forces \|language=Finnish}}</ref> \|- \|} See also * 4M (artillery) * Assault gun * Flakpanzer, a collective term for German anti-aircraft tanks, particularly those used in World War II. * List of anti-aircraft guns * Man-portable air-defense system * Self-propelled artillery * Tank destroyer Footnotes <references group"note" responsive"1"></references> References {{reflist}} {{Authority control}} Category:Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon	2025-04-05T18:25:59.201337
2289	AZ Alkmaar	{{Short description\|Association football club in Netherlands}} {{About\|the men's association football team\|the women's team\|AZ Alkmaar (women)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox football club \| clubname = AZ \| image = AZ Alkmaar.svg \| upright = 0.92 \| fullname = Alkmaar Zaanstreek \| nickname = De Kaasboeren (The Cheese Farmers) \| short name = AZ \| founded {{Start date and age\|1967\|05\|10\|dfy}} \| dissolved \| ground AFAS Stadion \| capacity = 19,478 \| coordinates \| owntitle Executive director <br /> Technical director \| owner = Merijn Zeeman <br /> Max Huiberts \| chrtitle \| chairman René Neelissen \| mgrtitle = Head coach \| manager = Maarten Martens \| league = {{Dutch football updater\|AZAlkmaar}} \| season = {{Dutch football updater\|AZAlkmaar2}} \| position = {{Dutch football updater\|AZAlkmaar3}} \| current = 2024–25 AZ Alkmaar season \| website = https://www.az.nl \| pattern_la1 = _az2425h \| pattern_b1 = _az2425h \| pattern_ra1 = _az2425h \| pattern_sh1 \| pattern_so1 _az2425hl \| leftarm1 = FFFFFF \| body1 = FF0000 \| rightarm1 = FFFFFF \| shorts1 = FFFFFF \| socks1 = FFFFFF \| pattern_la2 \| pattern_b2 _az2425a \| pattern_ra2 \| pattern_sh2 \| pattern_so2 \| leftarm2 000000 \| body2 = FFFFFF \| rightarm2 = 000000 \| shorts2 = 000000 \| socks2 = FFFFFF \| pattern_la3 = _az2425t \| pattern_b3 = _az2425t \| pattern_ra3 = _az2425t \| pattern_sh3 \| pattern_so3 \| leftarm3 = 000000 \| body3 = 000000 \| rightarm3 = 000000 \| shorts3 = 000000 \| socks3 = 000000 }} Alkmaar Zaanstreek ({{IPA\|nl\|ˈɑl(ə)kmaːr ˈzaːnstreːk\|lang}}), better known internationally as AZ Alkmaar, or simply and most commonly as AZ ({{IPA\|nl\|aːˈzɛt\|pron}}) in the Netherlands, is a Dutch professional football club from Alkmaar and the Zaan district. The club plays in the Eredivisie, the highest professional football league in the Netherlands. AZ won the Eredivisie in 1980–81 and 2008–09. In the same season as their first league title, they also reached the UEFA Cup Final, which they lost to Ipswich Town. The team has won the KNVB Cup on four occasions, and one Johan Cruyff Shield. History 1910–1972: Foundation and first years AZ was founded on 10 May 1967 as AZ&nbsp;'67, the result of a merger of Alkmaar&nbsp;'54 and FC Zaanstreek.<ref name"fus">{{Cite web \|titleAZ Historie - De fusie van Alkmaar Zaanstreek \|urlhttp://azhistorie.nl/de_fusie.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211013705/http://azhistorie.nl/de_fusie.html \|archive-dateDec 11, 2021 \|languagenl}}</ref> Alkmaar&nbsp;'54 was founded as a professional team in April&nbsp;1954 to play in the 10-team NBVB league, created because the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) refused to organize a professional league (the KNVB took over in 1955). Alkmaar&nbsp;'54, and by extension AZ, played the first professional match in the Netherlands: on 14&nbsp;August 1954, they won 3–0 at home against Venlo&nbsp;'54, with Klaas Smit scoring the first and third goal.<ref>[https://www.venlonaren.net/informatie-vvv-venlo/alkmaar-54-en-venlo-spelen-allereerste-profduel/ Alkmaar '54 en Venlo spelen allereerst profduel] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190426011014/https://www.venlonaren.net/informatie-vvv-venlo/alkmaar-54-en-venlo-spelen-allereerste-profduel/ \|date26 April 2019 }} {{in lang\|nl}}, Algemeen Dagblad, 25 June 2008.</ref> After winning the {{Lang\|nl\|Eerste Divisie\|italic=no}} in 1960–61, it played one year in the Eredivisie. FC Zaanstreek had been playing since 1910 as the Kooger Football Club (KFC). KFC had nearly become national champion in 1934 through a narrow loss to Ajax in the finals.{{refn\|groupnote\|Klaas en Cees Molenaar had been at this match and blamed Ajax' late equalizer on a mistake by the referee; they claimed they then swore to once become national champion with their team, with which they succeeded 47 years later.<ref>Rob Bruins Slot and Dirk Jan Roeleven, [https://www.anderetijden.nl/aflevering/436/AZ-of-hoe-maak-je-een-topclub AZ, of: hoe maak je een topclub] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190426011012/https://www.anderetijden.nl/aflevering/436/AZ-of-hoe-maak-je-een-topclub \|date=26 April 2019 }}, VPRO, Andere Tijden {{in lang\|nl}}</ref>}} The team became professional in 1955. In 1964 the professional part of KFC was renamed FC Zaanstreek, while the amateurs played on as KFC. Also in 1964, the brothers Cees and Klaas Molenaar, former players and trainers for KFC and owners of a growing appliance store chain, sought to create a powerful football team in Zaanstreek by merging the two local professional teams: KFC and Zaanlandsche Football Club. After the ZFC leadership thwarted this attempt, the Molenaars successfully merged FC Zaanstreek with Alkmaar&nbsp;'54 in 1967. FC&nbsp;Zaanstreek had finished 7th and Alkmaar&nbsp;'54 12th in 1966–67 Eerste Divisie. The team would be based in Alkmaar, though the second team originally trained and played in Koog aan de Zaan.<ref namefus/><ref>Martin Rep, [https://www.deorkaan.nl/hoe-het-profvoetbal-verdween-uit-de-zaanstreek/ Hoe het profvoetbal verdween uit de Zaanstreek] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190426011011/https://www.deorkaan.nl/hoe-het-profvoetbal-verdween-uit-de-zaanstreek/ \|date26 April 2019 }} {{in lang\|nl}}, De Orkaan, 10 August 2018.</ref>1972–1985: Molenaar years Partially through the hiring of expensive foreign players, the new club soon acquired large debts. In 1972, the Molenaar brothers bailed it out and invested heavily in the club, to the point that AZ '67 were successful in the late 1970s and early '80s, regularly playing European football from 1977 to 1982 while also winning three KNVB Cups over that period. After four close league campaigns, AZ finally became Dutch champions in 1981, becoming the only team other than the "big three" of Ajax, {{Lang\|nl\|Feyenoord\|italic=no}} and PSV to do so in a 44-year period spanning from 1965 to 2009 (when AZ once again won the league title). They won the title with overwhelming power, winning 27 of 34 matches and only losing once, while scoring a club record 101 goals and conceding just 30. That same season, AZ reached the final of the UEFA Cup, losing 5–4 on aggregate to Ipswich Town. The next year, in the European Cup, they lost in the second round 3–2 on aggregate to Liverpool. Georg Keßler was AZ's manager over most of these years (1978–82), while star players included: Kees Kist, the club's highest ever goalscorer with 212 goals and the first ever Dutchman to win the European Golden Boot in 1979 when he scored 34 goals in a season; Jan Peters, who played 120 matches for AZ during this period scoring 30 goals from midfield; and Hugo Hovenkamp, who played 239 matches in defence for AZ from 1975 to 1983, as well as receiving 31 caps for the Netherlands national team from 1977 to 1983 and playing each match in UEFA Euro 1980 while an AZ player. Additional stars included John Metgod, who spent six years at AZ playing 195 matches as a defender, scoring 26 goals including a goal against Ipswich Town in the final of the UEFA Cup. Like Hovenkamp, Metgod was also included in the Dutch squad for Euro 1980. Meanwhile, Danish forward Kristen Nygaard spent ten years at AZ, scoring 104 goals in 363 matches between 1972 and 1982. 1985–1993: Interim years Co-owner Cees Molenaar died in 1979. AZ's fortunes deteriorated after his brother, Klaas Molenaar, left the club in 1985. After several mid-table finishes in previous seasons, AZ was relegated in 1988 from the Eredivisie, ending the season on 28 points from 34 matches and falling to the {{Lang\|nl\|Eerste Divisie\|italicno}} due to the superior goal difference of Roda JC. This relegation was significant since it occurred just seven years after the club's historic domestic double and marked the end of AZ's first period of success in Dutch football. Following this, AZ spent much of the next decade in the second tier, struggling to find a return to the top flight.1993–2009: Scheringa years The involvement of businessman Dirk Scheringa in the mid-1990s marked the revival of the club as AZ returned to the Eredivisie, winning the 1997-98 Eerste Divisie title. The club achieved consecutive finishes around the middle positions in the league until ending up in third place in the 2004-05 Eredivisie season, AZ's highest position for 23 years. In the summer of 2006, the club moved to a new 17,000 capacity stadium, AZ Stadion. Despite playing strongly for the majority of the 2006–07 season, AZ's season ended in disappointment. First, entering the last matchday of the 2006–07 Eredivisie season, AZ led PSV and Ajax on goal difference at the top of the league table, but ended up third after losing their last match against 16th placed team Excelsior, AZ played with ten men for 80 minutes. Additionally, AZ then lost the KNVB Cup final to Ajax 8–7 after a penalty shoot-out, while also falling to Ajax over two play-off matches for participation in the Champions League. After the season, key players like Tim de Cler, Danny Koevermans and Shota Arveladze left the team. in a 2007–08 UEFA Cup match]] A remarkable run ended in the 2007–08 season: after AZ lost a group stage match against Everton (3–2) in the UEFA Cup, the club's unbeaten run of 32 home matches in European competitions – lasting from 1977 to 2007 – ended. AZ had a poor season, suffering elimination in the first round of the KNVB Cup and the group stage of the UEFA Cup, as well as finishing the 2007–08 Eredivisie in a disappointing 11th place. Towards the latter stages of the season, in March 2008, AZ manager Louis van Gaal had initially tendered his resignation, but after protests the players and directors, he rescinded his resignation. The 2008–09 season had an unpromising start after two opening defeats against NAC Breda and ADO Den Haag. However, starting with a 1–0 victory over defending league champions PSV, AZ did not lose a match in its next 28 matches, including a run of 11-straight matches where AZ did not concede an opposition goal. Three weeks before the end of the season, AZ became Eredivisie champions, edging nearest title rivals Twente and Ajax comfortably. This was a historic achievement for the club as this was the first title-winning season for 28 years, and it also meant a return to the UEFA Champions League. Being league champions, AZ qualified for the Champions League for only the second time. It was drawn into a group alongside Arsenal FC, Standard Liège and Olympiacos but only took four points from six matches and finished bottom of their group. 2009–2014: Advocaat–Verbeek years For the 2009–10 season, Ronald Koeman succeeded Louis van Gaal, who had departed to manage Bayern Munich after leading AZ to the championship. Koeman was officially hired on 17 May 2009, but on 5 December, AZ announced he was no longer in charge of the club after losing 7 of his first 16 matches. Former Rangers and Zenit Saint Petersburg manager Dick Advocaat took over for the remainder of the season. Under Advocaat, AZ achieved solid results and secured European football for the next season. For the 2010–11 season, AZ appointed Gertjan Verbeek as its new manager. They finished the 2010–11 Eredivisie in fourth place, thus securing Europa League football for the next season, while in the KNVB Cup, AZ reached the last eight, where they were beaten by rivals Ajax by a 1–0 scoreline. AZ also finished third in their Europa League group, thus failing to qualifying for the competition's knockout round. In the 2011–12 season, AZ finished fourth in the Eredivisie, though performed significantly better in cup competitions, reaching the semi-finals in the KNVB Cup (losing to Heracles after extra time) and the quarter-finals in the Europa League. In the latter, the club ultimately lost to Valencia after having defeated Udinese, Anderlecht, Malmö FF, Austria Wien, Metalist Kharkiv, Aalesund and Baumit Jablonec to reach that stage. On 21 December 2011, during the quarter-finals of the 2011–12 KNVB Cup, a 19-year-old Ajax fan invaded the Amsterdam Arena pitch in the 36th minute with Ajax winning 1–0, attacking AZ goalkeeper Esteban Alvarado. The fan slipped and Alvarado kicked the fan twice, prompting the referee to issue the goalkeeper a red card. Following this, AZ manager Gertjan Verbeek ordered his players to leave the pitch for the dressing room in protest. The match was later played on 19 January 2012, with Alvarado's red card rescinded; AZ won 3–2. The 2012–13 season started in the Europa League with a qualifying play-off round against Guus Hiddink's Anzhi Makhachkala. AZ was hammered 6–0 on aggregate. Disappointingly, AZ finished tenth in the 2012–13 Eredivisie, although the club won the 2012–13 KNVB Cup after defeating PSV 2–1 in the final. As cup winners, AZ automatically qualified for the 2013–14 Europa League. In September 2013, just one day after emphatically beating PSV, at the time the league leaders, Verbeek was dismissed as first team manager by the club due to "a lack of chemistry" between management and players.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www1.skysports.com/football/news/11912/8948012/eredivisie-az-alkmaar-announce-surprise-sacking-of-coach-gertjan-verbeek\|titleEredivisie: AZ Alkmaar announce surprise sacking of coach Gertjan Verbeek\|access-date3 August 2014\|archive-date22 December 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141222221850/http://www1.skysports.com/football/news/11912/8948012/eredivisie-az-alkmaar-announce-surprise-sacking-of-coach-gertjan-verbeek\|url-statuslive}}</ref> He was replaced by Dick Advocaat for the remainder of the season until a permanent replacement could be found. Advocaat took AZ to the semi-finals of the KNVB Cup, the quarter-finals of the Europa League and eighth in the league, ultimately losing to Groningen in the Europa League play-off final round (their 58th match of the season, a club record). 2014–2019: Van den Brom years The 2014–15 season began with a new manager, former Heerenveen manager and Ajax great Marco van Basten. However, after just three matches into the season, Van Basten resigned as manager to become assistant manager under Alex Pastoor, citing heavy stress as the main reason.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2014/09/16/van-basten-doet-stap-terug-bij-az-alex-pastoor-nieuwe-trainer-a1422387\|titleVan Basten doet stap terug bij AZ, Alex Pastoor nieuwe trainer\|newspaperNRC \|date16 September 2014 \|access-date21 January 2017\|archive-date12 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412185749/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2014/09/16/van-basten-doet-stap-terug-bij-az-alex-pastoor-nieuwe-trainer-a1422387\|url-statuslive \|last1Zandstra \|first1Philippus }}</ref> Pastoor was the interim manager during two matches under Van Basten's absence and received the official title on 16 September, but contract negotiations failed and he left the club just two days later. A week later, John van den Brom was appointed manager. Under Van den Brom, AZ quickly rose up to the sub-top, eventually finished the season in third place, surpassing Feyenoord on the final season's matchday and qualifying for the 2015–16 Europa League. The 2015–16 Eredivisie started with AZ selling most of its first-team players from the previous season during the summer transfer period. As a response, AZ bought players from other Dutch clubs, notably Vincent Janssen from Almere City, Alireza Jahanbakhsh from NEC and Ben Rienstra from PEC Zwolle. In December, it was announced free agent Ron Vlaar signed a contract until the end of the season after training with the club for a few weeks prior.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/dec/07/ron-vlaar-az-alkmaar-aston-villa\|titleFormer Aston Villa captain Ron Vlaar joins AZ Alkmaar until end of season\|agencyPress Association\|date7 December 2015\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date21 January 2017\|archive-date12 March 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312062535/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/dec/07/ron-vlaar-az-alkmaar-aston-villa\|url-status=live}}</ref> Vlaar quickly became team captain and helped lift AZ from tenth place to a fourth-place finish in the league. Along this rise, new signing Vincent Janssen scored 27 goals for the club, earning him the Eredivisie top goalscorer title. In the 2015–16 KNVB Cup, AZ made it to the semi-finals, losing 3–1 to Feyenoord. AZ won the first two qualification rounds to qualify for the 2015–16 Europa League group stage, but finished last in their group. At the start of the 2016–17 Eredivisie, AZ sold last season's performer Vincent Janssen to Tottenham Hotspur and long-time midfielder Markus Henriksen to Hull City. In the 2016–17 Europa League, AZ finished second in Group D, surviving the group stage for the third time in five seasons. Since 2019: Slot–Jansen years After an excellent 2019/20 season in which AZ beat league leaders Ajax home and away, aided by consistent performances from youth academy talents such as Teun Koopmeiners, Myron Boadu, Calvin Stengs and Owen Wijndal, the season was forced to end early due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Joint on points with Ajax at the top of the table, AZ were given second place on goal difference, and subsequently earned Qualification to the Champions League second qualifying round. A poor start to their 2020/21 Eredivisie campaign saw AZ draw five games in a row, before eventually picking up a victory against RKC Waalwijk on 1 November 2020. in the Champions League qualifiers 2021]] AZ also struggled in European competitions this season. Despite a strong start, with a 3–1 extra time come back against Viktoria Plzen in the Champions League qualifiers, the club lost 2–0 to Dynamo Kyiv several weeks later, seeing them fall back into the Europa League. After victory against Napoli and Rijeka early in the pool stages, AZ was on track to advance, though lost to Real Sociedad away, obtained a 0–0 draw in the reverse fixture, and also drew 1–1 with Napoli. Following these results, AZ needed to defeat Rijeka away to advance. However, the departure the week before the game of manager Arne Slot saw an unorganised team lose 2–1 to Rijeka, ending their European dream. In 2022–2023, AZ stepped up their performance in Europa Conference League play, winning five out of six Group E matches against SC Dnipro-1, Apollon Limassol and Vaduz, then beating Lazio 4–2 on aggregate. However, their run was ended by defeats to West Ham United, with AZ's home leg marred by supporter violence.<ref>{{cite news \|lastSteinberg \|firstJacob \|date2023-05-19 \|titleAZ Alkmaar coach ashamed after fans confront West Ham players families \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/may/19/i-feel-ashamed-az-alkmaar-manager-apologises-following-fan-trouble \|workThe Guardian \|access-date2023-05-19 \|refnone \|archive-date19 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230519150337/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2023/may/19/i-feel-ashamed-az-alkmaar-manager-apologises-following-fan-trouble \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Coaching staff Statistic from January 2024 {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Position !Staff \|- \|Head coach\|\|{{flagicon\|BEL}} Maarten Martens \|- \|Assistant coach\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Robert Franssen <br />{{flagicon\|NED}} Kenneth Goudmijn <br/> {{flagicon\|NED}} Jan Sierksma \|- \|Goalkeeper coach\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Nick van Aart \|- \|Fitness coach\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Niels Kok \|- \|Chief Scout\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Carlos Aalbers \|- \|Scout\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Arthur Numan <br /> {{flagicon\|NED}} Koen Veenstra <br /> {{flagicon\|NED}} Lars Engel <br /> {{flagicon\|NED}} Hugo Hovenkamp \|- \|Head of Medical\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Rob Tamminga \|- \|Club doctor\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Ingrid Paul \|- \|Physiotherapist\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Martin Cruijff <br /> {{flagicon\|NED}} Frank Renzenbrink \|- \|Team Manager\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Ari Menmi \|- \|Technical director\|\|{{flagicon\|NED}} Max Huiberts \|} Players Current squad {{updated\|20 January 2025\|<ref>{{cite web \|titleSpelers \|urlhttps://www.az.nl/nl/teams/spelers?teamaz \|workaz.nl \|publisherAZ \|access-date8 January 2025 \|archive-date23 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230323183917/https://www.az.nl/nl/teams/spelers?teamaz \|url-statuslive }}</ref>}} {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no1\|natNED\|posGK\|nameRome-Jayden Owusu-Oduro}} {{Fs player\|no3\|natNED\|posDF\|nameWouter Goes}} {{Fs player\|no4\|natNED\|posDF\|nameBruno Martins Indi\|other={{small\|captain}}}} {{Fs player\|no5\|natPOR\|posDF\|nameAlexandre Penetra}} {{Fs player\|no6\|natNED\|posMF\|namePeer Koopmeiners}} {{Fs player\|no7\|natNED\|posFW\|nameRuben van Bommel}} {{Fs player\|no8\|natNED\|posMF\|nameJordy Clasie\|other={{small\|vice-captain}}}} {{Fs player\|no9\|natIRL\|posFW\|nameTroy Parrott}} {{Fs player\|no10\|natNED\|posMF\|nameSven Mijnans}} {{Fs player\|no11\|natGHA\|posFW\|nameIbrahim Sadiq}} {{Fs player\|no12\|natNED\|posGK\|nameHobie Verhulst}} {{Fs player\|no13\|natNED\|posGK\|nameSem Westerveld}} {{Fs player\|no14\|natSER\|posMF\|nameKristijan Belić}} {{Fs player\|no16\|natJPN\|posDF\|nameSeiya Maikuma}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no17\|natNED\|posFW\|nameJayden Addai}} {{Fs player\|no18\|natNOR\|posDF\|nameDavid Møller Wolfe}} {{Fs player\|no21\|natNED\|posFW\|nameErnest Poku}} {{Fs player\|no22\|natNED\|posDF\|nameMaxim Dekker}} {{Fs player\|no23\|natSWE\|posFW\|nameMayckel Lahdo}} {{Fs player\|no24\|natNED\|posMF\|nameLewis Schouten}} {{Fs player\|no26\|natNED\|posMF\|nameKees Smit}} {{Fs player\|no27\|natNED\|posFW\|nameRo-Zangelo Daal}} {{Fs player\|no28\|natNED\|posMF\|nameZico Buurmeester}} {{Fs player\|no30\|natNED\|posDF\|nameDenso Kasius}} {{Fs player\|no31\|natNED\|posGK\|nameDaniël Virginio Deen}} {{Fs player\|no34\|natNED\|posDF\|nameMees de Wit}} {{Fs player\|no35\|natNED\|posFW\|nameMexx Meerdink}} {{Fs player\|no41\|natNED\|posGK\|nameJeroen Zoet}} {{fs end}} Out on loan {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posDF\|nameSem Dekkers\|other={{small\|at Helmond Sport until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posDF\|nameFinn Stam\|other={{small\|at Groningen until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posMF\|nameDave Kwakman\|other={{small\|at Groningen until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posFW\|nameMyron van Brederode\|other={{small\|at Fortuna Düsseldorf until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs player\|no\|natNED\|posFW\|nameLequincio Zeefuik\|other={{small\|at OH Leuven until 30 June 2025}}}} {{Fs end}} Jong AZ {{For\|the reserve squad of AZ\|Jong AZ}} Participating in the Eerste Divisie, the reserve squad of AZ trains and plays their home games in Zaanstad. Former players {{further\|:Category:AZ Alkmaar players}} National team players The following players were called up to represent their national teams in international football and received caps during their tenure with AZ Alkmaar: {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} ;Argentina * {{flagicon\|Argentina}} Sergio Romero (2007–2011) ;Australia * {{flagicon\|Australia}} James Holland (2009–2012) {{flagicon\|Australia}} Brett Holman (2008–2012) {{flagicon\|Australia}} Mathew Ryan (2023–2024) ;Austria * {{flagicon\|Austria}} Kurt Welzl (1978–1981) ;Belgium * {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Stein Huysegems (2003–2006) {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Maarten Martens (2006–2014) {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Sébastien Pocognoli (2007–2010) ** {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Gill Swerts (2008–2011) ;Cameroon * {{flagicon\|Cameroon}} Willie Overtoom (2013–2014) ;Costa Rica * {{flagicon\|Costa Rica}} Esteban Alvarado (2010–2015) ;Denmark * {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Henrik Eigenbrod (1982–1984) {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Kristen Nygaard (1972–1982) {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Kenneth Perez (2000–2006) ** {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Simon Poulsen (2008–2012; 2014–2015) ;Estonia * {{flagicon\|Estonia}} Ragnar Klavan (2009–2012) ;Finland * {{flagicon\|Finland}} Niki Mäenpää (2011–2012) {{flagicon\|Finland}} Niklas Moisander (2008–2012) {{flagicon\|Finland}} Juha Reini (2002–2006) ;Georgia * {{flagicon\|Georgia (country)\|Georgia}} Shota Arveladze (2005–2007) ;Ghana * {{flagicon\|Ghana}} Kamal Sowah (2022) ;Greece * {{flagicon\|Greece}} Pantelis Chatzidiakos (2015–2023) ** {{flagicon\|Greece}} Vangelis Pavlidis (2021–2024) ;Hungary * {{flagicon\|Hungary}} Milos Kerkez (2022–2023) ;Iceland * {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Joey Guðjónsson (2006–2007) {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Albert Guðmundsson (2018–2022) {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Jóhann Berg Guðmundsson (2009–2014) {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Kolbeinn Sigþórsson (2010–2011) {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Grétar Steinsson (2006–2008) ;Iran * {{flagicon\|Iran}} Alireza Jahanbakhsh (2015–2018) {{col-3}} ;Japan * {{flagicon\|Japan}} Yukinari Sugawara (2020–2024) ;Mexico * {{flagicon\|Mexico}} Héctor Moreno (2008–2011) ;Morocco * {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Zakaria Aboukhlal (2019–2022) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Nourdin Boukhari (2007) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Ali Elkhattabi (2001–2006) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Abdelkrim El Hadrioui (1998–2002) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Mounir El Hamdaoui (2007–2010; 2015–2016) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Oussama Idrissi (2018–2020) {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Adil Ramzi (2004–2006) ** {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Tarik Sektioui (2004–2006) ;Netherlands * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Peter Arntz (1976–1985) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Roy Beerens (2011–2014) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Marco Bizot (2017–2021) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Myron Boadu (2017–2021) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Dries Boussatta (1998–2002) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Tim de Cler (2002–2007) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Barry van Galen (1997–2006) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Willem van Hanegem (1976–1979) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Hugo Hovenkamp (1975–1983) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Kew Jaliens (2004–2011) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Vincent Janssen (2015–2016) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jos Jonker (1980–1983) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Danny Koevermans (2005–2007) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Kees Kist (1972–1982; 1984–1985) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Teun Koopmeiners (2017–2021) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Kromkamp (2000–2005) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Denny Landzaat (2003–2006) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Adam Maher (2010–2013; 2018–2019) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Dirk Marcellis (2010–2015) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Bruno Martins Indi (2020–present) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Joris Mathijsen (2004–2006) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Martijn Meerdink (2002–2007) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} David Mendes da Silva (2006–2010) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} John Metgod (1976–1982) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Oscar Moens (1996–2003) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Barry Opdam (1996–2008) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jan Peters (1977–1982) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Henk van Rijnsoever (1974–1982) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Stijn Schaars (2005–2011) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ronald Spelbos (1974–1982) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Calvin Stengs (2017–2021) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Guus Til (2016–2019) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Henk Timmer (2000–2006) ** {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Pier Tol (1978–1988) {{col-3}} Netherlands (continued) * {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Nick Viergever (2010–2014) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Ron Vlaar (2004–2006; 2015–2021) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Bobby Vosmaer (1974–1978) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Wout Weghorst (2016–2018) {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Owen Wijndal (2017–2022) ** {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Demy de Zeeuw (2005–2009) ;Norway * {{flagicon\|Norway}} Håkon Evjen (2020–2023) {{flagicon\|Norway}} Markus Henriksen (2012–2017) {{flagicon\|Norway}} Bjørn Maars Johnsen (2018–2020) {{flagicon\|Norway}} Fredrik Midtsjø (2017–2022) {{flagicon\|Norway}} Jonas Svensson (2017–2021) ** {{flagicon\|Norway}} David Møller Wolfe (2023–present) ;Paraguay * {{flagicon\|Paraguay}} Celso Ortiz (2010–2016) ;Republic of Ireland * {{flagicon\|Ireland}} Troy Parrott (2024–present) ;Romania * {{flagicon\|Romania}} Dorin Rotariu (2018–2019) ;Serbia * {{flagicon\|Serbia}} Kristijan Belić (2024–present) ** {{flagicon\|Serbia}} Nemanja Gudelj (2013–2015) ;Suriname * {{flagicon\|Suriname}} Ramon Leeuwin (2020–2021) ;Sweden * {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Rasmus Elm (2009–2012) {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Mattias Johansson (2012–2017) {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Jesper Karlsson (2020–2023) {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Muamer Tanković (2014–2017) {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Pontus Wernbloom (2009–2012) ;Trinidad & Tobago * {{flagicon\|Trinidad & Tobago}} Levi García (2015–2018) ;United States * {{flagicon\|United States}} Jozy Altidore (2011–2013) {{flagicon\|United States}} Aron Jóhannsson (2013–2015) {{flagicon\|United States}} Djordje Mihailovic (2023–2024) {{col-3}} {{col-end}} * Players in bold actively play for AZ Alkmaar and for their respective national teams. Years in brackets indicate careerspan with AZ. National team players by Confederation Member associations are listed in order of most to least amount of current and former AZ players represented Internationally {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left" \|+ Total national team players by confederation<br> \|- ! scope="row" \| Confederation ! scope="col" \| Total ! scope"col" class"unsortable" \| (Nation) Association \|- \| AFC \| 5 \| {{flagicon\|Australia}} Australia (3), {{flagicon\|Iran}} Iran (1), {{flagicon\|Japan}} Japan (1) \|- \| CAF \| 10 \| {{flagicon\|Morocco}} Morocco (8), {{flagicon\|Cameroon}} Cameroon (1), {{flagicon\|Ghana}} Ghana (1) \|- \| CONCACAF \| 7 \| {{flagicon\|United States}} United States (3), {{flagicon\|Costa Rica}} Costa Rica (1), {{flagicon\|Mexico}} Mexico (1), {{flagicon\|Suriname}} Suriname (1), {{flagicon\|Trinidad & Tobago}} Trinidad & Tobago (1) \|- \| CONMEBOL \| 2 \| {{flagicon\|Argentina}} Argentina (1), {{flagicon\|Paraguay}} Paraguay (1) \|- \| OFC \| 0 \| &nbsp; \|- \| UEFA \| 73 \| {{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Netherlands (40), {{flagicon\|Norway}} Norway (6), {{flagicon\|Iceland}} Iceland (5), {{flagicon\|Sweden}} Sweden (5), {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Belgium (4), {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Denmark (4), {{flagicon\|Finland}} Finland (3), {{flagicon\|Greece}} Greece (2), {{flagicon\|Serbia}} Serbia (2), {{flagicon\|Austria}} Austria (1), {{flagicon\|Estonia}} Estonia (1), {{flagicon\|Georgia (country)\|Georgia}} Georgia (1), {{flagicon\|Hungary}} Hungary (1), {{flagicon\|Ireland}} Ireland (1), {{flagicon\|Romania}} Romania (1) \|} Players in international tournaments The following is a list of AZ players who have competed in international tournaments, including the FIFA World Cup, UEFA European Championship, AFC Asian Cup, Africa Cup of Nations, CONCACAF Gold Cup and the Copa América. To this date no AZ players have participated in the FIFA Confederations Cup or the OFC Nations Cup while playing for AZ Alkmaar. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: left" \|- style="text-align: center" !Cup !Players \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Yugoslavia}} UEFA Euro 1976\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Hugo Hovenkamp<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Kees Kist<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} John Metgod \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Argentina\|alt}} 1978 FIFA World Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Hugo Hovenkamp \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Italy}} UEFA Euro 1980\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Hugo Hovenkamp<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Kees Kist \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Ghana}}{{Flag icon\|Nigeria}} 2000 Africa Cup of Nations\|\|{{Flag icon\|Morocco}} Abdelkarim El Hadrioui \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Portugal}} UEFA Euro 2004\|\|{{Flag icon\|Denmark}} Kenneth Perez \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Germany}} 2006 FIFA World Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Tim de Cler<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Kew Jaliens<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Denny Landzaat<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Joris Mathijsen<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Henk Timmer \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Austria}}{{Flag icon\|Switzerland}} UEFA Euro 2008\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Demy de Zeeuw \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|South Africa}} 2010 FIFA World Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Australia}} Brett Holman<br/>{{Flag icon\|Mexico}} Héctor Moreno<br/>{{Flag icon\|Denmark}} Simon Poulsen<br/>{{Flag icon\|Argentina}} Sergio Romero<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Stijn Schaars \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Qatar}} 2011 AFC Asian Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Australia}} Brett Holman \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Argentina}} 2011 Copa América\|\|{{Flag icon\|Argentina}} Sergio Romero \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|United States}} 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Mexico}} Héctor Moreno \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Poland}}{{Flag icon\|Ukraine}} UEFA Euro 2012\|\|{{Flag icon\|Sweden}} Rasmus Elm<br/>{{Flag icon\|Denmark}} Simon Poulsen \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Canada}}{{Flag icon\|United States}} 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Costa Rica}} Esteban Alvarado<br/>{{Flag icon\|United States}} Aron Jóhannsson \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|United States}} 2016 Copa América\|\|{{Flag icon\|Paraguay}} Celso Ortiz \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Russia}} 2018 FIFA World Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Iran}} Alireza Jahanbakhsh \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Egypt}} 2019 Africa Cup of Nations\|\|{{Flag icon\|Morocco}} Oussama Idrissi \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|European Union}} UEFA Euro 2020\|\|{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Marco Bizot<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Teun Koopmeiners<br/>{{Flag icon\|Netherlands}} Owen Wijndal \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Cameroon}} 2021 Africa Cup of Nations\|\|{{Flag icon\|Morocco}} Zakaria Aboukhlal \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Qatar}} 2023 AFC Asian Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|Australia}} Mathew Ryan<br/>{{Flag icon\|Japan}} Yukinari Sugawara \|- \|align="left"\|{{Flag icon\|Canada}}{{Flag icon\|United States}} 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup\|\|{{Flag icon\|United States}} Djordje Mihailovic \|- \|} Stadium and sponsor Stadium {{See also\|AFAS Stadion}} AZ play its home matches at the AFAS Stadion, located in the southern part of the city of Alkmaar. The stadium, which is directly owned by the club, was opened in 2006 and replaced the old Alkmaarderhout venue as the DSB Stadion. The stadium currently has a capacity of 17,023. During its design stages, the name Victorie Stadion was frequently used, referring to the Dutch War of Independence, the phrase "In Alkmaar begint de victorie" (Victory begins in Alkmaar)'' in particular. Until now, this name has not been officially in use, the board instead opting for sponsorship deals because of financial motives. However, to this day, the name maintains a good share of support among the fans. To further increase revenue, AZ's board of directors decided to expand the capacity of the new stadium to at least 30,000 somewhere in the future. The extension will be realised by constructing a second tier to three of the four stands. The main stand with all technical areas, VIP and sponsor and media facilities will remain in place. These plans, however, were put on hold after the DSB bankruptcy and there are no current plans to increase the capacity. In October 2009, sponsor DSB Bank was declared bankrupt. The stadium name temporarily changed from DSB Stadion to AZ Stadion, as it was considered undesirable that the stadium was linked with a non-existent bank. In February 2010, a new main sponsor was found in construction works service provider BUKO, based in Beverwijk. A year later, in the 2010–11 season, {{ill\|AFAS Software\|nl}} took over as official stadium sponsor. The current external name of the ground is the AFAS Stadion. On 10 August 2019, the roof of the stadium partially collapsed. No people were injured during the incident.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4809756/dak-az-stadion-ingestort \|titleDak van AZ-stadion gedeeltelijk ingestort \|date10 August 2019 \|websiteRTL Nieuws \|access-date10 August 2019 \|languagenl \|archive-date10 August 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190810163214/https://www.rtlnieuws.nl/nieuws/artikel/4809756/dak-az-stadion-ingestort \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As the result AZ spent the rest of the year playing home matches at the Cars Jeans Stadion in The Hague whilst the damaged roof was being removed, before returning to the stadium on 15 December 2019, beating Ajax 1–0 in their first match back.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.parool.nl/nieuws/samenvatting-az-ajax-1-0~bb8b52c5 \|titleSamenvatting AZ-Ajax (1-0) \|date15 December 2019 \|websiteHet Parool \|access-date27 August 2020 \|languagenl \|archive-date8 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200808184702/https://www.parool.nl/nieuws/samenvatting-az-ajax-1-0~bb8b52c5/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> AZ played the rest of the 2019/20 season, until the COVID-19 pandemic cut it short, without a roof. During the 2020/21 season, a new roof was installed, held up by 20 crane-like arms on three sides and a so-called mega truss on the main stand.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.az.nl/nl/nieuws/mega-truss-nieuw-hoogtepunt \|titleMega Truss: nieuw hoogtepunt \|date24 March 2021 \|websiteAZ.nl \|publisherAZ \|access-date16 February 2022 \|languagenl \|archive-date1 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220701223306/https://www.az.nl/nl/nieuws/mega-truss-nieuw-hoogtepunt \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The renewed stadium, which also included a capacity upgrade of nearly 2,500 seats for a new total capacity of 19,500, was officially opened on 11 September 2021, before the home game against PSV.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.noordhollandsdagblad.nl/cnt/dmf20210912_69456364 \|titleSpetterende show bij heropening AZ-stadion. 'Gefeliciteerd met jullie nieuwe huis. Geniet ervan!' [video] \|date12 September 2021 \|websiteNoord-Hollands Dagblad \|access-date16 February 2022 \|languagenl \|archive-date16 February 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220216142644/https://www.noordhollandsdagblad.nl/cnt/dmf20210912_69456364 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors{\| class"wikitable" style="text-align: center" \|- ! Period ! Kit manufacturer ! Shirt sponsor \|- \| 1977–1982 \| rowspan=2\|Adidas \| \|- \| 1982–1986 \| \|Sony \|- \| 1986–1988 \| rowspan=2\|Lotto \| \|Electrolux \|- \| 1988–1989 \| \|Swingbo \|- \| 1989–1990 \| \|Reebok \| \|Reebok \|- \| 1990–1993 \| \|Hi-Tec \| rowspan=5\|Frisia \|- \| 1993–1998 \| Hummel \|- \| 1998–1999 \| \|Kappa \|- \| 1999–2001 \| \|none \|- \| 2001–2002 \| rowspan=4\|Umbro \|- \| 2002–2004 \| \|Actus Notarissen \|- \| 2004–2005 \| \|Frisia \|- \| 2005–2006 \| rowspan=3\|DSB \|- \| 2006–2008 \| \|Quick \|- \| 2008–2009 \| \|Canterbury \|- \| 2009–2010 \| rowspan=2\|Quick \| \|BUKO \|- \| 2010–2011 \| rowspan=4\|AFAS Software \|- \| 2011–2015 \| \|Macron \|- \| 2015–2019 \| \|Under Armour \|- \| 2020– \| \|Nike \|- \| 2022–2024 \| \|Nike \| \|[https://www.kansino.nl/ Kansino] \|} Honours {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%; text-align:center;" !style="width: 10%;"\|Type !style="width: 10%;"\|Competition !style="width: 5%;"\|Titles !style="width: 30%;"\|Seasons !Ref. \|- \| rowspan="5" \|Domestic ! scope=col\|Eredivisie \|2 \| 1980–81, 2008–09 \| rowspan="5" \| \|- ! scope=col\| Eerste Divisie \|3 \| 1959–60<sup>1</sup>, 1995–96, 1997–98 \|- ! scope=col\| Tweede Divisie \|1 \|1955–56<sup>2</sup> \|- ! scope=col\| KNVB Cup \|4 \|1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82, 2012–13 \|- ! scope=col\| Johan Cruyff Shield \|1 \| 2009 \|- \|} European record {{main\|AZ Alkmaar in European football}} Matches {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Season ! Competition ! Round ! Opponent ! Home ! Away ! Aggregate \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1977–78 \| rowspan="2"\| UEFA Cup \| First round \| {{flagicon\|LUX}} Red Boys Differdange \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 11–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 16–1 \|- \| Second round \| {{flagicon\|ESP\|1977}} Barcelona \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 {{pso\|4–5}} \|- \| 1978–79 \| European Cup Winners' Cup \| First round \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Ipswich Town \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \|- \| rowspan="6"\| 1980–81 \| rowspan="6"\| UEFA Cup \| First round \| {{flagicon\|LUX}} Red Boys Differdange \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 6–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 10–0 \|- \| Second round \| {{flagicon\|BUL\|1971}} Levski Sofia \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 6–1 \|- \| Third round \| {{flagicon\|Yugoslavia\|1946}} Radnički Niš \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 7–2 \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|BEL}} Lokeren \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \|- \| Semi-finals \| {{flagicon\|FRA}} Sochaux \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–3 \|- \| Final \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Ipswich Town \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–3 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–5 \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1981–82 \| rowspan="2"\| European Cup \| First round \| {{flagicon\|NOR}} Start \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Liverpool \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–5 \|- \| rowspan="2"\| 1982–83 \| rowspan="2"\| European Cup Winners' Cup \| First round \| {{flagicon\|IRL}} Limerick \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \|- \| Second round \| {{flagicon\|ITA}} Inter Milan \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \|- \|rowspan=8\| 2004–05 \|rowspan=8\| UEFA Cup \|rowspan=4\| Group F \| {{flagicon\|FRA}} Auxerre \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 \| 1st \|- \| {{flagicon\|POL}} Amica Wronki \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 3–1 \|- \| {{flagicon\|SCO}} Rangers \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 1–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \| {{flagicon\|AUT}} Grazer AK \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; \| 0–2 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|GER}} Alemannia Aachen \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Shakhtar Donetsk \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–2 \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Villarreal \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \|- \| Semi-finals \| {{flagicon\|POR}} Sporting CP \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–4 (a) \|- \|rowspan=5\| 2005–06 \|rowspan=5\| UEFA Cup \|rowspan=4\| Group D \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 \| 2nd \|- \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Middlesbrough \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 0–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \| {{flagicon\|BUL}} Litex Lovech \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 2–0 \|- \| {{flagicon\|SUI}} Grasshoppers \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 1–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Real Betis \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \|- \|rowspan=7\| 2006–07 \|rowspan=7\| UEFA Cup \|rowspan=4\| Group C \| {{flagicon\|POR}} Braga \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 \| 1st \|- \| {{flagicon\|SUI}} Grasshoppers \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 5–2 \|- \| {{flagicon\|CZE}} Slovan Liberec \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 2–2 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Sevilla \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 2–1 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|TUR}} Fenerbahçe \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–3 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–5 (a) \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Newcastle United \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–4 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–4 (a) \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|GER}} Werder Bremen \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \|- \|rowspan=4\| 2007–08 \|rowspan=4\| UEFA Cup \|rowspan=4\| Group A \| {{flagicon\|RUS}} Zenit Saint Petersburg \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=4 \| 4th \|- \| {{flagicon\|GRE}} Larissa \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 1–0 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \| {{flagicon\|GER}} 1. FC Nürnberg \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; \| 1–2 \|- \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Everton \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center; \| 2–3 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \|- \|rowspan=3\| 2009–10 \|rowspan=3\| UEFA Champions League \|rowspan=3\| Group H \| {{flagicon\|GRE}} Olympiacos \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 4th \|- \| {{flagicon\|BEL}} Standard Liège \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \|- \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Arsenal \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \|- \|rowspan=3\| 2010–11 \|rowspan=3\| UEFA Europa League \|rowspan=3\| Group E \| {{flagicon\|MDA}} Sheriff Tiraspol \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 3rd \|- \| {{flagicon\|BLR}} BATE Borisov \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \|- \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Dynamo Kyiv \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \|- \|rowspan=6\| 2011–12 \|rowspan=6\| UEFA Europa League \|rowspan=3\| Group G \| {{flagicon\|SWE}} Malmö FF \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 2nd \|- \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Metalist Kharkiv \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \|- \| {{flagicon\|AUT}} Austria Wien \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|BEL}} Anderlecht \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|ITA}} Udinese \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Valencia \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–4 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–5 \|- \| 2012–13 \| UEFA Europa League \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|RUS}} Anzhi Makhachkala \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–5 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–6 \|- \| rowspan="7"\| 2013–14 \| rowspan="7"\| UEFA Europa League \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|GRE}} Atromitos \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–1 \|- \|rowspan=3\| Group L \| {{flagicon\|ISR}} Maccabi Haifa \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 1st \|- \| {{flagicon\|GRE}} PAOK \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \|- \| {{flagicon\|KAZ}} Shakhter Karagandy \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|CZE}} Slovan Liberec \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1-2 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|RUS}} Anzhi Makhachkala \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|POR}} Benfica \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–3 \|- \| rowspan="5"\| 2015–16 \| rowspan="5"\| UEFA Europa League \| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|TUR}} İstanbul Başakşehir \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \|- \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|ROU}} Astra Giurgiu \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–3 \|- \|rowspan=3\| Group L \| {{flagicon\|SRB}} Partizan \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 4th \|- \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Athletic Bilbao \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \|- \| {{flagicon\|GER}} FC Augsburg \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \|- \| rowspan="6"\| 2016–17 \| rowspan="6"\| UEFA Europa League \| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|GRE}} PAS Giannina \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–1 \|- \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|SRB}} Vojvodina \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \|- \|rowspan=3\| Group D \| {{flagicon\|IRL}} Dundalk \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 2nd \|- \| {{flagicon\|RUS}} Zenit Saint Petersburg \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–5 \|- \| {{flagicon\|ISR}} Maccabi Tel Aviv \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|FRA}} Lyon \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–7 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–11 \|- \| 2018–19 \| UEFA Europa League \| Second qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|KAZ}} Kairat \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–3 \|- \| rowspan="7"\| 2019–20 \| rowspan="7"\| UEFA Europa League \| Second qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|SWE}} BK Häcken \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \|- \| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Mariupol \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–0 \|- \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|BEL}} Antwerp \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–2 \|- \|rowspan=3\| Group L \| {{flagicon\|SRB}} Partizan \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 2nd \|- \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} Manchester United \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–4 \|- \| {{flagicon\|KAZ}} Astana \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 6–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–0 \|- \| Round of 32 \| {{flagicon\|AUT}} LASK \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–3 \|- \|rowspan=2\| 2020–21 \|rowspan=2\| UEFA Champions League \|rowspan=1\| Second qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|CZE}} FC Viktoria Plzeň \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–1 \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center; \| 3–1 \|- \|rowspan=1\| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} FC Dynamo Kyiv \| style"text-align:center"\|<span style"color:gray;"><small>N/A</small></span> \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" \| 0-2 \|- \|rowspan=3\| 2020–21 \|rowspan=3\| UEFA Europa League \|rowspan=3\| Group F \| {{flagicon\|ITA}} Napoli \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 3rd \|- \| {{flagicon\|CRO}} Rijeka \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \|- \| {{flagicon\|ESP}} Real Sociedad \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \|- \|rowspan=4\| 2021–22 \|rowspan=4\| UEFA Europa Conference League \|rowspan=3\| Group D \| {{flagicon\|DEN}} Randers \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 1st \|- \| {{flagicon\|CZE}} Jablonec \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \|- \| {{flagicon\|ROU}} CFR Cluj \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|NOR}} Bodø/Glimt \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–4 \|- \| rowspan="9"\| 2022–23 \| rowspan="9"\| UEFA Europa Conference League \| Second qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|BIH}} Tuzla City \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 5–0 \|- \| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|SCO}} Dundee United \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 7–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 7–1 \|- \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|POR}} Gil Vicente \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 6–1 \|- \|rowspan=3\| Group E \| {{flagicon\|UKR}} Dnipro-1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 1st \|- \| {{flagicon\|LIE}} Vaduz \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \|- \| {{flagicon\|CYP}} Apollon Limassol \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \|- \| Round of 16 \| {{flagicon\|ITA}} Lazio \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–1 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–2 \|- \| Quarter-finals \| {{flagicon\|BEL}} Anderlecht \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 (4–1 p.) \|- \| Semi-finals \| {{flagicon\|ENG}} West Ham United \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 0–1 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–3 \|- \| rowspan="5" \| 2023–24 \| rowspan="5" \| UEFA Europa Conference League \| Third qualifying round \| {{flagicon\|AND}} FC Santa Coloma \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–0 \|- \| Play-off round \| {{flagicon\|NOR}} Brann \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 3–3 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–4 (6–5 p.) \|- \| rowspan="3" \|Group E \|{{flagicon\|BIH}} Zrinjski Mostar \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\|3–4 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=3 \| 3rd \|- \|{{flagicon\|POL}} Legia Warsaw \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|1–0 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\|0–2 \|- \|{{flagicon\|ENG}} Aston Villa \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–4 \| bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–2 \|- \|rowspan=10\| 2024–25 \|rowspan="10" \| UEFA Europa League \|rowspan=8\| League phase \|{{flagicon\|SWE}} IF Elfsborg \|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|3–2 \|{{n/a}} \|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;" rowspan=8\|19th \|- \|{{flagicon\|ESP}} Athletic Bilbao \|{{n/a}} \|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\|0–2 \|- \|{{flagicon\|ENG}} Tottenham Hotspur \|{{n/a}} \|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\|0–1 \|- \|{{flagicon\|TUR}} Fenerbahçe \|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|3–1 \|{{n/a}} \|- \|{{flagicon\|TUR}} Galatasaray \|bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|1–1 \|{{n/a}} \|- \|{{flagicon\|BUL}} Ludogorets Razgrad \|{{n/a}} \|bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|2–2 \|- \|{{flagicon\|ITA}} Roma \|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\|1–0 \|{{n/a}} \|- \|{{flagicon\|HUN}} Ferencváros \|{{n/a}} \|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\|3–4 \|- \|Knockout phase play-offs \|{{flagicon\|TUR}} Galatasaray \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 4–1 \| bgcolor"#ffffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2–2 \| bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 6–3 \|- \|Round of 16 \|{{flagicon\|ENG}} Tottenham Hotspur \|bgcolor"#ddffdd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1–0 \|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 1-3 \|bgcolor"#ffdddd" style"text-align:center;"\| 2-3 \|} UEFA coefficient ranking {{updated\|24 August 2023}}<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/#/yr/2023\|titleClub coefficients\|date24 Aug 2023\|access-date24 Aug 2023\|publisherUEFA\|archive-date9 November 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109131431/https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/#/yr/2023\|url-statuslive}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! Rank !! Team !! Points \|- \|36\|\|align=left\| {{fbaicon\|ENG}} West Ham United\|\|50.000 \|- \|37\|\|align=left\| {{fbaicon\|ITA}} Milan\|\|50.000 \|- \|38\|\|align=left\| {{fbaicon\|NED}} AZ\|\|47.500 \|- \|39\|\|align=left\| {{fbaicon\|FRA}} Rennes\|\|44.000 \|- \|40\|\|align=left\| {{fbaicon\|POR}} Braga\|\|44.000 \|} Domestic results Below is a table with AZ's domestic results since the introduction of professional football in 1956. {\| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" style"width: 100%; text-align: center;" ! colspan=5 \| Domestic results since 1956 \|- ! width="20%"\|Domestic league ! width="20%"\|League result ! width="20%"\|Qualification to ! width="20%"\|KNVB Cup season ! width="20%"\|Cup result \|- \|1956–57 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|style="background: silver" \|2nd (group A) \|&nbsp;– \|1956–57 \|Third round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1957–58 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|9th (group A) \|&nbsp;– \|1957–58 \|Third round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1958–59 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|4th (group A) \|&nbsp;– \|1958–59 \|Third round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1959–60 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|style="background: gold" \|1st (group B) \|Eredivisie (promotion) \|not held \|not held \|- \|1960–61 Eredivisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|style="background: pink" \|17th \|Eerste Divisie (relegation) \|1960–61 \|First round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1961–62 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|style="background: pink" \|12th (group A) \|Tweede Divisie (relegation) \|1961–62 \|Second round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1962–63 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|4th (group A) \|&nbsp;– \|1962–63 \|style"background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} \|- \|1963–64 Tweede Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) \|style="background: silver" \|1st (group A); 2nd overall losing play-off \|Eerste Divisie (winning promotion tournament) \|1963–64 \|First round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1964–65 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54) <br /> 1964–65 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek) \|11th <br /> 6th (group A) \|&nbsp;– \|1964–65 \|First round {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} <br /> First round {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} \|- \|1965–66 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar'54) <br /> 1965–66 Tweede Divisie (as FC Zaanstreek) \|4th <br /> 3rd (group A) \|&nbsp;– <br /> Eerste Divisie (promotion) \|1965–66 \|Group stage {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} <br /> Group stage {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} \|- \|1966–67 Eerste Divisie (as Alkmaar '54 <br /> and FC Zaanstreek) \|12th <br /> 7th \|&nbsp;– \|1966–67 \|First round {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} <br /> First round {{Citation needed\|dateNovember 2009}} \|- \|1967–68 Eerste Divisie \|style="background: silver" \|2nd \|Eredivisie (promotion) \|1967–68 \|Group stage {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1968–69 Eredivisie \|16th \|&nbsp;– (after surviving relegation play-offs) \|1968–69 \|Second round {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1969–70 Eredivisie \|12th \|&nbsp;– \|1969–70 \|Quarter-finals {{Citation needed\|date=November 2009}} \|- \|1970–71 Eredivisie \|style="background: pink" \|17th \|Eerste Divisie (relegation) \|1970–71 \|Second round \|- \|1971–72 Eerste Divisie \|style="background: silver" \|2nd \|Eredivisie (promotion) \|1971–72 \|First round \|- \|1972–73 Eredivisie \|15th \|&nbsp;– \|1972–73 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|1973–74 Eredivisie \|7th \|&nbsp;– \|1973–74 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1974–75 Eredivisie \|5th \|&nbsp;– \|1974–75 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1975–76 Eredivisie \|5th \|&nbsp;– \|1975–76 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1976–77 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|1976–77 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|1977–78 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1977–78 \|style="background: gold" \|Winner \|- \|1978–79 Eredivisie \|4th \|&nbsp;– \|1978–79 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1979–80 Eredivisie \|style="background: silver" \|2nd \|UEFA Cup \|1979–80 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1980–81 Eredivisie \|style="background: gold" \|1st \|European Cup \|1980–81 \|style="background: gold" \|Winner \|- \|1981–82 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|Cup Winners' Cup \|1981–82 \|style="background: gold" \|Winner \|- \|1982–83 Eredivisie \|11th \|&nbsp;– \|1982–83 \|Second round \|- \|1983–84 Eredivisie \|6th \|&nbsp;– \|1983–84 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1984–85 Eredivisie \|13th \|&nbsp;– \|1984–85 \|First round \|- \|1985–86 Eredivisie \|9th \|&nbsp;– \|1985–86 \|Second round \|- \|1986–87 Eredivisie \|15th \|&nbsp;– \|1986–87 \|Second round \|- \|1987–88 Eredivisie \|style="background: pink" \|16th \|Eerste Divisie (relegation) \|1987–88 \|First round \|- \|1988–89 Eerste Divisie \|5th \|&nbsp;– \|1988–89 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1989–90 Eerste Divisie \|12th \|&nbsp;– \|1989–90 \|First round \|- \|1990–91 Eerste Divisie \|4th \|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion \|1990–91 \|First round \|- \|1991–92 Eerste Divisie \|13th \|&nbsp;– \|1991–92 \|Second round \|- \|1992–93 Eerste Divisie \|10th \|&nbsp;– \|1992–93 \|Third round \|- \|1993–94 Eerste Divisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion \|1993–94 \|Round of 16 \|- \|1994–95 Eerste Divisie \|5th \|promotion/relegation play-off: no promotion \|1994–95 \|Round of 16 \|- \|1995–96 Eerste Divisie \|style="background: gold" \|1st \|Eredivisie (promotion) \|1995–96 \|Round of 16 \|- \|1996–97 Eredivisie \|style="background: pink" \|18th \|Eerste Divisie (relegation) \|1996–97 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|1997–98 Eerste Divisie \|style="background: gold" \|1st \|Eredivisie (promotion) \|1997–98 \|First round (knock-out stage) \|- \|1998–99 Eredivisie \|9th \|&nbsp;– \|1998–99 \|Round of 16 \|- \|1999–2000 Eredivisie \|7th \|&nbsp;– \|1999–00 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2000–01 Eredivisie \|13th \|&nbsp;– \|2000–01 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|2001–02 Eredivisie \|10th \|&nbsp;– \|2001–02 \|Second round (knock-out stage) \|- \|2002–03 Eredivisie \|10th \|&nbsp;– \|2002–03 \|Second round (knock-out stage) \|- \|2003–04 Eredivisie \|5th \|UEFA Cup \|2003–04 \|Second round \|- \|2004–05 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|UEFA Cup \|2004–05 \|Round of 16 \|- \|2005–06 Eredivisie \|style="background: silver" \|2nd \|UEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs) \|2005–06 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2006–07 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|UEFA Cup (after losing Champions League play-offs) \|2006–07 \|style="background: silver" \|Final \|- \|2007–08 Eredivisie \|11th \|&nbsp;– \|2007–08 \|Second round \|- \|2008–09 Eredivisie \|style="background: gold" \|1st \|Champions League \|2008–09 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|2009–10 Eredivisie \|5th \|Europa League (Q3) \|2009–10 \|Round of 16 \|- \|2010–11 Eredivisie \|4th \|Europa League (Q3) \|2010–11 \|Round of 16 \|- \|2011–12 Eredivisie \|4th \|Europa League (Q4) \|2011–12 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2012–13 Eredivisie \| 10th \|Europa League \|2012–13 \|style="background: gold" \|Winner \|- \|2013–14 Eredivisie \| 8th \|&nbsp;– \|2013–14 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2014–15 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|Europa League (Q3) \|2014–15 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|2015–16 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|4th \|Europa League (Q3) \|2015–16 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2016–17 Eredivisie \| 6th \|– \|2016–17 \|style="background: silver" \|Final \|- \|2017–18 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|Europa League (Q3) \|2017–18 \|style="background: silver" \|Final \|- \|2018–19 Eredivisie \|4th \|Europa League (Q2) \|2018–19 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2019–20 Eredivisie \|style="background: silver"\|2nd \|Champions League (Q2) \|2019–20 \|Quarter-finals \|- \|2020–21 Eredivisie \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|3rd \|Europa League (Q4) \|2020–21 \|Round of 16 \|- \|2021–22 Eredivisie \|5th \|Europa Conference League (Q2) \|2021–22 \|style="background: #CD7F32" \|Semi-finals \|- \|2022–23 Eredivisie \|4th \|Europa Conference League (Q3) \|2022–23 \|Round of 16 \|- \|2023–24 Eredivisie \|4th \|Europa League \|2023–24 \|Quarter-finals \|} Coaches {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} Alkmaar '54 {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Gerrit van Wijhe\|nl}} (1954–1956) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Kick Smit (1956–1958) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Ludwig Veg\|nl}} (1 July 1958&nbsp;– 30 June 1960) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Piet de Wolf (1960–1961) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Bonnie Bult\|nl}} (1961–1962) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Arie Rentenaar (1962–1963) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Ludwig Veg\|nl}} (1 July 1963&nbsp;– 30 June 1965) {{Flagicon\|WAL}} Barry Hughes (1 July 1965&nbsp;– 30 June 1967) KFC / FC Zaanstreek {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Bob Kelly (1955–1956) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Wim Blokland\|nl\|Wim Blokland (voetballer)}} (1956–1958) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Klaas Molenaar\|nl}} (1958–1960) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Toon Bruins Slot\|nl}} (1960–1963) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Joop de Kubber\|nl}} (1963–1964) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Piet de Wolf (1964–1965) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Toon van den Enden\|nl}} (1965–1966) AZ '67 {{Flagicon\|ENG}} Lesley Talbot (1 July 1967&nbsp;– 30 June 1968) {{Flagicon\|NED}} {{ill\|Wim Blokland\|nl\|Wim Blokland (voetballer)}} (1968–1969) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Robert Heinz (1969–1971) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Cor van der Hart (1 July 1971&nbsp;– 30 June 1973) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Joop Brand (1 July 1973&nbsp;– 30 June 1976) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans Kraay Sr. (1 July 1976&nbsp;– 30 June 1977) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Jan Notermans (1977) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Cor van der Hart (1 July 1977&nbsp;– 30 June 1978) {{Flagicon\|FRG}} Georg Keßler (1 July 1978&nbsp;– 30 June 1982) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans Eijkenbroek (1 July 1982&nbsp;– 30 June 1983) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Piet de Visser (1 July 1983&nbsp;– 30 June 1985) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Joop Brand (1 July 1985&nbsp;– 30 June 1986) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Han Berger (1 July 1986&nbsp;– 31 December 1986) {{col-2}} AZ {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans Eijkenbroek (1987&nbsp;– 30 June 1989) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans van Doorneveld (1 July 1989&nbsp;– 30 June 1990) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Henk Wullems (1 July 1990&nbsp;– 30 June 1993) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Piet Schrijvers (1 July 1993&nbsp;– 30 June 1994) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Theo Vonk (1 July 1994&nbsp;– 28 February 1997) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Hans de Koning (interim) (28 February 1997&nbsp;– 30 June 1997) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Willem van Hanegem (1 July 1997&nbsp;– 30 June 1999) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Gerard van der Lem (1 July 1999&nbsp;– 30 March 2000) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Henk van Stee (31 March 2000&nbsp;– 30 October 2002) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Co Adriaanse (30 October 2002&nbsp;– 30 June 2005) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Louis van Gaal (1 July 2005&nbsp;– 30 June 2009) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Ronald Koeman (1 July 2009&nbsp;– 5 December 2009) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Martin Haar (interim) (5 December 2009&nbsp;– 10 December 2009) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Dick Advocaat (10 December 2009&nbsp;– 30 June 2010) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Gertjan Verbeek (1 July 2010&nbsp;– 29 September 2013) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Martin Haar (interim) (29 September 2013&nbsp;– 15 October 2013) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Dick Advocaat (15 October 2013&nbsp;– 30 June 2014) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Marco van Basten (30 June 2014&nbsp;– 16 September 2014) {{Flagicon\|NED}} John van den Brom (29 September 2014&nbsp;– 30 June 2019) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Arne Slot (1 July 2019&nbsp; – 5 December 2020) {{Flagicon\|NED}} Pascal Jansen (5 December 2020 – 17 January 2024) {{Flagicon\|BEL}} Maarten Martens (17 January 2024 – present) {{col-end}} Notes {{Reflist\|groupnote}}References{{Reflist}}External links {{commons category}} * {{official website}} {{AZ Alkmaar}} {{Eredivisie}} {{KNVB Cup Winners 1961-present}} {{Dutch Supercup / Johan Cruijff Shield winners}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alkmaar}} Category:1967 establishments in the Netherlands Category:Association football clubs established in 1967 Category:Football clubs in the Netherlands Category:Football clubs in Alkmaar	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZ_Alkmaar	2025-04-05T18:25:59.313406
2296	Adrenal gland	The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol. They are found above the kidneys. Each gland has an outer cortex which produces steroid hormones and an inner medulla. The adrenal cortex itself is divided into three main zones: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata and the zona reticularis. Their combined weight in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams. The glands are yellowish in colour. The adrenal glands are surrounded by a fatty capsule and lie within the renal fascia, which also surrounds the kidneys. A weak septum (wall) of connective tissue separates the glands from the kidneys. The adrenal glands are directly below the diaphragm, and are attached to the crura of the diaphragm by the renal fascia. Adrenal cortex thumb\|right\|Section of human adrenal gland under the microscope, showing its different layers. From the surface to the center: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis, medulla. In the medulla, the central adrenomedullary vein is visible. The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. The adrenal cortex is the outermost layer of the adrenal gland. Within the cortex are three layers, called "zones". When viewed under a microscope each layer has a distinct appearance, and each has a different function. The adrenal cortex is devoted to production of hormones, namely aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens. Zona glomerulosa The outermost zone of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa. It lies immediately under the fibrous capsule of the gland. Cells in this layer form oval groups, separated by thin strands of connective tissue from the fibrous capsule of the gland and carry wide capillaries. This layer is the main site for production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase. Aldosterone plays an important role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Zona fasciculata The zona fasciculata is situated between the zona glomerulosa and zona reticularis. Cells in this layer are responsible for producing glucocorticoids such as cortisol. It is the largest of the three layers, accounting for nearly 80% of the volume of the cortex. In the zona fasciculata, cells are arranged in columns radially oriented towards the medulla. Cells contain numerous lipid droplets, abundant mitochondria and a complex smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Three arteries usually supply each adrenal gland: The adrenal gland secretes a number of different hormones which are metabolised by enzymes either within the gland or in other parts of the body. These hormones are involved in a number of essential biological functions. Corticosteroids Corticosteroids are a group of steroid hormones produced from the cortex of the adrenal gland, from which they are named. Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone regulate salt ("mineral") balance and blood pressure Glucocorticoids such as cortisol influence metabolism rates of proteins, fats and sugars ("glucose"). Androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone. Mineralocorticoids The adrenal gland produces aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid, which is important in the regulation of salt ("mineral") balance and blood volume. In the kidneys, aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts by increasing the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of both potassium and hydrogen ions. Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Angiotensin II and extracellular potassium are the two main regulators of aldosterone production. In the lysosome, cholesterol esters are converted to free cholesterol, which is then used for steroidogenesis or stored in the cell. The initial part of conversion of cholesterol into steroid hormones involves a number of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family that are located in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Transport of cholesterol from the outer to the inner membrane is facilitated by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and is the rate-limiting step of steroid synthesis. Enzymes that catalyze reactions in these metabolic pathways are involved in a number of endocrine diseases. For example, the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia develops as a result of deficiency of 21-hydroxylase, an enzyme involved in an intermediate step of cortisol production. Regulation thumb\|right\|Negative feedback in the HPA axis Glucocorticoids are under the regulatory influence of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) axis. Glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), a hormone released into the bloodstream by the anterior pituitary. In turn, production of ACTH is stimulated by the presence of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is released by neurons of the hypothalamus. ACTH acts on the adrenal cells first by increasing the levels of StAR within the cells, and then of all steroidogenic P450 enzymes. The HPA axis is an example of a negative feedback system, in which cortisol itself acts as a direct inhibitor of both CRH and ACTH synthesis. The HPA axis also interacts with the immune system through increased secretion of ACTH at the presence of certain molecules of the inflammatory response. Androgens Cells in zona reticularis of the adrenal glands produce male sex hormones, or androgens, the most important of which is DHEA. In general, these hormones do not have an overall effect in the male body, and are converted to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT or to estrogens (female sex hormones) in the gonads, acting in this way as a metabolic intermediate. Catecholamines Also called epinephrine and norepinephrine, adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively, are catecholamines – water-soluble compounds that have a structure made of a catechol group and an amine group. The adrenal glands are responsible for most of the adrenaline that circulates in the body, but only for a small amount of circulating noradrenaline. Gene and protein expression The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes and 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal adult adrenal glands. Only some 250 genes are more specifically expressed in the adrenal glands compared to other organs and tissues. The adrenal-gland-specific genes with the highest level of expression include members of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of enzymes. Corresponding proteins are expressed in the different compartments of the adrenal gland, such as CYP11A1, HSD3B2 and FDX1 involved in steroid hormone synthesis and expressed in cortical cell layers, and PNMT and DBH involved in noradrenaline and adrenaline synthesis and expressed in the medulla. Development The adrenal glands are composed of two heterogenous types of tissue. In the center is the adrenal medulla, which produces adrenaline and noradrenaline and releases them into the bloodstream, as part of the sympathetic nervous system. Surrounding the medulla is the cortex, which produces a variety of steroid hormones. These tissues come from different embryological precursors and have distinct prenatal development paths. The cortex of the adrenal gland is derived from mesoderm, whereas the medulla is derived from the neural crest, which is of ectodermal origin. For example, at age three months the glands are four times the size of the kidneys. The size of the glands decreases relatively after birth, mainly because of shrinkage of the cortex. The cortex, which almost completely disappears by age 1, develops again from age 4–5. The glands weigh about at birth In a fetus the glands are first detectable after the sixth week of development. Cortical development of the adrenal gland is regulated mostly by ACTH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol synthesis. During midgestation, the fetal zone occupies most of the cortical volume and produces 100–200 mg/day of DHEA-S, an androgen and precursor of both androgens and estrogens (female sex hormones). Adrenal hormones, especially glucocorticoids such as cortisol, are essential for prenatal development of organs, particularly for the maturation of the lungs. The adrenal gland decreases in size after birth because of the rapid disappearance of the fetal zone, with a corresponding decrease in androgen secretion. Medulla The adrenal medulla is derived from neural crest cells, which come from the ectoderm layer of the embryo. These cells migrate from their initial position and aggregate in the vicinity of the dorsal aorta, a primitive blood vessel, which activates the differentiation of these cells through the release of proteins known as BMPs. These cells then undergo a second migration from the dorsal aorta to form the adrenal medulla and other organs of the sympathetic nervous system. Cells of the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells because they contain granules that stain with chromium salts, a characteristic not present in all sympathetic organs. Glucocorticoids produced in the adrenal cortex were once thought to be responsible for the differentiation of chromaffin cells. More recent research suggests that BMP-4 secreted in adrenal tissue is the main responsible for this, and that glucocorticoids only play a role in the subsequent development of the cells. Clinical significance The normal function of the adrenal gland may be impaired by conditions such as infections, tumors, genetic disorders and autoimmune diseases, or as a side effect of medical therapy. These disorders affect the gland either directly (as with infections or autoimmune diseases) or as a result of the dysregulation of hormone production (as in some types of Cushing's syndrome) leading to an excess or insufficiency of adrenal hormones and the related symptoms. Corticosteroid overproduction Cushing's syndrome Cushing's syndrome is the manifestation of glucocorticoid excess. It can be the result of a prolonged treatment with glucocorticoids or be caused by an underlying disease which produces alterations in the HPA axis or the production of cortisol. Causes can be further classified into ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent. The most common cause of endogenous Cushing's syndrome is a pituitary adenoma which causes an excessive production of ACTH. The disease produces a wide variety of signs and symptoms which include obesity, diabetes, increased blood pressure, excessive body hair (hirsutism), osteoporosis, depression, and most distinctively, stretch marks in the skin, caused by its progressive thinning. Primary aldosteronism When the zona glomerulosa produces excess aldosterone, the result is primary aldosteronism. Causes for this condition are bilateral hyperplasia (excessive tissue growth) of the glands, or aldosterone-producing adenomas (a condition called Conn's syndrome). Primary aldosteronism produces hypertension and electrolyte imbalance, increasing potassium depletion sodium retention. Addison's disease thumb\|right\|Characteristic skin hyperpigmentation in Addison's disease Addison's disease refers to primary hypoadrenalism, which is a deficiency in glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid production by the adrenal gland. In the Western world, Addison's disease is most commonly an autoimmune condition, in which the body produces antibodies against cells of the adrenal cortex. Worldwide, the disease is more frequently caused by infection, especially from tuberculosis. A distinctive feature of Addison's disease is hyperpigmentation of the skin, which presents with other nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue. Secondary adrenal insufficiency In secondary adrenal insufficiency, a dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis leads to decreased stimulation of the adrenal cortex. Apart from suppression of the axis by glucocorticoid therapy, the most common cause of secondary adrenal insufficiency are tumors that affect the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pituitary gland. Adrenal tumors are commonly found as incidentalomas, unexpected asymptomatic tumors found during medical imaging. They are seen in around 3.4% of CT scans, and in most cases they are benign adenomas. Adrenal carcinomas are very rare, with an incidence of 1 case per million per year. History Bartolomeo Eustachi, an Italian anatomist, is credited with the first description of the adrenal glands in 1563–4. However, these publications were part of the papal library and did not receive public attention, which was first received with Caspar Bartholin the Elder's illustrations in 1611. The adrenal glands are named for their location relative to the kidneys. The term "adrenal" comes from Latin ad, "near", and ren, "kidney". Similarly, "suprarenal", as termed by Jean Riolan the Younger in 1629, is derived from the Latin supra, "above", and ren, "kidney", as well. The suprarenal nature of the glands was not truly accepted until the 19th century, as anatomists clarified the ductless nature of the glands and their likely secretory role – prior to this, there was some debate as to whether the glands were indeed suprarenal or part of the kidney. In 1894, English physiologists George Oliver and Edward Schafer studied the action of adrenal extracts and observed their pressor effects. In the following decades several physicians experimented with extracts from the adrenal cortex to treat Addison's disease. See also Adrenopause Adrenochrome List of distinct cell types in the adult human body Adrenal insufficiency Adrenal gland disorder References External links Adrenal gland at the Human Protein Atlas Adrenal gland histology – "Adrenal Gland" – "Posterior Abdominal Wall: The Retroperitoneal Fat and Suprarenal Glands" Adrenal Gland, from Colorado State University Category:Adrenaline Category:Endocrine system anatomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenal_gland	2025-04-05T18:25:59.389763
2299	A360media	{{Short description\|American magazine publishing company}} {{update\|date=August 2021}} {{Use mdy dates\|dateJune 2024}} {{Use American English\|dateJune 2024}} {{Infobox company \| name = A360 Media, LLC \| trade_name = a360media \| logo \| logo_size 200px \| company_slogan \| type Private \| foundation = {{Start date and age\|1936}} \| location New York City, U.S.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.americanmediainc.com/contact-us\|titleContact Us - American Media Inc \|websiteamericanmediainc.com \|date6 December 2017 \|access-date9 February 2019}}</ref> \| key_people = Anthony Melchiorre (owner)<br /> Roger Altman \| num_employees = 3,160 (2006) \| industry = Media \| products = Newspapers<br /> Magazines \| homepage = {{URL\|https://accelerate360.com/business-services/a360-media/}} \| owner = Chatham Asset Management<br />Omega Charitable Partnership, L.P. }} A360 Media, LLC (branded a360media), formerly American Media, Inc. (AMI), was an American publisher of magazines, supermarket tabloids, and books based in New York City. Originally affiliated with only the National Enquirer, the media company's holdings expanded considerably in the 1990s and 2000s. In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to debts of nearly $1 billion, but has continued to buy and sell magazine brands since then. AMI had been in the news affiliated with accusations of catch and kill operations. On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's Office reported that AMI admitted to paying $150,000 to Karen McDougal in concert with Donald Trump's presidential campaign for the sole purpose of preventing damaging allegations prior to the 2016 US presidential election.<ref name":0" /><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/12/nyregion/trump-american-media-michael-cohen.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/12/nyregion/trump-american-media-michael-cohen.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleTabloid Publisher's Deal in Hush-Money Inquiry Adds to Trump's Danger\|last1McIntire\|first1Mike\|date2018-12-12\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2018-12-13\|last2Savage\|first2Charlie\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331\|last3Rutenberg\|first3=Jim}}{{cbignore}}</ref> According to its September 2018 non-prosecution agreement with Southern District of New York federal prosecutors, AMI "shall commit no crimes whatsoever" for three years, otherwise "A.M.I. shall thereafter be subject to prosecution for any federal criminal violation of which this office has knowledge."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/07/technology/jeff-bezos-sanchez-enquirer.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/07/technology/jeff-bezos-sanchez-enquirer.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited \|titleJeff Bezos Accuses National Enquirer of 'Extortion and Blackmail' \|author1Jim Rutenberg \|author2Karen Weise \|dateFebruary 7, 2019 \|websiteThe New York Times \|access-dateFebruary 8, 2019 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> On April 10, 2019, Chatham Asset Management, which controls 80 percent of AMI's stock, forced AMI to sell the National Enquirer.<ref nameenquirergone>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/10/american-media-inc-is-looking-to-sell-the-national-enquirer.html\|titleNational Enquirer's parent company says it's likely to sell the tabloid 'in the near future'\|firstChristine\|lastWang\|dateApril 10, 2019\|websiteCNBC}}</ref><ref nameapril102019>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://bangordailynews.com/2019/04/10/news/national-enquirer-expected-to-be-sold-imminently-as-parent-company-faces-pressure/\|titleNational Enquirer expected to be sold imminently as parent company faces pressure\|firstThe Washington\|lastPost\|dateApril 11, 2019\|websiteBangor Daily News}}</ref> This came after Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who AMI has also relied on for survival, expressed dismay over the tabloid magazine's recent scandals involving hush money assistance to U.S. president Donald Trump's 2016 campaign and blackmail of Jeff Bezos.<ref nameenquirergone /><ref nameapril102019 /> On April 18, 2019, AMI agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but two of its other publications, Globe and National Examiner, to Hudson News Distributors.<ref nameaprilNPR>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2019/04/19/715050724/national-enquirer-to-be-sold-to-hudson-news-heir-james-cohen\|title'National Enquirer' To Be Sold To Hudson News Heir James Cohen\|websiteNPR.org\|date19 April 2019\|last1Paris\|first1Francesca}}</ref><ref nameaprilabc>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Business/hudson-media-buys-national-enquirer-100-million-wake/story?id62499219\|titleHudson Media buys National Enquirer for $100 million in wake of Trump, Bezos scandals\|websiteABC News}}</ref> In August 2020, Chatham Asset Management, AMI's owning holding company, announced it would merge AMI with Accelerate 360, a wholesale distribution company it also owned. As part of the merger, AMI was officially renamed A360 on October 1.<ref>{{Cite web\|date2020-10-05\|titleParent company shutters Bike magazine\|urlhttps://www.bicycleretailer.com/industry-news/2020/10/05/parent-company-shutters-bike-magazine-and-other-titles\|access-date2022-01-24\|websiteBicycle Retailer and Industry News\|languageen}}</ref> In February 2023, A360media agreed to sell the National Enquirer to VVIP Ventures, a joint venture of the digital media company Vinco Ventures and a new company set up for the purchase, Icon Publishing.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRobertson \|firstKatie \|date2023-02-06 \|titleNational Enquirer, Scandal-Plagued Tabloid, Is Sold \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/06/business/media/national-enquirer-sold.html \|access-date2023-02-07 \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> As of July 7th, 2023 the deal has collapsed as reported by The Wall Street Journal.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastBruell \|firstAlexandra \|titleDeal to Sell National Enquirer Collapses \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/deal-to-sell-national-enquirer-collapses-c20d8f04 \|access-date2024-05-07 \|workWSJ \|languageen-US}}</ref> History thumb\|right\|Logo as American Media, Inc.The modern American Media came into being after Generoso Pope Jr., longtime owner of the National Enquirer, died in 1988, and his tabloids came under new ownership. American tabloids began consolidating in 1990, when American Media bought Star from Rupert Murdoch. The purchase of Globe Communications (owner of the Globe and the National Examiner) followed nine years later.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/02/business/the-media-business-leading-tabloid-publisher-to-buy-a-big-competitor.html\|titleLeading Tabloid Publisher to Buy a Big Competitor\|lastKuczynski\|firstAlex\|date1999-11-02\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2018-12-10\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> Roger Altman, through Evercore Partners, bought a controlling stake in American Media in 1999.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/1007/The_Clintonite_who_owns_National_Enquirer.html\|titleThe Clintonite who owns National Enquirer\|firstBen\|lastSmith\|workPolitico\|dateOctober 11, 2007\|publisherPolitico\|access-dateJuly 9, 2016\|locationArlington County, Virginia}}</ref> American Media is not to be confused with American Media Distribution, the international news coverage firm. American Media's former corporate headquarters in Boca Raton, Florida, figured prominently in news headlines in late 2001, after an anthrax attack was perpetrated on the company<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/27/us/traces-terror-bioterror-fbi-re-enter-building-long-after-anthrax-shut-it.html\|titleTraces of Terror: The Bioterror; F.B.I to Re-enter Building Long After Anthrax Shut It\|workThe New York Times\|firstDana\|lastCanedy\|dateAugust 27, 2002\|access-dateMarch 29, 2018}}</ref> and other media outlets.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2011/02/15/93170200/timeline-how-the-anthrax-terror-unfolded\|titleTimeline: How the Anthrax Terror Unfolded\|publisherNPR\|dateFebruary 15, 2011\|access-dateMarch 29, 2018}}</ref> Since then the corporate headquarters have moved to New York City at 1 Park Avenue in Manhattan, before moving to the Financial District to the former JP Morgan Chase headquarters at 4 New York Plaza. That building was severely damaged by Hurricane Sandy but reopened in February 2013. AMI continued to expand after it bought Joe Weider's Weider Publications in 2002. Joe Weider continued to manage control of his magazines under AMI's Weider Publications subsidiary until his death in March 2013.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.marketwatch.com/story/joe-weider-legendary-bodybuilding-and-fitness-icon-dies-at-93-2013-03-23 \|titleJoe Weider Legendary Bodybuilding and Fitness Icon Dies at 93 \|publisherMarketWatch \|access-dateMarch 24, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|lastTrounson \|firstRebecca \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-0324-joe-weider-20130324,0,590860.story \|titleJoe Weider dies at 93; bodybuilding pioneer and publisher \|workLos Angeles Times \|date24 March 2013 \|access-date=March 24, 2013}}</ref> American Media also owns Distribution Services, an in-store magazine merchandising company. In fall 2002, it launched the book-publishing imprint, AMI Books.<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20030804/21271-american-media-to-expand-book-program-.html \|volume250 \|issue31 \|dateAugust 4, 2003 \|access-dateJuly 9, 2016 \|titleAmerican Media to Expand Book Program \|firstJim \|lastMilliot \|journalPublishers Weekly \|archive-dateSeptember 7, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120907001420/http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20030804/21271-american-media-to-expand-book-program-.html \|url-statuslive \|publisherPWxyz LLC \|locationUnited States }}</ref> 2010s: Bankruptcy and continued acquisitions In 2009, American Media was taken over by its bondholders to keep it out of bankruptcy.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704648604575621053554011206\|titleAmerican Media Files for Bankruptcy\|lastMorath\|firstEric\|date2010-11-17\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|access-date2019-02-03\|languageen-US\|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> In November 2010, American Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection due to nearly $1 billion in debt, and assets of less than $50,000.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAmerican Media Chapter 11 Voluntary Petition\|urlhttps://www.pacermonitor.com/view/7ICRXZA/American_Media,_Inc.__nysbke-10-16140__0001.0.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.pacermonitor.com/view/7ICRXZA/American_Media,_Inc.__nysbke-10-16140__0001.0.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|dateNovember 17, 2010\|workPacer\|locationSan Antonio\|publisherFederal judiciary of the United States\|access-dateMay 16, 2016}}</ref> Its subsidiary, American Media Operations Inc., listed assets of $100 to $500 million and debt of over $1 billion.<ref>{{cite news\|title'National Enquirer' Publisher Files for Chapter 11\|workBloomberg Businessweek\|dateNovember 17, 2010\|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-11-17/national-enquirer-tabloid-publisher-american-media-files-for-bankruptcy \|url-accesssubscription \|access-dateJuly 9, 2016\|first1Don\|last1Jeffrey\|first2Phil\|publisherBloomberg L.P.\|locationNew York City\|last2Milford \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160806153134/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-11-17/national-enquirer-tabloid-publisher-american-media-files-for-bankruptcy \|archive-date= Aug 6, 2016 }}</ref> It exited in December. In May 2014, American Media announced a decision to shift the headquarters of the National Enquirer from Florida, where it had been located since 1971, back to New York City, where it originally began as The New York Enquirer in 1926.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.northjersey.com/news/business/national-enquirer-leaving-florida-headquarters-1.1020369\|titleNational Enquirer leaving Florida headquarters\|workThe Record\|access-dateJuly 9, 2016\|dateMay 21, 2014\|publisherNorth Jersey Media Group\|locationWoodland Park, New Jersey\|agencyThe Associated Press\|author-linkThe Associated Press \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160917231553/http://www.northjersey.com/news/business/national-enquirer-leaving-florida-headquarters-1.1020369 \|archive-date Sep 17, 2016 }}</ref> In August 2014, American Media was acquired by Chatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership.<ref>{{Cite press release \|last\|first \|titleChatham Asset Management and Omega Charitable Partnership to Acquire American Media, Inc. \|urlhttps://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/chatham-asset-management-and-omega-charitable-partnership-to-acquire-american-media-inc-271412991.html \|websitePRNewswire \|dateAug 15, 2014 \|url-statuslive \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20240602222440/https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/chatham-asset-management-and-omega-charitable-partnership-to-acquire-american-media-inc-271412991.html \|archive-date= Jun 2, 2024 }}</ref> In 2015, American Media sold Shape, Natural Health, and Fit Pregnancy to Meredith.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.foliomag.com/2015/meredith-buys-shape-ami-60-million/\|titleMeredith Buys Shape From AMI for $60 Million \|firstBill \|lastMickey \|dateJanuary 28, 2015 \|websiteFolio \|locationWashington, D.C. \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160729211007/http://www.foliomag.com/2015/meredith-buys-shape-ami-60-million/ \|archive-date Jul 29, 2016 }}</ref> In 2016, Pecker revealed to the Toronto Star that AMI now relied on support from Chatham Asset Management and its owner Anthony Melchiorre.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.thestar.com/business/2016/10/19/executive-from-national-enquirer-parent-joins-postmedia-board.html \|titleExecutive from National Enquirer parent joins Postmedia board\|dateOctober 19, 2016\|websiteToronto Star \|first1Vanessa \|last1Lu \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221221162253/https://www.thestar.com/business/2016/10/19/executive-from-national-enquirer-parent-joins-postmedia-board.html \|archive-dateDec 21, 2022 }}</ref><ref nameapril102019 /> The $4 billion hedge fund owns 80 percent of AMI's stock.<ref name=april102019 /> In March 2017, American Media acquired Us Weekly from Wenner Media for a reported $100 million.<ref>{{cite news\|titleUs Weekly Is Sold to National Enquirer Publisher\|dateMarch 15, 2017\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/15/business/media/us-weekly-national-enquirer-american-media.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/15/business/media/us-weekly-national-enquirer-american-media.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|access-dateMarch 15, 2017\|first1Sydney\|last1Ember\|workThe New York Times\|locationNew York City}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Three months later, in June 2017, American Media also acquired ''Men's Journal'' from Wenner Media.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/303376/american-media-buys-wenners-mens-journal-to-at.html\|titleAmerican Media Buys Wenner's 'Men's Journal' To Attract Premium Advertisers\|websitemediapost.com\|languageen\|access-date2017-06-26}}</ref> In June 2018, American Media acquired 13 brands from Bauer Media Group including In Touch Weekly, Life & Style and Closer to add to their celebrity portfolio. They also acquired Bauer Media's kids group including J-14 and ''Girl's World''.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.cbs8.com/story/38433373/american-media-inc-acquires-celebrity-and-kids-group-titles-from-bauer-media-usa\|titleAmerican Media, Inc. Acquires Celebrity And Kids Group Titles From Bauer Media USA\|date2018-06-15\|workCBS8\|access-date2018-06-25\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180625185622/http://www.cbs8.com/story/38433373/american-media-inc-acquires-celebrity-and-kids-group-titles-from-bauer-media-usa\|archive-date2018-06-25\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In February 2019, American Media acquired TEN's adventure sports properties.<ref>{{Cite web\| title American Media Acquires TEN's Adventure Sports Magazines\| work Folio\| access-date 2019-03-14\| date 2019-02-05\| url = https://www.foliomag.com/american-media-acquires-tens-adventure-sports-magazines/}}</ref> In April 2019, the National Enquirer was reported to be up for sale and likely to be sold within days. The company stated that it had shifted its emphasis away from tabloids to its "glossy" magazines such as Us Weekly and ''Men's Journal''.<ref namea>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/business/dealbook/national-enquirer-sale.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/10/business/dealbook/national-enquirer-sale.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleThe National Enquirer Is for Sale, and a Deal Seems Near\|first1Edmund\|last1Lee\|first2Andrew Ross\|last2Sorkin\|first3Ben\|last3Protess\|newspaperThe New York Times \|date10 April 2019\|access-date11 April 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> This came following pressure from Chatham owner Anthony Melchiorre, who expressed disapproval of the Enquirer's style of journalism.<ref nameapril102019 /><ref nameenquirergone /> On April 18, 2019, AMI accepted an offer from Hudson News Distributors head James Cohen and agreed to sell not only the National Enquirer, but also Globe and The Examiner to Hudson News Distributors for $100 million.<ref nameaprilNPR /><ref nameaprilabc /> At the time the sales were announced, AMI was approximately $355 million in debt.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/bizwomen/news/latest-news/2019/04/national-enquirer-sold-in-100-million-deal.html\|titleNational Enquirer Sold in $100 million deal\|websiteBizjournals.com\|access-date=November 22, 2021}}</ref> In 2022, A360 acquired single issue magazine publisher Centennial Media.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://flashesandflames.com/2022/10/13/a360-buys-bookazines-publisher/ \| titleA360 buys bookazines publisher \| date13 October 2022 }}</ref> Also in 2022, A360 sold ''Men's Journal'' and the Adventure Sports Network properties to The Arena Group.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.axios.com/2022/12/13/arena-group-buys-mens-journal-adventure-sports\|titleArena Group buy digital assets of Men's Journal, Adventure Sports Network\|accessdate6 August 2023}}</ref> In December 2024, A360media merged with McClatchy. Prior to the merger its tabloids including the National Enquirer and the Globe were sold to an undisclosed buyer.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWilner \|firstMichael \|dateDecember 13, 2024 \|titleCompleting merger, 'McClatchy Media' forms with lifestyle brands and greater reach \|urlhttps://www.bradenton.com/news/nation-world/national/article297018779.html \|access-dateDecember 13, 2024 \|websiteBradenton Herald}}</ref>Checkbook journalism controversyOn April 22, 2024, Pecker acknowledged that the National Enquirer engaged in a practice of checkbook journalism which involved paying sources for stories, and that he "gave a number to the editors that they could not spend more than $10,000" and he had final say over celebrity stories.<ref namepeckerdayonetestimony>{{cite news\|urlhttps://apnews.com/live/trump-trial-updates-opening-statements\|titleTrump trial: Highlights from opening statements and first witness testimony\|publisherAssociated Press\|dateApril 22, 2024\|accessdateApril 22, 2024}}</ref><ref namepeckertakesstand>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.thedailybeast.com/trump-stares-down-old-pal-david-pecker-as-trial-testimony-begins\|titleTrump Stares Down Old Pal David Pecker as Trial Testimony Begins\|firstJustin\|lastRohrlich\|publisherDaily Beast\|dateApril 22, 2024\|accessdateApril 22, 2024}}</ref> He also acknowledged that "checkbook journalism" served as part of the editorial philosophy he followed when ran American Media Inc.<ref namepeckertakesstand /><ref namepeckerdayonetestimony /> Pecker stated that he believed that “The only thing that is important is the cover of a magazine.”<ref namepeckertakesstand /> "Catch-and-kill" scandals related to Donald Trump Allegation about Trump Tower maid In late 2015, AMI paid $30,000 to Dino Sajudin, a doorman at Trump Tower, to obtain the rights to his story in which he alleged Donald Trump had an affair in the 1980s that resulted in the birth of a child. Sajudin in April 2018 identified the woman as Trump's former housekeeper.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2018/04/12/media/trump-national-enquirer-doorman/index.html\|titleFormer doorman involved in story of alleged Trump affair speaks\|lastMoghe\|firstChris Isidore, Tom Kludt and Sonia\|date12 April 2018\|access-date25 August 2018}}</ref> AMI reporters were given the names of the woman and the alleged child, while Sajudin passed a lie detector test when testifying that he had heard the story from others. Shortly after the payment was made, Pecker ordered the reporters to drop the story.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-national-enquirer-a-donald-trump-rumor-and-another-secret-payment-to-buy-silence-dino-sajudin-david-pecker\|titleThe National Enquirer, a Trump Rumor, and Another Secret Payment to Buy Silence\|lastFarrow\|firstRonan\|date2018-04-12\|magazineThe New Yorker\|access-date2018-04-12\|languageen\|issn0028-792X\|author-linkRonan Farrow}}</ref> In April 2018, AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard denied the story was "spiked" in a so-called "catch and kill" operation, insisting that AMI did not run the story because Sajudin's story lacked credibility.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.apnews.com/f37ecfc4710b468db6a103a245146172\|title$30,000 rumor? Tabloid paid for, spiked, salacious Trump tip\|websiteAssociated Press\|dateApril 12, 2018 \|access-date25 August 2018}}</ref> On August 24, 2018, after AMI had released Sajudin from the contract, CNN obtained a copy of it and published excerpts. The contract instructed Sajudin to provide "information regarding Donald Trump's illegitimate child," but did not contain further specifics of Sajudin's story.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2018/08/24/politics/trump-tower-doorman-contract-ami/index.html\|titleEx-Trump World Tower doorman releases 'catch-and-kill' contract about alleged Trump affair\|firstSonia \|lastMoghe\|date25 August 2018\|publisherCNN\|access-date25 August 2018}}</ref> In April 2024, Pecker testified in Trump's New York criminal trial how the story was his first "catch-and-kill" target during Trump's campaign, with Sajudin also attempting to claim that the child was a girl.<ref namepeckertestifying /> A National Enquirer editor who discovered the allegation originally did not know Sajudin's name, but just as a doorman who had worked at Trump.<ref namepeckertestifying /> Cohen was the one who discovered the names of the doorman and the alleged maid.<ref namepeckertestifying /> Though Cohen at first claimed the story was not true, the National Enquirer acquired the story for $30,000, which was noticeably higher than the usual $10,000 they paid for stories.<ref namepeckertestifying /> Karen McDougal {{see\|Karen McDougal#Affair with Donald Trump}} In 2016, AMI paid Playboy model Karen McDougal $150,000 for exclusive rights to her allegations of a ten-month affair with Donald Trump—which she claimed happened in 2006–2007, when he was already married to Melania<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/us/politics/karen-mcdougal-interview.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/22/us/politics/karen-mcdougal-interview.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleEx-Playboy Model Karen McDougal Details 10-Month Affair With Donald Trump\|lastRutenberg\|firstJim\|date2018-03-22\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2018-12-12\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>—but AMI never published the story. AMI publicly acknowledged having made the payment after The Wall Street Journal revealed it days before the 2016 presidential election, but AMI denied that its purpose had been to "kill damaging stories about" Trump; instead, AMI claimed it had paid only for "exclusive life rights to any relationship [McDougal] has had with a then-married man" and "two years' worth of her fitness columns and magazine covers."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/national-enquirer-shielded-donald-trump-from-playboy-models-affair-allegation-1478309380\|titleNational Enquirer Shielded Donald Trump From Playboy Model's Affair Allegation\|last1Palazzolo\|first1Joe\|last2Rothfeld\|first2Michael\|dateNovember 4, 2016\|access-dateFebruary 17, 2018\|last3Alpert\|first3Lukas\|workThe Wall Street Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.politico.com/media/story/2016/11/report-national-enquirer-bought-rights-to-trump-affair-story-but-never-published-004848\|titleReport: National Enquirer bought rights to Trump affair story, but never published\|lastWeprin\|firstAlex\|dateNovember 4, 2016\|publisherPolitico}}</ref> In March 2018, McDougal filed a lawsuit to invalidate the non-disclosure agreement she had with AMI.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://static01.nyt.com/files/2018/us/mcdougal-complaint-exhibits.pdf?actionclick&moduleIntentional&pgtypeArticle\|titleKaren McDougal v. American Media, Inc.\|websiteStatic01.nyt.com\|access-dateNovember 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/us/ex-playboy-model-sues-to-break-silence-on-trump.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/20/us/ex-playboy-model-sues-to-break-silence-on-trump.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleFormer Playboy Model Karen McDougal Sues to Break Silence on Trump\|lastRutenberg\|firstJim\|date2018-03-20\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2018-03-20\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> A month later, AMI settled with McDougal, allowing her to speak about the alleged affair.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/18/us/politics/karen-mcdougal-american-media-settlement.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/18/us/politics/karen-mcdougal-american-media-settlement.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleEx-Playboy Model, Freed From Contract, Can Discuss Alleged Trump Affair\|lastRutenberg\|firstJim\|date2018-04-18\|workThe New York Times\|access-date2018-04-19\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In August 2018, it was reported that AMI CEO/chairman David Pecker and AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard were granted witness immunity in exchange for their testimony regarding hush money payments made by Donald Trump's then-personal lawyer, Michael Cohen, in an attempt to influence the 2016 presidential election.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/news/2018/08/donald-trump-national-enquirer-allies-defect-david-pecker-michael-cohen\|title"Holy shit, I thought Pecker would be the last one to turn": Trump's National Enquirer allies are the latest to defect\|last1Sherman\|first1Gabriel\|magazineVanity Fair\|access-date25 August 2018}}</ref> On December 12, 2018, the U.S. Attorney's office announced its agreement with AMI. "AMI admitted that it made the $150,000 payment in concert with a candidate's presidential campaign," the press release said, so that Karen McDougal wouldn't "publicize damaging allegations about the candidate before the 2016 presidential election. AMI further admitted that its principal purpose in making the payment was to suppress the woman's story so as to prevent it from influencing the election." As a result of this agreement, AMI did not face prosecution and agreed to provide extensive assistance to prosecutors about the involvement of Trump and other politicians with the company.<ref name":0">{{cite web\|urlhttps://politi.co/2C7Ikgi\|titleA 'loud gong': National Enquirer's surprise deal could imperil Trump\|firstDarren\|lastSamuelsohn\|websitePolitico\|access-date13 December 2018}}</ref> The same press release also revealed that Michael Cohen had been sentenced to three years in prison for various crimes, including the $150,000 campaign finance violation—the facilitation of the payment to McDougal—to which he pled guilty on August 21, 2018.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/michael-cohen-sentenced-3-years-prison\|titleMichael Cohen Sentenced To 3 Years In Prison\|date2018-12-12\|websitejustice.gov\|languageen\|access-date2018-12-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-45265546\|titleMichael Cohen trial: Trump accused of directing hush money\|workBBC News\|access-date22 August 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/08/trump-lawyer-michael-cohen-reaches-plea-deal-reports-180821183403656.html\|titleEx-Trump lawyer Michael Cohen pleads guilty, implicates president\|publisherAl Jazeera\|access-date22 August 2018}}</ref> AMI agreed to pay the Federal Election Commission a $187,500 fine in June 2021.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.politico.com/news/2021/06/01/national-enquirer-owner-trump-campaign-491557\|titleNational Enquirer owner pays $187,500 for aiding Trump campaign in hush money deal\|firstJosh\|lastGerstein\|websitePolitico}}</ref> In April 2024, Pecker testified how he, Howard and Cohen conspired to get the National Enquirer to acquire McDougal's story.<ref namepeckertestifying>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/live-updates/trump-trial-new-york-first-witness-david-pecker/\|titleTrump trial hears testimony from David Pecker about "catch and kill" scheme\|first1Graham\|last1Kates\|first2Katrina\|last2Kaufman\|publisherCBS News\|dateApril 23, 2024\|accessdateApril 23, 2024}}</ref> Pecker stated that after Howard found out about McDougal's allegation, he sent Howard to California to interview her.<ref namepeckertestifying /> During the time Howard met with McDougal, he conversed with Cohen about the situation.<ref namepeckertestifying /> Ultimately, McDougal agreed to sell her story to the National Enquirer for $150,000.<ref namepeckertestifying /> Jeff Bezos blackmail In January 2019, the National Enquirer broke a story about the extramarital affair of Amazon founder and Washington Post owner Jeff Bezos with Lauren Sánchez. Bezos began investigating how and why the information had been leaked to the National Enquirer.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Business/amazon-ceo-jeff-bezos-accuses-national-enquirer-ami/story?id60924072\|titleNational Enquirer's parent company says it will investigate allegations of extortion made by Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos\|websiteABC News\|languageen\|access-date2019-02-08}}</ref> President Trump has long expressed displeasure with Bezos,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/apr/07/trump-bezos-feud-amazon-washington-post-taxes-usps\|titleWhat is the Donald Trump v Jeff Bezos feud really about?\|lastHelmore\|firstEdward\|date2018-04-07\|workThe Guardian\|access-date2019-02-08\|languageen-GB\|issn0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/5/19/17371780/donald-trump-amazon-jeff-bezos-postal-service\|titleTrump's trying to fight Amazon and Jeff Bezos from the White House\|lastStewart\|firstEmily\|date2018-05-19\|websiteVox\|access-date2019-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jun/17/donald-trump-jeff-bezos-amazon-washington-post-power-money\|titleWhy does Trump hate Jeff Bezos: is it about power or money?\|lastSmith\|firstDavid\|date2018-06-17\|workThe Guardian\|access-date2019-02-08\|languageen-GB\|issn0261-3077}}</ref> and Trump's irritation may have increased due to the ''Washington Post's'' critical coverage of the murder (and the subsequent cover-up<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/news/2018/10/inside-the-washington-post-anger-and-fear-and-a-demand-for-the-truth-about-jamal-khashoggi\|title'He's Our Colleague': Inside the Post, Anger and Fear Over Khashoggi's Fate\|lastPompeo\|firstJoe\|date17 October 2018\|websiteThe Hive\|languageen\|access-date2019-02-08}}</ref>) of one of its reporters, Jamal Khashoggi.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2018/11/05/saudi-arabia-washington-posts-coverage-khashoggi-killing-fuels-calls-amazon-boycott/\|titleIn Saudi Arabia, Washington Post's coverage of Khashoggi killing fuels calls for Amazon boycott\|lastTaylor\|firstAdam\|date5 November 2018\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|access-date8 February 2019}}</ref> This, Bezos suspects, may have been the political motivation for someone to leak his affair to the tabloid.<ref name"auto">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://medium.com/@jeffreypbezos/no-thank-you-mr-pecker-146e3922310f\|titleNo thank you, Mr. Pecker\|lastBezos\|firstJeff\|date2019-02-07\|websiteJeff Bezos\|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref> On February 7, 2019, Bezos shared emails that he had received the previous day<ref name"auto"/> in which AMI sought a public statement from him and his lawyer "affirming that they have no knowledge or basis for suggesting that AM's coverage [of the sexual affair] was politically motivated or influenced by political forces, and an agreement that they will cease referring to such a possibility." AMI chief content officer Dylan Howard and his lawyer Jon Fine threatened Bezos, saying that if Bezos did not promptly meet their demands, AMI would publish selfies and sexts sent between Bezos and his girlfriend.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2019/02/07/jeff-bezos-accuses-national-enquirer-publisher-of-blackmail-extortion.html\|titleJeff Bezos accuses National Enquirer publisher of blackmail, extortion\|lastKim\|firstEugene\|date2019-02-07\|websitecnbc.com\|access-date2019-02-08}}</ref> Bezos wrote that he would refuse to make this "specific lie" or to otherwise participate in this blackmail bargain that "no real journalists [would] ever propose."<ref name="auto"/> "Of course I don't want personal photos published," Bezos added, but he said he chooses to "stand up, roll this log over, and see what crawls out." That same day, The Washington Post published an article on the matter, quoting a former federal prosecutor who speculated that this news could undermine AMI's recent deal with the government. If prosecutors decide they must file new criminal charges against AMI, the government may not be able "to continue to use them [AMI] to assist other ongoing investigations," said Robert Mintz.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/2019/02/07/f501d20c-2b2d-11e9-b2fc-721718903bfc_story.html\|titleAmazon CEO Jeff Bezos accuses National Enquirer of extortion over intimate photos\|last1Farhi\|first1Paul\|date7 February 2019\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|access-date8 February 2019\|last2Ellison\|first2Sarah\|last3Barrett\|first3=Devlin}}</ref> Lauren Sanchez's brother, Michael Sanchez, an ardent Trump supporter, stated he was told by multiple AMI employees that the Enquirer set out to do "a takedown to make Trump happy"<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/was-tabloid-expose-of-bezos-affair-just-juicy-gossip-or-a-political-hit-job/2019/02/05/03d2f716-2633-11e9-90cd-dedb0c92dc17_story.html\|titleWas tabloid exposé of Bezos affair just juicy gossip or a political hit job?\|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> and The Daily Beast reported seeing documents showing that Sanchez believed the Bezos story was run with "President Trump's knowledge and appreciation."<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.thedailybeast.com/mistress-lauren-sanchezs-brother-leaked-bezos-racy-texts-to-enquirer-sources-say-7 \|titleMistress' Brother Leaked Bezos Texts to Enquirer \|firstLachlan\|lastMarkay \|date10 February 2019 \|websitethedailybeast.com}}</ref>Publications{{Columns-start\|num3}} Current * Animal Tales * Closer * First for Women * ''Girls' World * In Touch * J-14 * Life & Style * Muscle & Fitness * Muscle & Fitness Hers * OK! (US) * Puzzle Fun * Quizfest * RadarOnline.com * Star * Us Weekly * Woman's World {{Column}} Former * Autoworld Weekly * Bike * Country Music * Fit Pregnancy * Flex * Globe * Men's Fitness * Men's Journal * Nash Country Weekly * National Enquirer * National Examiner * Natural Health * Pixie * Powder * Shape * Snowboarder Magazine * Soap Opera Digest * Soaps in Depth * Soap Opera Weekly * Stallone * Sun * Surfer * Teen Boss * Transworld Skateboarding * Weekly World News'' {{Columns-end}} Divisions * AMI Books * AMI Entertainment Group<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/tonysilber/2018/06/15/america-media-acquires-bauer-medias-celebrity-and-teen-brands/\|titleAmerican Media Acquires Bauer Media's Celebrity And Teen Brands\|lastSilber\|firstTony\|workForbes\|access-date2018-10-18\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.americanmediainc.com/entertainment-group\|titleEntertainment Group {{!}} American Media Inc\|websiteamericanmediainc.com\|date6 December 2017\|languageen\|access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> * Distribution Services, Inc. * Dew Tour See also 2017–18 United States political sexual scandals Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal Death of Robert Stevens References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links {{Official website\|www.americanmediainc.com}} * [https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/21/us/politics/trump-michael-cohen-american-media.html?emcedit_th_180722&nltodaysheadlines&nlid=78526480722 Tabloid Company, Aiding Trump Campaign, May Have Crossed Line Into Politics] {{American Media}} {{Authority control}} Category:Publishing companies established in 1936 Category:Magazine publishing companies of the United States Category:Newspaper companies of the United States Category:Privately held companies based in New York City Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2010 Category:1936 establishments in New York (state) Category:Publishing companies based in New York City Category:2024 mergers and acquisitions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A360media	2025-04-05T18:25:59.410579
2303	Aramaic	{{Short description\|Semitic language}} {{Other uses}} {{distinguish\|Amharic}} {{Infobox language \| name = Aramaic \| nativename = {{lang\|tmr\|ארמית}}, {{lang\|syc\|ܐܪܡܐܝܬ}}<br>{{transl\|syc\|Arāmāiṯ}} \| region Fertile Crescent (Levant, Mesopotamia, Sinai and Southeastern Anatolia), eastern Arabia<ref>{{cite book \|firstMario \|lastKozah \|first2Abdulrahim \|last2Abu-Husayn \|first3Saif Shaheen \|last3Al-Murikhi \|first4Haya \|last4Al Thani \|authorlink2Abdulrahim Abu-Husayn\|titleThe Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century \|date9 December 2014 \|publisherGorgias Press \|isbn9781463236649 \|page298 \|quoteThe Syriac writers of Qatar themselves produced some of the best and most sophisticated writing to be found in all Syriac literature of the seventh century, but they have not received the scholarly attention that they deserve in the last half century. This volume seeks to redress this underdevelopment by setting the standard for further research in the sub-field of Beth Qatraye studies.}}</ref> \| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic \| fam2 = Semitic \| fam3 = West Semitic \| fam4 = Central Semitic \| fam5 = Northwest Semitic \| fam6 = Aramoid<ref>Huehnergard, J., "What is Aramaic?." Aram 7 (1995): 281</ref> \| ancestor = Proto-Afroasiatic \| ancestor2 = Proto-Semitic \| ancestor3 = Old Aramaic \| ancestor5 = Middle Aramaic \| ancestor4 = Imperial Aramaic \| dia1 = Eastern Aramaic \| dia2 = Western Aramaic \| dia3 = Armazic {{Extinct}} \| dia4 = Palmyrene {{Extinct}} \| script = {{ubl\|Syriac alphabet (Christian)\|Mandaic alphabet (Mandaean)\|Hebrew alphabet\|Historically Phoenician alphabet, Aramaic alphabet}} \| lc1 = arc \| ld1 = Imperial Aramaic \| lc2 = syc \| ld2 = Classical Syriac \| lc3 = myz \| ld3 = Classical Mandaic \| lc4 = xrm \| ld4 = Armazic \| lc5 = bjf \| ld5 = Barzani Neo-Aramaic \| lc6 = bhn \| ld6 = Bohtan Neo-Aramaic \| lc7 = hrt \| ld7 = Hertevin Neo-Aramaic \| lc8 = aij \| ld8 = Inter-Zab Neo-Aramaic \| lc9 = tmr \| ld9 = Jewish Babylonian Aramaic \| lc10 = jpa \| ld10 = Jewish Palestinian Aramaic \| lc11 = kqd \| ld11 = Koy Sanjaq Neo-Aramaic \| lc12 = lhs \| ld12 = Mlaḥsô \| lc13 = mid \| ld13 = Modern Mandaic \| lc14 = oar \| ld14 = Old Aramaic \| lc15 = sam \| ld15 = Samaritan Aramaic \| lc16 = syn \| ld16 = Senaya Neo-Aramaic \| lc17 = syr \| ld17 = Suret \| lc18 = huy \| ld18 = Trans-Zab Neo-Aramaic \| lc19 = tru \| ld19 = Turoyo \| lc20 = trg \| ld20 = Urmia Neo-Aramaic \| lc21 = amw \| ld21 = Western Neo-Aramaic \| glotto = aram1259 \| glottorefname = Aramaic \| lingua = 12-AAA \| image \| imagecaption }} ]] Aramaic ({{langx\|tmr\|ארמית\|ˀərāmiṯ}} {{IPA\|arc\|ʔɛrɑmitˤ}}; {{langx\|syc\|ܐܪܡܐܝܬ\|arāmāˀiṯ}}{{efn\|Also {{lang\|syc\|ܐܪܡܝܐ, ܐܪܐܡܝܬܐ}}. The form arāmāyā is less common in classical texts, but may be found (for example) in the Cave of Treasures (ed. Su-Min Ri) XXIV:10 and in Eusebius (ed. Cureton) p. 4 (Syriac pagination) line 10. See {{Cite book \|lastPayne Smith \|firstR. \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/syriacusthesaur01paynuoft \|titleThesaurus Syriacus \|date1879 \|publisherClarendon \|volume1 \|page387 \|author-linkRobert Payne Smith}} and in English at {{Cite book \|lastPayne Smith \|firstJ. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyn4RHiQz3dAC \|titleA Compendious Syriac Dictionary: Founded Upon the Thesaurus Syriacus of R. Payne Smith \|date1903 \|publisherClarendon \|pages29, 242 \|author-linkJessie Payne Margoliouth}}}}) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, southeastern Anatolia, Eastern Arabia<ref>{{cite book \|titleChristianity in Oman \|isbn9783030303983 \|page49 \|quoteThe Persian location and character of the Metropolitan proved to be a source of friction between the Syriac-speaking Christians of Beth Qatraye who naturally looked to their co-linguists back in Mesopotamia. \|last1Thompson \|first1Andrew David \|date31 October 2019 \|publisherSpringer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Raheb \|first1Mitri \|titleThe Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East \|last2Lamport \|first2Mark A. \|date15 December 2020 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|isbn9781538124185 \|page134 \|quoteHe was born in the region of Beth Qatraye in Eastern Arabia, a mixed Syriac- and Arabic Speaking region...}}</ref> and the Sinai Peninsula, where it has been continually written and spoken in different varieties{{sfn\|Brock\|1989\|pp11–23}} for over three thousand years.<!--{{Citation needed\|dateJuly 2024}> See: Brock [ibid.] 'request answered by title thereof'--> Aramaic served as a language of public life and administration of ancient kingdoms and empires, particularly the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Achaemenid Empire, and also as a language of divine worship and religious study within Judaism, Christianity, and Gnosticism. Several modern varieties of Aramaic are still spoken. The modern eastern branch is spoken by Assyrians, Mandeans, and Mizrahi Jews.<ref name"PhylaAndWaves">{{cite book \|last1Huehnergard \|first1John \|author-link1John Huehnergard \|last2Rubin \|first2Aaron D. \|author-link2Aaron D. Rubin \|date2011 \|editor-lastWeninger \|editor-firstStefan \|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook \|publisherDe Gruyter Mouton \|locationBerlin \|pages259–278 \|chapterPhyla and Waves: Models of Classification of the Semitic Languages \|isbn978-3-11-018613-0 }}</ref><ref name"GzellaAramaic">{{harvnb\|Gzella\|2021\|pp4–5}}: "The overarching concept of Aramaic, strictly a historical-linguistic abstraction, is made more concrete by various terms for the various Aramaic languages (or dialects, where we are mainly dealing with regional vernaculars without a written tradition; the neutral term variety includes both categories). ... Or scholars use the same terms to refer to different historical periods, as with "Old Aramaic" or "Imperial Aramaic." Others still are just misleading, such as "Modern Syriac" for the modern spoken languages, which do not directly descend from Syriac. When discussing what a certain word or phrase is "in Aramaic" then, we always have to specify which period, region, or culture is meant unlike Classical Latin, for instance. ... For the most part, Aramaic is thus studied as a crucial but subservient element in several well-established, mainly philological and historical disciplines and social sciences. Even in the academic world, only few people see any inherent value that transcends the disciplinary boundaries in this language family."{{Long quote\|dateJanuary 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|firstLucas \|lastVan Rompay \|titleAramaic \|editor1-firstSebastian P. \|editor1-lastBrock \|editor2-firstAaron M. \|editor2-lastButts \|editor3-firstGeorge A. \|editor3-lastKiraz \|editor4-firstLucas \|editor4-lastVan Rompay \|publisherGorgias Press \|date2011 \|editionElectronic Edition, Beth Mardutho, 2018 \|encyclopediaGorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage \|isbn978-1-59333-714-8 \|urlhttps://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Aramaic \|quoteAramaic itself consists of a great number of language forms (and indeed languages), spoken and written in many different scripts over a period of 3000 years.}}</ref>{{sfn\|Aufrecht\|2001\|p145\|loc"The Aramaic Language originated in ancient Syria at the end of the Late Bronze Age (c. 1500–1200 B.C.), is one of the oldest continually spoken languages in the world."}} Western Aramaic is still spoken by the Muslim and Christian Arameans (Syriacs) in the towns of Maaloula, Bakh'a and nearby Jubb'adin in Syria.<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle\|{{cite book \|firstRafik \|lastSchami \|titleMärchen aus Malula \|date25 July 2011 \|publisherCarl Hanser \|isbn9783446239005 \|page151 \|languagede \|quoteIch kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…}}\|{{cite book \|firstYaron \|lastMatras \|first2Jeanette \|last2Sakel \|titleGrammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective \|date2007 \|publisherDe Gruyter \|isbn9783110199192 \|page185 \|doi10.1515/9783110199192 \|quoteThe fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was intimate…}}\|{{cite book \|firstEmna \|lastLabidi \|titleUntersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien) \|date2022 \|publisherLIT \|isbn9783643152619 \|page133 \|urlhttps://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9 \|languagede \|quoteAramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn}}\|{{cite book \|firstWerner \|lastArnold \|first2P. \|last2Behnstedt \|titleArabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) \|date1993 \|publisherHarassowitz \|isbn9783447033268 \|page42 \|languagede \|quoteDie arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer}}\|{{cite book \|firstWerner \|lastArnold \|first2P. \|last2Behnstedt \|titleArabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) \|date1993 \|publisherHarassowitz \|isbn9783447033268 \|page5 \|languagede \|quoteDie Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.}}\|{{cite book \|firstWerner \|lastArnold \|titleLehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen \|date2006 \|publisherHarrassowitz \|isbn9783447053136 \|page133 \|languagede \|quoteAramäern in Ma'lūla}}\|{{cite book \|firstWerner \|lastArnold \|titleLehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen \|date2006 \|publisherHarrassowitz \|isbn9783447053136 \|page15 \|languagede \|quoteViele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.}}}}</ref> Classical varieties are used as liturgical and literary languages in several West Asian churches,<ref>{{unbulleted list citebundle\|{{harvnb\|Sokoloff\|1983\|p}}\|{{harvnb\|Beyer\|1986\|p}}\|{{harvnb\|Lipiński\|2000\|p}}\|{{harvnb\|Creason\|2008\|pp108–144}}\|{{harvnb\|Gzella\|2015\|p}}}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Gzella\|2021\|p222}}: "Despite their divergent creeds and confessional affiliations, they retained their own West or East Syriac ritual prayers and liturgical formulae; on the one hand, there are the West Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholics...and also to a lesser degree the similarly Catholic Maronites (where Arabic is increasingly taking over the function of Syriac); one the other hand, there is the Assyrian "Church of the East," which stems from the East Syriac tradition, and...the Chaldean Catholic Church. Additionally, some of the many Christian churches of India belong to the Syriac tradition."</ref> as well as in Judaism,{{sfn\|Greenfield\|1995}}{{sfn\|Berlin\|2011}} Samaritanism,{{sfn\|Tal\|2012\|p619–28}} and Mandaeism.{{sfn\|Burtea\|2012\|\|pp670–685}} The Aramaic language is now considered endangered, with several varieties used mainly by the older generations.{{sfn\|Naby\|2004\|pp197–203}} Researchers are working to record and analyze all of the remaining varieties of Neo-Aramaic languages before or in case they become extinct.{{sfn\|Macuch\|1990\|pp214–223}}{{sfn\|Coghill\|2007\|pp115–122}} Aramaic belongs to the Northwest group of the Semitic language family, which also includes the mutually intelligible Canaanite languages such as Hebrew, Edomite, Moabite, Ekronite, Sutean, and Phoenician, as well as Amorite and Ugaritic.{{sfn\|Lipiński\|2001\|p64}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|pp17–22}} Aramaic varieties are written in the Aramaic alphabet, a descendant of the Phoenician alphabet. The most prominent variant of this alphabet is the Syriac alphabet, used in the ancient city of Edessa.{{sfn\|Daniels\|1996\|pp499–514}} The Aramaic alphabet also became a base for the creation and adaptation of specific writing systems in some other Semitic languages of West Asia, such as the Hebrew alphabet and the Arabic alphabet.{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p56}} Early Aramaic inscriptions date from 11th century&nbsp;BC, placing it among the earliest languages to be written down.{{sfn\|Brock\|1989\|pp11–23}} Aramaicist {{ill\|Holger Gzella\|de}} notes, "The linguistic history of Aramaic prior to the appearance of the first textual sources in the ninth century BC remains unknown."<ref name"Gzella2015">{{harvnb\|Gzella\|2015\|p56}}</ref> Aramaic is also believed by most historians and scholars to have been the primary language spoken by Jesus of Nazareth both for preaching and in everyday life.<ref name"Allen Myers">{{cite encyclopedia \|year1987 \|titleAramaic \|encyclopediaThe Eerdmans Bible Dictionary \|publisherWilliam B. Eerdmans \|locationGrand Rapids, MI \|editor-firstAllen C. \|editor-lastMyers \|page72 \|isbn0-8028-2402-1 \|quoteIt is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)}}</ref><ref name"Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia \|titleAramaic language \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|date10 April 2024 \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Aramaic-language \|access-date10 May 2024}}</ref> History Historically and originally, Aramaic was the language of the ancient Aramean tribes. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and the fringes of southern Mesopotamia (Iraq). Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language after being adopted as a lingua franca of the empire by Assyrian kings, and its use was spread throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and parts of Asia Minor, Arabian Peninsula, and Ancient Iran under Assyrian rule. At its height, Aramaic was spoken in what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, parts of southeast and south central Turkey, northern parts of the Arabian Peninsula and parts of northwest Iran, as well as the southern Caucasus, having gradually replaced several other related Semitic languages.{{sfn\|Lipiński\|2000\|p}}{{sfn\|Khan\|2007\|pp95–114}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|p=}} According to the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 38b), the language spoken by Adam{{snd}}the Bible's first human{{snd}}was Aramaic.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.sefaria.org/Sanhedrin.38b\|titleSanhedrin 38b\|website=www.sefaria.org}}</ref> Aramaic was the language of Jesus,{{sfn\|Ruzer\|2014\|pp182–205}}{{sfn\|Buth\|2014\|pp395–421}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|p237}} who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of several sections of the Hebrew Bible, including parts of the books of Daniel and Ezra, and also the language of the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible.{{sfn\|Kitchen\|1965\|pp31–79}}{{sfn\|Rosenthal\|2006\|p}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|pp304–10}} It is also the language of the Jerusalem Talmud, Babylonian Talmud, and Zohar. The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy also used Aramaic, and this practice was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian Empire (605–539 BC) and later by the Achaemenid Empire (539–330 BC).{{sfn\|Folmer\|2012\|pp587–98}} Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic, named by scholars Imperial Aramaic, progressively also became the lingua franca of public life, trade and commerce throughout Achaemenid territories.{{sfn\|Bae\|2004\|pp1–20}} Wide use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of the Aramaic alphabet and, as logograms, some Aramaic vocabulary in the Pahlavi scripts, which were used by several Middle Iranian languages, including Parthian, Middle Persian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian.{{sfn\|Green\|1992\|p=45}} Some variants of Aramaic are also retained as sacred languages by certain religious communities. Most notable among them is Classical Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity. It is used by several communities, including the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and also the Saint Thomas Christians, Syriac Christians of Kerala, India.{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|pp38–43}}{{sfn\|Casey\|1999\|pp83–93}}<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastTurek\|firstPrzemysław\|date2011-11-05\|titleSyriac Heritage of the Saint Thomas Christians: Language and Liturgical Tradition Saint Thomas Christians – origins, language and liturgy\|journalOrientalia Christiana Cracoviensia\|volume3\|pages115–130\|doi10.15633/ochc.1038\|issn2081-1330\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> One of the liturgical dialects was Mandaic,{{sfn\|Burtea\|2012\|pp670–85}} which besides becoming a vernacular, Neo-Mandaic, also remained the liturgical language of Mandaeism.{{sfn\|Häberl\|2012\|pp725–37}} Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now-extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism. Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken in the 21st century as a first language by many communities of Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews (in particular, the Iraqi Jews), and Mandaeans of the Near East,{{sfn\|Heinrichs\|1990\|ppxi–xv}}{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p53}} with the main Neo-Aramaic languages being Suret (~240,000 speakers) and Turoyo (~250,000 speakers).<ref name"DYK">{{cite web \| urlhttps://userblogs.fu-berlin.de/saop/didyouknow/ \| titleDid you know \|websiteSurayt-Aramaic Online Project \|publisherFree University of Berlin}}</ref> Western Neo-Aramaic (~3,000)<ref>{{cite journal \| last1Duntsov \| first1Alexey \| last2Häberl \| first2Charles \| last3Loesov \| first3Sergey \| titleA Modern Western Aramaic Account of the Syrian Civil War \| journalWORD \| volume68 \| issue4 \|year2022\| doi10.1080/00437956.2022.2084663 \| pages359–394}}</ref> persists in only two villages in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in western Syria.<ref>Brock, [http://meti.byu.edu/Brock_Introduction.pdf An Introduction to Syriac Studies] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130518214139/http://meti.byu.edu/Brock_Introduction.pdf \|date2013-05-18 }}</ref> They have retained use of the once-dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East. Name was the first ancient inscription ever identified as "Aramaic". Although it was first published in 1704, it was not identified as Aramaic until 1821, when Ulrich Friedrich Kopp complained that previous scholars had left everything "to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".<ref>{{cite book\|lastKopp\|firstUlrich Friedrich\|author-link:de: Ulrich Friedrich Kopp\|titleBilder und Schriften der Vorzeit\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTng9AAAAYAAJ\|year1821\|chapterSemitische Paläographie: Aramäische ältere Schrift\|pages226–27}}</ref><ref name"Caputo Lougovaya 2020 p. 147">{{cite book \| last1Caputo \| first1C. \| last2Lougovaya \| first2J. \| titleUsing Ostraca in the Ancient World: New Discoveries and Methodologies \| publisherDe Gruyter \| seriesMateriale Textkulturen \| year2020 \| isbn978-3-11-071290-2 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSK8HEAAAQBAJ&pgPA147 \| quoteThe earliest of the Aramaic finds known to us is the so-called "Carpentras stele"... \| page147}}</ref>]] The connection between Chaldean, Syriac, and Samaritan as "Aramaic" was first identified in 1679 by German theologian Johann Wilhelm Hilliger.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastSchmidt \|firstNathaniel \|titleEarly Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842–1922 \|journalJournal of the American Oriental Society \|volume43 \|year1923 \|pages1–14 \|doi10.2307/593293 \|jstor593293 \|quoteHilliger first saw clearly the relation of the so-called Chaldee, Syriac, and Samaritan (1679)}}</ref><ref name"Hilliger1679">{{cite book\|authorJohann Wilhelm Hilliger\|titleSummarium Lingvæ Aramææ, i.e. Chaldæo-Syro-Samaritanæ: olim in Academia Wittebergensi orientalium lingvarum consecraneis, parietes intra privatos, prælectum & nunc ... publico bono commodatum\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNgrgAAAAMAAJ\|year1679\|publisherSumtibus hæred. D. Tobiæ Mevii & Elerti Schumacheri, per Matthæum Henckelium\|quote [Partial English translation]: "The Aramaic language name comes from its gentile founder, Aram (Gen 10:22), in the same manner as the Slavic languages Bohemian, Polish, Vandal etc. Multiple dialects are Chaldean, Syrian, Samaritan."; Latin Original: Linguae Aramaeae nomen à gentis conditore, Aramo nimirum (Gen. X 22) desumptum est, & complectitur, perinde ut Lingua Sclavonica, Bohemican, Polonican, Vandalicam &c. Dialectos plures, ceu sunt: Chaldaica, Syriaca, Samaritana.}}</ref> In 1819–21 Ulrich Friedrich Kopp published his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit ("Images and Inscriptions of the Past"), in which he established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts.<ref name"Lemaire 2021 pp. 5–29">{{cite book \|lastLemaire \|firstAndré \|titleAn Eye for Form \|date2021-05-25 \|publisherPenn State University Press \|isbn9781575068879 \|pages5 \|chapterA History of Northwest Semitic Epigraphy \|doi10.1515/9781575068879-007 \|quoteIn his Bilder und Schriften der Vorzeit, Ulrich Friedrich Kopp (1819–21) established the basis of the paleographical development of the Northwest Semitic scripts... \|access-date2022-10-05 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781575068879-007/html \|doi-broken-date1 November 2024 \|viaDe Gruyter}}</ref> Kopp criticised Jean-Jacques Barthélemy and other scholars who had characterized all the then-known inscriptions and coins as Phoenician, with "everything left to the Phoenicians and nothing to the Arameans, as if they could not have written at all".{{sfn\|Kopp\|1821\|p226-227 (§168–169)\|ps: "Irre ich nicht, so hat man die Benennung "phönicische Schrift" bisher etwas zu freygebig gebraucht, den Phöniciern alles gegeben, und den Aramäern nichts gelassen, gleichsam, als ob diese gar nicht hätten schreiben können, oder doch von ihnen nicht ein einziges Denkmal aus ältern Zeiten sich sollte erhalten haben. Selbst Schriften, in welchen sich die aramäische Mund-Art gar nicht verkennen läßt, nennen die Orientalisten phönicisch (§. 195), bloß weil sie noch nicht geahndet haben, daß eine Verschiedenheit vorhanden seyn könne. Ein Haupt-Unterscheidungs-Zeichen – So weit man, ohne auch dasjenige gesehen zu haben, was etwa noch entdeckt werden könnte, vorjetzt durch bloße Induction schließen kann – scheint in den Buchstaben ב, ד, ע und ר zu liegen. Denn so viele phönicische Denkmäler ich auch betrachtet habe; so sind mir doch in keinem einzigen ächt phönicischen diejenigen Gestalten vorgekommen, welche sich oben öffnen (§. 100). Nur bey dem einzigen ע finden sich, wie ich schon erinnert habe, jedoch höchst seltene Ausnahmen, die zuweilen bloß von der Uebereilung des Schreibers herrühren (z.B. im ersten ע der oxforder Inschrift (B.I. S.207). Wir haben sogar oben (§. 159) gesehen, daß selbst noch 153 Jahre nach Christi Geburt, als schon die Schrift in Phönicien sehr ausgeartet war, und in dem ganzen Zeit-Raume vorher, nie ד und ר mit von oben geöffneten Köpfen erscheinen. Dagegen haben diejenigen Denkmäler, auf welchen man sie antrifft, wie ich glaube, auch keinen Anspruch an Pönicier, als Urheber. §. 169 Unter solche gehört vor allen die Inschrift von Carpentras, welche ich hier um so lieber vornehme, als ihre Aechtheit über allen Zweifel erhoben ist... §. 195 Die Schrift darauf nannte man ehemals ägyptisch, welches freylich, weder in Vergleichung mit der ägyptischen Buchstaben-Schrift eine angemessene Benennung, noch der Sprache wegen eine zu wagende Vermuthung war. Schwerlich richtig ist aber auch die bey neuern Gelehrten (Gessenii Gesch. d. hebr. Spr. 139. Bibl. der alt. Literat. VI. 18. Hammer Fund-Grub. V. 277 °°) aufgekommene Benennung "Phönicisch". Ja Hartmann (II. II. 540) nennt sogar unmittelbar nach der ersten malteser diese "eine andere phönicische Inschrift". Schon die Mund-Art, welche nicht phönicisch, sondern aramäisch ist, würde uns vermuthen lassen, daß die Schrift den Aramäern ebenfalls gehöre; wenn nicht in dieser sich zugleich auch Merkmale einer Verschiedenheit von der phönicischen zeigten (s. oben §. 100. 168). Ich habe daher mit gutem Vorbedachte unser Denkmal von Carpentras aus meiner kleinen Sammlung phönicischer Inschriften (B. I. 195) ausgeschlossen. §. 196 Es scheint, als ob zur Zeit des oben (§. 193) mitgetheilten babylonischen Denkmals Aramäer und Phönicier eine und dieselbe Schrift gehabt hätten. Gegen 300 Sahre vor unserer Zeit-Rechnung war aber meiner Vermuthung nach schon eine Trennung eingetreten. Ich sage Vermuthung: denn mein Schluß gründet sich nur auf die einseitige Auslegung folgender Münze, bey welcher man mir vielleicht mehr als einen Einwurf zu machen im Stande ist.."}} Kopp noted that some of the words on the Carpentras Stele corresponded to the Aramaic in the Book of Daniel, and in the Book of Ruth.{{sfn\|Kopp\|1821\|pS. 182–185\|ps=: "Es gehört nicht viel dazu, um einzusehen, daß die Mund-Art, welche in dieser Inschrift herrscht, aramäisch sey. Schon de Wörter עבדת קדם ,ברת ,אמרת, u. s . w. verrathen sie. Allein rein Chaldäisch kann man sie nicht nennen; man müßte denn mit O. G. Tychsen zu manchen Vorausseßungen und Uenderungen seine Zuflucht nehmen wollen. [ ] ist nimmermehr chaldäisch; sondern entweder äthiopisch hic, hoc loco, oder das hebräische Demonstrativum. Denn man bemerkt auch ben [ ] die Orthographie, nach welcher [ ] statt [ ] gefegt wird. Ich war einmal in Versuchung das Relativum der Zabier darinnen sinden zu wollen, weil ich [ ] wirklich gedruckt fand. Als ich aber die Handschrift selbst verglich, say' ich bald, daß es ein Druckfehler, statt [ ], war… [ ]. Oyngeachtet die Endigung nicht gewöhnlich im Chaldäischen ist, so findet sich doch in der Ueberseßung des Buches Ruth (III. 10) dieses Wort grade so geschrieben. [ ] Daß dieses Zeit-Wort hier nicht perfectus fuit, wie gewöhnlich, heißen könne, lehrt der Zusammenhang. Es hat aber auch transitive Bedeutung, wie die Wörter-Bücher lehren (Simonis und Gesenius n. 2) und auch das arabische [ ] tamam wird für perfecit, complevit gebraucht. Ich habe mir daher um so weniger ein Gewissen daraus gemacht, ihm die transitive Bedeutung hier beyzulegen, als in dieser Anschrift, in welcher [ ], [ ] und dergleichen an keine Regeln gebundene Wörter vorkommen, es eine Recheit reyn würde, den Sprach-Gebrauch vorschreiben zu wollen. Daß übrigens in [ ] das [ ] für [ ] stehe, siehet man selbst aus dem Chaldäischen der Bibel (Dan. IV. 15. V. 8)."}} Josephus and Strabo (the latter citing Posidonius) both stated that the "Syrians" called themselves "Arameans".{{sfn\|Andrade\|2013\|p7}}<ref>Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 1.144: "Aram had the Aramites, which the Greeks called Syrians" ({{langx\|el\|Ἀραμαίους δὲ Ἄραμος ἔσχεν, οὓς Ἕλληνες Σύρους προσαγορεύουσιν}}</ref><ref>Strabo, Geographica, 1.2.34: "But it would seem that the view of Poseidonius is best, for here he derives an etymology of the words from the kinship of the peoples and their common characteristics. For the nation of the Armenians and that of the Syrians and Arabians betray a close affinity, not only in their language, but in their mode of life and in their bodily build, and particularly wherever they live as close neighbours. Mesopotamia, which is inhabited by these three nations, gives proof of this, for in the case of these nations the similarity is particularly noticeable. And if, comparing the differences of latitude, there does exist a greater difference between the northern and the southern people of Mesopotamia than between these two peoples and the Syrians in the centre, still the common characteristics prevail. And, too, the Assyrians, the Arians, and the Aramaeans display a certain likeness both to those just mentioned and to each other. Indeed, Poseidonius conjectures that the names of these nations also are akin; for, says he, the people whom we call Syrians are by the Syrians themselves called Arimaeans and Arammaeans; and there is a resemblance between this name and those of the Armenians, the Arabians and the Erembians, since perhaps the ancient Greeks gave the name of Erembians to the Arabians, and since the very etymology of the word "Erembian" contributes to this result".</ref><ref>Strabo, Geographica, 16.4.27: "Poseidonius says that the Arabians consist of three tribes, that they are situated in succession, one after another, and that this indicates that they are homogeneous with one another, and that for this reason they were called by similar names – one tribe "Armenians," another "Arameans," and another "Arambians." And just as one may suppose that the Arabians were divided into three tribes, according to the differences in the latitudes, which ever vary more and more, so also one may suppose that they used several names instead of one. Neither are those who write "Eremni" plausible; for that name is more peculiarly applicable to the Aethiopians. The poet also mentions "Arimi,"by which, according to Poseidonius, we should interpret the poet as meaning, not some place in Syria or in Cilicia or in some other land, but Syria itself; for the people in Syria are Arameans, though perhaps the Greeks called them Arimaeans or Arimi".</ref> The Septuagint, the earliest extant full copy of the Hebrew Bible, a Greek translation, used the terms Syria and Syrian where the Masoretic Text, the earliest extant Hebrew copy of the Bible, uses the terms Aramean and Aramaic;{{sfn\|Wevers\|2001\|pp237–51}}{{sfn\|Joosten\|2008\|pp93–105}}{{sfn\|Joosten\|2010\|pp53–72}} numerous later bibles followed the Septuagint's usage, including the King James Version.<ref name"Joseph2000">{{cite book\|lastJoseph\|firstJohn\|titleThe Modern Assyrians of the Middle East: A History of Their Encounter with Western Christian Missions, Archaeologists, and Colonial Powers\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id79wj2hj4wKUC&pgPA10\|year2000\|publisherBrill\|isbn9004116419\|pages9–10\|quoteThe designations Syria and Syrian were derived from Greek usage long before Christianity. When the Greeks became better acquainted with the Near East, especially after Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenian empire in the 4th century B.C., they restricted the name Syria to the lands west of the Euphrates. During the 3rd century B.C., when the Hebrew Bible was translated by Jewish scholars into the Greek Septuagint for the use of the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria, the terms for 'Aramean' and 'Aramaic' in the Hebrew Bible, were translated into 'Syrian' and 'the Syrian tongue' respectively. [Footnote: "The Authorized Version of the Bible continued to use the same terms that the Septuagint had adopted. In 1970, the New English Bible, published by Oxford and Cambridge University presses, and translated by biblical scholars drawn from various British universities, went back to the original Hebrew terms, using Aram and Arameans for Syria and Syrians respectively."] In Palestine itself, according to Noldeke, the Jews and later the Christians there referred to their dialect of Aramaic as Syriac; in Babylon, both Greeks and Persians called the Arameans Syrians. The second-century B.C. Greek historian Posidonius, a native of Syria, noted that 'the people we [Greeks] call Syrians were called by the Syrians themselves Arameans….for the people in Syria are Arameans'."}}</ref> This connection between the names Syrian and Aramaic was discussed in 1835 by Étienne Marc Quatremère.<ref nameTN/><ref>{{cite journal\|lastQuatremère\|firstÉtienne Marc\|author-linkÉtienne Marc Quatremère\|titleMémoire Sur Les Nabatéens\|journalJournal asiatique\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idC9CfsXJEvRsC&pgPA122\|year1835\|publisherSociété asiatique\|pages122–27\|languageFrench\|quote Les livres du Nouveau Testament furent immédiatement traduits dans fa langue du pays. Or ces livres étaient écrits dans la langue des Grecs, et offraient par conséquent les expressions et les dénominations en usage chez'ce peuple. Or les noms de Syrie, de Syriens se trouvaient souvent employés dans les livres fondamentaux du christianisme. Les habitants des pays situés entre la Méditerranée et l'Euphrate, se voyant désignés par une dénomination qui leur était étrangère, mais qui se trouvait en quelque sorte consacrée par l'autorité des livres qu'ils vénéraient à tant de titres, ne crurent pas sans doute pouvoir rejeter ce nom, et l'adoptèrent sans répugnance. Ils se persuadèrent que, régénérés par un nouveau culte, ils devaient sous tous les rapports devenir un peuple nouveau et abjurer leur nom antique, qui semblait leur rappeler l'idolâtrie à laquelle le christianisme venait de les arracher. Cette conjecture est, si je ne me trompe, confirmée par un fait que je crois décisif. Dans la langue syriaque ecclésiastique, le mot armoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, qui ne diffère du nom ancien, ormoïo, ܐܪܡܝܐ, que par une seule voyelle, désigne un païen, un idolâtre. Ainsi s'intrôduisit le nom de Sourioïo, Syrien. Quant à la dénomination Orom, Aram, ou le pays des Araméens, elle fut appliquée de préférence à la contrée que les Grecs et les Latins appelaient Assyrie.}}</ref> In historical sources, Aramaic language is designated by two distinctive groups of terms, first of them represented by endonymic (native) names, and the other one represented by various exonymic (foreign in origin) names. Native (endonymic) terms for Aramaic language were derived from the same word root as the name of its original speakers, the ancient Arameans. Endonymic forms were also adopted in some other languages, like ancient Hebrew. In the Torah (Hebrew Bible), "Aram" is used as a proper name of several people including descendants of Shem,<ref>{{bibleverse\|Genesis\|10:22\|KJV}}</ref> Nahor,<ref>{{bibleverse\|Genesis\|22:21\|KJV}}</ref> and Jacob.<ref>{{bibleverse\|1 Chronicles\|7:34\|KJV}}</ref><ref name"Aram">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Aram.html \|titleThe name Aram in the Bible \|workAbarim Publications \|access-date10 October 2018 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180929233320/http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch03-hyk2.htm \|archive-date29 September 2018}}</ref> Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and what is now called Syria, is considered the linguistic center of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age {{circa\|3500 BC}}. Unlike in Hebrew, designations for Aramaic language in some other ancient languages were mostly exonymic. In ancient Greek, Aramaic language was most commonly known as the "Syrian language",<ref nameTN>Nöldeke, 1871, p. 115: "Die Griechen haben den Namen "Aramäer" nie eigentlich gekannt; ausser Posidonius (dem Strabo folgt) nennt ihn uns nur noch ein andrer Orientale, Josephus (Ant. 1, 6, 4). Dass Homer bei den 'Ερεμβοι oder in den Worten eiv 'Αρίμοις an sie dächte, ist sehr unwahrscheinlich. Die Griechen nannten das Volk "Syrer"".</ref> in relation to the native (non-Greek) inhabitants of the historical region of Syria. Since the name of Syria itself emerged as a variant of Assyria,{{sfn\|Frye\|1992\|pp281–85}}{{sfn\|Frye\|1997\|pp30–36}} the biblical Ashur,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleStrong's Hebrew: 804. אַשּׁוּר (Ashshuwr) – Asshur\|urlhttps://biblehub.com/hebrew/804.htm\|access-date2020-07-31\|websitebiblehub.com}}</ref> and Akkadian Ashuru,<ref>{{Cite web\|titleSearch Entry\|urlhttp://www.assyrianlanguages.org/akkadian/dosearch.php?searchkey1505&languageid\|access-date2020-07-31\|website=www.assyrianlanguages.org}}</ref> a complex set of semantic phenomena was created, becoming a subject of interest both among ancient writers and modern scholars. The Koine Greek word {{lang\|grc\|Ἑβραϊστί}} (Hebraïstí) has been translated as "Aramaic" in some versions of the Christian New Testament, as Aramaic was at that time the language commonly spoken by the Jews.{{sfn\|Köstenberger\|2009\|p350}}{{sfn\|Hamp\|2005\|p4}} However, {{lang\|grc\|Ἑβραϊστί}} is consistently used in Koine Greek at this time to mean Hebrew and {{lang\|grc\|Συριστί}} (Syristi) is used to mean Aramaic.{{sfn\|Buth\|Pierce\|2014\|pp107–109}} In Biblical scholarship, the term "Chaldean" was for many years used as a synonym of Aramaic, due to its use in the book of Daniel and subsequent interpretation by Jerome.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastKautzsch \|firstEmil Friedrich \|author-linkEmil Friedrich Kautzsch \|jstor527111 \|titleThe Aramaic Language \|journalHebraica \|volume1 \|issue2 \|date1884 \|pages98–115 \|doi10.1086/368803 \|quoteThe author of Daniel uses the word as a title for the members of the Babylonian guild of priests, as already Herodotus regards oi Xardalot as a designation of the priests of Baal, and the name was subsequently the customary one for the Magians, Astrologers, Soothsayers, etc., of the East. Jerome, however, and those who followed him, confused therewith the use of o'yu, as name of the people; and since, in Dan. II., 4, the “Chaldeans” speak Aramaic, so “Chaldaic” and “Aramaic” were held to be identical. And the matter has stood thus in the “Chaldee grammars” and the "Hebrew and Chaldee lexicons," in spite of all protests,3 up to this day. [Footnote 3: Cf. already Schloezer in Eichhorn's Repertorium, viii. (1781), p. 118 sq.; the correct distinction of East-Aramaic (Syriac) and West-Aramaic (Biblical Aramaic and the language of the Targums) was expressly drawn again by Geiger ZDMG, xviii., 654, and Noeldeke, ibid. xxi., 183 sq,, and particularly xxv., 113 sq. (die Namen der aram. Nation und Sprache.)]}}</ref>Geographic distribution inscription at the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church's Major Archbishop's House in Kerala, India]] , Kerala, India (1799)]] During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans began to settle in greater numbers in Babylonia, and later in the heartland of Assyria, also known as the "Arbela triangle" (Assur, Nineveh, and Arbela).<ref>https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sargon/essentials/countries/centralassyria/,"…{{Dead link\|dateDecember 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} The heartland of Assyria is demarcated by the city of Assur (modern Qala'at Sherqat) in the south, by Nineveh (modern Mosul with the ruin mounds Kuyunjik and Nebi Yunus) in the north and by Arbela (modern Erbil) in the east.“</ref> The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) adopting an Akkadian-influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire.{{sfn\|Bae\|2004\|pp1–20}} This policy was continued by the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, and both empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian.{{sfn\|Streck\|2012\|pp416–24}} The Achaemenid Empire (539–323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.{{sfn\|Lipiński\|2000\|p}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|p=}} Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate and the early Muslim conquests in the late seventh century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Near East.{{sfn\|Weninger\|2012\|pp747–55}} However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Classical Mandaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language.{{sfn\|Häberl\|2012\|pp725–37}} There are still also a small number of first-language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria. Being in contact with other regional languages, some Neo-Aramaic dialects were often engaged in the mutual exchange of influences, particularly with Arabic,{{sfn\|Weninger\|2012\|pp747–55}} Iranian,{{sfn\|Kapeliuk\|2012\|pp738–47}} and Kurdish.{{sfn\|Chyet\|1997\|pp=283–300}} The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide, also known as Seyfo "Sword" in Syriac, has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are several sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq, such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Suret-speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al-Hasakah. In modern Israel, the only native Aramaic-speaking population are the Jews of Kurdistan, although the language is dying out.<ref>"The last of the Aramaic speakers", Miriam Shaviv, 14 July 2013, Times of Israel</ref> However, Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.<ref>{{cite news \|date9 November 2014 \|titleAramaic Israelis seek to revive endangered language of Jesus \|urlhttps://www.jpost.com/Christian-News/Aramaic-Israelis-seek-to-revive-endangered-language-of-Jesus-381229 \|newspaperThe Jerusalem Post \|access-date10 October 2018}}</ref>Aramaic languages and dialectsAramaic is often spoken of as a single language but is actually a group of related languages.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia \|lastKutscher \|firstEduard \|date2007 \|titleAramaic \|encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Judaica \|editor-first1Michael \|editor-last1Berenbaum \|editor-first2Fred \|editor-last2Skolnik \|edition2nd \|locationDetroit \|publisherMacmillan Reference USA \|isbn978-0-02-865928-2 \|volume2 \|pages342 }}</ref> Some languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, similar to the situation with modern varieties of Arabic. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety spoken by Syriac Christian communities in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and the Saint Thomas Christians in Kerala, India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern" or "Western", the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to distinguish modern living languages, or Neo-Aramaics, and those that are still in use as literary or liturgical languages or are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Old", "Middle", and "Modern" periods alongside "Eastern" and "Western" areas to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic. Writing system ]] {{Main\|Aramaic alphabet}} The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square" style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.{{sfn\|Häberl\|2012\|pp=725–37}} In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script. Periodization {\| border"0" cellpadding"5" style="float:right; background:#ffffd9; margin-left:10px;" \|- \| style="background:#ffffd9;"\|<timeline> ImageSize = width:320 height:700 PlotArea = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10 DateFormat = yyyy TimeAxis = orientation:vertical order:reverse Period = from:-1200 till:2005 AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-1200 Colors = id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85) BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = width:15 color:red bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic PlotData = width:15 color:orange bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic PlotData = width:15 color:yellow bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic PlotData = bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white) at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white) at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white) at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white) at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I makes Aramaic official bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white) at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed bar:test at:-330 mark:(line,white) at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white) at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white) at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white) at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white) at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra & Osrhoene bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white) at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white) at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white) at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white) at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white) at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white) at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white) at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white) at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white) at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white) at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black) at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black) at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black) at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black) at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black) at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black) at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black) at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahsô & Bijil die </timeline> \|} Periodization of historical development of Aramaic language has been the subject of particular interest for scholars, who proposed several types of periodization, based on linguistic, chronological and territorial criteria. Overlapping terminology, used in different periodizations, led to the creation of several polysemic terms, that are used differently among scholars. Terms like: Old Aramaic, Ancient Aramaic, Early Aramaic, Middle Aramaic, Late Aramaic (and some others, like Paleo-Aramaic), were used in various meanings, thus referring (in scope or substance) to different stages in historical development of Aramaic language.{{sfn\|Fitzmyer\|1997\|pp57–60}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|pp47–48}}{{sfn\|Butts\|2019\|pp=222–25}} Most commonly used types of periodization are those of Klaus Beyer and Joseph Fitzmyer. Periodization of Klaus Beyer (1929–2014):{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p=}} * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to {{circa}} 200 AD * Middle Aramaic, from {{circa}} 200 AD, to {{circa}} 1200 AD * Modern Aramaic, from {{circa}} 1200 AD, up to the modern times Periodization of Joseph Fitzmyer (1920–2016):{{sfn\|Fitzmyer\|1997\|pp=60–63}} * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to regional prominence {{circa}} 700 BC * Official Aramaic, from {{circa}} 700 BC, to {{circa}} 200 BC * Middle Aramaic, from {{circa}} 200 BC, to {{circa}} 200 AD * Late Aramaic, from {{circa}} 200 AD, to {{circa}} 700 AD * Modern Aramaic, from {{circa}} 700 AD, up to the modern times Recent periodization of Aaron Butts:{{sfn\|Butts\|2019\|pp=224–25}} * Old Aramaic, from the earliest records, to {{circa}} 538 BC * Achaemenid Aramaic, from {{circa}} 538 BC, to {{circa}} 333 BC * Middle Aramaic, from {{circa}} 333 BC, to {{circa}} 200 AD * Late Aramaic, from {{circa}} 200 AD, to {{circa}} 1200 AD * Neo-Aramaic, from {{circa}} 1200 AD, up to the modern times Old Aramaic {{Main\|Old Aramaic}} from Sam'al.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.jtsa.edu/Documents/pagedocs/JANES/1986%2018/Younger18.pdf \|titlePanammuwa and Bar-Rakib: Two Structural Analyses \| firstK. Lawson Jr. \| lastYounger \|year1986 \|access-date10 October 2018 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304002734/http://www.jtsa.edu/Documents/pagedocs/JANES/1986%2018/Younger18.pdf \|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The inscription is in the Samalian language (also considered a dialect).]] Aramaic's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic languages are largely restricted to Assyrian, Mandean and Mizrahi Jewish communities in Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran, and southeastern Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Neo-Aramaic language is spoken by small Christian and Muslim communities in the Anti-Lebanon mountains, and closely related western varieties of Aramaic<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddVUiAAAAQBAJ&dqmount+lebanon+western+aramaic+arnold&pgPA347 \| titleArabic as a Minority Language \| isbn9783110805451 \| last1Owens \| first1Jonathan \| date12 March 2013 \| publisherWalter de Gruyter }}</ref> persisted in Mount Lebanon until as late as the 17th century.{{sfn\|Arnold\|2012\|pp=685–96}} The term "Old Aramaic" is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use, until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. Regarding the earliest forms, Beyer suggests that written Aramaic probably dates from the 11th century BCE,{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p11}} as it is established by the 10th century, to which he dates the oldest inscriptions of northern Syria. Heinrichs uses the less controversial date of the 9th century,{{sfn\|Heinrichs\|1990\|px}} for which there is clear and widespread attestation. The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–608 BC), Neo-Babylonian Empire (620–539 BC), and Achaemenid Empire (500–330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic", saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city-states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards. Ancient Aramaic {{see also\|Samalian language}} "Ancient Aramaic" refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city-states of Damascus, Hamath, and Arpad.{{sfn\|Fales\|2012\|pp=555–73}} There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath-Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely. From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p14}}Imperial Aramaic {{Main\|Imperial Aramaic}} {{Aramaeans}} Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid (Persian) conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic,{{sfn\|Gzella\|2012a\|pp574–86}}{{sfn\|Folmer\|2012\|pp587–98}}{{sfn\|Gzella\|2012b\|pp598–609}} can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica \|volume2 \|year1987 \|titleAramaic \|pages251–52 \|lastShaked \|firstSaul \|publisherRoutledge & Kegan Paul \|locationNew York \|urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aramaic- \|access-date10 October 2018}}</ref> In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language", noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Frye \|first1Richard N. \|titleReview of G. R. Driver's 'Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C.' \|journalHarvard Journal of Asiatic Studies \|volume18 \|issue3/4 \|year1955 \|page457 \|doi10.2307/2718444 \|last2Driver \|first2G. R. \|jstor2718444}}</ref> Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid-era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 330 BC), Imperial Aramaic – or a version thereof near enough for it to be recognisable – would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and – as ideograms – Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Geiger \|first1Wilhelm \|author1-linkWilhelm Geiger \|last2Kuhn \|first2Ernst \|titleGrundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1 \|trans-titleOutline of the Iranian Philology: Volume 1. Division 1. \|languagede \|locationBoston \|publisherAdamant Media Corporation \|publication-date25 March 2002 \|page249 \|isbn=978-1421246864}}</ref> One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis Administrative Archives, found at Persepolis, which number about five hundred.<ref>{{cite journal \|firstJohn A. Matthew \|last Stolper \|titleWhat are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets? \|journal The Oriental Studies News & Notes \|issuewinter \|year 2007 \|pages6–9 \|url https://persepolistablets.blogspot.com/2007/01/what-are-persepolis-fortication.html \|access-date10 October 2018}}</ref> Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Consensus {{As of\|2022\|lcy}} regards the Aramaic portion of the Biblical book of Daniel (i.e., 2:4b–7:28) as an example of Imperial (Official) Aramaic.{{sfn\|Collins\|1993\|pp=710–12}} Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language. A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.<ref>{{cite book \|titleAncient Aramaic Documents from Bactria \|series Studies in the Khalili Collection \|last1Naveh \|first1 Joseph \|last2Shaked \|first2 Shaul \|isbn1874780749 \|publisher Khalili Collections \|locationOxford \|year 2006\|page}}{{page needed\|dateJuly 2021}}</ref> Biblical Aramaic Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Old Testament: * Ezra<ref>{{bibleref2-nb\|Ezra\|4:8–6:18\|NKJV}} and {{bibleref2-nb\|Ezra\|7:12–26\|KJV}}</ref> – documents from the Achaemenid period (5th century BC) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem. * Daniel<ref>{{bibleref2-nb\|Daniel\|2:4b–7:28\|NKJV}}</ref> – five tales and an apocalyptic vision.{{sfn\|Hasel\|1981\|pp=211–25}} * Jeremiah 10:11 – a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry. * Genesis<ref>{{bibleref2-nb\|Genesis\|31:47}}</ref> – translation of a Hebrew place-name. Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. Biblical Aramaic presented various challenges for writers who were engaged in early Biblical studies. Since the time of Jerome of Stridon (d. 420), Aramaic of the Bible was named as "Chaldean" (Chaldaic, Chaldee).{{sfn\|Gallagher\|2012\|pp123–41}} That label remained common in early Aramaic studies, and persisted up into the nineteenth century. The "Chaldean misnomer" was eventually abandoned, when modern scholarly analyses showed that Aramaic dialect used in the Hebrew Bible was not related to ancient Chaldeans and their language.{{sfn\|Nöldeke\|1871\|pp113–31}}{{sfn\|Kautzsch\|1884a\|pp17–21}}{{sfn\|Kautzsch\|1884b\|pp110–13}} Post-Achaemenid Aramaic bearing an Aramaic language inscription]] (Greek and Aramaic) by the Indian king Ashoka, 3rd century BC at Kandahar, Afghanistan]] with Targum intercalated between verses of Hebrew text]] The fall of the Achaemenid Empire ({{circa}} 334–330 BC), and its replacement with the newly created political order, imposed by Alexander the Great (d. 323 BC) and his Hellenistic successors, marked an important turning point in the history of Aramaic language. During the early stages of the post-Achaemenid era, public use of Aramaic language was continued, but shared with the newly introduced Greek language. By the year 300 BC, all of the main Aramaic-speaking regions came under political rule of the newly created Seleucid Empire that promoted Hellenistic culture, and favored Greek language as the main language of public life and administration. During the 3rd century BCE, Greek overtook Aramaic in many spheres of public communication, particularly in highly Hellenized cities throughout the Seleucid domains. However, Aramaic continued to be used, in its post-Achaemenid form, among upper and literate classes of native Aramaic-speaking communities, and also by local authorities (along with the newly introduced Greek). Post-Achaemenid Aramaic, that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the Achaemenid period, continued to be used up to the 2nd century BCE.{{sfn\|Gzella\|2015\|pp=212–17}} By the end of the 2nd century BC, several variants of Post-Achaemenid Aramaic emerged, bearing regional characteristics. One of them was Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official administrative language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142–37 BC), alongside Hebrew, which was the language preferred in religious and some other public uses (coinage). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean Aramaic. It also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms. The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic(-derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to be written as Aramaic "words" even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words" became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol '&' is read as "and" in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd-century BC Parthian Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic-derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name 'pahlavi' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians") for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century AD, subsequently inherited/adopted the Parthian-mediated Aramaic-derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well.{{sfn\|Beyer\|1986\|p28}}<ref>{{cite book \|titleAncient Persia \|pages118–20 \|last1Wiesehöfer \|first1Josef \|translator-lastAzodi \|translator-firstAzizeh \|isbn9781860646751 \|publisherI.B. Taurus \|year2001 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyFocMaM49SgC \|access-date=10 October 2018}}</ref> That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th-century, the Aramaic-derived writing system was replaced by the Arabic alphabet in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name 'pahlavi' for the Aramaic-derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system. Other regional dialects continued to exist alongside these, often as simple, spoken variants of Aramaic. Early evidence for these vernacular dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, some of those regional dialects became written languages by the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not directly dependent on Achaemenid Aramaic, and they also show a clear linguistic diversity between eastern and western regions. Targumic Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official" targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow. Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it. Babylonian Documentary Aramaic Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard. Nabataean Nabataean Aramaic was the written language of the Arab kingdom of Nabataea, whose capital was Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC – 106 AD) controlled the region to the east of the Jordan River, the Negev, the Sinai Peninsula, and the northern Hijaz, and supported a wide-ranging trade network. The Nabataeans used imperial Aramaic for written communications, rather than their native Arabic. Nabataean Aramaic developed from Imperial Aramaic, with some influence from Arabic: "l" is often turned into "n", and there are some Arabic loanwords. Arabic influence on Nabataean Aramaic increased over time. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions date from the early days of the kingdom, but most datable inscriptions are from the first four centuries AD. The language is written in a cursive script that was the precursor to the Arabic alphabet. After annexation by the Romans in 106 AD, most of Nabataea was subsumed into the province of Arabia Petraea, the Nabataeans turned to Greek for written communications, and the use of Aramaic declined. Palmyrene Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the multicultural<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddPglEAAAQBAJ&dq%C2%A0palmyra+aramean+arabs+greek&pgPA60 \| titlePalmyra: An Irreplaceable Treasure \| isbn9780226600055 \| last1Veyne \| first1Paul \| date5 October 2018 \| publisherUniversity of Chicago Press }}</ref> city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree. Eastern dialects {{Main\|Eastern Aramaic languages}} magical "demon trap"]] In the eastern regions (from Mesopotamia to Persia), dialects like Palmyrene Aramaic and Arsacid Aramaic gradually merged with the regional vernacular dialects, thus creating languages with a foot in Achaemenid and a foot in regional Aramaic. In the Kingdom of Osroene, founded in 132 BCE and centred in Edessa (Urhay), the regional dialect became the official language: Edessan Aramaic (Urhaya), that later came to be known as Classical Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from the regions of Hatra and Assur.<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLai8CgAAQBAJ&dqassyrian+hatran+aramaic&pgPA126 \| titleSemitic Languages in Contact \| isbn9789004300156 \| last1Butts \| first1Aaron \| date29 September 2015 \| publisherBRILL }}</ref> Tatian the Assyrian (or Syrian), the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Adiabene (Syr. Beth-Hadiab),<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idA09WDwAAQBAJ&dqtatian+from+adiabene&pgPA14 \| titleThe Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity \| isbn978-0-19-256246-3 \| last1Nicholson \| first1Oliver \| date19 April 2018 \| publisherOxford University Press }}</ref> and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Classical Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from {{circa\|70 AD}}). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic. The written form of Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastHäberl \|firstCharles G. \|titleIranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script \|journalBulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research \|issue341 \|dateFebruary 2006 \|pages53–62 \|jstor25066933 \|doi10.7282/T37D2SGZ}}</ref>Western dialects {{Main\|Western Aramaic languages}} The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD. The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean lasting into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean. The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta). Languages during Jesus' lifetime {{Further\|Language of Jesus}}It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Near East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape. In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects spoken in the southern Levant. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus' time.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|year1987 \|titleAramaic \|encyclopediaThe Eerdmans Bible Dictionary \|publisherWilliam B. Eerdmans \|locationGrand Rapids, MI \|editorAllen C. Myers \|page72 \|isbn0-8028-2402-1 \|quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)}}</ref> They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi spoke the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaritan Aramaic was distinct; it ultimately merged [ʔ], [h], [ħ], and [ʕ] as a glottal stop, only maintaining [ʕ] in the initial position before the vowel [a]. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature, and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features, including the collapse of gutturals and the maintenance of diphthongs. In the Transjordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian Aramaic were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken. The three languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic, influenced one another through loanwords and semantic loans. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic. Most were mostly technical religious words, but a few were everyday words like {{lang\|arc\|עץ}} {{transliteration\|sem\|ʿēṣ}} "wood". Conversely, Aramaic words, such as māmmôn "wealth" were borrowed into Hebrew, and Hebrew words acquired additional senses from Aramaic. For instance, {{langx\|he\|ראוי\|rāʾûi\|seen\|links=no}} borrowed the sense "worthy, seemly" from Aramaic {{Transliteration\|sem\|ḥzî}} "seen, worthy". New Testament Greek preserves some semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words. Some are Aramaic,{{sfn\|Fitzmyer\|1980\|pp5–21}} like talitha ({{lang\|grc\|ταλιθα}}), which represents the Aramaic noun {{lang\|arc\|טליתא}} {{Transliteration\|sem\|ṭalīṯā}},<ref name"Bibleverse\|Mark\|5:41\|KJV">{{Bibleverse\|Mark\|5:41\|KJV}}</ref> and others may be either Hebrew or Aramaic like {{lang\|arc\|רבוני}} Rabbounei ({{lang\|grc\|Ραββουνει}}), which means "my master/great one/teacher" in both languages.<ref>{{Bibleverse\|John\|20:16\|KJV}}</ref> Other examples: * "Talitha kumi" (טליתא קומי)<ref name="Bibleverse\|Mark\|5:41\|KJV"/> * "Ephphatha" (אתפתח)<ref>{{Bibleverse\|Mark\|7:34\|KJV}}</ref> * "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" (?אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני)<ref>{{Bibleverse\|Mark\|15:34\|KJV}}</ref> The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first-century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel and fourth-century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.<ref>{{cite news \|titleWhat's up with Aramaic? \|date25 February 2004 \|urlhttp://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/entertainment/special_packages/passion_of_christ/8038021.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-date3 April 2004 \|access-date10 October 2018 \|workMiami Herald \|lastDarling \|firstCary \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040403223353/http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/entertainment/special_packages/passion_of_christ/8038021.htm}}</ref> Middle Aramaic During the Late Middle Aramaic period, spanning from 300 B.C.E. to 200 C.E., Aramaic diverged into its eastern and western branches. During this time, the nature of various Aramaic dialects began to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional dialects started to develop significant new literatures. Unlike many dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.<ref>{{cite book \|titleTargum and New Testament \|isbn9783161508363 \|page186 \|languageEnglish \|quotea) Old Aramaic from the beginning (through Biblical Aramaic, Nabataean, Palmyrene) down to the established eastern and western branches; b) Middle Aramaic, with two branches, eastern and western; c) Late Aramaic, with the contemporary western (Ma'alula) and eastern branches. This older terminology is still followed by M. Sokoloff in his recent work, A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period.'1 A different division, now widely accepted, has been put forward by J. A. Fitzmyer.2 It is as follows: a) Old Aramaic, up to 700 B.C.E.; b) Official Aramaic, 700-300 .c.E.; c) Middle Aramaic, 300 ..E.-200 c.E.; d) Late Aramaic ( Middle Aramaic of Rosenthal's division), with two branches: the eastern branch consisting of Syriac, Mandaic, the Aramaic of the Talmud Babli, the Gaonic Literature and incantation texts found mainly in Nippur; and the western, consisting of Samaritan Aramaic, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Galilean Aramaic (which some, for example Sokoloff, prefer to call Jewish Palestinian Aramaic) found in the Aramaic portions of the Palestinian Talmud and haggadic midrashim and other sources; e) Modern Aramaic (in its eastern and western [Ma'alula] dialects). \|last1McNamara \|first1Martin \|date2011 \|publisherMohr Siebeck }}</ref> Eastern Middle Aramaic The dialects of Old Eastern Aramaic continued in ancient Assyria, Babylon, and the Achaemenid Empire as written languages using various Aramaic scripts. Eastern Middle Aramaic comprises Classical Mandaic, Hatran, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic dialects, and Classical Syriac<ref>{{cite web \|authorSebastian Brock\|titleThe place of Syriac among the Aramaic dialects 2\|urlhttps://syriacpress.com/blog/2021/08/08/the-place-of-syriac-among-the-aramaic-dialects-2/\|year2021\|access-date1 April 2022\|publisherSyriacPress dot com}}</ref> {{listen\|filenameRecording_1648798987707.ogg\|titleAvūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēiā\|descriptionThe Lord's Prayer, Avūo·nə đə·Vē·shəmēyā, Reading in Eastern variant of Syriac}}Syriac Aramaic {{Main\|Syriac language}} Estrangela manuscript of John Chrysostom's Homily on the Gospel of John]] {{listen\|filenameAbunbshmayo.ogg\|titleAbun D'Bashmayo\|description=The Lord's Prayer, ''Abun D'Bashmayo'', recited in Western variant of Syriac}} Syriac Aramaic (also "Classical Syriac") is the literary, liturgical, and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity. It originated in the first century in the region of Osroene, centered in Edessa, but its golden age was the fourth to eighth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta, and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Classical Syriac became the language of Eastern Christianity and missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India, and China.{{sfn\|Healey\|2012\|pp637–52}}{{sfn\|Briquel-Chatonnet\|2012\|pp652–59}} Jewish Babylonian Aramaic <!-- This section is linked, this language was taken from the Aramaic language of the Byzantines from Halakha --> {{Main\|Jewish Babylonian Aramaic}} Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.{{sfn\|Sokoloff\|2012b\|pp660–70}}Mandaic Aramaic {{Main\|Mandaic language}} Classical Mandaic, used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. It is the language in which the Mandaeans' gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography and does not make use of vowel diacritics.{{sfn\|Burtea\|2012\|pp670–85}}Western Middle AramaicThe dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Nabataean, Jewish Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script"), Samaritan Aramaic (in the Old Hebrew script), and Christian Palestinian (in Syriac Estrangela script).<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Qur'an in Its Historical Context \|isbn9781134109456 \|page59 \|languageEnglish \|quote…. Palestinian Aramaic also began to be written for the first time (Coptic was written in an adapted Greek script and Palestinian Aramaic in a modified Estrangelo…. \|last1Reynolds \|first1Gabriel Said \|date28 September 2007 \|publisherRoutledge }}</ref> Of these four, only Jewish Palestinian continued as a written language.{{Clarify\|dateMarch 2010}}<!--So how do we know the other two if they weren't written? Also, at least Samaritan Aramaic certainly was written and lots of texts survive.-->Samaritan Aramaic {{Main\|Samaritan Aramaic language}} The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.{{sfn\|Tal\|2012\|p619–28}}Jewish Palestinian Aramaic ]] {{Main\|Jewish Palestinian Aramaic}} In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.{{sfn\|Sokoloff\|2012a\|pp=610–19}} Middle Judaean Aramaic, the descendant of Old Judaean Aramaic, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian Aramaic continued as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian Aramaic. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura-Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean. Christian Palestinian Aramaic {{main\|Christian Palestinian Aramaic}} This was the language of the Christian Melkite (Chalcedonian) community, predominantly of Jewish descent, in Palestine, Transjordan and Sinai<ref>{{cite book \|titleArabic in Context \|date6 June 2017 \|publisherBrill \|isbn9789004343047 \|page338 \|languageEnglish \|quoteFor the Aramaic-speaking Christian communities of Sinai, Palestine or Trans-Jordan, Christian Palestinian Aramaic was the dominant language in local churches; for Syria and Mesopotamia, it was rather Syriac.…}}</ref> from the 5th to the 8th century.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Arman Akopian \|titleIntroduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies \|date11 December 2017 \|publisherGorgias Press \|isbn9781463238933 \|pages573 \|languageEnglish \|chapterOther branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites \|quote The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene. Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.}}</ref> As a liturgical language, it was used up to the 13th century. It is also been called "Melkite Aramaic", "Syro-Palestinian" and "Palestinian Syriac".{{sfn\|Morgenstern\|2012\|pp628–37}} The language itself comes from Old Western Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on the Aramaic dialect of Edessa, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, Syriac īšū‘, is written īsūs, a transliteration of the Greek form, in Christian Palestinian.<ref name"El-Badawi2013">{{cite book\|authorEmran El-Badawi\|titleThe Qur'an and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiIhiAgAAQBAJ&pgPA35\|year2013\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn9781317929338\|page35\|quoteHowever, what truly distinguishes the CPA Gospels from the Syriac ones is the strong influence that Greek Biblical tradi- tions had upon it. This is evident, for example, in the syntax of the Gospel passages and even in the spelling of proper nouns, both of which duplicate the Greek Gospels. Therefore, unlike Syriac where “Jesus” is spelled īšū‘, in CPA it is spelled īsūs.}}</ref> Modern Aramaic in the Near East]] {{Main\|Neo-Aramaic languages}} As the Western Aramaic dialects of the Levant have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the 21st century are Eastern Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Central Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of the Assyrian (235,000 speakers) and Chaldean (216,000 speakers) varieties of Suret, and Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining speakers of modern Aramaic dialects, such as the Arameans of the Qalamoun Mountains, Assyrians, Mandaeans and Mizrahi Jews, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large-scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.{{sfn\|Weninger\|2012\|pp747–55}}Modern Eastern Aramaic ]] {{main\|Central Neo-Aramaic\|Northeastern Neo-Aramaic\|Neo-Mandaic}} {{listen\|filename\|titleSpoken Turoyo Neo-Aramaic\|description\|formatOgg}} {{listen\|filenameAssyriansample.ogg\|titleSpoken Assyrian Neo-Aramaic\|description\|formatOgg}} Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages.{{sfn\|Murre van den Berg\|1999\|p=}} There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Assyrians, Mizrahi Jews, and Mandaeans, with mutually unintelligible variations within each of these groups. The Christian varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (NENA) are often called "Assyrian", "Chaldean" or "Eastern Syriac", and are spoken by the Assyrians in northern Iraq, northeast Syria, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran, and in the diaspora. However, they also have roots in numerous previously unwritten local Aramaic varieties and, in some cases, even contain Akkadian influences. These varieties are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian, which was Classical Syriac.{{sfn\|Khan\|2012\|pp=708–24}} The Judeo-Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Christian Assyrians and Mizrahi Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Northeastern Neo-Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh Plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnicities are similar enough to allow conversation. Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic, is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians/Syriacs of Tur Abdin. A related Neo-Aramaic language, Mlaḥsô, has recently become extinct.{{sfn\|Jastrow\|2012\|pp=697–707}} Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Neo-Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety. Mandaeans number some 50,000–75,000 people, but it is believed Neo-Mandaic may now be spoken fluently by as few as 5,000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.{{sfn\|Häberl\|2012\|pp725–37}}Modern Western Aramaic {{Main\|Western Neo-Aramaic}} {{listen\|filename\|titleSpoken Western Neo-Aramaic\|description\|formatOgg}} Very little remains of Western Aramaic. Its only remaining vernacular is Western Neo-Aramaic, which is still spoken in the Aramean villages of Maaloula and Jubb'adin on Syria's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. Bakh'a was completely destroyed during the Syrian civil war and all the survivors fled to other parts of Syria or to Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.aymennjawad.org/2020/01/the-village-of-bakha-in-qalamoun-interview \| titleThe Village of Bakh'a in Qalamoun: Interview \| date26 January 2020 }}</ref> All these speakers of modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well.{{sfn\|Arnold\|2012\|pp685–96}} Other Western Aramaic languages, like Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic, are preserved only in liturgical and literary usage. Sample texts Matthew 2, verses 1–4, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Suret (Swadaya):<ref>{{cite book \|author1C. Müller-Kessler \|titleThe Christian Palestinian Aramaic Old Testament and Apocrypha Version from the Early Period \|date1 January 1997 \|isbn978-90-04-66979-6 \|languageEnglish}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author1Christa Müller-Kessler \|author2Michael Sokoloff \|titleThe Christian Palestinian Aramaic New Testament Version from the Early Period \|publisherSTYX Publication \|languageEnglish}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleClassical Syriac \|urlhttps://rinyo.org/bible \|websiterinyo.org \|access-date18 November 2023}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! English (KJV): \|[1] Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, [2] Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him. [3] When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him. [4] And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born. \|- !Classical Syriac (Eastern accent): \|[1] Ḵaḏ dēyn eṯīleḏ Īšōʕ b-Ḇēṯlḥem d-Īhūḏā b-yawmay Herodes malkā eṯaw mġōšē min maḏnḥā l-Ōrešlem. [2] W-Āmrīn: Aykaw malkā d-īhūḏāyē d-eṯīleḏ? Ḥzayn gēr kawkḇēh b-maḏnḥā w-eṯayn l-mesgaḏ lēh. [3] Šmaʕ dēyn Herodes malkā w-ettzīʕ w-ḵullāh Ōrešlem ʕammēh. [4] W-ḵanneš ḵulhōn rabbay kāhnē w-sāprē d-ʕammā wa-mšayel-wālhōn d-aykā meṯīleḏ mšīḥā. \|- !Christian Palestinian Aramaic: \|[1] Ḵaḏ eṯileḏ mōro Yesūs b-Beṯlḥem d-Yuḏō b-yawmay d-Herodes malkō w-hō mġušōya min maḏnḥō eṯaw l-Irušlem. [2] Ōmrin: Hōn hū deyn d-eṯileḏ? Ḥmaynan ger kawkḇeh b-maḏnḥō w-eṯaynan d-nesguḏ leh. [3] W-ḵaḏ šmaʕ malkō Herodes eṯʕabaḇ w-ḵuloh Irušlem ʕameh. [4] W-ḵaneš ḵulhun rišay koḥnōya w-soprawi d-qahlo wa-hwo mšayel lhun hōn mšiḥō meṯileḏ. \|- ! Suret (Swadaya): \| [1] Min baṯar d-pišleh iliḏe Išo go Beṯlkham d-Ihuḏa b-yomane d-Herodes malka ṯelon mġoše min maḏnkha l-Orešlim. [2] W-buqrehon: Eykeleh haw d-pišleh iliḏe malka d-ihuḏāye? Sabab khzelan l-kawkhḇeh b-maḏnkha w-telan d-saġdakh eleh. [3] Iman d-šmayeleh Herodes malka aha pišleh šġhiše w-kulaha Orešlim ʔammeh. [4] W-qraeleh kuleh gurane d-kahne w-sapre d-ʔamma w-buqrehmennay eyka bit paiš va iliḏe mšikha. \|} Matthew 28, verse 16, in Classical Syriac (Eastern accent), Western Neo-Aramaic, Turoyo and Suret (Swadaya): {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! English (KJV): \|[16] Then the eleven disciples went away into Galilee, into a mountain where Jesus had appointed them. \|- ! Classical Syriac (Eastern accent) \| [16] Talmīḏē dēyn ḥḏaʕesre āzalū l-Glīlā l-ṭūrā aykā d-waʕad ennūn Īšōʕ. \|- ! Western Neo-Aramaic: \| [16] Bes aḥḥadaʕsar tilmit̲ zallun l-Ġalila l-ṭūra ti amerlun maʕleh Yešūʕ. \|- ! Turoyo: \| [16] Wa-ḥḏaḥsar talmiḏe azzinnewa lu Ġlilo lu ṭūro ayko d-moʕadleh Yešū. \|- ! Suret (Swadaya): \| [16] Ina talmiḏe khadissar azzillun l-Glila l-ṭūra eyka d-bit khwaʔda ʔammeh Išo. \|} Phonology {{IPA notice\|section}} Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic" consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian, and Turkish. Vowels {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! ! Front ! Back \|- ! Close \| {{IPA link\|i}} \| {{IPA link\|u}} \|- ! Close-mid \| {{IPA link\|e}} \| {{IPA link\|o}} \|- ! Open-mid \| {{IPA link\|ɛ}} \| ({{IPA link\|ɔ}}) \|- ! Open \| {{IPA link\|a}} \| ({{IPA link\|ɑ}}) \|} As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels: * Open a-vowels * Close front i-vowels * Close back u-vowels These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting. The open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ("short" a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter", {{IPAblink\|a}}). It usually has a back counterpart ("long" a, like the a in "father", {{IPAblink\|ɑ}}, or even tending to the vowel in "caught", {{IPAblink\|ɔ}}), and a front counterpart ("short" e, like the vowel in "head", {{IPAblink\|ɛ}}). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph" (a glottal stop) or ה "he" (like the English h). The close front vowel is the "long" i (like the vowel in "need", {{IPA\|[i]}}). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long" e, as in the final vowel of "café" ({{IPA\|[e]}}). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis. The close back vowel is the "long" u (like the vowel in "school", {{IPA\|[u]}}). It has a more open counterpart, the "long" o, like the vowel in "show" ({{IPA\|[o]}}). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality. Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively. The so-called "emphatic" consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised. Consonants {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! rowspan"2" colspan"2" \| ! rowspan="2" \| Labial ! rowspan="2" \| Dental ! colspan="2" \| Alveolar ! rowspan="2" \| Post-alv. / <br /> Palatal ! rowspan="2" \| Velar ! rowspan="2" \| Uvular / <br /> Pharyngeal ! rowspan="2" \| Glottal \|- ! <small>plain</small> ! <small>emp.</small> \|- ! colspan="2" \| Nasal \| {{IPA link\|m}} \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|n}} \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! rowspan="2" \| Stop ! <small>voiceless</small> \| {{IPA link\|p}} \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|t}} \|\| {{IPA link\|tˤ}} \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|k}} \|\| {{IPA link\|q}} \|\| {{IPA link\|ʔ}} \|- ! <small>voiced</small> \| {{IPA link\|b}} \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|d}} \|\| \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|ɡ}} \|\| \|\| \|- ! rowspan="2" \| Fricative ! <small>voiceless</small> \| {{IPA link\|f}} \|\| {{IPA link\|θ}} \|\| {{IPA link\|s}} \|\| {{IPA link\|sˤ}} \|\| {{IPA link\|ʃ}} \|\| {{IPA link\|x}} \|\| {{IPA link\|ħ}} \|\| {{IPA link\|h}} \|- ! <small>voiced</small> \| {{IPA link\|v}} \|\| {{IPA link\|ð}} \|\| {{IPA link\|z}} \|\| \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|ɣ}} \|\| {{IPA link\|ʕ}} \|\| \|- ! colspan="2" \| Approximant \| \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|l}} \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|j}} \|\| {{IPA link\|w}} \|\| \|\| \|- ! colspan="2" \| Trill \| \|\| \|\| {{IPA link\|r}} \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives: * Labial set: פּ\פ p/f and בּ\ב b/v, * Dental set: תּ\ת t/θ and דּ\ד d/ð, * Velar set: כּ\כ k/x and גּ\ג ɡ/ɣ. Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones. A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic" consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are: * ח Ḥêṯ, a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, {{IPA\|/ħ/}}, * ט Ṭêṯ, a pharyngealized t, {{IPA\|/tˤ/}}, * ע ʽAyin (or ʽE in some dialects), a pharyngealized glottal stop (sometimes considered to be a voiced pharyngeal approximant), {{IPA\|[ʕ]}} or {{IPA\|[ʔˤ]}}, * צ Ṣāḏê, a pharyngealized s, {{IPA\|/sˤ/}}, * ק Qôp, a voiceless uvular stop, {{IPA\|/q/}}. {{listen\|filenameAramaic_emphatics.ogg\|titleThe emphatic consonants of Aramaic\|description\|formatOgg}} Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values. Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural" consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h"). Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six): * ס, שׂ {{IPA\|/s/}} (as in English "sea"), * ז {{IPA\|/z/}} (as in English "zero"), * שׁ {{IPA\|/ʃ/}} (as in English "ship"), * צ {{IPA\|/sˤ/}} (the emphatic Ṣāḏê listed above). In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w. Historical sound changes Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials: * Vowel change occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects. * Plosive/fricative pair reduction. Originally, Aramaic, like Tiberian Hebrew, had fricatives as conditioned allophones for each plosive. In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects. For example, Turoyo has mostly lost {{IPA\|/p/}}, using {{IPA\|/f/}} instead, like Arabic; other dialects (for instance, standard Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) have lost {{IPA\|/θ/}} and {{IPA\|/ð/}} and replaced them with {{IPA\|/t/}} and {{IPA\|/d/}}, as with Modern Hebrew. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, {{IPA\|/f/}} and {{IPA\|/v/}} are realized as {{IPA\|[w]}} after a vowel. * Loss of emphatics. Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the Caucasus often have glottalized rather than pharyngealized emphatics. * Guttural assimilation is the main distinctive feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in Samaritan Hebrew: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce h in all words (the third person masculine pronoun hu becomes ow). * Proto-Semitic /θ/ /ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as /t/, /d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three is שלוש šālôš in Hebrew but תלת tlāṯ in Aramaic, the word gold is זהב zahav<ref>{{Cite web\|titleStrong's Hebrew: 2091. זָהָב (zahab) – gold\|urlhttps://biblehub.com/hebrew/2091.htm\|access-date2020-07-31\|websitebiblehub.com}}</ref> in Hebrew but דהב dehav<ref>{{Cite web\|titleStrong's Hebrew: 1722. דְּהַב (dehab) – gold\|urlhttps://biblehub.com/hebrew/1722.htm\|access-date2020-07-31\|websitebiblehub.com}}</ref> in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects. * New phonetic inventory. Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the dominant surrounding languages. The most frequent borrowings are {{IPA\|[ʒ]}} (as the first consonant in "azure"), {{IPA\|[d͡ʒ]}} (as in "jam"), and {{IPA\|[t͡ʃ]}} (as in "church"). The Syriac alphabet has been adapted for writing these new sounds. Grammar As in other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת״ב k-t-b has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning: * כתבה kṯāḇâ, handwriting, inscription, script, book. * כתבי kṯāḇê, books, the Scriptures. * כתובה kāṯûḇâ, secretary, scribe. * כתבת kiṯḇeṯ, I wrote. * אכתב 'eḵtûḇ, I shall write. Nouns and adjectives Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state. Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה- -â. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual" number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic. Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo-European languages: # The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. In early forms of Aramaic, the absolute state expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article a(n) (for example, כתבה kṯāḇâ, "a handwriting"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. However, by the Middle Aramaic period, its use for nouns (but not adjectives) had been widely replaced by the emphatic state. # The construct state is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇat malkṯâ, "the handwriting of the queen"). In the masculine singular, the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction in longer words. The feminine construct and masculine construct plural are marked by suffixes. Unlike a genitive case, which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Aramaic word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./emph.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word. In Middle Aramaic, the use of the construct state for all but stock phrases (like בר נשא bar nāšâ, "son of man") begins to disappear. # The emphatic or determined state is an extended form of the noun that functions similarly to the definite article. It is marked with a suffix (for example, כתבתא kṯāḇtâ, "the handwriting"). Although its original grammatical function seems to have been to mark definiteness, it is used already in Imperial Aramaic to mark all important nouns, even if they should be considered technically indefinite. This practice developed to the extent that the absolute state became extraordinarily rare in later varieties of Aramaic. Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic/determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed -ל l- (the preposition "to") if it is definite. Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king", is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâ{{snd}}king[emph.] good[emph.]. In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good", is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇ{{snd}}king[emph.] good[abs.]. {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! "good" ! masc. sg. ! fem. sg. ! masc. pl. ! fem. pl. \|- ! abs. \| rowspan="2" \| טב ṭāḇ \| טבה ṭāḇâ \| טבין ṭāḇîn \| טבן ṭāḇān \|- ! const. \| טבת ṭāḇaṯ \| טבי ṭāḇê \| טבת ṭāḇāṯ \|- ! det./emph. \| טבא ṭāḇâ \| טבתא ṭāḇtâ \| טביא ṭāḇayyâ \| טבתא ṭāḇāṯâ \|} The final א- -â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים- -îm instead of ין- -în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא- -ayyâ, has an alternative version, -ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural" for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, 'the Jews', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, -ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to -ai. Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]-. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases. For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen") are: # כתבת מלכתא kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ – the oldest construction, also known as סמיכות səmîḵûṯ : the possessed object (כתבה kṯābâ, "handwriting") is in the construct state (כתבת kṯāḇaṯ); the possessor (מלכה malkâ, "queen") is in the emphatic state (מלכתא malkṯâ) # כתבתא דמלכתא kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle -[ד[י d[î]- is used to mark the relationship # כתבתה דמלכתא kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ – both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (כתבתה kṯāḇtā-h, "handwriting-her"; literally, "her writing, that (of) the queen"). In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent. Verbs The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive, or infinitive), and voice (active, reflexive, or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs. Aspectual tense Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third-person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! rowspan="2" \| Person & gender ! colspan="2" \| Perfect ! colspan="2" \| Imperfect \|- ! Singular ! Plural ! Singular ! Plural \|- ! 3rd m. \| כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ \| כתבו ↔ כתב(ו)\כתבון kəṯaḇû ↔ kəṯaḇ(w)/kəṯabbûn \| יכתוב ↔ נכתוב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ \| יכתבון ↔ נכתבון yiḵtəḇûn ↔ neḵtəḇûn \|- ! 3rd f. \| כתבת kiṯbaṯ ↔ keṯbaṯ \| כתבת ↔ כתב(י)\כתבן kəṯaḇâ ↔ kəṯaḇ(y)/kəṯabbên \| תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ \| יכתבן ↔ נכתבן yiḵtəḇān ↔ neḵtəḇān \|- ! 2nd m. \| כתבת kəṯaḇt ↔ kəṯaḇt \| כתבתון kəṯaḇtûn ↔ kəṯaḇton \| תכתב tiḵtuḇ ↔ teḵtoḇ \| תכתבון tiḵtəḇûn ↔ teḵtəḇûn \|- ! 2nd f. \| (כתבתי ↔ כתבת(י kəṯaḇtî ↔ kəṯaḇt(y) \| כתבתן kəṯaḇtēn ↔ kəṯaḇtên \| תכתבין tiḵtuḇîn ↔ teḵtuḇîn \| תכתבן tiḵtəḇān ↔ teḵtəḇān \|- ! 1st m./f. \| כתבת kiṯḇēṯ ↔ keṯḇeṯ \| כתבנא ↔ כתבן kəṯaḇnâ ↔ kəṯaḇn \| אכתב eḵtuḇ ↔ eḵtoḇ \| נכתב niḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ \|} Conjugations or verbal stems Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G-stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə‘al פעל (also written Pe‘al), using the form of the Semitic root פע״ל P-‘-L, meaning "to do". This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb. By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D-stem or פעל Pa‘‘el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed", whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew". The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb. A preformative, which can be -ה ha-, -א a-, or -ש ša-, creates the C-stem or variously the Hap̄‘el, Ap̄‘el or Šap̄‘el (also spelt הפעל Haph‘el, אפעל Aph‘el, and שפעל Shaph‘el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə‘â means "he went astray", whereas אטעי aṭ‘î means "he deceived". The Šap̄‘el שפעל is the least common variant of the C-stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄‘el and אפעל Ap̄‘el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph. These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative -הת hiṯ- or -את eṯ-. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt-stem, התפעל Hiṯpə‘el or אתפעל Eṯpə‘el (also written Hithpe‘el or Ethpe‘el), the Dt-stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa‘‘al or אתפעּל Eṯpa‘‘al (also written Hithpa‘‘al or Ethpa‘‘al), and the Ct-stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al, אתּפעל Ettap̄‘al, השתפעל Hištap̄‘al or אשתפעל Eštap̄‘al (also written Hithhaph‘al, Ettaph‘al, Hishtaph‘al, or Eshtaph‘al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb. Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G-stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת״ב K-T-B, meaning "to write"), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Stem ! Perfect active ! Imperfect active ! Perfect passive ! Imperfect passive \|- ! פעל Pə‘al (G-stem) \| כתב kəṯaḇ ↔ kəṯaḇ \| יכתב ↔ נכתב yiḵtuḇ ↔ neḵtoḇ \| כתיב kəṯîḇ \| \|- ! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpə‘ēl/Eṯpə‘el (Gt-stem) \| התכתב ↔ אתכתב hiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ eṯkəṯeḇ \| יתכתב ↔ נתכתב yiṯkəṯēḇ ↔ neṯkəṯeḇ \| \| \|- ! פעּל Pa‘‘ēl/Pa‘‘el (D-stem) \| כתּב kattēḇ ↔ katteḇ \| יכתּב ↔ נכתּב yəḵattēḇ ↔ nəkatteḇ \| כֻתּב kuttaḇ \| \|- ! התפעל\אתפעל Hiṯpa‘‘al/Eṯpa‘‘al (Dt-stem) \| התכתּב ↔ אתכתּב hiṯkəttēḇ ↔ eṯkətteḇ \| יתכתּב ↔ נתכתּב yiṯkəttēḇ ↔ neṯkətteḇ \| \| \|- ! הפעל\אפעל Hap̄‘ēl/Ap̄‘el (C-stem) \| הכתב ↔ אכתב haḵtēḇ ↔ aḵteḇ \| יהכתב↔ נכתב yəhaḵtēḇ ↔ naḵteḇ \| הֻכתב huḵtaḇ \| \|- ! התהפעל\אתּפעל Hiṯhap̄‘al/Ettap̄‘al (Ct-stem) \| התהכתב ↔ אתּכתב hiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ ettaḵtaḇ \| יתהכתב ↔ נתּכתב yiṯhaḵtaḇ ↔ nettaḵtaḇ \| \| \|} In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. Aramaic syntax usually follows the order verb–subject–object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence. See also {{Portal\|Languages\|Christianity}} {{columns-list\|colwidth=25em\| * Talmud * Arameans * Aramaic studies * Arabic alphabet * Aramaic of Hatra * Ephrem the Syrian * Hebrew alphabet * Gospel of Matthew * Peshitta * List of Aramaic-language television channels * List of loanwords in modern Aramaic * Romanization of Syriac }} References {{Reflist}} Notes {{notelist}} Sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book\|lastAndrade\|firstNathanael J.\|titleSyrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World\|year2013\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9781107244566\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=4ROhAQAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite journal\|lastAndrade\|firstNathanael J.\|titleAssyrians, Syrians and the Greek Language in the late Hellenistic and Roman Imperial Periods\|journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies\|year2014\|volume73\|number2\|pages299–317\|doi10.1086/677249\|jstor10.1086/677249\|s2cid163755644\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/677249}} * {{Cite book\|lastArnold\|firstWerner\|chapterWestern Neo-Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages685–96\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastAufrecht\|firstWalter E.\|titleA Legacy of Syria: The Aramaic Language\|journalBulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies\|year2001\|volume36\|pages145–55\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=1HltAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBae\|firstChul-hyun\|titleAramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538–333 B.C.E.)\|journalJournal of Universal Language\|year2004\|volume5\|pages1–20\|doi10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1\|urlhttps://www.sejongjul.org/download/download_pdf?pidjul-5-1-1\|doi-access=free}} {{Cite encyclopedia\|editor-lastBerlin\|editor-firstAdele\|display-editorsetal\|sectionAramaic\|titleThe Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion\|year2011\|locationOxford-New York\|publisherOxford University Press\|editionSecond\|page64\|isbn=9780199730049}} {{Cite book\|lastBeyer\|firstKlaus\|titleThe Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions\|year1986\|locationGöttingen\|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht\|isbn9783525535738\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=pZ53zpMQNLEC}} * {{Cite book\|lastBlack\|firstMatthew\|author-linkMatthew Black\|titleAn Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts\|year1967\|edition3rd\|locationOxford\|publisherClarendon Press\|isbn9781725272026\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Myn4DwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBowman\|firstRaymond A.\|titleArameans, Aramaic, and the Bible\|journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies\|year1948\|volume7\|number2\|pages65–90\|doi10.1086/370861\|jstor542672\|s2cid162226854\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/542672}} * {{Cite book\|lastBriquel-Chatonnet\|firstFrançoise\|chapterSyriac as the Language of Eastern Christianity\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages652–59\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBrock\|firstSebastian P.\|author-linkSebastian P. Brock\|titleA Fragment of the Acta Pilati in Christian Palestinian Aramaic\|journalThe Journal of Theological Studies\|year1971\|volume22\|number1\|pages157–59\|doi10.1093/jts/XXII.I.157\|jstor23962351\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23962351}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBrock\|firstSebastian P.\|author-linkSebastian P. Brock\|titleThree Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature\|journalARAM Periodical\|year1989\|volume1\|number1\|pages11–23\|urlhttps://www.aramsociety.org/periodical/published-papers}} * {{Cite journal\|lastBrock\|firstSebastian P.\|editor1-firstGeorge\|editor1-lastKiraz\|author-linkSebastian P. Brock\|titleSome Basic Annotation to The Hidden Pearl: The Syrian Orthodox Church and its Ancient Aramaic Heritage, I–III (Rome, 2001)\|journalHugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies\|year2002\|volume5\|number1\|pages63–112\|doi10.31826/9781463214104-005\|isbn9781463214104\|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/hug/5/1/article-p63.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/journals/hug/5/1/article-p63.pdf\|archive-date2022-10-09\|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book\|lastBurnett\|firstStephen G.\|chapterChristian Aramaism: The Birth and Growth of Aramaic Scholarship in the Sixteenth Century\|titleSeeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients\|year2005\|locationWinona Lake\|publisherEisenbrauns\|pages421–36\|chapter-urlhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188050924.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/188050924.pdf\|archive-date2022-10-09\|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book\|lastBurtea\|firstBogdan\|author-linkBogdan Burtea\|chapterMandaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages670–85\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastButh\|firstRandall\|chapterThe Riddle of Jesus' Cry from the Cross: The Meaning of ηλι ηλι λαμα σαβαχθανι (Matthew 27:46) and the Literary Function of ελωι ελωι λειμα σαβαχθανι (Mark 15:34)\|editor1-firstRandall\|editor1-lastButh\|editor2-firstR. Steven\|editor2-lastNotley\|titleThe Language Environment of First Century Judaea Vol. 2\|year2014\|locationLeiden-Boston\|publisherBrill\|pages395–421\|isbn9789004264410\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book\|last1Buth\|first1Randall\|first2Chad\|last2Pierce\|editor1-firstRandall\|editor1-lastButh\|editor2-firstR. Steven\|editor2-lastNotley\|chapterHebraisti in Ancient Texts: Does ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean 'Aramaic'?\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF5QXAwAAQBAJ&pgPA107\|titleThe Language Environment of 1st Century Judea Vol. 2\|url\|year2014\|locationLeiden-Boston\|publisherBrill\|isbn9789004264410\|pages=66–109}} * {{Cite book\|lastButts\|firstAaron M.\|chapterThe Classical Syriac Language\|titleThe Syriac World\|year2019\|locationLondon\|publisherRoutledge\|pages222–42\|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/26842432}} * {{Cite book\|lastCasey\|firstMaurice\|titleAramaic Sources of Mark's Gospel\|year1999\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9781139425872\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=oxlrUXf7xr4C}} * {{Cite book\|lastCasey\|firstMaurice\|titleAn Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke\|year2002\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn9781139438285\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Urz50xGPoIEC}} * {{Cite book\|lastCoghill\|firstEleanor\|chapterFieldwork in Neo-Aramaic\|titleLanguages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern\|year2007\|locationCambridge\|publisherThe British School of Archaeology in Iraq\|pages115–22\|chapter-urlhttp://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf\|access-date2021-02-08\|archive-date2019-08-02\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf\|url-status=dead}} * {{Cite book\|lastCreason\|firstStuart\|chapterAramaic\|titleThe Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia\|year2008\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|pages108–44\|chapter-url=http://www.learnassyrian.com/assyrianlibrary/assyrianbooks/language/01%20Aramaic%20(The%20Ancient%20Languages%20of%20Syria-Palestine%20and%20Arabia).pdf}} * {{Cite book\|lastChyet\|firstMichael L.\|author-linkMichael L. Chyet\|chapterA Preliminary List of Aramaic Loanwords in Kurdish\|titleHumanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff\|year1997\|locationWinona Lake\|publisherEisenbrauns\|pages283–300\|isbn9781575060200\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idO-p7mzSiDAEC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastCollins\|firstJohn J.\|author-linkJohn J. Collins\|titleThe Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic\|journalJournal of Biblical Literature\|year1993\|volume112\|number4\|pages710–12\|doi10.2307/3267414\|jstor3267414\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3267414}} * {{Cite book\|lastDaniels\|firstPeter T.\|chapterAramaic Scripts for Aramaic Languages\|titleThe World's Writing Systems\|year1996\|locationOxford\|publisherOxford University Press\|pages499–514\|isbn9780195079937\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idospMAgAAQBAJ&pgPA499}} * {{Cite book\|lastFales\|firstFrederick M.\|chapterOld Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages555–73\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastFitzmyer\|firstJoseph A.\|author-linkJoseph A. Fitzmyer\|titleThe Aramaic Language and the Study of the New Testament\|journalJournal of Biblical Literature\|year1980\|volume99\|number1\|pages5–21\|doi10.2307/3265697\|jstor3265697\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3265697}} * {{Cite book\|lastFitzmyer\|firstJoseph A.\|author-linkJoseph A. Fitzmyer\|titleA Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays\|year1997\|orig-year1979\|locationGrand Rapids\|publisherEerdmans\|isbn9780802848468\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=-wLWRz22vzUC}} * {{Cite book\|lastFolmer\|firstMargaretha\|titleThe Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation\|year1995\|locationLeuven\|publisherPeeters Publishers\|isbn9789068317404\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=7-m1R072Ks0C}} * {{Cite book\|lastFolmer\|firstMargaretha\|chapterImperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages587–98\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastFrye\|firstRichard N.\|author-linkRichard N. Frye\|titleAssyria and Syria: Synonyms\|journalJournal of Near Eastern Studies\|year1992\|volume51\|number4\|pages281–85\|doi10.1086/373570\|jstor545826\|s2cid161323237\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/545826}} * {{Cite journal\|lastFrye\|firstRichard N.\|author-linkRichard N. Frye\|titleAssyria and Syria: Synonyms\|journalJournal of Assyrian Academic Studies\|year1997\|volume11\|number2\|pages30–36\|urlhttp://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/frye.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200713125829/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/frye.pdf\|archive-date2020-07-13}} * {{Cite journal\|lastFrye\|firstRichard N.\|author-linkRichard N. Frye\|titleReply to John Joseph\|journalJournal of Assyrian Academic Studies\|year1999\|volume13\|number1\|pages69–70\|urlhttp://www.jaas.org/edocs/v13n1/frye.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200711213743/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v13n1/frye.pdf\|archive-date2020-07-11}} * {{Cite book\|lastGallagher\|firstEdmon L.\|author-linkEdmon L. Gallagher\|titleHebrew Scripture in Patristic Biblical Theory: Canon, Language, Text\|year2012\|locationLeiden-Boston\|publisherBrill\|isbn9789004228023\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaWkyAQAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastGianto\|firstAgustinus\|chapterLost and Found in the Grammar of First-Millennium Aramaic\|titleAramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages11–25\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{citation\|lastGreen\|firstTamara M.\|titleThe City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran\|year1992\|publisherBRILL\|isbn978-90-04-09513-7}}. * {{Cite book\|last1Greenfield\|first1Jonas C.\|author-linkJonas C. Greenfield\|chapterAramaic in the Achaemenian Empire\|titleThe Cambridge History of Iran\|year1985\|volume2\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|pages698–713\|isbn9780521200912\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=BBbyr932QdYC}} {{Cite book\|lastGreenfield\|firstJonas C.\|author-linkJonas C. Greenfield\|chapterAramaic and the Jews\|editor-last1Geller\|editor-first1M.C.\|editor-last2Greenfield\|editor-first2J.C.\|editor-last3Weizman\|editor-first3M.P.\|titleStudia Aramaica: New Sources and New Approaches\|year1995\|locationNew York\|publisherOxford University Press\|pages1–18\|isbn978-0-19-922194-3}} {{Cite book\|lastGzella\|firstHolger\|chapterAramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions\|titleAramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages107–30\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|lastGzella\|firstHolger\|chapterImperial Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012a\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages574–86\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastGzella\|firstHolger\|chapterLate Imperial Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012b\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages598–609\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastGzella\|firstHolger\|titleA Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam\|year2015\|locationLeiden-Boston\|publisherBrill\|isbn9789004285101\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=y9UuBgAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastGzella\|firstHolger\|chapterNew Light on Linguistic Diversity in Pre-Achaemenid Aramaic: Wandering Arameans or Language Spread?\|titleWandering Arameans: Arameans Outside Syria: Textual and Archaeological Perspectives\|year2017\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages19–38\|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/34042986}} {{Cite book \|firstHolger\|lastGzella\|author-linkd:Q59390142\|date2021\|titleAramaic. A History of the First World Language\|publisherWilliam B. Eerdmans Publishing Company\|isbn=9780802877482}} {{Cite book\|lastHäberl\|firstCharles G.\|chapterNeo-Mandaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages725–37\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{cite book \|titleDiscovering the Language of Jesus: Hebrew Or Aramaic? \|lastHamp \|firstDouglas \|year2005 \|isbn9781597510172 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id12KTD95EhQcC&pgPA4 \|publisher=Calvary Chapel Publishing }} * {{Cite journal\|lastHasel\|firstGerhard F.\|titleThe Book of Daniel and Matters of Language: Evidences Relating to Names, Words, and the Aramaic Language\|journalAndrews University Seminary Studies\|year1981\|volume19\|number3\|pages211–25\|urlhttps://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1544&context=auss}} * {{Cite book\|lastHealey\|firstJohn F.\|titleFirst Studies in Syriac\|year1980\|locationBirmingham\|publisherUniversity of Birmingham\|isbn9780704403901\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=UJ8OAAAAYAAJ}} * {{Cite journal\|lastHealey\|firstJohn F.\|titleThe Edessan Milieu and the Birth of Syriac\|journalHugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies\|year2007\|volume10\|number2\|pages115–27\|urlhttps://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Beth-Mardutho/hugoye-data/master/pdf/vol10/HV10N2Healey.pdf\|archive-date2022-10-09\|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book\|lastHealey\|firstJohn F.\|chapterVariety in Early Syriac: The Context in Contemporary Aramaic\|titleAramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages221–29\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|lastHealey\|firstJohn F.\|chapterSyriac\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages637–52\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastHealey\|firstJohn F.\|chapterArameans and Aramaic in Transition – Western Influences and the Roots of Aramean Christianity\|titleResearch on Israel and Aram: Autonomy, Independence and Related Issues\|year2019\|locationTübingen\|publisherMohr Siebeck\|pages433–46\|isbn9783161577192\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=39nPxgEACAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|editor-lastHeinrichs\|editor-firstWolfhart\|editor-linkWolfhart Heinrichs\|titleStudies in Neo-Aramaic\|year1990\|locationAtlanta\|publisherScholars Press\|isbn9781555404307\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3n0OAAAAYAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastJastrow\|firstOtto\|chapterOld Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History\|titleAramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages1–10\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|lastJastrow\|firstOtto\|chapterṬuroyo and Mlaḥsô\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages697–707\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastJoosten\|firstJan\|chapterThe Septuagint as a Source of Information on Egyptian Aramaic in the Hellenistic Period\|titleAramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages93–105\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastJoosten\|firstJan\|titleThe Aramaic Background of the Seventy: Language, Culture and History\|journalBulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies\|year2010\|volume43\|pages53–72\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/33401126}} * {{Cite book\|lastKautzsch\|firstEmil F.\|author-linkEmil Friedrich Kautzsch\|titleGrammatik des Biblisch-Aramäischen: Mit einer Kritischen Erörterung der aramäischen Wörter im Neuen Testament\|year1884a\|locationLeipzig\|publisherVogel\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=OU09AAAAYAAJ}} * {{Cite journal\|lastKautzsch\|firstEmil F.\|author-linkEmil Friedrich Kautzsch\|titleThe Aramaic Language\|journalHebraica\|year1884b\|volume1\|number1–2\|pages98–115\|doi10.1086/368803\|jstor527111\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/527111}} * {{Cite book\|lastKapeliuk\|firstOlga\|author-linkOlga Kapeliuk\|chapterLanguage Contact between Aramaic Dialects and Iranian\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages738–47\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastKhan\|firstGeoffrey\|author-linkGeoffrey Khan\|chapterAramaic in the Medieval and Modern Periods\|titleLanguages of Iraq: Ancient and Modern\|year2007\|locationCambridge\|publisherThe British School of Archaeology in Iraq\|pages95–114\|chapter-urlhttp://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf\|access-date2021-02-08\|archive-date2019-08-02\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190802015917/http://www.bisi.ac.uk/sites/bisi.localhost/files/languages_of_iraq.pdf\|url-statusdead}} * {{Cite book\|lastKhan\|firstGeoffrey\|author-linkGeoffrey Khan\|chapterNorth-Eastern Neo-Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages708–24\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastKim\|firstRonald\|titleStammbaum or Continuum? The Subgrouping of Modern Aramaic Dialects Reconsidered\|journalJournal of the American Oriental Society\|year2008\|volume128\|number3\|pages505–31\|url=https://www.academia.edu/23883016}} * {{Cite book\|lastKitchen\|firstKenneth A.\|author-linkKenneth Kitchen\|chapterThe Aramaic of Daniel\|titleNotes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel\|year1965\|locationLondon\|publisherTyndale Press\|pages31–79\|chapter-urlhttp://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/daniel_kitchen.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/daniel_kitchen.pdf\|archive-date2022-10-09\|url-status=live}} * {{cite book \|lastKöstenberger \|first Andreas J. \|editor1-firstGlen G. \|editor-last Scorgie \|editor2-firstMark L. \|editor2-last Strauss \|editor3-firstSteven M. \|editor3-last Voth \|chapterTranslating John's Gospel: Challenges and Opportunities \|chapter-url https://books.google.com/books?idpYkn5RbltmwC&pgPA350 \|titleThe Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World \|year 2009 \|publisherZondervan \|isbn 978-0310321859 }} * {{Cite book\|lastLemaire\|firstAndré\|author-linkAndré Lemaire\|chapterRemarks on the Aramaic of Upper Mesopotamia in the Seventh Century B.C.\|titleAramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages77–92\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|lastLipiński\|firstEdward\|author-linkEdward Lipiński (orientalist)\|titleThe Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion\|year2000\|locationLeuven\|publisherPeeters Publishers\|isbn9789042908598\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrrMKKtiBBI4C}} * {{Cite book\|lastLipiński\|firstEdward\|author-linkEdward Lipiński (orientalist)\|titleSemitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar\|year2001\|orig-year1997\|edition2nd\|locationLeuven\|publisherPeeters Publishers\|isbn9789042908154\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIiXVqyEkPKcC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastMacuch\|firstRudolf\|author-linkRudolf Macúch\|titleRecent Studies in Neo-Aramaic Dialects\|journalBulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies\|year1990\|volume53\|number2\|pages214–23\|doi10.1017/S0041977X00026045\|s2cid162559782\|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00026045}} * {{Cite book\|lastMorgenstern\|firstMatthew\|chapterChristian Palestinian Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages628–37\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastMurre van den Berg\|firstHeleen\|author-linkHeleen Murre-van den Berg\|titleFrom a Spoken to a Written Language: The Introduction and Development of Literary Urmia Aramaic in the Nineteenth Century\|year1999\|locationLeiden\|publisherNederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten\|isbn9789062589814\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRh1jAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastMurre van den Berg\|firstHeleen\|chapterClassical Syriac, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic in the Church of the East and the Chaldean Church between 1500 and 1800\|titleAramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages335–52\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|lastNaby\|firstEden\|chapterFrom Lingua Franca to Endangered Language: The Legal Aspects of the Preservation of Aramaic in Iraq\|titleOn the Margins of Nations: Endangered Languages and Linguistic Rights\|year2004\|locationBath\|publisherFoundation for Endangered Languages\|pages197–203\|isbn9780953824861\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=UM3BMtn6TmcC}} * {{Cite journal\|lastNöldeke\|firstTheodor\|author-linkTheodor Nöldeke\|titleDie Namen der aramäischen Nation und Sprache\|journalZeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft\|year1871\|volume25\|number1–2\|pages113–31\|jstor43366019\|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43366019}} * {{Cite book\|lastNöldeke\|firstTheodor\|author-linkTheodor Nöldeke\|chapterSemitic Languages\|titleThe Encyclopaedia Britannica\|edition9th\|year1886\|volume21\|locationNew York\|publisherCharles Scribner's Sons\|pages641–56\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=3_dAAQAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastNöldeke\|firstTheodor\|author-linkTheodor Nöldeke\|titleCompendious Syriac Grammar\|year1904\|edition1st English\|locationLondon\|publisherWilliams & Norgate\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRk06AQAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastPeursen\|firstWido van\|chapterLanguage Variation, Language Development, and the Textual History of the Peshitta\|titleAramaic in Its Historical and Linguistic Setting\|year2008\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages231–56\|isbn9783447057875\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfVZnCV6ABcC}} * {{Cite book\|last1Prym\|first1Eugen\|author-link1Eugen Prym\|last2Socin\|first2Albert\|author-link2Albert Socin\|titleDer neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn\|year1881\|locationGöttingen\|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgeoOAAAAQAAJ}} * {{Cite book \|titleNear Eastern Archaeology: A Reader \|first1Suzanne \|last1Richard \|publisherEisenbrauns \|year2003 \|isbn9781575060835 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkhR0apPid8gC&qaramaic+spread+North+Africa&pgPA69 }} * {{Cite book\|lastRosenthal\|firstFranz\|author-linkFranz Rosenthal\|year2006\|orig-year1961\|titleA Grammar of Biblical Aramaic\|edition7th expanded\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|isbn9783447052511\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYI5QiMWNougC}}{{Dead link\|dateJanuary 2024 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite journal\|lastRubin\|firstMilka\|titleThe Language of Creation or the Primordial Language: A Case of Cultural Polemics in Antiquity\|journalJournal of Jewish Studies\|year1998\|volume49\|issue2\|pages306–33\|doi10.18647/2120/JJS-1998\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/16441972}} * {{Cite book\|lastRuzer\|firstSerge\|chapterHebrew versus Aramaic as Jesus' Language: Notes on Early Opinions by Syriac Authors\|titleThe Language Environment of First Century Judaea\|year2014\|locationLeiden-Boston\|publisherBrill\|pages182–205\|isbn9789004264410\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastSabar\|firstYona\|author-linkYona Sabar\|titleA Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dictionary: Dialects of Amidya, Dihok, Nerwa and Zakho, Northwestern Iraq\|year2002\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherOtto Harrassowitz Verlag\|isbn9783447045575\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYgzh_tRZ7NMC}} * {{Cite book\|firstSawyer\|lastJohn F. A.\|titleSacred Languages and Sacred Texts\|year1999\|locationLondon and New York\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn9781134801398\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=WERD1QLfq9MC}} * {{Cite book\|lastShepardson\|firstChristine\|titleControlling Contested Places: Late Antique Antioch and the Spatial Politics of Religious Controversy\|year2019\|locationOakland\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|isbn9780520303379\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Rw6LDwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|editor-lastSokoloff\|editor-firstMichael\|titleArameans, Aramaic and the Aramaic Literary Tradition\|year1983\|locationTel Aviv\|publisherBar Ilan University Press\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0oyujgEACAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|titleA Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic of the Byzantine Period\|year1990\|locationRamat Gan\|publisherBar Ilan University Press\|isbn9789652261014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=_IkOAAAAYAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|titleA Dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmudic and Geonic Periods\|year2002\|locationRamat Gan\|publisherBar Ilan University Press\|isbn9789652262608\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=4hdjAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|titleA Dictionary of Judean Aramaic\|year2003\|locationRamat Gan\|publisherBar Ilan University Press\|isbn9789652262615\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tfZzQgAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|chapterJewish Palestinian Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012a\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages610–19\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|chapterJewish Babylonian Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012b\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages660–70\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastSokoloff\|firstMichael\|titleA dictionary of Christian Palestinian Aramaic\|year2014\|locationLeuven\|publisherPeeters\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKYUogEACAAJ}}{{Dead link\|dateSeptember 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }} * {{Cite book\|lastStefanovic\|firstZdravko\|titleThe Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic\|year1992\|locationSheffield\|publisherSheffield Academic Press\|isbn9780567132543\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=8kfr5lrsXCIC}} * {{Cite book\|lastStevenson\|firstWilliam B.\|titleGrammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic\|year1924\|locationOxford\|publisherClarendon Press\|isbn9781725206175\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=tzj7DwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastStreck\|firstMichael P.\|chapterAkkadian and Aramaic Language Contact\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages416–24\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastTal\|firstAbraham\|chapterSamaritan Aramaic\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages619–28\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastTezel\|firstAziz\|titleComparative Etymological Studies in the Western Neo-Syriac (Ṭūrōyo) Lexicon: With Special Reference to Homonyms, Related Words and Borrowings with Cultural Signification\|year2003\|locationUppsala\|publisherUppsala University Library\|isbn9789155455552\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Y85zQgAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastTezel\|firstSina\|chapterArabic or Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo\|titleArabic and Semitic Linguistics Contextualized: A Festschrift for Jan Retsö\|year2015\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|pages554–68\|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/13277621}} * {{Cite book\|lastTezel\|firstSina\|chapterNeologisms in Ṣūrayt/Ṭūrōyo\|titleNeo-Aramaic in Its Linguistic Context\|year2015\|locationPiscataway, NJ\|publisherGorgias Press\|pages100–09\|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/12443985}} * {{Cite book\|lastTaylor\|firstDavid G. K.\|chapterBilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia\|titleBilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word\|year2002\|locationOxford\|publisherOxford University Press\|pages298–331\|isbn9789004264410\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=F5QXAwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastWaltisberg\|firstMichael\|titleSyntax des Ṭuroyo\|year2016\|locationWiesbaden\|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag\|isbn9783447107310\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=cPNHvgAACAAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastWevers\|firstJohn W.\|chapterAram and Aramaean in the Septuagint\|titleThe World of the Aramaeans\|volume1\|year2001\|locationSheffield\|publisherSheffield Academic Press\|pages237–51\|isbn9781841271583\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7WatAwAAQBAJ}} * {{Cite book\|lastWeninger\|firstStefan\|chapterAramaic-Arabic Language Contact\|titleThe Semitic Languages: An International Handbook\|year2012\|locationBerlin-Boston\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|pages747–55\|isbn9783110251586\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC}} * {{Cite book\|lastYitzhak\|firstFrank\|titleGrammar for Gemara and Targum Onkelos: An Introduction to Aramaic\|year2003\|locationJerusalem\|publisherAriel\|isbn9781583306062\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=My4YBfzqOHQC}} * {{Cite book\|lastYounger\|firstKenneth Lawson\|titleA Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities\|year2016\|locationAtlanta\|publisherSBL Press\|isbn9781628370843\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=vpgsDQAAQBAJ}} {{refend}} External links {{InterWiki\|codearc\|languageSyriac}} {{Incubator\|codeaii\|languageAssyrian Neo-Aramaic}} {{Incubator\|codetru\|languageTuroyo}} {{Incubator\|codetmr\|languageJewish Babylonian Aramaic}} {{Commons category\|Aramaic language}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061013182203/http://www.v-a.com/bible/ancient_aramaic_audio_files.html Ancient Aramaic Audio Files]: Contains audio recordings of scripture. * [http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf The Aramaic Language and Its Classification – Efrem Yildiz, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080909222746/http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf \|date2008-09-09 }} * [http://cal.huc.edu/index.html Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon] (including editions of Targums) at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati * [http://www.tyndalearchive.com/tabs/jastrow/ Dictionary of Judeo-Aramaic] * [http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511235552/http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html \|date2008-05-11 }} {{Semitic languages \|expanded=Northwest}} {{Assyrian topics}} {{Ancient Mesopotamia}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aramaic Language}} Category:Languages attested from the 10th century BC	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic	2025-04-05T18:25:59.522394
2304	Saint Titus	{{Short description\|Greek saint}} {{Infobox saint \|honorific_prefix = Saint \|name = Titus \|image = Saint Titus (Kosovo, 14th c. Pech Patriarch., S. Nicholas church).jpg \|titles = Bishop and Companion of Paul \|birth_date = 1st century \|death_date = 96 or 107 \|death_place = Gortyn, Crete and Cyrenaica, Roman Empire \|venerated_in = Eastern Orthodox Church<br />{{nowrap\|Oriental Orthodox churches}}<br />Roman Catholic Church<br />Lutheranism<br />Anglican Communion \|canonized_date = Pre-Congregation \|major_shrine = Heraklion, Crete \|feast_day = August 25 (Orthodoxy)<br />January 26 (Catholicism)<br />Thursday after fifth Sunday after feast of the Holy Cross (Armenian Apostolic Church)<ref>Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, Armenian Orthodox Theological Research Institute, 2002, p. 528.</ref> \|patronage = Crete }} Titus ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|t\|aɪ\|t\|ə\|s}} {{respell\|TY\|təs}}; {{langx\|grc\|Τίτος}}, Títos) was an early Christian missionary and church leader, a companion and disciple of Paul the Apostle, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles including the Epistle to Titus. He is believed to be a Gentile converted to Christianity by Paul and, according to tradition, he was consecrated as Bishop of the Island of Crete.<ref name="Smith, William 1975. Pp. 701">Smith, William. ''Smith's Bible Dictionary'' 11th printing, November 1975. New Jersey: Fleming H. Revel Company. pp. 701–02.</ref> Titus brought a fundraising letter from Paul to Corinth, to collect for the poor in Jerusalem. According to Jerome, Titus was the amanuensis of this epistle (2 Corinthians).<ref>Jerome, Letter 120: "Therefore Titus served as an interpreter, as Saint Mark used to serve Saint Peter, with whom he wrote his Gospel..."</ref> Later, on Crete, Titus appointed presbyters (elders) in every city and remained there into his old age, dying in Gortyna.<ref name"Smith, William 1975. Pp. 701"/>LifeTitus was a Greek, who may have studied Greek philosophy and poetry in his early years.<ref namecna>{{cite web \|url http://www.catholicnewsagency.com:80/saint.php?n128 \|title "Timothy and Titus", Catholic News Agency, January 26, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170428173145/http://www.catholicnewsagency.com:80/saint.php?n128 \|archive-date28 April 2017 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> He seems to have been converted by Paul, whereupon he served as Paul's secretary and interpreter. In the year 48 or 49 CE, Titus accompanied Paul to the council held at Jerusalem, on the subject of the Mosaic rites.<ref namebutler>{{cite web\| url http://www.bartleby.com/210/1/041.html\| title Butler, Alban. The Lives of the Saints, Vol. I, (1866)\| date = 12 January 2023}}</ref> In the fall of 55 or 56 CE, Paul, as he himself departed from Asia, sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy the fallout precipitated by Timothy's delivery of 1 Corinthians<ref>{{Bibleverse\|1 Corinthians\|16:10–11\|NIV}}</ref> and Paul's "Painful Visit",<ref>{{Bibleverse\|2 Corinthians\|2:1\|NIV}}</ref> particularly a significant personal offense and challenge to Paul's authority by one unnamed individual.<ref>{{Bibleverse\|2 Corinthians\|2:5–11\|NIV}}</ref> During this journey, Titus served as the courier for what is commonly known as the "Severe Letter", a Pauline missive that has been lost<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSt. Titus \|urlhttps://urhotheway.com/2020/08/25/st-titus/ \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2025 \|websiteUrho, The Way}}</ref> but is referred to in {{Bibleverse\|2 Corinthians\|7:8-9\|NIV}}. After success on this mission, Titus journeyed north and met Paul in Macedonia. There the apostle, overjoyed by Titus' success,<ref>{{Bibleverse\|2 Corinthians\|7:6–15\|NIV}}</ref> wrote 2 Corinthians. Titus then returned to Corinth with a larger entourage, carrying 2 Corinthians with him. Paul joined Titus in Corinth later. From Corinth, Paul then sent Titus to organize the collections of alms for the Christians at Jerusalem. Titus was therefore a troubleshooter, peacemaker, ecclesiastical administrator, and missionary. Early church tradition holds that Paul, after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome, stopped at the island of Crete to preach. Due to the needs of other churches, requiring his presence elsewhere, he ordained his disciple Titus as bishop of that island,<ref>{{Bibleverse\|Titus\|1:5\|NIV}}</ref> and left him to finish the work he had started. John Chrysostom says that this is an indication of the esteem Paul held for Titus.<ref name=butler/> Paul summoned Titus from Crete to join him at Nicopolis in Epirus.<ref>{{Bibleverse\|Titus\|3:12\|NIV}}</ref> Later, Titus traveled to Dalmatia.<ref namelosservatore>{{cite web\| url http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/b16ChrstChrch26.HTM\| title Pope Benedict XVI. "Timothy and Titus", ''L'Osservatore Romano, p. 11, December 27, 2006}}</ref> The New Testament does not record his death.Identification with Timothy It has been argued that the name "Titus" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians was an informal name used by Timothy, a view circumstantially supported by the fact that both are said to be long-term close companions of Paul, even though they never appear together in these books.<ref>Fellows, Richard G. "Was Titus Timothy?" Journal for the Study of the New Testament 81 (2001):33–58.</ref> The theory proposes that a number of passages (1 Corinthians 4:17, 16.10; 2 Corinthians 2:13, 7:6, 13–14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22) refer to the same journey of a single individual, variously called Titus and Timothy. This theory is complicated by various details from the Pauline epistles. In {{Bibleverse\|2 Timothy\|4:10\|NIV}}, Paul tells Timothy that Titus has departed to Dalmatia. Additionally, Timothy is circumcised in {{Bibleverse\|Acts\|16:3\|NIV}}, but {{Bibleverse\|\|Galatians\|2:3}} states that Paul did not compel Titus to be circumcised. This would indicate that they are different men, although some scholars interpret {{Bibleverse\|\|Galatians\|2:4}} as indicating that Paul did in fact circumcise Titus, drawing on the fourth-century commentaries of Gaius Marius Victorinus.<ref>Cooper, Stephen. Marius Victorinus' Commentary on Galatians. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> Veneration He was venerated as a saint earlier than 261 CE.<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/lifestyle/archaeologists-uncover-earliest-known-evidence-christianity-north-alps-unusual-time]</ref> The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February.<ref>Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 86</ref> In 1969, the Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul.<ref>Calendarium Romanum'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 116</ref> The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date while he is honored on the calendars of the Church of England and Episcopal Church (with Timothy) on 26 January.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleThe Calendar\|urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar\|access-date2021-03-27\|websiteThe Church of England}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleTitus and Timothy, Companions of Saint Paul \|urlhttps://www.episcopalchurch.org/lectionary/titus-and-timothy/ \|access-date2022-07-19 \|websiteThe Episcopal Church }}</ref> The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates Titus on 25 August and on 4 January. His relics, now consisting of only his skull, are venerated in the Church of St. Titus, Heraklion, Crete, to which it was returned in 1966<ref name"The Orthodox Messenger, v. 8(7/8), July/Aug 1997">{{cite web\| url http://www.orthodoxchristian.info/pages/titus.htm\| title = The Orthodox Messenger, v. 8(7/8), July/Aug 1997}}</ref> after being removed to Venice during the period of Ottoman Crete (1667–1898). Titus is the patron saint of the United States Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps has established the Order of Titus Award, described by the Department of Defense: {{Blockquote\|textOrder of Titus award is the only award presented by the Chief of Chaplains to recognize outstanding performance of ministry by chaplains and chaplain assistants. The Order of Titus is awarded for meritorious contributions to the unique and highly visible Unit Ministry Team Observer Controller Program. The award recognizes the great importance of realistic, doctrinally guided combat ministry training in ensuring the delivery of prevailing religious support to the American Soldier.<ref>{{cite web\| titleTitus Award \| date 11 January 2011\| url https://www.army.mil/article/50256}} Retrieved 18 June 2017.</ref>}} See also {{Portal\|Christianity}} *Epistle of Pseudo-Titus {{-}} References {{Reflist}} {{New Testament people}} {{Catholic saints}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Titus, Saint}} Category:1st-century births Category:107 deaths Category:1st-century bishops in the Roman Empire Category:1st-century Greek people Category:Seventy disciples Category:People in the Pauline epistles Category:Christian saints from the New Testament Category:Saints of Roman Crete Category:Anglican saints Category:Amanuenses Category:Private secretaries Category:Interpreters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Titus	2025-04-05T18:25:59.528927
2308	Actinide	The actinide () or actinoid () series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. Number 103, lawrencium, is also generally included despite being part of the 6d transition series. The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix -ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Actinium through nobelium are f-block elements, while lawrencium is a d-block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f-block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ElementYearMethod Neptunium 1940 Bombarding 238U with neutrons Plutonium 1941 Bombarding 238U with deuterons Americium 1944 Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons Curium 1944 Bombarding 239Pu with α-particles Berkelium 1949 Bombarding 241Am with α-particles Californium 1950 Bombarding 242Cm with α-particles Einsteinium 1952 As a product of nuclear explosion Fermium 1952 As a product of nuclear explosion Mendelevium 1955 Bombarding 253Es with α-particles Nobelium 1965 Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne Lawrencium 1961–1971 Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th-period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron-deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half-lives of α-decay. This non-observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission. From actinium to uranium thumb\|left\|Enrico Fermi suggested the existence of transuranium elements in 1934. Uranium and thorium were the first actinides discovered. Uranium was identified in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in pitchblende ore. He named it after the planet Uranus, Sixty years later, the French scientist Eugène-Melchior Péligot identified it as uranium oxide. He also isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with metallic potassium. The atomic mass of uranium was then calculated as 120, but Dmitri Mendeleev in 1872 corrected it to 240 using his periodicity laws. This value was confirmed experimentally in 1882 by K. Zimmerman. Thorium oxide was discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in the mineral thorianite, which was found in Norway (1827). Jöns Jacob Berzelius characterized this material in more detail in 1828. By reduction of thorium tetrachloride with potassium, he isolated the metal and named it thorium after the Norse god of thunder and lightning Thor. The same isolation method was later used by Péligot for uranium. and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. The discovery of actinium by Debierne was however questioned in 1971 and 2000, arguing that Debierne's publications in 1904 contradicted his earlier work of 1899–1900. This view instead credits the 1902 work of Friedrich Oskar Giesel, who discovered a radioactive element named emanium that behaved similarly to lanthanum. The name actinium comes from the , meaning beam or ray. This metal was discovered not by its own radiation but by the radiation of the daughter products. Owing to the close similarity of actinium and lanthanum and low abundance, pure actinium could only be produced in 1950. The term actinide was probably introduced by Victor Goldschmidt in 1937. Protactinium was possibly isolated in 1900 by William Crookes. It was first identified in 1913, when Kasimir Fajans and Oswald Helmuth Göhring encountered the short-lived isotope 234mPa (half-life 1.17 minutes) during their studies of the 238U decay chain. They named the new element brevium (from Latin brevis meaning brief); the name was changed to protoactinium (from Greek πρῶτος + ἀκτίς meaning "first beam element") in 1918 when two groups of scientists, led by the Austrian Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn of Germany and Frederick Soddy and John Arnold Cranston of Great Britain, independently discovered the much longer-lived 231Pa. The name was shortened to protactinium in 1949. This element was little characterized until 1960, when Alfred Maddock and his co-workers in the U.K. isolated 130 grams of protactinium from 60 tonnes of waste left after extraction of uranium from its ore. Neptunium and above Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in 1940 in Berkeley, California. They produced the 239Np isotope (half-life 2.4 days) by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons. thumb\|Glenn T. Seaborg and his group at the University of California at Berkeley synthesized Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No and element 106, which was later named seaborgium in his honor while he was still living. They also synthesized more than a hundred actinide isotopes. Transuranium elements do not occur in sizeable quantities in nature and are commonly synthesized via nuclear reactions conducted with nuclear reactors. For example, under irradiation with reactor neutrons, uranium-238 partially converts to plutonium-239: \ce{{^{238}_{92}U} + {}^{1}_{0}n -> {}^{239}_{92}U ->[\beta^-] [23.5\ \ce{min}] {}^{239}_{93}Np ->[\beta^-] [2.3\ \ce{days}] {}^{239}_{94}Pu} \left( \ce{->[\alpha] [2.4\cdot 10^4\ \ce{years}]} \right) \ce{{^{235}_{92}U}} This synthesis reaction was used by Fermi and his collaborators in their design of the reactors located at the Hanford Site, which produced significant amounts of plutonium-239 for the nuclear weapons of the Manhattan Project and the United States' post-war nuclear arsenal. Actinides with the highest mass numbers are synthesized by bombarding uranium, plutonium, curium and californium with ions of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, neon or boron in a particle accelerator. Thus nobelium was produced by bombarding uranium-238 with neon-22 as _{92}^{238}U + _{10}^{22}Ne -> _{102}^{256}No + 4_0^1n. The first isotopes of transplutonium elements, americium-241 and curium-242, were synthesized in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso. Curium-242 was obtained by bombarding plutonium-239 with 32-MeV α-particles: _{94}^{239}Pu + _2^4He -> _{96}^{242}Cm + _0^1n. The americium-241 and curium-242 isotopes also were produced by irradiating plutonium in a nuclear reactor. The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity. Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf in 1950, and a similar procedure yielded berkelium-243 from americium-241 in 1949. The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden. In 1945, B. B. Cunningham obtained the first bulk chemical compound of a transplutonium element, namely americium hydroxide. Over the few years, milligram quantities of americium and microgram amounts of curium were accumulated that allowed production of isotopes of berkelium and californium. Sizeable amounts of these elements were produced in 1958, and the first californium compound (0.3 μg of CfOCl) was obtained in 1960 by B. B. Cunningham and J. C. Wallmann. Einsteinium and fermium were identified in 1952–1953 in the fallout from the "Ivy Mike" nuclear test (1 November 1952), the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb. Instantaneous exposure of uranium-238 to a large neutron flux resulting from the explosion produced heavy isotopes of uranium, which underwent a series of beta decays to nuclides such as einsteinium-253 and fermium-255. The discovery of the new elements and the new data on neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the US military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions. Nevertheless, the Berkeley team were able to prepare einsteinium and fermium by civilian means, through the neutron bombardment of plutonium-239, and published this work in 1954 with the disclaimer that it was not the first studies that had been carried out on those elements. The "Ivy Mike" studies were declassified and published in 1955. The first isotope of mendelevium, 256Md (half-life 87 min), was synthesized by Albert Ghiorso, Glenn T. Seaborg, Gregory Robert Choppin, Bernard G. Harvey and Stanley Gerald Thompson when they bombarded an 253Es target with alpha particles in the 60-inch cyclotron of Berkeley Radiation Laboratory; this was the first isotope of any element to be synthesized one atom at a time. There were several attempts to obtain isotopes of nobelium by Swedish (1957) and American (1958) groups, but the first reliable result was the synthesis of 256No by the Russian group of Georgy Flyorov in 1965, as acknowledged by the IUPAC in 1992. In their experiments, Flyorov et al. bombarded uranium-238 with neon-22. Isotope Half-life Probability of spontaneousfission in % Emission energy(MeV) (yield in %) Specific activity (Bq/kg) of α γ α, β-particles fission241Am 432.2(7) y 4.3(18) 5.485 (84.8) 5.442 (13.1)5.388 (1.66) 0.059 (35.9)0.026 (2.27) 1.27 546.1243Am 7.37(4) y 3.7(2) 5.275 (87.1)5.233 (11.2)5.181 (1.36) 0.074 (67.2) 0.043 (5.9) 7.39 273.3242Cm 162.8(2) d 6.2(3) 6.069 (25.92)6.112 (74.08) 0.044 (0.04)0.102 (4) 1.23 7.6244Cm 18.10(2) y 1.37(3) 5.762 (23.6)5.804 (76.4) 0.043 (0.02)0.100 (1.5) 2.96 4.1245Cm 8.5(1) y 6.1(9) 5.529 (0.58)5.488 (0.83)5.361 (93.2) 0.175 (9.88)0.133 (2.83) 6.35 3.9246Cm 4.76(4) y 0.02615(7) 5.343 (17.8)5.386 (82.2) 0.045 (19) 1.13 2.95247Cm 1.56(5) y — 5.267 (13.8)5.212 (5.7)5.147 (1.2) 0.402 (72)0.278 (3.4) 3.43 —248Cm 3.48(6) y 8.39(16) 5.034 (16.52)5.078 (75) — 1.40 1.29249Bk 330(4) d 4.7(2) 5.406 (1)5.378 (2.6) 0.32 (5.8) 5.88 2.76249Cf 351(2) y 5.0(4) 6.193 (2.46)6.139 (1.33)5.946 (3.33) 0.388 (66)0.333 (14.6) 1.51 7.57250Cf 13.08(9) y 0.077(3) 5.988 (14.99)6.030 (84.6) 0.043 4.04 3.11251Cf 900(40) y ? 6.078 (2.6)5.567 (0.9)5.569 (0.9) 0.177 (17.3)0.227 (6.8) 5.86 —252Cf 2.645(8) y 3.092(8) 6.075 (15.2)6.118 (81.6) 0.042 (1.4)0.100 (1.3) 1.92 6.14254Cf 60.5(2) d ≈100 5.834 (0.26)5.792 (5.3) — 9.75 3.13253Es 20.47(3) d 8.7(3) 6.540 (0.85)6.552 (0.71)6.590 (6.6) 0.387 (0.05)0.429 (8) 9.33 8.12254Es 275.7(5) d 6.358 (2.6)6.415 (1.8) 0.042 (100)0.034 (30) 6.9 —255Es 39.8(12) d 0.0041(2) 6.267 (0.78)6.401 (7) — 4.38(β)3.81(α) 1.95255Fm 20.07(7) h 2.4(10) 7.022 (93.4)6.963 (5.04)6.892 (0.62) 0.00057 (19.1)0.081 (1) 2.27 5.44256Fm 157.6(13) min 91.9(3) 6.872 (1.2)6.917 (6.9) —1.58 1.4257Fm 100.5(2) d 0.210(4) 6.752 (0.58)6.695 (3.39)6.622 (0.6) 0.241 (11)0.179 (8.7) 1.87 3.93256Md 77(2) min — 7.142 (1.84)7.206 (5.9) —3.53 —257Md 5.52(5) h — 7.074 (14) 0.371 (11.7)0.325 (2.5) 8.17—258Md 51.5(3) d — 6.73—3.64 —255No 3.1(2) min — 8.312 (1.16)8.266 (2.6)8.121 (27.8) 0.187 (3.4) 8.78 —259No 58(5) min — 7.455 (9.8)7.500 (29.3)7.533 (17.3) —4.63—256Lr 27(3) s 8.390 (16)8.430 (33) — 5.96 —257Lr 646(25) ms — 8.796 (18)8.861 (82) —1.54— thumb\|upright=1.5\|Actinides have 89–103 protons and usually 117–159 neutrons. Thirty-four isotopes of actinium and eight excited isomeric states of some of its nuclides are known, ranging in mass number from 203 to 236. Three isotopes, 225Ac, 227Ac and 228Ac, were found in nature and the others were produced in the laboratory; only the three natural isotopes are used in applications. Actinium-225 is a member of the radioactive neptunium series; it was first discovered in 1947 as a decay product of uranium-233 and it is an α-emitter with a half-life of 10 days. Actinium-225 is less available than actinium-228, but is more promising in radiotracer applications. There are 25 isotopes of neptunium with mass numbers 219–244 (except 221); Among 19 isotopes of curium, ranging in mass number from 233 to 251, + Properties of some transplutonium isotope pairs Parent isotope t1/2 Daughter isotope t1/2 Time to establish radioactive equilibrium 243Am 7370 years 239Np 2.35 days 47.3 days 245Cm 8265 years 241Pu 14 years 129 years 247Cm 1.64 years 243Pu 4.95 hours 7.2 days 254Es 270 days 250Bk 3.2 hours 35.2 hours 255Es 39.8 days 255Fm 22 hours 5 days 257Fm 79 days 253Cf 17.6 days 49 days Among the 18 known isotopes of einsteinium with mass numbers from 240 to 257, the most affordable is 253Es. It is an α-emitter with a half-life of 20.47 days, a relatively weak γ-emission and small spontaneous fission rate as compared with the isotopes of californium. Prolonged neutron irradiation also produces a long-lived isotope 254Es (t1/2 = 275.5 days). Among the 17 known isotopes of mendelevium (mass numbers from 244 to 260), Formation in nuclear reactors thumb\|upright=1.5\|Table of nuclides: Buildup of actinides in a nuclear reactor, including radioactive decay The figure buildup of actinides is a table of nuclides with the number of neutrons on the horizontal axis (isotopes) and the number of protons on the vertical axis (elements). The red dot divides the nuclides in two groups, so the figure is more compact. Each nuclide is represented by a square with the mass number of the element and its half-life. Naturally existing actinide isotopes (Th, U) are marked with a bold border, alpha emitters have a yellow colour, and beta emitters have a blue colour. Pink indicates electron capture (236Np), whereas white stands for a long-lasting metastable state (242Am). The formation of actinide nuclides is primarily characterised by: Neutron capture reactions (n,γ), which are represented in the figure by a short right arrow. The (n,2n) reactions and the less frequently occurring (γ,n) reactions are also taken into account, both of which are marked by a short left arrow. Even more rarely and only triggered by fast neutrons, the (n,3n) reaction occurs, which is represented in the figure with one example, marked by a long left arrow. In addition to these neutron- or gamma-induced nuclear reactions, the radioactive conversion of actinide nuclides also affects the nuclide inventory in a reactor. These decay types are marked in the figure by diagonal arrows. The beta-minus decay, marked with an arrow pointing up-left, plays a major role for the balance of the particle densities of the nuclides. Nuclides decaying by positron emission (beta-plus decay) or electron capture (ϵ) do not occur in a nuclear reactor except as products of knockout reactions; their decays are marked with arrows pointing down-right. Due to the long half-lives of the given nuclides, alpha decay plays almost no role in the formation and decay of the actinides in a power reactor, as the residence time of the nuclear fuel in the reactor core is rather short (a few years). Exceptions are the two relatively short-lived nuclides 242Cm (T1/2 163 d) and 236Pu (T1/2  2.9 y). Only for these two cases, the α decay is marked on the nuclide map by a long arrow pointing down-left. A few long-lived actinide isotopes, such as 244Pu and 250Cm, cannot be produced in reactors because neutron capture does not happen quickly enough to bypass the short-lived beta-decaying nuclides 243Pu and 249Cm; they can however be generated in nuclear explosions, which have much higher neutron fluxes. Distribution in nature thumb\|left\|Unprocessed uranium ore Thorium and uranium are the most abundant actinides in nature with the respective mass concentrations of 16 ppm and 4 ppm. Uranium mostly occurs in the Earth's crust as a mixture of its oxides in the mineral uraninite, which is also called pitchblende because of its black color. There are several dozens of other uranium minerals such as carnotite (KUO2VO4·3H2O) and autunite (Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2·nH2O). The isotopic composition of natural uranium is 238U (relative abundance 99.2742%), 235U (0.7204%) and 234U (0.0054%); of these 238U has the largest half-life of 4.51 years. + Content of plutonium in uranium and thorium ores The abundance of actinium in the Earth's crust is only about 5%. \begin{array}{l}{}\\ \ce{2AmF3{} + 3Ba ->[\ce{1150-1350^\circ C}] 3BaF2{} + 2Am}\\ \ce{PuF4{} + 2Ba ->[\ce{1200^\circ C}] 2BaF2{} + Pu}\\ \ce{UF4{} + 2Mg ->[\ce{> 500^\circ C}] U{} + 2MgF2}\\{} \end{array} Among the actinides, thorium and uranium are the easiest to isolate. Thorium is extracted mostly from monazite: thorium pyrophosphate (ThP2O7) is reacted with nitric acid, and the produced thorium nitrate treated with tributyl phosphate. Rare-earth impurities are separated by increasing the pH in sulfate solution. Th(OH)4 + 4 HNO3 → Th(NO3)4 + 4 H2O Metallic thorium is separated from the anhydrous oxide, chloride or fluoride by reacting it with calcium in an inert atmosphere: Uranium is extracted from its ores in various ways. In one method, the ore is burned and then reacted with nitric acid to convert uranium into a dissolved state. Treating the solution with a solution of tributyl phosphate (TBP) in kerosene transforms uranium into an organic form UO2(NO3)2(TBP)2. The insoluble impurities are filtered and the uranium is extracted by reaction with hydroxides as (NH4)2U2O7 or with hydrogen peroxide as UO4·2H2O. so actinium is the first element to use the 5f shell in compounds. The f-shells complete their filling together, at ytterbium and nobelium. The first experimental evidence for the filling of the 5f shell in actinides was obtained by McMillan and Abelson in 1940. As in lanthanides (see lanthanide contraction), the ionic radius of actinides monotonically decreases with atomic number (see also actinoid contraction). The shift of electron configurations in the gas phase does not always match the chemical behaviour. For example, the early-transition-metal-like prominence of the highest oxidation state, corresponding to removal of all valence electrons, extends up to uranium even though the 5f shells begin filling before that. On the other hand, electron configurations resembling the lanthanide congeners already begin at plutonium, even though lanthanide-like behaviour does not become dominant until the second half of the series begins at curium. The elements between uranium and curium form a transition between these two kinds of behaviour, where higher oxidation states continue to exist, but lose stability with respect to the +3 state.Element Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No LrCore charge 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103Atomic mass [227] 232.0377(4) 231.03588(2) 238.02891(3) [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [266]Number of natural isotopes 3 8 3 8 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Natural isotopes 225, 227, 228 227–234 231, 233, 234 233–240 237, 239, 240 238–240, 244 — — — — — — — — —Natural quantity isotopes — 230, 232 231 234, 235, 238 — — — — — — — — — — —Longest-lived isotope 227 232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 266Half-life of the longest-lived isotope Most common isotope 227 232 231 238 237 239 241 244 249 252 253 255 256 255 260Half-life of the most common isotopeElectronic configuration inthe ground state (gas phase) 6d17s2 6d27s2 5f26d17s2 5f36d17s2 5f46d17s2 5f67s2 5f77s2 5f76d17s2 5f97s2 5f107s2 5f117s2 5f127s2 5f137s2 5f147s2 5f147s27p1Oxidation states 2, 3 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4, 5 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 2, 3, 4, 6 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 2, 3 2, 3 2, 3 3Metallic radius (nm) 0.203 0.180 0.162 0.153 0.150 0.162 0.173 0.174 0.170 0.186 0.186 ? 0.198 ? 0.194 ? 0.197 ? 0.171 An4+ An3+ — 0.126 0.114 — 0.104 0.118 0.103 0.118 0.101 0.116 0.100 0.115 0.099 0.114 0.099 0.112 0.097 0.110 0.096 0.109 0.085 0.098 0.084 0.091 0.084 0.090 0.084 0.095 0.083 0.088Temperature (°C):melting boiling 10503198 18424788 1568? 4027 1132.24131 639? 4174 639.43228 1176? 2607 13403110 9862627 900? 1470 860? 996 1530— 830— 830— 1630—Density, g/cm310.07 11.78 15.37 19.0620.4519.8411.713.5114.7815.18.84? 9.7? 10.3? 9.9? 14.4Standard electrode potential (V):E° (An4+/An0)E° (An3+/An0) — −2.13 −1.83 — −1.47 — −1.38 −1.66 −1.30 −1.79 −1.25 −2.00 −0.90 −2.07 −0.75 −2.06 −0.55 −1.96 −0.59 −1.97 −0.36 −1.98 −0.29 −1.96 — −1.74 — −1.20 — −2.10 Color: [M(H2O)n]4+ [M(H2O)n]3+ — Colorless Colorless Blue Yellow Dark blue Green Purple Purple Brown Violet Red Rose Yellow Colorless Beige Green Green — Pink — — — — — — — — + Approximate colors of actinide ions in aqueous solutionColors for the actinides 100–103 are unknown as sufficient quantities have not yet been synthesized. The colour of was likewise not recorded. Actinide (Z) 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Oxidation state +2 Fm2+ Md2+ No2+ +3 Ac3+ Th3+ Pa3+ U3+ Np3+ Pu3+ Am3+ Cm3+ Bk3+ Cf3+ Es3+ Fm3+ Md3+ No3+ Lr3+ +4 Th4+ Pa4+ U4+ Np4+ Pu4+ Am4+ Cm4+ Bk4+ Cf4+ +5 +6 +7 Physical properties 400px 400pxMajor crystal structures of some actinides vs. temperatureMetallic and ionic radii of actinides relatively high density and plasticity. Some of them can be cut with a knife. Their electrical resistivity varies between 15 and 150 μΩ·cm. The melting point of actinides does not have a clear dependence on the number of f-electrons. The unusually low melting point of neptunium and plutonium (~640 °C) is explained by hybridization of 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds in these metals. Lanthanides Ln3+, Å Actinides An3+, Å An4+, Å Lanthanum 1.061 Actinium 1.11– Cerium 1.034 Thorium 1.08 0.99 Praseodymium 1.013 Protactinium 1.05 0.93 Neodymium 0.995 Uranium 1.03 0.93 Promethium 0.979 Neptunium 1.01 0.92 Samarium 0.964 Plutonium 1.00 0.90 Europium 0.950 Americium 0.99 0.89 Gadolinium 0.938 Curium 0.98 0.88 Terbium 0.923 Berkelium –– Dysprosium 0.908 Californium –– Holmium 0.894 Einsteinium –– Erbium 0.881 Fermium –– Thulium 0.869 Mendelevium –– Ytterbium 0.858 Nobelium –– Lutetium 0.848 Lawrencium –– Chemical properties Like the lanthanides, all actinides are highly reactive with halogens and chalcogens; however, the actinides react more easily. Actinides, especially those with a small number of 5f-electrons, are prone to hybridization. This is explained by the similarity of the electron energies at the 5f, 7s and 6d shells. Most actinides exhibit a larger variety of valence states, and the most stable are +6 for uranium, +5 for protactinium and neptunium, +4 for thorium and plutonium and +3 for actinium and other actinides. Actinium is chemically similar to lanthanum, which is explained by their similar ionic radii and electronic structures. Like lanthanum, actinium almost always has an oxidation state of +3 in compounds, but it is less reactive and has more pronounced basic properties. Among other trivalent actinides Ac3+ is least acidic, i.e. has the weakest tendency to hydrolyze in aqueous solutions. Neptunium has valence states from 3 to 7, which can be simultaneously observed in solutions. The most stable state in solution is +5, but the valence +4 is preferred in solid neptunium compounds. Neptunium metal is very reactive. Ions of neptunium are prone to hydrolysis and formation of coordination compounds. The largest chemical diversity among actinides is observed in americium, which can have valence between 2 and 6. Divalent americium is obtained only in dry compounds and non-aqueous solutions (acetonitrile). Oxidation states +3, +5 and +6 are typical for aqueous solutions, but also in the solid state. Tetravalent americium forms stable solid compounds (dioxide, fluoride and hydroxide) as well as complexes in aqueous solutions. It was reported that in alkaline solution americium can be oxidized to the heptavalent state, but these data proved erroneous. The most stable valence of americium is 3 in aqueous solution and 3 or 4 in solid compounds. Valence 3 is dominant in all subsequent elements up to lawrencium (with the exception of nobelium). Curium can be tetravalent in solids (fluoride, dioxide). Berkelium, along with a valence of +3, also shows the valence of +4, more stable than that of curium; the valence 4 is observed in solid fluoride and dioxide. The stability of Bk4+ in aqueous solution is close to that of Ce4+. Only valence 3 was observed for californium, einsteinium and fermium. The divalent state is proven for mendelevium and nobelium, and in nobelium it is more stable than the trivalent state. Lawrencium shows valence 3 both in solutions and solids. - - Cubic, Mn2O2 Hexagonal, LaCl3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 11.01 3.80 14.28 - - 3.65 - 6 8.9 11.7 – CmO2 Black Cubic, CaF2 5.37 ---- Bk2O3 Light brown Cubic, Mn2O3 10.886---- BkO2 Red-brown Cubic, CaF2 5.33 ---- Cf2O3 Colorless Yellowish - Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic, Sm2O3 Hexagonal, La2O3 10.79 14.12 3.72 - 3.59 - - 8.80 5.96 -- CfO2 Black Cubic 5.31 ---- Es2O3- Cubic, Mn2O3 Monoclinic Hexagonal, La2O3 10.07 14.1 3.7 - 3.59 - - 8.80 6 -- +Approximate colors of actinide oxides(most stable are bolded) Oxidation state 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 +3Ac2O3 Pu2O3 Am2O3 Cm2O3 Bk2O3 Cf2O3 Es2O3 +4 ThO2 PaO2 UO2 NpO2 PuO2 AmO2 CmO2 BkO2 CfO2 +5 Pa2O5 U2O5 Np2O5 +5,+6 U3O8 +6 UO3 + Dioxides of some actinidesChemical formula ThO2 PaO2 UO2 NpO2 PuO2 AmO2 CmO2 BkO2 CfO2CAS Number 1314-20-1 12036-03-2 1344-57-6 12035-79-9 12059-95-9 12005-67-3 12016-67-0 12010-84-3 12015–10–0Molar mass 264.04 263.035 270.03 269.047 276.063 275.06 270–284 279.069 283.078Melting point 3390 °C2865 °C2547 °C2400 °C2175 °C Crystal structure250pxAn4+: __  /  O2−: __Space groupFmmCoordination numberAn[8], O[4] An – actinide Depending on the isotopes Some actinides can exist in several oxide forms such as An2O3, AnO2, An2O5 and AnO3. For all actinides, oxides AnO3 are amphoteric and An2O3, AnO2 and An2O5 are basic, they easily react with water, forming bases: Bk(OH)3 and Cf(OH)3 are also known, as are tetravalent hydroxides for Np, Pu and Am and pentavalent for Np and Am.Chemical formula AcCl3 UCl3 NpCl3 PuCl3 AmCl3 CmCl3 BkCl3 CfCl3CAS-number 22986-54-5 10025-93-1 20737-06-8 13569-62-5 13464-46-5 13537-20-7 13536-46-4 13536–90–8Molar mass 333.386 344.387 343.406 350.32 349.42 344–358** 353.428 357.438Melting point 837 °C800 °C767 °C715 °C695 °C603 °C545 °CBoiling point 1657 °C1767 °C850 °C Crystal structure250px\|The crystal structure of uranium trichlorideAn3+: __  /  Cl−: __Space groupP63/mCoordination numberAn[9], Cl [3]Lattice constants a 762 pm c 455 pm a 745.2 pm c 432.8 pm a 739.4 pm c 424.3 pm a 738.2 pm c 421.4 pm a 726 pm c 414 pm a 738.2 pm c 412.7 pm a 738 pm c 409 pm An – actinide **Depending on the isotopes + Actinide fluoridesCompoundColorCrystal symmetry, typeLattice constants, ÅDensity, g/cm3abc AcF3 White Hexagonal, LaF3 4.27 - 7.53 7.88 PaF4 Dark brown Monoclinic 12.7 10.7 8.42 – PaF5 Black Tetragonal, β-UF5 11.53 - 5.19 – ThF4 Colorless Monoclinic 13 10.99 8.58 5.71 UF3 Reddish-purple Hexagonal 7.18 - 7.34 8.54 UF4 Green Monoclinic 11.27 10.75 8.40 6.72 α-UF5 Bluish Tetragonal 6.52 - 4.47 5.81 β-UF5 Bluish Tetragonal 11.47 - 5.20 6.45 UF6 Yellowish Orthorhombic 9.92 8.95 5.19 5.06 NpF3 Black or purple Hexagonal 7.129 - 7.288 9.12 NpF4 Light green Monoclinic 12.67 10.62 8.41 6.8 NpF6 Orange Orthorhombic 9.91 8.97 5.21 5 PuF3 Violet-blue Trigonal 7.09 - 7.25 9.32 PuF4 Pale brown Monoclinic 12.59 10.57 8.28 6.96 PuF6 Red-brown Orthorhombic 9.95 9.02 3.26 4.86 AmF3 Pink or light beige hexagonal, LaF3 7.04- 7.255 9.53 AmF4 Orange-red Monoclinic 12.53 10.51 8.20 – CmF3 From brown to white Hexagonal 4.041 - 7.179 9.7 CmF4 Yellow Monoclinic, UF4 12.51 10.51 8.20 – BkF3 Yellow-green Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3 6.97 6.7 - 7.09 7.14 4.41 10.15 9.7 BkF4- Monoclinic, UF4 12.47 10.58 8.17 – CfF3 - - Trigonal, LaF3 Orthorhombic, YF3 6. 94 6.65 - 7.04 7.10 4.39 – CfF4 - - Monoclinic, UF4 Monoclinic, UF4 1.242 1.233 1.047 1.040 8.126 8.113 – thumb\|left\|Einsteinium triiodide glowing in the dark Actinides easily react with halogens forming salts with the formulas MX3 and MX4 (X = halogen). So the first berkelium compound, BkCl3, was synthesized in 1962 with an amount of 3 nanograms. Like the halogens of rare earth elements, actinide chlorides, bromides, and iodides are water-soluble, and fluorides are insoluble. Uranium easily yields a colorless hexafluoride, which sublimates at a temperature of 56.5 °C; because of its volatility, it is used in the separation of uranium isotopes with gas centrifuge or gaseous diffusion. Actinide hexafluorides have properties close to anhydrides. They are very sensitive to moisture and hydrolyze forming AnO2F2. The pentachloride and black hexachloride of uranium were synthesized, but they are both unstable. and gas mantles (thorium), they are mostly used in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear reactors. upon reaching the critical mass, enters into a self-sustaining chain reaction. Typically, uranium nucleus is divided into two fragments with the release of 2–3 neutrons, for example: + ⟶ + + 3 Other promising actinide isotopes for nuclear power are thorium-232 and its product from the thorium fuel cycle, uranium-233. Nuclear reactor The core of most Generation II nuclear reactors contains a set of hollow metal rods, usually made of zirconium alloys, filled with solid nuclear fuel pellets – mostly oxide, carbide, nitride or monosulfide of uranium, plutonium or thorium, or their mixture (the so-called MOX fuel). The most common fuel is oxide of uranium-235. border\|150px\|left\|Nuclear reactor scheme Fast neutrons are slowed by moderators, which contain water, carbon, deuterium, or beryllium, as thermal neutrons to increase the efficiency of their interaction with uranium-235. The rate of nuclear reaction is controlled by introducing additional rods made of boron or cadmium or a liquid absorbent, usually boric acid. Reactors for plutonium production are called breeder reactor or breeders; they have a different design and use fast neutrons. Emission of neutrons during the fission of uranium is important not only for maintaining the nuclear chain reaction, but also for the synthesis of the heavier actinides. Uranium-239 converts via β-decay into plutonium-239, which, like uranium-235, is capable of spontaneous fission. The world's first nuclear reactors were built not for energy, but for producing plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons. About half of produced thorium is used as the light-emitting material of gas mantles. The major application of plutonium has been in nuclear weapons, where the isotope plutonium-239 was a key component due to its ease of fission and availability. Plutonium-based designs allow reducing the critical mass to about a third of that for uranium-235. The "Fat Man"-type plutonium bombs produced during the Manhattan Project used explosive compression of plutonium to obtain significantly higher densities than normal, combined with a central neutron source to begin the reaction and increase efficiency. Thus only 6.2 kg of plutonium was needed for an explosive yield equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. (See also Nuclear weapon design.) Hypothetically, as little as 4 kg of plutonium—and maybe even less—could be used to make a single atomic bomb using very sophisticated assembly designs. Plutonium-238 is potentially more efficient isotope for nuclear reactors, since it has smaller critical mass than uranium-235, but it continues to release much thermal energy (0.56 W/g) by decay even when the fission chain reaction is stopped by control rods. Its application is limited by its high price (about US$1000/g). This isotope has been used in thermopiles and water distillation systems of some space satellites and stations. The Galileo and Apollo spacecraft (e.g. Apollo 14) had heaters powered by kilogram quantities of plutonium-238 oxide; this heat is also transformed into electricity with thermopiles. The decay of plutonium-238 produces relatively harmless alpha particles and is not accompanied by gamma rays. Therefore, this isotope (~160 mg) is used as the energy source in heart pacemakers where it lasts about 5 times longer than conventional batteries. Toxicity thumb\|Schematic illustration of penetration of radiation through sheets of paper, aluminium and lead brick Radioactive substances can harm human health via (i) local skin contamination, (ii) internal exposure due to ingestion of radioactive isotopes, and (iii) external overexposure by β-activity and γ-radiation. Together with radium and transuranium elements, actinium is one of the most dangerous radioactive poisons with high specific α-activity. The most important feature of actinium is its ability to accumulate and remain in the surface layer of skeletons. At the initial stage of poisoning, actinium accumulates in the liver. Another danger of actinium is that it undergoes radioactive decay faster than being excreted. Adsorption from the digestive tract is much smaller (~0.05%) for actinium than radium. Using actinides in nuclear fuel, sealed radioactive sources or advanced materials such as self-glowing crystals has many potential benefits. However, a serious concern is the extremely high radiotoxicity of actinides and their migration in the environment. Use of chemically unstable forms of actinides in MOX and sealed radioactive sources is not appropriate by modern safety standards. There is a challenge to develop stable and durable actinide-bearing materials, which provide safe storage, use and final disposal. A key need is application of actinide solid solutions in durable crystalline host phases. See also Actinides in the environment Lanthanides Major actinides Minor actinides Transuranics Notes References Bibliography External links Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first time Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides Los Alamos National Laboratory, Actinide Research Quarterly Category:Periodic table	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide	2025-04-05T18:26:00.211717
2310	Arthur Miller	{{Short description\|American playwright and essayist (1915–2005)}} {{other people\|Arthur Miller}} {{Use American English\|date=September 2024}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox writer \| name = Arthur Miller \| image = Arthur Miller 1966.jpg \| birth_date {{birth date\|1915\|10\|17\|mfy}} \| caption = Miller in 1966 \| birth_name = Arthur Asher Miller \| birth_place = <!-- No boroughs -->New York City, U.S.<!--Per WP:OVERLINK "The names of subjects with which most readers will be at least somewhat familiar", including locations with NYC as an example, do not typically need to be linked)--> \| death_date {{death date and age\|mfyes\|2005\|2\|10\|1915\|10\|18}} \| death_place = Roxbury, Connecticut, U.S. \| occupation = {{hlist\|Playwright\|essayist\|screenwriter}} \| education = University of Michigan (BA) \| notableworks = {{hlist\|All My Sons\|Death of a Salesman\|The Crucible\|A View from the Bridge}} \| awards = {{plainlist\| * 1949&nbsp;Pulitzer Prize for Drama * 1984&nbsp;Kennedy Center Honors * 2001&nbsp;Praemium Imperiale * 2003&nbsp;Jerusalem Prize}} \| spouse = {{plainlist\| * {{marriage\|Mary Slattery\|1940\|1956\|reason=divorce}} * {{marriage\|Marilyn Monroe\|1956\|1961\|reason=divorce}} * {{marriage\|Inge Morath\|1962\|2002\|reason=died}}}} \| partner = {{No self-redirect\|Agnes Barley}} (from 2002) \| children = 4, including Rebecca Miller \| relatives = {{plainlist\| * Joan Copeland (sister) * Daniel Day-Lewis (son-in-law)}} \| signature = Arthur Miller signature.svg }} Arthur Asher Miller (October 17, 1915&nbsp;– February 10, 2005) was an American playwright, essayist and screenwriter in the 20th-century American theater. Among his most popular plays are All My Sons (1947), Death of a Salesman (1949), The Crucible (1953), and A View from the Bridge (1955). He wrote several screenplays, including The Misfits (1961). The drama Death of a Salesman is considered one of the best American plays of the 20th century. Miller was often in the public eye, particularly during the late 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s. During this time, he received a Pulitzer Prize for Drama, testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, and married Marilyn Monroe. In 1980, he received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.slu.edu/libraries/associates/award.html \|titleWebsite of St. Louis Literary Award \|access-dateJuly 25, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160823003924/http://www.slu.edu/libraries/associates/award.html \|archive-dateAugust 23, 2016 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://lib.slu.edu/about/associates/literary-award \|titleRecipients of the Saint Louis Literary Award \|authorSaint Louis University Library Associates \|access-dateJuly 25, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160731082313/http://lib.slu.edu/about/associates/literary-award \|archive-dateJuly 31, 2016 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> He received the Praemium Imperiale prize in 2001, the Prince of Asturias Award in 2002, and the Jerusalem Prize in 2003, and the Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize in 1999.<ref>Associated Press, "Citing Arts' Power, Arthur Miller Accepts International Prize". Los Angeles Times, September 4, 2002</ref> Early life and education Miller was born in the Harlem area of Manhattan Island, the second of three children of Augusta (Barnett) and Isidore Miller. He was born into a Jewish family of Polish-Jewish descent.<ref>{{cite web\|firstMichael\|lastRatcliffe\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/feb/12/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries\|titleArthur Miller\|workThe Guardian\|dateFebruary 12, 2005\|access-dateMay 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|firstGerri\|lastMiller\|urlhttp://jewishjournal.com/culture/arts/231886/daughter-documents-inner-arthur-miller/\|titleDaughter Documents the Inner Arthur Miller\|workJewish Journal\|dateMarch 14, 2018\|access-dateMay 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|firstStewart\|lastKampel\|urlhttp://www.hadassahmagazine.org/2013/09/19/qa-rebecca-miller/\|titleQ&A with Rebecca Miller\|workHadassah Magazine\|dateSeptember 19, 2013\|access-dateMay 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|firstJames\|lastCampbell\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2003/jul/26/theatre.artsfeatures\|titleArthurian legends\|workThe Guardian\|dateJuly 26, 2003\|access-dateMay 8, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{usurped\|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20151222112459/http://joi.org/blog/?p14 Arthur Miller's Intermarriages]}} Golin, Paul. Published February 16, 2005. Accessed December 12, 2015.</ref><ref>[http://forward.com/the-assimilator/168486/marilyn-monroes-jewish-wedding-cover-up/ "Marilyn Monroe's Jewish Wedding 'Cover Up'"] Ghert-Zand, Renee. Published December 28, 2012. Accessed December 12, 2015.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160220194906/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-98672556.html "A World in Which Everything Hurts; Arthur Miller's Struggle With Jewish Identity May Be Responsible for His Best Work"] Eden, Ami. Published July 30, 2004. Accessed December 12, 2015.</ref> His father was born in Radomyśl Wielki, Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary, now Poland), and his mother was a native of New York whose parents also arrived from that town.<ref>Arthur Miller, Timebends: A Life, A&C Black, 2012. p. 539.</ref> Isidore owned a women's clothing manufacturing business employing 400 people. He became a well respected man in the community.<ref>BBC TV Interview; Miller and Yentob; 'Finishing the Picture,' 2004</ref> The family, including Miller's younger sister Joan Copeland, lived on West<ref>Miller, Arthur (June 22, 1998) [http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1998/06/22/1998_06_22_144_TNY_LIBRY_000015831?currentPageall American Summer: Before Air-Conditioning]. The New Yorker. Retrieved on October 30, 2013.</ref> 110th Street in Manhattan, owned a summer house in Far Rockaway, Queens, and employed a chauffeur.<ref name"nytimes.com">{{cite news\|lastGarner \|firstDwight \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/03/books/03garn.html \|titleMiller: Life before and after Marilyn \|workThe New York Times \|dateJune 2, 2009 \|access-dateDecember 18, 2011}}</ref> In the Wall Street crash of 1929, the family lost almost everything and moved to Gravesend, Brooklyn.<ref name"Times_obit">The Times Arthur Miller Obituary, (London: The Times, 2005)</ref> According to Peter Applebome, they moved to Midwood.<ref>Applebome, Peter. [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9903E7DA1E39F93AA15752C0A96F958260 "Present at the Birth of a Salesman"], The New York Times, January 29, 1999. Accessed February 8, 2019. "Mr. Miller was born in Harlem in 1915 and then moved with his family to the Midwood section of Brooklyn."</ref> As a teenager, Miller delivered bread every morning before school to help the family.<ref name"nytimes.com" /> Miller later published an account of his early years under the title "A Boy Grew in Brooklyn". After graduating in 1932 from Abraham Lincoln High School, he worked at several menial jobs to pay for his college tuition at the University of Michigan.<ref name"Times_obit" /><ref>Hechinger, Fred M. [https://www.nytimes.com/1980/01/01/archives/about-education-personal-touch-helps-about-education-personal-touch.html "Personal Touch Helps"], The New York Times, January 1, 1980. Accessed September 20, 2009. "Lincoln, an ordinary, unselective New York City high school, is proud of a galaxy of prominent alumni, who include the playwright Arthur Miller, Representative Elizabeth Holtzman, the authors Joseph Heller and Ken Auletta, the producer Mel Brooks, the singer Neil Diamond and the songwriter Neil Sedaka."</ref> After graduation ({{circa\|1936}}), he worked as a psychiatric aide and copywriter before accepting faculty posts at New York University and University of New Hampshire. On May 1, 1935, he joined the League of American Writers (1935–1943), whose members included Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers, Franklin Folsom, Louis Untermeyer, I. F. Stone, Myra Page, Millen Brand, Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett. Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers.<ref name="Looper"> {{Cite book \| first1 = Myra \| last1 = Page \| author-link1 = Myra Page \| first2 = Christina Looper \| last2 = Baker \| title = In a Generous Spirit: A First-Person Biography of Myra Page \| publisher = University of Illinois Press \| url https://books.google.com/books?id0DamHoxHiCkC \| pages = 145 \| date = 1996 \| access-date August 4, 2018\| isbn 9780252065439 }}</ref> At the University of Michigan, Miller first majored in journalism and wrote for the student newspaper, The Michigan Daily, and the satirical Gargoyle Humor Magazine. It was during this time that he wrote his first play, No Villain.<ref name="chronology">{{cite web \|publisher=The Arthur Miller Society \|title=A Brief Chronology of Arthur Miller's Life and Works \|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/miller/life.html \|access-dateSeptember 24, 2006\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061002193327/http://www.ibiblio.org/miller/life.html\| archive-dateOctober 2, 2006\| url-statuslive}}</ref> He switched his major to English, and subsequently won the Avery Hopwood Award for No Villain. The award led him to consider that he could have a career as a playwright. He enrolled in a playwriting seminar with the influential Professor Kenneth Rowe,<ref>For Rowe's recollections of Miller's work as a student playwright, see Kenneth Thorpe Rowe, "Shadows Cast Before," in Robert A. Martin, ed. (1982) Arthur Miller: New Perspectives, Prentice-Hall, {{ISBN\|0130488011}}. Rowe's influential book Write That Play (Funk and Wagnalls, 1939), which appeared just a year after Miller's graduation, describes Rowe's approach to play construction.</ref> who emphasized how a play was built to achieve its intended effect, or what Miller called "the dynamics of play construction".<ref>Arthur Miller, Timebends: A Life. New York: Grove Press, 1987, pp. 226–227</ref> Rowe gave Miller realistic feedback and much-needed encouragement, and became a lifelong friend.<ref>{{cite web \|publisher=University of Michigan \|title=Arthur Miller Files (UM days) \|url=http://www.umich.edu/~amfiles/biography/umdays.html \|access-date=September 24, 2006}}</ref> Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater through the rest of his life, establishing the university's Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and the Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in 2000.<ref>{{cite web \|publisher=University of Michigan \|title=Arthur Miller and University of Michigan \|url=http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2004/Nov04/r111604c \|access-date=September 24, 2006 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913165346/http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases%2F2004%2FNov04%2Fr111604c \|archive-date=September 13, 2006 \|url-status=live }}</ref> In 1937, Miller wrote Honors at Dawn, which also received the Avery Hopwood Award.<ref name"chronology" /> After his graduation in 1938, he joined the Federal Theatre Project, a New Deal agency established to provide jobs in the theater. He chose the theater project despite the more lucrative offer to work as a scriptwriter for 20th Century Fox.<ref name"chronology" /> However, Congress, worried about possible Communist infiltration, closed the project in 1939.<ref name"Times_obit" /> Miller began working in the Brooklyn Navy Yard while continuing to write radio plays, some of which were broadcast on CBS.<ref name"Times_obit" /><ref name"chronology" /> Career 1940–1949: Early career In 1940, Miller married Mary Grace Slattery.<ref name"Observer_obit">{{cite news\|firstMichael \|lastRatcliffe \|titleObituary: Arthur Miller \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/feb/12/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries \|locationLondon \|workThe Guardian \|dateFebruary 11, 2005 \|access-dateJuly 23, 2012 \|archive-dateJuly 23, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120723171424/http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2005/feb/12/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries \|url-statuslive \|page25 }}</ref> The couple had two children, Jane (born September 7, 1944) and Robert (May 31, 1947 – March 6, 2022).<ref>{{cite web \|last1Fried \|first1Billy \|titleRemembering Bob Miller \|urlhttps://www.lagunabeachindy.com/opinion-remembering-bob-miller/ \|websiteLaguna Beach Independent \|dateApril 9, 2022 \|publisherFirebrand Media \|access-dateAugust 13, 2022}}</ref> Miller was exempted from military service during World War II because of a high school football injury to his left kneecap.<ref name"Times_obit" /> In 1944 Miller's first play was produced: The Man Who Had All the Luck won the Theatre Guild's National Award.<ref>Royal National Theater: Platform Papers, 7. Arthur Miller (Battley Brothers Printers, 1995).</ref> The play closed after four performances with disastrous reviews.<ref name"shenton">{{cite web\|urlhttp://blogs.thestage.co.uk/shenton/2008/03/the-man-who-has-all-the-luck/#more\|titleThe man who HAS all the luck...\|lastShenton\|firstMark\|dateMarch 14, 2008\|workThe Stage\|publisherThe Stage Newspaper Limited\|access-dateMay 6, 2009\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090519194515/http://blogs.thestage.co.uk/shenton/2008/03/the-man-who-has-all-the-luck/\| archive-date May 19, 2009\| url-status=live}}</ref> In 1947, Miller's play All My Sons, the writing of which had commenced in 1941, was a success on Broadway (earning him his first Tony Award, for Best Author) and his reputation as a playwright was established.<ref>{{Cite book\|year2005\|titleArthur Miller: A Critical Study\|lastBigsby \|firstC. W. E.\|author-linkChristopher Bigsby\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-60553-3\|page[https://archive.org/details/arthurmillercrit0000bigs/page/301 301]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/arthurmillercrit0000bigs\|url-accessregistration}}</ref> Years later, in a 1994 interview with Ron Rifkin, Miller said that most contemporary critics regarded All My Sons as "a very depressing play in a time of great optimism" and that positive reviews from Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times had saved it from failure.<ref>Rifkin, Ron, [http://bombsite.com/issues/49/articles/1821 "Arthur Miller"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120526130323/http://bombsite.com/issues/49/articles/1821 \|dateMay 26, 2012 }}. BOMB Magazine. Fall 1994. Retrieved on July 18, 2012.</ref> In 1948, Miller built a small studio in Roxbury, Connecticut. There, in less than a day, he wrote Act I of Death of a Salesman. Within six weeks, he completed the rest of the play,<ref name"chronology" /> one of the classics of world theater.<ref name"Times_obit" /><ref name="BBC-Obit">{{cite news \|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/233032.stm \|title= Obituary: Arthur Miller \|workBBC News \|publisherBBC \|date=February 11, 2005 \|access-date=September 21, 2010 }}</ref> Death of a Salesman premiered on Broadway on February 10, 1949, at the Morosco Theatre, directed by Elia Kazan, and starring Lee J. Cobb as Willy Loman, Mildred Dunnock as Linda, Arthur Kennedy as Biff, and Cameron Mitchell as Happy. The play was commercially successful and critically acclaimed, winning a Tony Award for Best Author, the New York Drama Circle Critics' Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It was the first play to win all three of these major awards. The play was performed 742 times.<ref name="Times_obit" /> In 1949, Miller exchanged letters with Eugene O'Neill regarding Miller's production of All My Sons. O'Neill had sent Miller a congratulatory telegram; in response, he wrote a letter that consisted of a few paragraphs detailing his gratitude for the telegram, apologizing for not responding earlier, and inviting Eugene to the opening of Death of a Salesman. O'Neill replied, accepting the apology, but declining the invitation, explaining that his Parkinson's disease made it difficult to travel. He ended the letter with an invitation to Boston, a trip that never occurred.<ref>Dan Isaac, "Founding Father: O'Neill's Correspondence with Arthur Miller and Tennessee Williams", ''The Eugene O'Neill Review'', Vol. 17, No. 1/2 (Spring/Fall 1993), pp. 124–133</ref> 1950–1963: Critical years and HUAC controversy In 1952, Elia Kazan appeared before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Kazan named eight members of the Group Theatre, including Clifford Odets, Paula Strasberg, Lillian Hellman, J. Edward Bromberg, and John Garfield,<ref> {{cite web \|url=http://www.moderntimes.com/palace/kazan/ \|title=Postage Paid: In defense of Elia Kazan \|publisher=moderntimes.com \|access-date=February 25, 2009 \|last=Mills \|firstMichael}}</ref> who in recent years had been fellow members of the Communist Party.<ref name"AmMasters">{{cite web \|publisher=PBS \|title=American Masters: Elia Kazan \|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/kazan_e.html \|access-dateSeptember 22, 2006\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060923064612/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/kazan_e.html\| archive-dateSeptember 23, 2006\| url-statuslive\|date=September 3, 2003 }}</ref> Miller and Kazan were close friends throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, but after Kazan's testimony to the HUAC, the pair's friendship ended.<ref name"AmMasters" /> After speaking with Kazan about his testimony, Miller traveled to Salem, Massachusetts, to research the witch trials of 1692.<ref name"Observer_obit" /> He and Kazan did not speak to each other for the next ten years. Kazan later defended his own actions through his film On the Waterfront, in which a dockworker heroically testifies against a corrupt union boss.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-film-preservation-board/documents/on_the_waterfront.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.loc.gov/programs/static/national-film-preservation-board/documents/on_the_waterfront.pdf \|archive-dateSeptember 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleOn The Waterfront\|lastSklar\|firstRobert\|websiteLibrary of Congress\|access-dateDecember 27, 2018}}</ref> Miller would retaliate against Kazan's work by writing A View from the Bridge, a play where a longshoreman outs his co-workers motivated only by jealousy and greed. He sent a copy of the initial script to Kazan and when the director asked in jest to direct the movie, Miller replied "I only sent you the script to let you know what I think of stool-pigeons."<ref>{{cite web \|dateApril 2, 2021 \|titleThe Untold Story of On the Waterfront – As Time Goes By \|urlhttps://sites.psu.edu/astimegoesby/2021/04/02/the-untold-story-of-on-the-waterfront/ \|access-dateSeptember 3, 2024 \|publisherCampusPress}}</ref> In The Crucible, which was first performed at the Martin Beck Theatre on Broadway on January 22, 1953, Miller likened the situation with the House Un-American Activities Committee to the witch hunt in Salem in 1692.<ref>For a frequently cited study of Miller's use of the Salem witchcraft episode, see Robert A. Martin, "Arthur Miller's The Crucible: Background and Sources", reprinted in James J. Martine, ed. (1979) Critical Essays on Arthur Miller, G. K. Hall, {{ISBN\|0816182582}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/miller-mccarthyism.html\|titleAre you now, or were you ever?\|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060910085108/http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/miller-mccarthyism.html\|archive-dateSeptember 10, 2006\|url-statuslive\|access-dateSeptember 25, 2006}}</ref><ref nameCakirtas /> Though widely considered only somewhat successful at the time of its release, The Crucible is Miller's most frequently produced work throughout the world.<ref name"Observer_obit" /> It was adapted into an opera by Robert Ward in 1961. Earlier in 1955, a one-act version of Miller's verse drama, titled A View from the Bridge, opened on Broadway in a joint bill with one of Miller's lesser-known plays, A Memory of Two Mondays. The following year, Miller revised A View from the Bridge as a two-act prose drama, which Peter Brook directed in London.<ref>Miller, Arthur (1988) Introduction to Plays: One, London: Methuen, p. 51, {{ISBN\|0413175502}}.</ref> A French-Italian co-production Vu du pont, based on the play, was released in 1962.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Pecorari\|first1Mario\|last2Poppi\|first2Roberto\|date2007\|titleDizionario del cinema italiano. I film\|languageit\|locationRome\|publisherGremese Editore\|isbn=978-8884405036}}</ref> of House Un-American Activities Committee reads and proofs his letter replying to Pres. Roosevelt's attack on the committee, October 26, 1938]] The HUAC took an interest in Miller himself not long after The Crucible opened, engineering the US State Department's denying him a passport to attend the play's London opening in 1954.<ref name"chronology" /> When Miller applied in 1956 for a routine renewal of his passport, the House Un-American Activities Committee used this opportunity to subpoena him to appear before the committee. Before appearing, Miller asked the committee not to ask him to name names, to which the chairman, Francis E. Walter (D-PA) agreed.<ref name"BBCOnThisDay">{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7/newsid_2946000/2946420.stm\|titleBBC On This Day\|dateAugust 7, 1958\|access-dateOctober 14, 2006\|publisherBBC}}</ref> When Miller attended the hearing, to which Monroe accompanied him, risking her own career,<ref name"Observer_obit" /> he gave the committee a detailed account of his political activities.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://partners.nytimes.com/books/00/11/12/specials/miller-front.html\|titleArthur Miller Admits Helping Communist-Front Groups in '40's\|lastDrury\|firstAllen\|dateJune 22, 1956\|websiteThe New York Times\|access-dateJune 7, 2016}}</ref> Reneging on the chairman's promise, the committee demanded the names of friends and colleagues who had participated in similar activities.<ref name"BBCOnThisDay"/> Miller refused to comply, saying "I could not use the name of another person and bring trouble on him."<ref name"BBCOnThisDay" /> As a result, a judge found Miller guilty of contempt of Congress in May 1957. Miller was sentenced to a fine and a prison sentence, blacklisted from Hollywood, and disallowed a US passport.<ref name"UMICH_Early">{{cite web \|publisher=University of Michigan \|title=Arthur Miller Files \|url=http://www.umich.edu/~amfiles/biography/earlycareer.html \|access-dateApril 2, 2016}}</ref> In August 1958, his conviction was overturned by the court of appeals, which ruled that Miller had been misled by the chairman of the HUAC.<ref name"BBCOnThisDay" /> Miller's experience with the HUAC affected him throughout his life. In the late 1970s, he joined other celebrities (including William Styron and Mike Nichols) who were brought together by the journalist Joan Barthel. Barthel's coverage of the highly publicized Barbara Gibbons murder case helped raise bail for Gibbons' son Peter Reilly, who had been convicted of his mother's murder based on what many felt was a coerced confession and little other evidence.<ref>Barthel, Joan:A Death in Canaan. New York: E.P. Dutton. 1976</ref> Barthel documented the case in her book A Death in Canaan, which was made as a television film of the same name and broadcast in 1978.<ref>A Death in Canaan \|url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077412/</ref> City Confidential, an A&E Network series, produced an episode about the murder, postulating that part of the reason Miller took such an active interest (including supporting Reilly's defense and using his own celebrity to bring attention to Reilly's plight) was because he had felt similarly persecuted in his run-ins with the HUAC. He sympathized with Reilly, whom he firmly believed to be innocent and to have been railroaded by the Connecticut State Police and the Attorney General who had initially prosecuted the case.<ref> {{cite web \|url http://shop.aetv.com/detail.php?p67193&vaetv_subject_crime-and-investigation&SESSID4d7f3bfc7189d91dc454e5a01a574224 \|archive-url https://archive.today/20130116104827/http://shop.aetv.com/detail.php?p67193&vaetv_subject_crime-and-investigation&SESSID4d7f3bfc7189d91dc454e5a01a574224 \|url-status = dead \|archive-date = January 16, 2013 \|title = A Son's Confession DVD, Shows The First 48, A&E Shop \|publisher = shop.aetv.com \|access-date = January 11, 2009 }} </ref><ref> {{cite news \|urlhttps://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9D04E1DF1031F930A3575AC0A9629C8B63 \|title=Records on Exonerated Man Are Kept Off Limits to Press \|work=The New York Times \|access-date=January 11, 2009 \|last=Stowe \|first=Stacey \|date=September 3, 2004}}</ref> Miller began work on writing the screenplay for The Misfits in 1960, directed by John Huston and starring Monroe. It was during the filming that Miller's and Monroe's relationship hit difficulties, and he later said that the filming was one of the lowest points in his life.<ref name":0">{{cite news \|lastCelizic \|firstMike \|author-linkMike Celizic \|titleNew footage of Marilyn Monroe, Clark Gable revealed \|urlhttps://www.today.com/popculture/new-footage-marilyn-monroe-clark-gable-revealed-wbna24927803 \|dateJune 2, 2008 \|access-dateApril 22, 2018 \|work=Today}}</ref> Monroe was taking drugs to help her sleep and other drugs to help her wake up, arriving on the set late, and having trouble remembering her lines. Huston was unaware that Miller and Monroe were having problems in their private life. He recalled later, "I was impertinent enough to say to Arthur that to allow her to take drugs of any kind was criminal and utterly irresponsible. Shortly after that I realized that she wouldn't listen to Arthur at all; he had no say over her actions."<ref>Grobel, Lawrence. The Hustons, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York (1989) p. 489</ref> Shortly before the film's premiere in 1961, Miller and Monroe divorced after five years of marriage.<ref name"chronology"/> Nineteen months later, on August 5, 1962, Monroe died of a likely drug overdose.<ref>{{Cite web\|author<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->\|titleMarilyn Monroe is found dead\|dateNovember 24, 2009\|urlhttps://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/marilyn-monroe-is-found-dead\|access-dateSeptember 2, 2020\|websiteHistory}}</ref> Huston, who had also directed her in her first major role in The Asphalt Jungle in 1950, and who had seen her rise to stardom, put the blame for her death on her doctors as opposed to the stresses of being a star: "The girl was an addict of sleeping pills and she was made so by the God-damn doctors. It had nothing to do with the Hollywood set-up."<ref>Badman, Keith. The Final Years of Marilyn Monroe: The Shocking True Story, Aurum Press (2010) ebook, {{ISBN\|9781781310519}}</ref> 1964–2004: Later career In 1964, After the Fall was produced, and is said to be a deeply personal view of Miller's experiences during his marriage to Monroe. It reunited Miller with his former friend Kazan; they collaborated on the script and direction. It opened on January 23, 1964, at the ANTA Theatre in Washington Square Park amid a flurry of publicity and outrage at putting a Monroe-like character, Maggie, on stage.<ref name"Observer_obit" /> Robert Brustein, in a review in the New Republic, called After the Fall "a three and one half hour breach of taste, a confessional autobiography of embarrassing explicitness ... There is a misogynistic strain in the play which the author does not seem to recognize. ... He has created a shameless piece of tabloid gossip, an act of exhibitionism which makes us all voyeurs ... a wretched piece of dramatic writing."<ref>{{cite web \|lastSchwartz \|firstStephen \|urlhttp://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/258bqlwx.asp \|titleThe Moral of Arthur Miller \|workThe Weekly Standard \|dateFebruary 28, 2005 \|access-dateOctober 30, 2013 \|archive-dateJanuary 7, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150107153947/http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/258bqlwx.asp \|url-statusdead}}</ref> That year, Miller produced Incident at Vichy. In 1965, he was elected the first American president of PEN International, a position which he held for four years.<ref>{{cite magazine \|firstArthur \|lastMiller \|titleA Visit With Castro \|dateDecember 24, 2003 \|urlhttps://www.thenation.com/article/visit-castro/ \|magazineThe Nation \|access-dateAugust 1, 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150820192342/http://www.thenation.com/article/visit-castro/ \|archive-dateAugust 20, 2015}}</ref> A year later, he organized the 1966 PEN congress in New York City. He also wrote the penetrating family drama The Price, produced in 1968.<ref name"Observer_obit" /> It was his most successful play since Death of a Salesman.<ref name"UMICH_60s70s80s">{{cite web \|publisherUniversity of Michigan \|titleArthur Miller Files 60s70s80s \|urlhttp://www.umich.edu/~amfiles/biography/607080.html \|access-date=October 14, 2006}}</ref> In 1968, Miller attended the Democratic National Convention as a delegate for Eugene McCarthy.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastKurlansky, Mark\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/1968yearthatrock0000kurl_o9x1\|title1968: The Year that Rocked the World\|page[https://archive.org/details/1968yearthatrock0000kurl_o9x1/page/272/mode/1up 272]\|year2004\|publisherBallantine\|isbn0-345-45581-9\|edition1st\|locationNew York\|oclc53929433\|url-accessregistration}}</ref> In 1969, Miller's works were banned in the Soviet Union after he campaigned for the freedom of dissident writers.<ref name"chronology" /> Throughout the 1970s, he spent much of his time experimenting with the theatre, producing one-act plays such as Fame and The Reason Why, and traveling with his wife, producing In the Country and Chinese Encounters with her. Both his 1972 comedy The Creation of the World and Other Business and its musical adaptation, Up from Paradise, were critical and commercial failures.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/books/00/11/12/specials/miller-genesis.html \|titleArthur Miller Returns to Genesis for First Musical \|workThe New York Times \|authorMel Gussow \|dateApril 17, 1974 \|access-dateJanuary 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastRich \|firstFrank \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/10/26/theater/stage-miller-s-up-from-paradise.html \|titleStage: Miller's Up from Paradise \|workThe New York Times \|pageC22 \|dateOctober 26, 1983 \|access-dateJanuary 11, 2009}}</ref> Miller was an unusually articulate commentator on his own work. In 1978, he published a collection of his Theater Essays, edited by Robert A. Martin and with a foreword by Miller. Highlights of the collection included Miller's introduction to his Collected Plays, his reflections on the theory of tragedy, comments on the McCarthy Era, and pieces arguing for a publicly supported theater. Reviewing this collection in the Chicago Tribune, Studs Terkel remarked, "In reading [the Theater Essays]&nbsp;... you are exhilaratingly aware of a social critic, as well as a playwright, who knows what he's talking about."<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastMartin \|editor-firstRobert A. \|titleThe Theater Essays of Arthur Miller \|year1978 \|publisherViking \|isbn0670698016}}</ref> Congress]] In 1983, Miller traveled to China to produce and direct Death of a Salesman at the People's Art Theatre in Beijing. It was a success in China<ref name"UMICH_60s70s80s" /> and in 1984, Salesman in Beijing, a book about Miller's experiences in Beijing, was published. Around the same time, Death of a Salesman was adapted into a television film starring Dustin Hoffman as Willy Loman. The film was broadcast on CBS, and garnered an audience viewership of 25 million.<ref name"chronology" /><ref>{{cite book \|editor-last1Wilmeth \|editor-first1Don B. \|editor-last2Bigsby \|editor-first2Christopher \|titleThe Cambridge History of American Theatre Volume III: Post-World War II to the 1990s \|year2006 \|page296 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-67985-5}}</ref> In late 1987, Miller's autobiographical work, Timebends, was published. Before it was published, it was well known that Miller would not talk about Monroe in interviews; however, in the book, he wrote extensively in detail about his experiences with Monroe.<ref name"Observer_obit" /> During the early 1990s, Miller wrote three new plays: The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991), The Last Yankee (1992), and Broken Glass (1994). In 1996, a film adaptation of The Crucible starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Paul Scofield, Bruce Davison and Winona Ryder was released. Miller spent much of 1996 working on the screenplay.<ref name="chronology" /> ''Mr. Peters' Connections was staged Off-Broadway in 1998, and Death of a Salesman'' was revived on Broadway in 1999 to celebrate its 50th anniversary. The 1999 revival ran for 274 performances at the Eugene O'Neill Theatre, starring Brian Dennehy as Willy Loman. Once again, it was a large critical success, winning a Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play.<ref>{{cite news \|title'Death of a Salesman' Takes Four Tony Awards \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-jun-07-mn-45037-story.html \|workLos Angeles Times \|dateJune 7, 1999 \|access-dateJanuary 8, 2023 \|url-accesslimited}}</ref> In 1993, Miller received the National Medal of Arts.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nea.gov/honors/medals/medalists_year.html#93 \|title1993 Lifetime Honors \|publisherNational Medal of Arts \|access-dateDecember 18, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721054307/http://www.nea.gov/honors/medals/medalists_year.html \|archive-dateJuly 21, 2011}}</ref> He was honored with the PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award for a Master American Dramatist in 1998. In 2001, the National Endowment for the Humanities selected him for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the humanities.<ref name"jefflect">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.neh.gov/about/awards/jefferson-lecture/arthur-miller-biography \|titleArthur Miller \|publisherNational Endowment for the Humanities \|access-dateJanuary 22, 2009}}</ref> His lecture, "On Politics and the Art of Acting",<ref>{{cite speech \|lastMiller \|firstArthur \|urlhttp://www.neh.gov/whoweare/miller/lecture.html \|titleOn Politics and the Art of Acting \|publisherNational Endowment for the Humanities \|dateMarch 26, 2001 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010717020140/http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/miller/lecture.html \|archive-dateJuly 17, 2001 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> analyzed political events (including the U.S. presidential election of 2000) in terms of the "arts of performance". It drew attacks from some conservatives<ref>{{cite news \|lastCraig \|firstBruce \|titleArthur Miller's Jefferson Lecture Stirs Controversy \|urlhttp://www.oah.org/pubs/nl/2001may/ncc.html \|dateMay 2001 \|workOAH Newsletter \|publisherOrganization of American Historians \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20011222143737/http://www.oah.org/pubs/nl/2001may/ncc.html \|archive-dateDecember 22, 2001 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> such as Jay Nordlinger, who called it "a disgrace";<ref>{{cite news \|lastNordlinger \|firstJay \|urlhttp://www.nationalreview.com/impromptus/impromptus042202.asp \|titleBack to Plessy, Easter with Fidel, Miller's new tale \|workNational Review \|dateApril 22, 2002 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020520083718/https://www.nationalreview.com/impromptus/impromptus042202.asp \|archive-dateMay 20, 2002 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> and George Will, who argued that Miller was not a legitimate "scholar".<ref>{{cite web \|lastWill \|firstGeorge \|author-linkGeorge Will \|urlhttp://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/will041001.asp \|titleEnduring Arthur Miller: Oh, the Humanities! \|publisherJewish World Review \|dateApril 10, 2001}}</ref> In October 1999, Miller received The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and to mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life".<ref>{{cite news \|lastMcGrath \|firstSean \|urlhttps://playbill.com/article/arthur-miller-to-receive-1999-dorothy-and-lillian-gish-prize-com-83204 \|titleArthur Miller to Receive 1999 Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize \|workPlaybill \|dateJuly 20, 1999 \|access-dateJanuary 18, 2023}}</ref> Additionally in 1999, San Jose State University honored Miller with the John Steinbeck "In the Souls of the People" Award, which is given to those who capture "Steinbeck's empathy, commitment to democratic values, and belief in the dignity of people who by circumstance are pushed to the fringes."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleArthur Miller \|urlhttps://www.steinbeckaward.com/awardees/arthur-miller \|access-dateOctober 29, 2024 \|websiteThe John Steinbeck Award \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 2001, he received the National Book Foundation's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters.<ref>{{cite speech \|lastMiller \|firstArthur \|urlhttp://www.nationalbook.org/nbaacceptspeech_amiller.html \|titleAcceptance Speech by Arthur Miller, Winner of the 2001 Distinguished Contribution to American Letters Award \|year2001 \|publisherNational Book Foundation \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030126001503/http://www.nationalbook.org/nbaacceptspeech_amiller.html \|archive-dateJanuary 26, 2003 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> On May 1, 2002, he received Spain's Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature as "the undisputed master of modern drama". Later that year, Ingeborg Morath died of lymphatic cancer<ref>{{cite news \|lastWrigg \|firstWilliam \|workThe New York Times Magazine \|titleOn Inge Morath's death \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/12/magazine/l-inge-morath-754897.html \|access-dateJanuary 21, 2007 \|dateJanuary 12, 2003}}</ref> at the age of 78. The following year, Miller won the Jerusalem Prize.<ref name="chronology" /> In December 2004, 89-year-old Miller announced that he had been in love with 34-year-old minimalist painter Agnes Barley and had been living with her at his Connecticut farm since 2002, and that they intended to marry.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1478782/At-89-Arthur-Miller-grows-old-romantically.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1478782/At-89-Arthur-Miller-grows-old-romantically.html \|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \| titleAt 89, Arthur Miller grows old romantically \| newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \| dateDecember 11, 2004 \| access-date=September 3, 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Miller's final play, Finishing the Picture, opened at the Goodman Theatre, Chicago, in the fall of 2004, with one character said to be based on Barley.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/people/2004-10-20-miller_x.htm \| titleArthur Miller creates a new work \| locationChicago \| newspaperUSA Today \| dateOctober 10, 2004 \| access-dateSeptember 23, 2014 \| quoteAnd in the play's sweetest moments, he's found a new romance – Kitty's tenderhearted secretary, played by Fisher, a union perhaps mirroring Miller's reported new relationship with Agnes Barley, a 34-year-old artist.}}</ref> It was reportedly based on his experience during the filming of The Misfits,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/19/magazine/19MILL.html \| titleGoodbye (Again), Norma Jean \| lastSolomon \| firstDeborah \| workThe New York Times\| dateSeptember 19, 2004 \| access-dateSeptember 3, 2014}}</ref> though Miller insisted the play was a work of fiction with independent characters that were no more than composite shadows of history.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/2005/02/12/arthur-miller-11/ \| titleArthur Miller (1915–2005) – The Shadow Of Marilyn Monroe. Decades later, a man still haunted \| lastJones \| firstChris \| newspaperChicago Tribune \| dateFebruary 12, 2005 \| access-dateSeptember 3, 2014}}</ref> Personal life Marriages and family tie the knot in Westchester County, New York, June 1956]] In June 1956, Miller left his first wife, Mary Slattery, whom he had married in 1940, and wed film star Marilyn Monroe.<ref name"Observer_obit"/> They met in 1951, had a brief affair, and remained in contact.<ref name"Times_obit" /><ref name"Observer_obit"/> Monroe had just turned 30 when they married; she never had a real family of her own and was eager to join the family of her new husband.<ref nameMeyers>Meyers, Jeffrey. The Genius and the Goddess: Arthur Miller and Marilyn Monroe. University of Illinois Press (2010) {{ISBN\|978-0-252-03544-9}}</ref>{{rp\|156}} Monroe began to reconsider her career and the fact that trying to manage it made her feel helpless. She admitted to Miller, "I hate Hollywood. I don't want it any more. I want to live quietly in the country and just be there when you need me. I can't fight for myself any more."<ref nameMeyers/>{{rp\|154}} Monroe converted to Judaism to "express her loyalty and get close to both Miller and his parents", writes biographer Jeffrey Meyers.<ref nameMeyers/>{{rp\|156}} She told her close friend, Susan Strasberg: "I can identify with the Jews. Everybody's always out to get them, no matter what they do, like me."<ref nameMeyers/>{{rp\|156}} Soon after Monroe converted, Egypt banned all of her movies.<ref nameMeyers/>{{rp\|157}} Away from Hollywood and the culture of celebrity, Monroe's life became more normal; she began cooking, keeping house, and giving Miller more attention and affection than he had been used to.<ref name=Meyers/>{{rp\|157}} Later that year, Miller was subpoenaed by the House Un-American Activities Committee, and Monroe accompanied him.<ref name=Cakirtas>Çakırtaş, Önder. [http://www.ijla.net/Makaleler/1213426610_13-22%20%C3%96nder%20%C3%87ak%C4%B1rta%C5%9F%20(1)%20(2).pdf "Double Portrayed: Tituba, Racism and Politics"]. International Journal of Language Academy. Volume 1/1 Winter 2013, pp. 13–22.</ref> In her personal notes, she wrote about her worries during this period: {{blockquote\|I am so concerned about protecting Arthur. I love him—and he is the only person—human being I have ever known that I could love not only as a man to which I am attracted to practically out of my senses—but he is the only person—as another human being that I trust as much as myself...<ref>{{cite book \| last Monroe \| first Marilyn \| title Fragments: Poems, Intimate Notes, Letters \| location New York \| publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux \| date 2010 \| pages 89–101 \| isbn 9780374158354 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idK1KlDQEACAAJ}}</ref>}} During the filming of the 1961 film The Misfits, which Miller wrote the script for, Miller and Monroe's marriage dissolved.<ref name":0" /> Monroe obtained a "Mexican divorce" from Miller in January 1961.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Spoto \|first1Donald \|titleMarilyn Monroe: The Biography \|date2001 \|publisherCooper Square Press \|isbn978-0-8154-1183-3 \|pages450–455}}</ref> In February 1962, Miller married photographer Inge Morath, who had worked as a photographer documenting the production of The Misfits. The first of their two children, Rebecca, was born September 15, 1962. Their son Daniel was born with Down syndrome in November 1966. Against his wife's wishes, Miller had him institutionalized, first at a home for infants in New York City, then at the Southbury Training School in Connecticut. Though Morath visited Daniel often, Miller never visited him at the school and rarely spoke of him; Daniel left Southbury at the age of 17 and gradually went from living in a group home to living in an apartment with occasional visits by a social worker.<ref name"VanityFair">{{cite magazine\|magazineVanity Fair \|titleArthur Miller's Missing Act\|authorAndrews, Suzanna \|dateSeptember 2007\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2007/09/miller200709\|access-dateAugust 17, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|author1Joseph Epstein \|titleGossip: The Untrivial Pursuit \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxBC6gg4ZhQ8C&qjoseph%20epstein%20arthur%20miller&pgPT50 \|publisherHMH \|access-dateMarch 29, 2020 \|pages35–37 \|dateNovember 29, 2011\|isbn9780547577210 }}</ref> Miller and Inge remained together until her death in 2002. Miller's son-in-law, actor Daniel Day-Lewis, is said to have visited Daniel frequently and to have persuaded Miller to meet with him. At one point, Miller answered a question about his son by stating, "Well, he knows I’m a person, and he knows my name, but he doesn’t understand what it means to be a son.” When Inge died, Miller stated that they had only had one child together; Daniel did not attend her funeral. When Miller died, Daniel was named as an heir along with his three other children.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|lastAndrews\|firstSuzanna\|titleArthur Miller's Missing Act\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2007/09/miller200709\|access-dateJune 3, 2021\|magazineVanity Fair\|dateAugust 13, 2007\|languageen-US}}</ref> Death Miller died on the evening of February 10, 2005 (the 56th anniversary of the Broadway debut of Death of a Salesman) at age 89 of bladder cancer and heart failure, at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut. He had been in hospice care at his sister's apartment in New York since his release from hospital the previous month.<ref>{{cite news \|workChicago Tribune\|titleMiller's last days reflected his life\|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/2005/02/23/millers-last-days-reflected-his-life/\|authorRichard Christiansen\|dateFebruary 23, 2005\|author-linkRichard Christiansen (critic)}}</ref> He was surrounded by his companion (the painter Agnes Barley), family, and friends.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.today.com/popculture/playwright-arthur-miller-dies-age-89-wbna6953165\|titlePlaywright Arthur Miller dies at age 89 – THEATER \|publisherToday.com\|access-dateJanuary 11, 2009\|agencyAssociated Press\|dateFebruary 11, 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|authorLeonardin, Tom \|urlhttp://www.independent.ie/world-news/americas/dramatists-last-hours-spent-in-home-he-shared-with-star-273679.html \|titleDramatist's last hours spent in home he shared with star \|workIrish Independent\|access-dateDecember 18, 2011 \|dateFebruary 12, 2005}}</ref> His body was interred at Roxbury Center Cemetery in Roxbury. Within hours of her father's death, Rebecca Miller, who had been consistently opposed to the relationship with Barley, ordered her to vacate the home she shared with Arthur.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1483842/Millers-fiancee-quits-his-home-after-ultimatum-from-family.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/1483842/Millers-fiancee-quits-his-home-after-ultimatum-from-family.html \|archive-dateJanuary 11, 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \| lastLeonard \| firstTom \| titleMiller's fiancée quits his home after ultimatum from family \| workThe Daily Telegraph \| dateFebruary 18, 2005 \| access-dateFebruary 21, 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Legacy Miller's writing career spanned over seven decades, and at the time of his death, he was considered one of the 20th century's greatest dramatists.<ref name"BBC-Obit" /> After his death, many respected actors, directors, and producers paid tribute to him,<ref>{{cite news \|publisher=BBC \|title=Tributes to Arthur Miller \|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/4258921.stm \|access-dateNovember 9, 2006 \| dateFebruary 12, 2005}}</ref> some calling him the last great practitioner of the American stage,<ref>{{cite news \|publisher=BBC \|title=Legacy of Arthur Miller \|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/4258305.stm \|access-dateJanuary 21, 2007 \| dateFebruary 11, 2005}}</ref> and Broadway theatres darkened their lights in a show of respect.<ref>{{cite news \|publisher=BBC \|title=Broadway lights go out for Arthur Miller \|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/4259409.stm \|access-dateNovember 9, 2006 \| dateFebruary 12, 2005}}</ref> Miller's alma mater, the University of Michigan, opened the Arthur Miller Theatre in March 2007. Per his express wish, it is the only theater in the world that bears his name.<ref>{{cite web \|publisher=University of Michigan \|title=U-M celebrates naming of Arthur Miller Theatre \|url=http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases/2004/Nov04/r111604c \|access-date=November 12, 2007 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211223648/http://www.umich.edu/news/index.html?Releases%2F2004%2FNov04%2Fr111604c \|archive-date=December 11, 2007 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Miller's letters, notes, drafts and other papers are housed at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Miller is also a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame. He was inducted in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.theaterhalloffame.org/members.html#M\|titleTheater Hall of Fame &#124; The Official Website &#124; Members &#124; Preserve the Past • Honor the Present • Encourage the Future\|websitetheaterhalloffame.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1979/11/19/113925202.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1979/11/19/113925202.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleTheater Hall of Fame Enshrines 51 Artists\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateMarch 13, 2014}}</ref> In 1993, he received the Four Freedoms Award for Freedom of Speech.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.rooseveltinstitute.org/four-freedoms-awards \|titleFour Freedoms Awards \|access-dateApril 4, 2015 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150325223647/http://www.rooseveltinstitute.org/four-freedoms-awards \|archive-dateMarch 25, 2015}}</ref> In 2017, his daughter, Rebecca Miller, a writer and filmmaker, completed a documentary about her father's life, Arthur Miller: Writer.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/arthur_miller_writer/ \| titleArthur Miller: Writer (2018)\| websiteRotten Tomatoes}}</ref> Minor planet 3769 Arthurmiller is named after him.<ref>{{cite book\|title(3769) Arthurmiller [2.26, 0.11, 4.7] In: Dictionary of Minor Planet Names \|publisherSpringer \|date2006 \|isbn978-3-540-34361-5 \|doi10.1007/978-3-540-34361-5\|last1 Schmadel\|first1 Lutz D.\|urlhttps://cds.cern.ch/record/1453284 }}</ref> In the 2022 Netflix film Blonde, Miller was portrayed by Adrien Brody.<ref>{{cite web \|title'Blonde': 10 of the Marilyn Monroe Biopic's Stars and Their Real-Life Inspirations \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/marilyn-monroe-blonde-characters-casting/john-f-kennedy-portrayed-by-caspar-phillipson/ \|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter \|access-dateAugust 6, 2023 \|dateSeptember 28, 2022}}</ref> Foundation The Arthur Miller Foundation was founded to honor the legacy of Miller and the New York City Public School education. Its mission is "Promoting increased access and equity to theater arts education in our schools and increasing the number of students receiving theater arts education as an integral part of their academic curriculum."<ref>Arthur Miller Foundation, summary report and legitimacy information, guidestar.org</ref> Its other initiatives include certification of new theater teachers and their placement in public schools, increasing the number of theater teachers in the system from the current{{as of?\|date=December 2022}} estimate of 180 teachers in 1800 schools, supporting professional development of all certified theater teachers, and providing teaching artists, cultural partners, physical spaces, and theater ticket allocations for students. The foundation's primary purpose is to provide arts education in the New York City school system. Its current chancellor is Carmen Farina, a prominent proponent of the Common Core State Standards Initiative. The Master Arts Council includes Alec Baldwin, Ellen Barkin, Bradley Cooper, Dustin Hoffman, Scarlett Johansson, Tony Kushner, Julianne Moore, Michael Moore, Liam Neeson, David O. Russell, and Liev Schreiber. Miller's son-in-law, Daniel Day-Lewis, has served on the current board of directors since 2016.<ref>The Arthur Miller Foundation, arthurmillerfoundation.org</ref> The foundation celebrated Miller's 100th birthday with a one-night performance of his seminal works in November 2015.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pen.org/blog/arthur-miller-centenary-events-guide\|titleCelebrating Arthur Miller's Centenary: An Events Guide\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151011021907/http://www.pen.org/blog/arthur-miller-centenary-events-guide\|archive-dateOctober 11, 2015\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Arthur Miller Foundation currently supports a pilot program in theater and film at the public school Quest to Learn, in partnership with the Institute of Play. The model is being used as an in-school elective theater class and lab. Its objective is to create a sustainable theater education model to disseminate to teachers at professional development workshops.<ref>Media Room, Hasty Pudding Institute of 1770, hastypudding.org</ref> Archive Miller donated thirteen boxes of his earliest manuscripts to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 1961 and 1962.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid00786\|titleArthur Miller: An Inventory of His Collection at the Harry Ransom Center\|websitenorman.hrc.utexas.edu\|access-dateJanuary 10, 2018}}</ref> This collection included the original handwritten notebooks and early typed drafts for Death of a Salesman, The Crucible, All My Sons, and other works. In January 2018, the Ransom Center announced the acquisition of the remainder of the Miller archive, totaling over 200 boxes.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://sites.utexas.edu/ransomcentermagazine/2018/01/09/playwright-arthur-millers-archive-comes-to-the-harry-ransom-center/\|titlePlaywright Arthur Miller's archive comes to the Harry Ransom Center\|websitesites.utexas.edu\|languageen-US\|access-dateJanuary 10, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/09/arts/arthur-miller-archive-ransom-center.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/09/arts/arthur-miller-archive-ransom-center.html \|archive-dateJanuary 1, 2022 \|url-accesslimited\|titleInside the Battle for Arthur Miller's Archive\|lastSchuessler\|firstJennifer\|date2018\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateJanuary 10, 2018\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The full archive opened in November 2019.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://sites.utexas.edu/ransomcentermagazine/2019/12/05/playwright-arthur-millers-archive-opens-to-researchers/\|titlePlaywright Arthur Miller's archive opens to researchers\|websitesites.utexas.edu\|access-dateDecember 14, 2019}}</ref> Literary and public criticism Christopher Bigsby wrote Arthur Miller: The Definitive Biography based on boxes of papers Miller made available to him before his death in 2005.<ref name"Times">{{cite news\|urlhttp://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article3499774.ece\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080830065308/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article3499774.ece\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateAugust 30, 2008\|titleUnseen writings show anti-racist passions of young Arthur Miller\|authorAlberge, Dalya \|workThe Times \|locationLondon \|dateMarch 7, 2008\|access-dateMarch 7, 2008 }}</ref> The book was published in November 2008, and is reported to reveal unpublished works in which Miller "bitterly attack[ed] the injustices of American racism long before it was taken up by the civil rights movement".<ref name"Times" /> In his book Trinity of Passion, author Alan M. Wald conjectures that Miller was "a member of a writer's unit of the Communist Party around 1946", using the pseudonym Matt Wayne, and editing a drama column in the magazine The New Masses.<ref name"wald01">{{cite book\|lastWald\|firstAlan M\|author-linkAlan M. Wald\|titleTrinity of passion: the literary left and the antifascist crusade\|publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press\|locationNC\|year2007\|pages212–221\|chapter7\|isbn978-0-8078-3075-8\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEJ7lFKljctAC\|access-date=May 6, 2009}}</ref> In 1999, the writer Christopher Hitchens attacked Miller for comparing the Monica Lewinsky investigation to the Salem witch hunt. Miller had asserted a parallel between the examination of physical evidence on Lewinsky's dress and the examinations of women's bodies for signs of the "Devil's Marks" in Salem. Hitchens scathingly disputed the parallel.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Hitchens\|first1Christopher\|author-linkChristopher Hitchens\|titleBill Clinton: Is He the Most Crooked President in History?\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/apr/18/clinton.usa\|workThe Guardian\|dateApril 18, 1999\|access-dateFebruary 14, 2020}}</ref> In his memoir, Hitch-22, Hitchens bitterly noted that Miller, despite his prominence as a left-wing intellectual, had failed to support author Salman Rushdie during the Iranian fatwa involving The Satanic Verses.<ref>{{Cite magazine\|lastHitchens\|firstChristopher\|titleChristopher Hitchens on the cultural fatwa\|urlhttps://www.vanityfair.com/news/2009/02/hitchens200902\|access-dateSeptember 30, 2020\|magazineVanity Fair\|dateJanuary 5, 2009\|languageen-us}}</ref> Works {{Div col\|colwidth40em}} Stage plays * No Villain (1936) * They Too Arise (1937, based on No Villain) * Honors at Dawn (1938, based on They Too Arise) * The Grass Still Grows (1938, based on They Too Arise) * The Great Disobedience (1938) * Listen My Children (1939, with Norman Rosten) * The Golden Years (1940) * The Half-Bridge (1943) * The Man Who Had All the Luck (1944)<ref name=Times/> * All My Sons (1947) * Death of a Salesman (1949) * An Enemy of the People (1950, adaptation of Henrik Ibsen's play An Enemy of the People) * The Crucible (1953) * A View from the Bridge (1955) * A Memory of Two Mondays (1955) * After the Fall (1964) * Incident at Vichy (1964) * The Price (1968) * The Reason Why (1970) * Fame (one-act, 1970; revised for television 1978) * The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972) * Up from Paradise (1974) * ''The Archbishop's Ceiling (1977) * The American Clock (1980) * Playing for Time (television play, 1980) * Elegy for a Lady (short play, 1982, first part of Two Way Mirror) * Some Kind of Love Story (short play, 1982, second part of Two Way Mirror) * I Think About You a Great Deal (1986) * Playing for Time (stage version, 1985) * I Can't Remember Anything (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!) * Clara (1987, collected in Danger: Memory!) * The Ride Down Mt. Morgan (1991) * The Last Yankee (1993) * Broken Glass (1994) * Mr. Peters' Connections (1998) * Resurrection Blues (2002) * Finishing the Picture (2004) Radio plays * The Pussycat and the Expert Plumber Who Was a Man (1940) * Joel Chandler Harris (1941) * The Battle of the Ovens (1942) * Thunder from the Mountains (1942) * I Was Married in Bataan (1942) * That They May Win (1943) * Listen for the Sound of Wings (1943) * Bernardine (1944) * I Love You (1944) * Grandpa and the Statue (1944) * The Philippines Never Surrendered (1944) * The Guardsman'' (1944, based on Ferenc Molnár's play) * The Story of Gus (1947) Screenplays * The Hook (1947) * All My Sons (1948) * ''Let's Make Love (1960) * The Misfits (1961) * Death of a Salesman (1985) * Everybody Wins (1990) * The Crucible (1996) Assorted fiction * Focus (novel, 1945) * "The Misfits" (short story, published in Esquire, October 1957) * I Don't Need You Anymore (short stories, 1967) * "Homely Girl: A Life" (short story, 1992, published in UK as "Plain Girl: A Life" 1995) * Presence: Stories (2007) (short stories include "The Bare Manuscript", "Beavers", "The Performance", and "Bulldog") {{Div col end}} Non-fiction * Situation Normal (1944) is based on his experiences researching the war correspondence of Ernie Pyle. * In Russia'' (1969), the first of three books created with his photographer wife Inge Morath, offers Miller's impressions of Russia and Russian society. * In the Country (1977), with photographs by Morath and text by Miller, provides insight into how Miller spent his time in Roxbury, Connecticut, and profiles of his various neighbors. * Chinese Encounters (1979) is a travel journal with photographs by Morath. It depicts the Chinese society in the state of flux which followed the end of the Cultural Revolution. Miller discusses the hardships of many writers, professors, and artists during Mao Zedong's regime. * Salesman in Beijing (1984) details Miller's experiences with the 1983 Beijing People's Theatre production of Death of a Salesman. He describes directing a Chinese cast in an American play. * Timebends: A Life, Methuen London (1987) {{ISBN\|0-413-41480-9}}. Miller's autobiography. * On Politics and the Art of Acting, Viking 2001 {ISBN 0-670-030-422} an 85-page essay about the thespian skills in American politics, comparing FDR, JFK, Reagan, Clinton. Collections * Abbotson, Susan C. W. (ed.), Arthur Miller: Collected Essays, Penguin 2016 {{ISBN\|978-0-14-310849-8}} * Kushner, Tony, ed. Arthur Miller, Collected Plays 1944–1961 (Library of America, 2006) {{ISBN\|978-1-931082-91-4}}. * Martin, Robert A. (ed.), "The theater essays of Arthur Miller", foreword by Arthur Miller. NY: Viking Press, 1978 {{ISBN\|0-14-004903-7}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography * Bigsby, Christopher (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller, Cambridge 1997 {{ISBN\|0-521-55992-8}} * Gottfried, Martin, Arthur Miller, A Life, Da Capo Press (US)/Faber and Faber (UK), 2003 {{ISBN\|0-571-21946-2}} * Koorey, Stefani, ''Arthur Miller's Life and Literature, Scarecrow, 2000 {{ISBN\|978-0810838697}} * Moss, Leonard. Arthur Miller, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980. Further reading * Critical Companion to Arthur Miller, Susan Greenwood (2007) * Student Companion to Arthur Miller, Susan C. W. Abbotson, Facts on File (2000) * File on Miller, Christopher Bigsby (1988) * Arthur Miller & Company, Christopher Bigsby, editor (1990) * Arthur Miller: A Critical Study, Christopher Bigsby (2005) * Remembering Arthur Miller, Christopher Bigsby, editor (2005) * Arthur Miller 1915–1962, Christopher Bigsby (2008, U.K.; 2009, U.S.) * The Cambridge Companion to Arthur Miller (Cambridge Companions to Literature), Christopher Bigsby, editor (1998, updated and republished 2010) * Arthur Miller 1962–2005, Christopher Bigsby (2011) * {{cite book\|lastNelson\|firstBenjamin\|titleArthur Miller, Portrait of a Playwright\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/arthurmillerport0000nels\|url-accessregistration\|locationNew York\|publisherMcKay\|year1970}} * Arthur Miller: Critical Insights, Brenda Murphy, editor, Salem (2011) * Understanding Death of a Salesman, Brenda Murphy and Susan C. W. Abbotson, Greenwood (1999) * {{Cite book\|titleArthur Miller: A Collection of Critical Essays\|editor1-linkRobert W. Corrigan\|editorRobert Willoughby Corrigan\|year1969\|publisherPrentice-Hall\|locationEnglewood Cliffs, New Jersey\|isbn978-0135829738\|ol5683736M\|url=https://archive.org/details/arthurmillercoll00corr}} Critical articles * Arthur Miller Journal'', published biannually by Penn State UP. Vol. 1.1 (2006) * Radavich, David. "Arthur Miller's Sojourn in the Heartland". American Drama 16:2 (Summer 2007): 28–45. External links {{external links\|date=August 2018}} {{sister project links\|dQ80596\|cCategory:Arthur Miller\|nno\|bno\|vno\|voyno\|mno\|mwno\|sno\|wiktno\|species=no}} Organizations * [http://www.arthurmiller.org/ Arthur Miller official website] * [http://arthurmillersociety.net Arthur Miller Society] * [http://arthurmillerfoundation.org/ The Arthur Miller Foundation] Archive * [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00786 Arthur Miller Papers] at the Harry Ransom Center * [http://sites.utexas.edu/ransomcentermagazine/2018/01/09/playwright-arthur-millers-archive-comes-to-the-harry-ransom-center/ "Playwright Arthur Miller's archive comes to the Harry Ransom Center"] * [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079107 Finding aid to Arthur Miller papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.] Databases * {{IBDB name}} * {{iobdb name\|2982}} * {{IMDb name\|7186}} Websites * {{find a Grave\|10457606}} * {{C-SPAN\|50453}} * [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040112/miller/ A Visit With Castro] – Miller's article in The Nation, January 12, 2004 * {{OL author}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110504062331/http://www.usfca.edu/jco/arthurmiller/ Joyce Carol Oates on Arthur Miller] * [http://www.biography.com/people/arthur-miller-9408335 Arthur Miller Biography] [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/arthur-miller/mccarthyism/484/ Arthur Miller and Mccarthyism] Interviews {{cite journal\| urlhttp://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4369/the-art-of-theater-no-2-arthur-miller\| journal The Paris Review Interview \| volumeSummer 1966 \| issue 38 \| dateSummer 1966\| titleArthur Miller, The Art of Theater No. 2\|author1Carlisle, Olga \|author2Styron, Rose \|name-list-style=amp }} * {{cite journal\| urlhttp://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/895/the-art-of-theater-no-2-part-2-arthur-miller\| journal The Paris Review \| volumeFall 1999 \| issue 152 \| titleArthur Miller, The Art of Theater No. 2, Part 2\| author Bigby, Christopher \| date=Fall 1999 }} * [http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/miller/interview.html Miller interview], Humanities, March–April 2001 Obituaries * [https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/theater/newsandfeatures/11cnd-miller.html The New York Times Obituary] * [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4495305 NPR obituary] * [http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/books/02/11/obit.miller/ CNN obituary] {{s-start}} {{s-npo}} {{s-bef\|before=Victor E. van Vriesland}} {{s-ttl\|titleInternational President of PEN International\|years1965–1969}} {{s-aft\|after=Pierre Emmanuel}} {{s-end}} {{The Works of Arthur Miller}} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Arthur Miller \|list = {{Emmy Award for Miniseries Writing 1979-2000}} {{Kennedy Center Honorees 1980s}} {{National Medal of Arts recipients 1990s}} {{PulitzerPrize DramaAuthors}} {{Special Tony Award}} {{TonyAward BestAuthor}} {{Prince of Asturias Award for Literature}} {{Evelyn F. Burkey Award}} }} {{The Crucible}} {{Death of a Salesman}} {{Marilyn Monroe}} {{Portal bar\|Theatre\|Biography}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Miller, Arthur}} Category:1915 births Category:2005 deaths Category:University of Michigan alumni <!-- Honors and recognition --> Category:Kennedy Center honorees Category:Laurence Olivier Award winners Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:Pulitzer Prize for Drama winners Category:Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale Category:Tony Award winners <!-- Who he was --> Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American essayists Category:20th-century American Jews Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:20th-century American memoirists Category:20th-century American travel writers Category:21st-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American Jews Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American screenwriters Category:21st-century American short story writers Category:Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn) alumni Category:American agnostics Category:American anti-capitalists Category:American anti-fascists Category:American autobiographers Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:American male essayists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American male screenwriters Category:American male short story writers Category:American memoirists Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent Category:American radio writers Category:American travel writers Category:Analysands of Rudolph Lowenstein Category:Anti-consumerists Category:Deaths from bladder cancer in the United States Category:Deaths from cancer in Connecticut Category:Federal Theatre Project people Category:American free speech activists Category:Freethought writers Category:Hopwood Award winners Category:Jerusalem Prize recipients Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights Category:Jewish novelists Category:Mass media theorists Category:American media critics Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Category:Metaphor theorists Category:The Michigan Daily alumni Category:PEN International Category:People from Brooklyn Heights Category:People from Gravesend, Brooklyn Category:People from Midwood, Brooklyn Category:People from Roxbury, Connecticut Category:American postmodern writers Category:Special Tony Award recipients Category:Theatre theorists Category:Theatrologists Category:Writers about activism and social change Category:Writers about communism Category:Writers about theatre Category:Writers from Brooklyn Category:Writers from Connecticut Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period Category:Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age Category:Writers of historical romances Category:American lecturers Category:American opera librettists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Miller	2025-04-05T18:26:00.249904
2313	Anton Diabelli	210px\|thumb\|Anton Diabelli, lithograph by Josef Kriehuber Anton (or Antonio) Diabelli (5 September 17818 April 1858) was an Austrian music publisher, editor and composer. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the waltz on which Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his set of thirty-three Diabelli Variations. Early life Diabelli was born in Mattsee in Austria, then in the Archbishopric of Salzburg. A musical child, he sang in the boys' choir at Salzburg Cathedral where he is believed to have taken music lessons with Michael Haydn. By the age of 19 Diabelli had already composed several important compositions including six masses. Diabelli was trained to enter the priesthood and in 1800 joined the monastery at Raitenhaslach, Bavaria. and published much music by Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss. In 1872 the firm was taken over by Friedrich Schreiber and in 1876 it merged with the firm of August Cranz who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name. Diabelli died in Vienna at the age of 76. Compositions Diabelli composed a number of well-known Classical works, including an operetta called Adam in der Klemme, several masses, songs and numerous piano and classical guitar pieces. Numerically his guitar pieces form the largest part of his works. His pieces for piano four hands are popular. Diabelli's composition Pleasures of Youth: Six Sonatinas is a collection of six sonatinas depicting a struggle between unknown opposing forces. This is suggested by the sharp and frequent change in dynamics from forte to piano. When forte is indicated the pianist is meant to evoke a sense of wickedness, thus depicting the antagonist. In contrast the markings of piano represent the protagonist. Diabelli Variations The composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of an adventuring story. In 1819, as a promotional idea, he decided to try to publish a volume of variations on a "patriotic" waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. The combined contributions would be published in an anthology called Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Fifty-one composers responded with pieces, including Beethoven, Schubert, Archduke Rudolph of Austria, Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart (jun.), Moritz, Prince of Dietrichstein, Heinrich Eduard Josef Baron von Lannoy, Ignaz Franz Baron von Mosel, Carl Czerny, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, Simon Sechter, and the eight-year-old Franz Liszt (although it seems Liszt was not invited personally, but his teacher Czerny arranged for him to be involved). Czerny was also enlisted to write a coda. Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided 33, and his formed Part I of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the Diabelli Variations, Op. 120. The other 50 variations were published as Part II of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. See also Romantic guitar References Published music and further reading Anton Diabelli's guitar works – a thematic catalogue with an introduction; Doctoral Thesis by Jukka Savijoki (Sibelius Academy; 1996) Anton Diabelli's Guitar Works: A Thematic Catalogue by Jukka Savijoki (Editions Orphée) Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden www.karadar.com/Dictionary/diabelli.html Free scores at the Mutopia Project External links Category:1781 births Category:1858 deaths Category:19th-century Austrian classical composers Category:19th-century Austrian male musicians Category:Austrian opera composers Category:Austrian people of Italian descent Category:Austrian Romantic composers Category:Composers for piano Category:Composers for the classical guitar Category:Austrian male opera composers Category:Sheet music publishers (people) Category:People from Salzburg-Umgebung District Category:People from the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Diabelli	2025-04-05T18:26:00.255888
2314	Anita Hill	{{Short description\|American law professor and accuser of Clarence Thomas}} {{pp-move}} {{about\|the lawyer}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=October 2021}} {{Infobox person \| name = Anita Hill \| image = Anita Hill by Gage Skidmore.jpg \| caption = Hill in 2018 \| birth_name = Anita Faye Hill \| birth_date {{birth date and age\|1956\|7\|30}}<ref>{{cite book \|titleSpeaking Truth to Power \|authorAnita Hill \|publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group \|date2011 \|isbn9780307779663 \|page=53}}</ref> \| birth_place = Lone Tree, Oklahoma, U.S. \| death_date \| death_place \| education = Oklahoma State University (BS)<br />Yale University (JD) \| employer = Brandeis University }} Anita Faye Hill (born July 30, 1956) is an American lawyer, educator and author. She is a professor of social policy, law, and women's studies at Brandeis University and a faculty member of the university's Heller School for Social Policy and Management.<ref name"faculty profile" /> She became a national figure in 1991 when she accused U.S.&nbsp;Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas, her supervisor at the United States Department of Education and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, of sexual harassment. Early life and education Anita Hill was born to a family of farmers in Lone Tree, Oklahoma, the youngest of Albert and Erma Hill's 13 children.<ref name"historical" /><ref name "hearings" /> Her family came from Arkansas, where her maternal grandfather Henry Eliot and all of her great-grandparents had been born into slavery.<ref name"creating a stir" /> Hill was raised in the Baptist faith.<ref name="historical" /> Hill graduated from Morris High School, Oklahoma, in 1973, where she was class valedictorian.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.classmates.com/siteui/yearbooks/219047?page23\|title Classmates - Find your school, yearbooks and alumni online}}</ref> Hill received her bachelor's degree in psychology in 1977 from Oklahoma State University. In 1980, she earned her Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in New Haven, Connecticut.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnita Hill's Biography \|urlhttps://www.thehistorymakers.org/biography/anita-hill \|access-date2023-11-05 \|websiteThe HistoryMakers \|languageen}}</ref> Early career Hill was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1980 and began her law career as an associate with the Washington, D.C. firm of Wald, Harkrader & Ross. In 1981, she became an attorney-adviser to Clarence Thomas, who was then the Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1982, Hill served as his assistant, leaving the job in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anita-Hill\|titleAnita Hill\|dateOctober 2, 2018\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|access-date=October 20, 2018}}</ref> Hill then became an assistant professor at the Evangelical Christian O.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;Coburn School of Law at Oral Roberts University where she taught from 1983 to 1986.<ref name"cmht" /> In 1986, she joined the faculty at the University of Oklahoma College of Law where she taught commercial law and contracts.<ref name"seeks quiet" /><ref name="plans to leave" /> In 1989, she became the first tenured African American professor at OU. She left the university in 1996 due to ongoing calls for her resignation that began after her 1991 testimony. In 1998, she became a visiting scholar at Brandeis University and, in 2015, a university professor at the school.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anita-Hill\|titleAnita Hill\|dateSeptember 27, 2021\|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica\|access-dateSeptember 28, 2021}}</ref> Allegations of sexual harassment against Clarence Thomas {{further\|Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination}} In 1991, President George H.&nbsp;W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas, a federal circuit judge, to succeed retiring Associate Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall. Senate hearings on his confirmation were initially completed<ref name"empowered women"/> with Thomas's good character being presented as a primary qualification for the high court because he had been a judge for just slightly more than one year.<ref name"the nine" /> There had been little organized opposition to Thomas's nomination, and his confirmation seemed assured<ref name"the nine"/> until a report of a private interview of Hill by the FBI was leaked to the press.<ref name"empowered women" /><ref name"defends"/> The hearings were then reopened, and Hill was called to testify publicly.<ref name"empowered women"/><ref name="defends"/> Hill said on October 11, 1991, in televised hearings that Thomas had sexually harassed her while he was her supervisor at the Department of Education and the EEOC.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/20/us/politics/anita-hill-testimony-clarence-thomas.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/20/us/politics/anita-hill-testimony-clarence-thomas.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleAnita Hill's Testimony and Other Key Moments From the Clarence Thomas Hearings\|workThe New York Times \|dateSeptember 20, 2018 \|access-dateOctober 11, 2018\|languageen\|last1Jacobs \|first1Julia }}{{cbignore}}</ref> When questioned on why she followed Thomas to the second job after he had already allegedly harassed her, she said working in a reputable position within the civil rights field had been her ambition. The position was appealing enough to keep her from going back into private practice with her previous firm. She said that she realized only later in her life that the choice had represented poor judgment on her part, but that "at that time, it appeared that the sexual overtures... had ended."<ref name"hearings"/> According to Hill, Thomas asked her out socially many times during her two years of employment as his assistant,<ref name"defends integrity"/> and after she declined his requests, he used work situations to discuss sexual subjects and push advances.<ref name"hearings"/><ref name"defends integrity"/> "He spoke about... such matters as women having sex with animals and films showing group sex or rape scenes," she said, adding that on several occasions Thomas graphically described "his own sexual prowess" and the details of his anatomy. Hill also recounted an instance in which Thomas examined a can of Coke on his desk and asked, "Who has put pubic hair on my Coke?"<ref name"hearings"/> Thomas said he had considered Hill a friend whom he had helped at every turn, so when accusations of harassment came from her, they were particularly hurtful and he said, "I lost the belief that if I did my best, all would work out."<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Anita Hill Case - 1753 Words {{!}} www2.bartleby.com \|urlhttps://www2.bartleby.com/essay/The-Anita-Hill-Case-C45E2F059D6D4D8C \|access-date2023-06-16 \|websitewww2.bartleby.com}}</ref> Four female witnesses waited in the wings to support Hill's credibility, but they were not called,<ref name"defends"/><ref name"strange justice"/> due to what the Los&nbsp;Angeles Times described as a private, compromise deal between Republicans and the Senate Judiciary Committee chair, Democrat Joe Biden.<ref name"private deal">{{cite news\|author1Douglas Frantz\|author2Sam Fulwood III\|dateOctober 17, 1991\|titleSenators' Private Deal Kept '2nd Woman' Off TV: Thomas: Democrats feared Republican attacks on Angela Wright's public testimony. Biden's handling of the hearing is criticized.\|workLos Angeles Times\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-10-17-mn-911-story.html\|access-dateOctober 27, 2011}}</ref> Hill agreed to take a polygraph test. While senators and other authorities observed that polygraph results cannot be relied upon and are inadmissible in courts, Hill's results did support her statements.<ref name"polygraph"/> Thomas did not take a polygraph test. He made a vehement and complete denial, saying that he was being subjected to a "high-tech lynching for uppity blacks" by white liberals who were seeking to block a black conservative from taking a seat on the Supreme Court.<ref name"testimony of thomas"/><ref name"wife seeks"/> After extensive debate, the United States Senate confirmed Thomas to the Supreme Court by a vote of 52–48, the narrowest margin since the 19th century.<ref name"strange justice"/><ref name="smearing"/> Members questioned Hill's credibility after the timeline of her events came into question.<ref name"defends"/> They mentioned the time delay of ten years between the alleged behavior by Thomas and Hill's accusations, and observed that Hill had followed Thomas to a second job and later had personal contacts with Thomas, including giving him a ride to an airport — behavior which they said would be inexplicable if Hill's allegations were true.<ref name"defends integrity"/><ref name"seeks quiet"/><ref name"defends"/><ref name"corroborated"/> Hill countered that she had come forward because she felt an obligation to share information on the character and actions of a person who was being considered for the Supreme Court.<ref name"defends"/> She testified that after leaving the EEOC, she had had two "inconsequential" phone conversations with Thomas, and had seen him personally on two occasions, once to get a job reference and the second time when he made a public appearance in Oklahoma where she was teaching.<ref name="hearings"/> Doubts about the veracity of Hill's 1991 testimony persisted among conservatives long after Thomas took his seat on the Court. They were furthered by right-wing magazine American Spectator writer David Brock in his 1993 book The Real Anita Hill,<ref name"strange justice"/> though he later recanted the claims he had made which he described in his book as "character assassination," and apologized to Hill.<ref name"author lied"/><ref>By 2004, Brock had made a political about-face from conservative to liberal and founded the progressive media watchdog organization Media Matters for America</ref> After interviewing a number of women who alleged that Thomas had frequently subjected them to sexually explicit remarks, The Wall Street Journal reporters Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson wrote, Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas, a book that concluded that Thomas had lied during his confirmation process.<ref name"smearing"/><ref name"the selling"/> Richard Lacayo in his 1994 review of the book for Time magazine remarked, however, that "Their book doesn't quite nail that conclusion."<ref name"strange justice"/> In 2007, Kevin {{sic\|hidey\|Merida}}, a co-author of another book on Thomas, remarked that what happened between Thomas and Hill was "ultimately unknowable" by others, but that it was clear that "one of them lied, period."<ref name"good morning"/><ref name"supreme discomfort"/> Writing in 2007, Neil Lewis of The New York Times remarked that, "To this day, each side in the epic he-said, she-said dispute has its unmovable believers."<ref name="weighs in"/> In 2007, Thomas published his autobiography, ''My Grandfather's Son, in which he revisited the controversy, calling Hill his "most traitorous adversary", and writing that pro-choice liberals, who feared he would vote to overturn Roe v. Wade'' if he were seated on the Supreme Court, used the scandal against him.<ref name"weighs in"/> He described Hill as touchy and apt to overreact, and her work at the EEOC as mediocre.<ref name"weighs in"/><ref name"fires back"/> He acknowledged that three other former EEOC employees had backed Hill's story, but said they had all left the agency on bad terms.<ref name"fires back"/> He also wrote that Hill "was a left-winger who'd never expressed any religious sentiments whatsoever&nbsp;... and the only reason why she'd held a job in the Reagan administration was because I'd given it to her."<ref name"grandfather's son"/> Hill denied the accusations in an op-ed in The New York Times saying she would not "stand by silently and allow [Justice Thomas], in his anger, to reinvent me."<ref name"haven't really"/><ref name="smear"/> In October 2010, Thomas's wife Virginia, a conservative activist, left a voicemail at Hill's office asking that Hill apologize for her 1991 testimony. Hill initially believed the call was a hoax and referred the matter to the Brandeis University campus police who alerted the FBI.<ref name"wife seeks"/><ref nameNYT/> After being informed that the call was indeed from Virginia Thomas, Hill told the media that she did not believe the message was meant to be conciliatory and said, "I testified truthfully about my experience and I stand by that testimony."<ref name"wife seeks"/> Virginia Thomas responded that the call had been intended as an "olive branch".<ref name"wife seeks"/><ref name"historical"/> Effects Shortly after the Thomas confirmation hearings, President George H.&nbsp;W. Bush dropped his opposition to a bill that gave harassment victims the right to seek federal damage awards, back pay, and reinstatement, and the law was passed by Congress.<ref name"sexual harassment"/><ref name"legacy"/> One year later, harassment complaints filed with the EEOC were up 50 percent and public opinion had shifted in Hill's favor.<ref name"legacy"/> Private companies also started training programs to deter sexual harassment.<ref name"sexual harassment"/> When journalist Cinny Kennard asked Hill in 1991 if she would testify against Thomas all over again, Hill answered, "I'm not sure if I could have lived with myself if I had answered those questions any differently."<ref>{{cite news\|last1Kennard\|first1Cinny\|titleTwenty Years Later: Covering the Anita Hill Story\|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/cinny-kennard/anita-hill-_b_1009527.html\|workHuffPost\|access-dateFebruary 6, 2015\|quoteIn Norman that Oct. 15 night, I asked Hill if she would do it all over again. 'I'm not sure if I could have lived with myself if I had answered those questions any differently,' she replied.\|date=October 13, 2011}}</ref> The manner in which the Senate Judiciary Committee challenged and dismissed Hill's accusations of sexual harassment angered female politicians and lawyers.<ref name"panel's handling" /> According to D.C.&nbsp;Congressional Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton, Hill's treatment by the panel was a contributing factor to the large number of women elected to Congress in 1992. "Women clearly went to the polls with the notion in mind that you had to have more women in Congress," she said.<ref name"haven't really"/> In their anthology, All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave, editors Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and Barbara Smith described black feminists mobilizing "a remarkable national response to the Anita Hill–Clarence Thomas controversy.<ref name="all the women"/> In 1992, a feminist group began a nationwide fundraising campaign and then obtained matching state funds to endow a professorship at the University of Oklahoma College of Law in honor of Hill.<ref name"plans to leave" /><ref name"fund" /> Conservative Oklahoma state legislators reacted by demanding Hill's resignation from the university, then introducing a bill to prohibit the university from accepting donations from out-of-state residents, and finally attempting to pass legislation to close down the law school.<ref name"plans to leave" /> Elmer Zinn Million, a local activist, compared Hill to Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of President Kennedy.<ref name"plans to leave" /><ref name"fund" /> Certain officials at the university attempted to revoke Hill's tenure.<ref name"the stories" /> After five years of pressure, Hill resigned.<ref name"plans to leave" /> The University of Oklahoma Law School defunded the Anita F. Hill professorship in May 1999, without the position's having ever been filled.<ref name"scraps"/> On April 25, 2019, the presidential campaign team for Joe Biden for the 2020 United States presidential election disclosed that he had called Hill to express "his regret for what she endured" in his role as the chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, presiding over the Thomas confirmation hearings. Hill said the call from Biden left her feeling "deeply unsatisfied".<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/us/politics/joe-biden-anita-hill.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/25/us/politics/joe-biden-anita-hill.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleJoe Biden Expresses Regret to Anita Hill, but She Says 'I'm Sorry' Is Not Enough \|last1Stolberg \|first1Sheryl Gay \|dateApril 25, 2019 \|workThe New York Times\|access-dateApril 26, 2019 \|last2Hulse \|first2Carl \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2019/04/25/politics/biden-hill-spoke-cnntv/index.html\|titleJoe Biden and Anita Hill finally spoke. She says he doesn't understand the damaged he caused.\|firstCaroline \|lastKelly\|websiteCNN\|dateApril 25, 2019\|access-dateApril 26, 2019}}</ref> On June 13, 2019, Hill clarified that she did not consider Biden's actions disqualifying, and would be open to voting for him.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2020-election/course-i-could-anita-hill-says-she-d-be-open-n1017371\|title'Of course I could': Anita Hill says she'd be open to voting for Joe Biden \|workNBC News \|dateJune 13, 2019 \|first1Dareh \|last1Gregorian \|access-dateJune 13, 2019}}</ref> In May 2020, Hill argued that sexual assault allegations made against Donald Trump as well as the sexual assault allegation against Biden should be investigated and their results "made available to the public."<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Bennett \|first1Jessica \|last2Lerer \|first2Lisa \|dateMay 2, 2020\|titleThe Allegation Is Against Joe Biden, but the Burden Is on Women \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/02/us/politics/tara-reade-joe-biden-metoo.html \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> On September 5, 2020, it was reported that Hill had vowed to vote for Biden and to work with him on gender issues.<ref>{{cite web\|lastColwell\|firstAnn\|titleAnita Hill vows to vote for Joe Biden and work with him on gender issues \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2020/09/05/politics/anita-hill-joe-biden-voting/index.html \|access-dateSeptember 5, 2020 \|websiteCNN\|dateSeptember 5, 2020 }}</ref> Continued work and advocacy Hill continued to teach at the University of Oklahoma, though she spent two years as a visiting professor in California. She resigned her post in October 1996 and finished her final semester of teaching there.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/13/us/anita-hill-plans-to-leave-teaching-post-in-oklahoma.html\|titleAnita Hill Plans to Leave Teaching Post in Oklahoma\|lastThomas\|firstJo\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateNovember 13, 1996\|access-dateSeptember 21, 2018}}</ref> In her final semester, she taught a law school seminar on civil rights. An endowed chair was created in her name, but was later defunded without ever having been filled.<ref name="scraps"/> Hill accepted a position as a visiting scholar at the Institute for the Study of Social Change at University of California, Berkeley in January 1997,<ref name"uc berkeley" /> but soon joined the faculty of Brandeis University—first at the Women's Studies Program, later moving to the Heller School for Social Policy and Management. In 2011, she also took a counsel position with the Civil Rights & Employment Practice group of the plaintiffs' law firm Cohen Milstein.<ref name"cmht" /> Over the years, Hill has provided commentary on gender and race issues on national television programs, including 60&nbsp;Minutes, Face the Nation, and Meet the Press.<ref name"historical" /><ref name"cmht" /> She has been a speaker on the topic of commercial law as well as race and women's rights.<ref name"cmht" /> She is also the author of articles that have been published in The New York Times and Newsweek<ref name"historical" /><ref name"cmht" /> and has contributed to many scholarly and legal publications in the areas of international commercial law, bankruptcy, and civil rights.<ref name"cmht" /><ref name="american speakers" /> In 1995, Hill co-edited Race, Gender and Power in America: The Legacy of the Hill-Thomas Hearings with Emma Coleman Jordan.<ref name"historical" /><ref name"race, gender" /> In 1997 Hill published her autobiography, Speaking Truth to Power,<ref name"speaking truth" /> in which she chronicled her role in the Clarence Thomas confirmation controversy<ref name"historical" /><ref name"creating a stir" /> and wrote that creating a better society had been a motivating force in her life.<ref name"then & now" /> She contributed the piece "The Nature of the Beast: Sexual Harassment" to the 2003 anthology ''Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium'', edited by Robin Morgan.<ref name"illinois1">{{cite web\|urlhttp://vufind.carli.illinois.edu/vf-dpu/Record/dpu_536804/TOC \|titleLibrary Resource Finder: Table of Contents for: Sisterhood is forever : the women's anth \|publisherVufind.carli.illinois.edu \|access-dateOctober 15, 2015}}</ref> In 2011, Hill published her second book, Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home, which focuses on the sub-prime lending crisis that resulted in the foreclosure of many homes owned by African-Americans.<ref name"defends" /><ref name"reimagining" /> She calls for a new understanding about the importance of a home and its place in the American Dream.<ref name"creating a stir" /> On March 26, 2015, the Brandeis Board of Trustees unanimously voted to recognize Hill with a promotion to Private University Professor of Social Policy, Law, and Women's Studies.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.brandeis.edu/now/2015/april/hill-appointed-university-professor.html\|titleAnita Hill named University Professor\|workBrandeisNow\|dateApril 15, 2015}}</ref> On December 16, 2017, the Commission on Sexual Harassment and Advancing Equality in the Workplace was formed, selecting Hill to lead its charge against sexual harassment in the entertainment industry. The new initiative was spearheaded by co-chair of the Nike Foundation Maria Eitel, venture capitalist Freada Kapor Klein, Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and talent attorney Nina Shaw.<ref>Washington Post: [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/arts-and-entertainment/wp/2017/12/16/anita-hill-chosen-to-lead-hollywood-sexual-harassment-commission/ "Anita Hill chosen to lead Hollywood sexual harassment commission" by Ellen McCarthy] December 16, 2017</ref> The report found not only a saddening prevalence of continued bias but also stark differences in how varying demographics perceived discrimination and harassment.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/anita-hill-led-hollywood-commission-reveals-gender-racial-bias-gap-in-industry-workplaces \| workThe Hollywood Reporter \| titleAnita Hill-Led Hollywood Commission Reveals Gender, Racial Bias Gap in Industry Workplaces \| dateOctober 7, 2020}}</ref> In September 2018, Hill wrote an op-ed in The New York Times regarding sexual assault allegations made by Christine Blasey Ford during the Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/18/opinion/anita-hill-brett-kavanaugh-clarence-thomas.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/18/opinion/anita-hill-brett-kavanaugh-clarence-thomas.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleAnita Hill: How to Get the Kavanaugh Hearings Right\|lastHill\|firstAnita\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateSeptember 18, 2018\|access-dateSeptember 22, 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On November 8, 2018, Anita Hill spoke at the USC Dornsife's event, "From Social Movement to Social Impact: Putting an End to Sexual Harassment in the Workplace".<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thewrap.com/anita-hill-joe-biden-hasnt-apologized-to-me-for-handling-of-thomas-hearings/\|titleAnita Hill: Joe Biden 'Hasn't Apologized to Me' for Handling of Thomas Hearings\|dateNovember 8, 2018\|workTheWrap\|access-dateNovember 10, 2018\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://annenberg.usc.edu/events/social-movement-social-impact-putting-end-sexual-harassment-workplace\|titleFrom social movement to social impact: Putting an end to sexual harassment in the workplace\|websiteannenberg.usc.edu\|languageen\|access-dateNovember 10, 2018}}</ref> Writings {{external media \| width 20em \| float right \| headerimage \| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?93523-1/speaking-truth-power Booknotes interview with Hill on Speaking Truth to Power, November 23, 1997], C-SPAN (58:21)}} In 1994, Hill wrote a tribute to Thurgood Marshall, the first African American Supreme Court Justice who preceded Clarence Thomas, titled "A Tribute to Thurgood Marshall: A Man Who Broke with Tradition on Issues of Race and Gender".<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastHill\|firstAnita F.\|year1994\|titleA tribute to Thurgood Marshall: a man who broke with tradition on issues of race and gender. (Symposium: The Life and Jurisprudence of Justice Thurgood Marshall)\|urlhttps://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handlehein.journals/oklrv47&div16&id&page\|url-accesssubscription \|journalOklahoma Law Review \|volume47\|page127\|viaheinonline}}</ref> She outlined Marshall's contributions to the principles of equality as a judge and how his work has affected the lives of African Americans, specifically African American women. On October 20, 1998, Hill published the book Speaking Truth to Power. Throughout much of the book she gives details on her side of the sexual harassment controversy, and her professional relationship with Clarence Thomas. Aside from that, she also provides a glimpse of what her personal life was like all the way from her childhood days growing up in Oklahoma to her position as a law professor.<ref name"speaking truth" />{{page needed\|dateNovember 2016}} Hill became a proponent for women's rights and feminism. This can be seen through the chapter she wrote in the 2007 book Women and leadership: the state of play and strategies for change.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHill \|firstAnita \|year2007 \|chapterWhat Difference Will Women Judges Make? Looking Once More at the 'Woman Question' \|editor1-lastKellerman \|editor1-firstBarbara \|editor2-lastRhode \|editor2-firstDeborah L. \|titleWomen and Leadership: The State of Play and Strategies for Change \|locationSan Francisco, Calif. \|publisherJossey-Bass, a Wiley Imprint \|isbn9780787988333 \|oclc651755447 \|pages1–29}}</ref> She wrote about women judges and why, in her opinion, they play such a large role in balancing the judicial system.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCourt Role and Structure {{!}} United States Courts \|urlhttps://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/court-role-and-structure \|access-date2023-06-28 \|websitewww.uscourts.gov \|language=en}}</ref> She argues that since women and men have different life experiences, ways of thinking, and histories, both are needed for a balanced court system. She writes that in order for the best law system to be created in the United States, all people need the ability to be represented. In 2011, Hill's second book, Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home was published.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleReimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home\|lastHill\|firstAnita\|publisherBeacon Press\|year2011\|isbn9780807014370\|locationBoston, Mass. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/reimaginingequal00hill}}</ref> She discusses the relationship between the home and the American Dream. She also exposes the inequalities within gender and race and home ownership. She argues that inclusive democracy is more important than debates about legal rights. She uses her own history and history of other African American women such as Nannie Helen Burroughs, in order to strengthen her argument for reimagining equality altogether. On September 28, 2021, Hill published the book Believing: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastHill\|firstAnita \|titleBelieving: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence \|year2021 \|urlhttps://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/671557/believing-by-anita-hill/9780593298299 \|locationNew York \|publisherViking \|isbn9780593298299 \|oclc1262795225 \|access-dateSeptember 29, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleBelieving: Our Thirty-Year Journey to End Gender Violence By Anita Hill \|urlhttps://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/671557/believing-by-anita-hill/9780593298299 \|publisherPenguin Random House \|access-dateSeptember 29, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|title[Review:&#93; Anita Hill urges us all to battle gender violence \|urlhttps://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-593-29829-9 \|workPublishers Weekly \|dateSeptember 28, 2021 \|access-dateSeptember 29, 2021}}</ref> Awards and recognition Hill received the American Bar Association's Commission on Women in the Profession's "Women of Achievement" award in 1992.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1992/08/10/aba-salutes-anita-hill/49477acf-aa4d-44de-9997-143a0fcc530f/\|titleABA SALUTES ANITA HILL\|newspaperThe Washington Post}}</ref> In 2005, Hill was selected as a Fletcher Foundation Fellow. In 2008 she was awarded the Louis P. and Evelyn Smith First Amendment Award<ref name"fordhall" /> by the Ford Hall Forum. She also serves on the board of trustees for Southern Vermont College in Bennington, Vermont.<ref name"svc" /> She was inducted into the Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame in 1993.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://library.okstate.edu/oralhistory/digital/oklahoma-womens-hall-of-fame/inductees#1993link\|titleOklahoma Women's Hall of Fame Inductees by Year\|websitelibrary.okstate.edu\|languageen\|access-dateAugust 3, 2018}}</ref> On January 7, 2017, Hill was inducted as an honorary member of Zeta Phi Beta sorority at their National Executive Board Meeting in Dallas, Texas.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/ZPHIBHQ/posts/884945034942473:0 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/245830558853927/884945034942473 \|archive-date2022-02-25 \|url-accesssubscription\|titleZeta Phi Beta Sorority, Incorporated (Official)\|websitewww.facebook.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The Wing's Washington, D.C. location has a phone booth dedicated to Hill.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/410616-womens-workspace-dedicates-new-conference-room-to-christine\|titleWomen's co-working network gives nod to Christine Blasey Ford at new space\|lastGstalter\|firstMorgan\|dateOctober 9, 2018\|workThe Hill\|access-dateOctober 15, 2018}}</ref> Minor planet 6486 Anitahill, discovered by Eleanor Helin, is named in her honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on November 8, 2019 ({{small\|M.P.C. 117229}}).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2019/MPC_20191108.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/2019/MPC_20191108.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \| titleMINOR PLANET CIRCULARS/MINOR PLANETS AND COMETS, M.P.C 117229 \|dateNovember 8, 2019}}</ref> Honorary doctorates * 2001: Simmons University<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleAnita Hill Scholarship and Biography \|urlhttps://scholarworks.brandeis.edu/esploro/profile/anita_hill/overview \|access-date2024-01-15 \|website=Brandeis Scholarworks}}</ref> * 2001: Dillard University<ref name=":0" /> * 2003: Smith College<ref name=":0" /> * 2007: Lasell University<ref name=":0" /> * 2008: Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts<ref name=":0" /> * 2013: Mount Ida College<ref name=":0" /> * 2017: Emerson College<ref name=":0" /> * 2018: Wesleyan University<ref>{{cite news \|lastOrmseth \|firstMatthew \|dateMay 27, 2018 \|titleAnita Hill, Tapped to Replace Keynote Speaker Accused of Sexual Misconduct, Warns Wesleyan Graduates of "Uncertain Times" Ahead \|urlhttp://www.courant.com/news/connecticut/hc-news-wesleyan-commencement-20180526-story.html \|access-dateJune 1, 2018 \|work=Hartford Courant}}</ref> * 2019: Lesley University<ref name=":0" /> * 2022: Mount Holyoke College<ref name":0" /> In popular culture {{inpopularculture\|dateJanuary 2025}} * In 1991, the television sitcom Designing Women built its episode "The Strange Case of Clarence and Anita" around the hearings on the Clarence Thomas nomination.<ref>{{citation\|websiteThe Internet Movie Database\|titleThe Strange Case of Clarence and Anita\|dateNovember 4, 1991\|urlhttp://www.imdb.com/title/tt0558677/\|access-dateMay 7, 2019}}</ref> The following season in the episode "The Odyssey", the characters imagined what would happen if new president Bill Clinton nominated Anita Hill to the Supreme Court to sit next to Clarence Thomas.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAbbey \|firstCherie D. \|date2001 \|titleBiography Today: Profiles of People of Interest to Young Readers. Author Series, Volume 9. \|urlhttps://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED454140.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230616022336/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED454140.pdf \|archive-dateJune 16, 2023 \|access-dateJune 15, 2023}}</ref> * Hill is referenced in the 1992 Sonic Youth song "Youth Against Fascism."<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/07/19/arts/recordings-view-sonic-youth-admits-an-outside-world-only-to-confront-it.html\|titleRECORDINGS VIEW; Sonic Youth Admits An Outside World, Only to Confront It\|lastPareles\|firstJon\|dateJuly 19, 1992\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateJanuary 8, 2018\|languageen-US\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> * Her case also inspired the 1994 Law & Order episode "Virtue", about a young lawyer who feels pressured to sleep with her supervisor at her law firm.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id58awEAIjnBQC&qlaw%20and%20order%20virtue%20Anita%20Hill&pgPA233 \|titleLaw & Order: The Unofficial Companion – Updated and Expanded\|dateNovember 20, 1999 \|access-dateOctober 27, 2015\|isbn9781580631082 \|last1Courrier \|first1Kevin \|last2Green \|first2Susan\|publisherMacmillan \|viaGoogle Books}}</ref> * In the 1996 television film, Hostile Advances: The Kerry Ellison Story, Anita Hill's testimony is being watched at the bar by main character Kerry Ellison. The film is a true story about a landmark sexual harassment case. * Anita Hill is mentioned in The X-Files episode "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man", which aired November 17, 1996.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMusings of a Cigarette-Smoking Man - 4X07 \|urlhttps://www.insidethex.co.uk/transcrp/scrp407.htm \|access-date2024-06-07 \|websitewww.insidethex.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastPeterson \|firstJulie L. \|titleFrom the Dukes of Hazzard to the X-Files: How Is Government Authority Portrayed on Television? \|urlhttps://people.uwec.edu/petersgd/research/xfilesfinal.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230616022625/https://people.uwec.edu/petersgd/research/xfilesfinal.pdf \|archive-dateJune 16, 2023 \|access-dateJune 15, 2023}}</ref> * In the 1996 film Jerry Maguire, after Tom Cruise's character makes a pass at his employee (played by Renee Zellweger), he apologizes with, "I feel like Clarence Thomas." * In 1999, Ernest Dickerson directed Strange Justice, a film based on the Anita Hill–Clarence Thomas controversy.<ref>''[http://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/jc48.2006/ClarThomas/index.html 'Strange Justice' Sounding out the Right: Clarence Thomas, Anita Hill, and constructing spin in the name of justice] (commentary on Jump Cut by Steve Lipkin, 2006)</ref> * Anita Hill is interviewed – unrelated to the Clarence Thomas case – about the film The Tin Drum in the documentary Banned in Oklahoma'' (2004), included in The Criterion Collection DVD of the film (2004).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://bannedinoklahoma.handtruckproductions.com/about.htm\|titleBanned in Oklahoma ...\|websitebannedinoklahoma.handtruckproductions.com\|dateJune 9, 2004}}</ref> * Hill's testimony is briefly shown in the 2005 film North Country about the first class action lawsuit surrounding sexual harassment.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastStein \|firstRuthe \|date2005-10-21 \|titleOne stunning miner manages to extract emotion from a dismal situation \|urlhttps://www.sfgate.com/movies/article/One-stunning-miner-manages-to-extract-emotion-2600211.php \|access-date2022-05-24 \|websiteSFGATE \|languageen-US}}</ref> * Hill was the subject of the 2013 documentary film Anita by director Freida Lee Mock, which chronicles her experience during the Clarence Thomas scandal.<ref>Film Festivals and Indie Films (January 16, 2014). "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGrWaCCVfq0 Anita Official Trailer 1 (2014) – Documentary HD]". YouTube. Retrieved March 14, 2014.</ref> * The actor Kerry Washington portrayed Hill in the 2016 HBO film Confirmation.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/kerry-washington-star-as-anita-780969 \| workThe Hollywood Reporter \| titleKerry Washington to Star as Anita Hill in HBO Movie 'Confirmation' (Exclusive) \| dateMarch 12, 2015}}</ref> * In 2018, entertainer John Oliver interviewed Hill on his television program Last Week Tonight during which Hill answered various questions and concerns about workplace sexual harassment in the present day.<ref>{{YouTube\|iddHiAls8loz4\|titleWorkplace Sexual Harassment: Last Week Tonight with John Oliver (HBO)}}</ref> * Hill has been interviewed by Stephen Colbert on The Late Show twice, once in 2018 and again in 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLate-Night Lately: Colbert Talks Moonves, Anita Hill Interview, Mark Hamill Surprise \|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/colbert-talks-moonves-anita-hill-interview-more-late-night-highlights-watch-1131443/late-night-lineup-august-5-11/ \|websiteThe Hollywood Reporter \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211011015343/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/colbert-talks-moonves-anita-hill-interview-more-late-night-highlights-watch-1131443/late-night-lineup-august-5-11/ \|archive-dateOctober 11, 2021 \|dateAugust 4, 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Thompson \|first1Rachel \|titleAnita Hill shares how people have responded to her 1991 testimony against Clarence Thomas \|urlhttps://mashable.com/video/anita-hill-stephen-colbert \|websiteMashable \|publisherZiff Davis \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210930121207/https://mashable.com/video/anita-hill-stephen-colbert \|archive-dateSeptember 30, 2021 \|dateSeptember 30, 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> See also * Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination * Brett Kavanaugh Supreme Court nomination * Christine Blasey Ford References {{reflist\|30em\|refs<ref name"all the women">{{cite book\|titleBut Some Of Us Are Brave: All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men: Black Women's Studies\|editor1Gloria T. Hull\|editor2Patricia Bell Scott\|editor3Barbara Smith\|publisherFeminist Press at CUNY\|year2000\|page=xvi}}</ref> <ref name"american speakers">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.allamericanspeakers.com/speakers/Anita-Hill/722\|titleBiography of Anita Hill\|workAll American Speakers\|access-date=October 27, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"author lied">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/27/us/book-author-says-he-lied-his-attacks-anita-hill-bid-aid-justice-thomas.html\|titleBook Author Says He Lied in His Attacks on Anita Hill in Bid to Aid Justice Thomas\|author1Alex Kuczynski \|author2William Glaberson \|dateJune 27, 2001\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateOctober 14, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"corroborated">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/29/us/the-thomas-nomination-questions-to-those-who-corroborated-hill-account.html\|titleThe Thomas Nomination; Questions to Those Who Corroborated Hill Account\|dateOctober 29, 1991\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateOctober 21, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"cmht">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cohenmilstein.com/attorneys.php?PeopleID80\|titleAttorneys: Anita F. Hill, Of Counsel\|publisherCohen Milstein\|access-dateOctober 24, 2011\|archive-dateApril 13, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140413141851/http://www.cohenmilstein.com/attorneys.php?PeopleID80\|url-statusdead}}</ref> <ref name="creating a stir">[http://www.brandeis.edu/now/2011/september/anitahill.html "Anita Hill's book on gender, race and home creating a stir"], "BrandeisNOW", September 30, 2011.</ref> <ref name"defends">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.theroot.com/views/anita-hill-ponders-her-legacy?page0%2C0 \|titleAnita Hill Defends Her Legacy \|authorCynthia Gordy \|workThe Root \|dateOctober 18, 2011 \|access-dateOctober 20, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111101095251/http://www.theroot.com/views/anita-hill-ponders-her-legacy?page0%2C0 \|archive-dateNovember 1, 2011 }}</ref> <ref name"defends integrity">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/08/us/the-thomas-nomination-a-law-professor-defends-integrity.html\|titleThe Thomas Nomination; A Law Professor Defends Integrity\|authorRoberto Suro\|dateOctober 8, 1991\|workThe New York Times\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"empowered women">{{cite news\|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/clarence-thomas-anita-hill-supreme-court-confirmation-hearing/story?id14802217\|titleClarence Thomas-Anita Hill Supreme Court Confirmation Hearing 'Empowered Women' and Panel Member Arlen Specter Still Amazed by Reactions\|author Joel Siegel\|workABC News\|date=October 24, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"faculty profile">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.heller.brandeis.edu/faculty/guide.php?emplide69d2f368b67d963832f9d1d8a5b8a07c6e976d5\|titleFaculty and Researchers, Anita Hill\|publisherBrandeis University\|access-dateOctober 21, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"fires back">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna21038082\|title16 years later, Thomas fires back at Anita Hill\|agencyAssociated Press\|workNBC News\|dateSeptember 28, 2007\|author Associated Press staff\|access-dateOctober 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"fordhall">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fordhallforum.org/about/firstamendment\|titleFirst Amendment Award History\|publisherFord Hall Forum at Suffolk University\|access-dateOctober 24, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130314075117/http://www.fordhallforum.org/about/firstamendment\|archive-dateMarch 14, 2013\|url-statusdead}}</ref> <ref name"fund">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/05/03/fund-book-spark-new-anita-hill-controversy/\|titleFund, book Spark New Anita Hill Controversy\|workChicago Tribune\|author Jessica Seigel\|dateMay 3, 1993\|access-date=October 23, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"good morning">{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://swampland.time.com/2010/10/20/good-morning-anita-hill-its-ginni-thomas/\|title'Good Morning Anita Hill, It's Ginni Thomas'\|authorMichael Scherer\|magazineTime\|dateOctober 20, 2010\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"grandfather's son">{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mygrandfathersso00clar\|url-accessregistration\|quoteonly reason why she'd held a job in the Reagan administration was because I'd given it to her.\|titleMy Grandfather's Son\|authorClarence Thomas\|page[https://archive.org/details/mygrandfathersso00clar/page/250 250]\|publisherHarper Perennial\|dateOctober 2007\|isbn978-0-06-056555-8\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"haven't really">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/for-anita-hill-the-clarence-thomas-hearings-havent-really-ended/2011/10/05/gIQAy2b5QL_story.html\|titleFor Anita Hill, the Clarence Thomas hearings haven't really ended\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|author Krissah Thompson\|dateOctober 6, 2011\|access-date=October 26, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"hearings">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh102-1084pt4/41-124.pdf \|titleHearings Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary on The Nomination of Clarence Thomas to be Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, Hill, Anita F. Testimony and prepared statement \|dateOctober 11–13, 1991 \|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office \|access-dateOctober 21, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111107034024/http://www.gpoaccess.gov/congress/senate/judiciary/sh102-1084pt4/41-124.pdf \|archive-date=November 7, 2011 }}</ref> <ref name"historical">{{cite encyclopedia\|urlhttp://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/H/HI005.html \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture \|publisherOklahoma Historical Society \|titleHill, Anita F. (1956–) \|access-dateOctober 21, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111013163549/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/H/HI005.html \|archive-date=October 13, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"legacy">{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976770,00.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081018211444/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976770,00.html\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateOctober 18, 2008\|titleAnita Hill's Legacy\|dateOctober 19, 1992\|authorJill Smolowe\|magazineTime\|access-dateOctober 24, 2011}}</ref> <ref nameNYT>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/20/us/politics/20thomas.html \| title Clarence Thomas's Wife Asks Anita Hill for Apology \| last Savage \| first Charlie \| date October 19, 2010 \| access-date October 20, 2010 \| newspaper The New York Times\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120511203522/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/20/us/politics/20thomas.html\| archive-dateMay 11, 2012\| url-status= live}}</ref> <ref name"panel's handling">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/08/us/thomas-nomination-senate-sexism-panel-s-handling-harassment-allegation-renews.html\|titleThe Thomas Nomination: The Senate and Sexism; Panel's Handling of Harassment Allegation Renews Questions About an All-Male Club\|authorMaureen Dowd\|dateOctober 8, 1991\|workThe New York Times\|access-date=October 28, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"plans to leave">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/13/us/anita-hill-plans-to-leave-teaching-post-in-oklahoma.html\|titleAnita Hill Plans to Leave Teaching Post in Oklahoma\|authorJo Thomas\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateOctober 21, 2011 \| date=November 13, 1996}}</ref> <ref name"polygraph">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/14/us/the-thomas-nomination-hill-said-to-pass-a-polygraph-test.html\|titleThe Thomas Nomination; Hill Said To Pass A Polygraph\|authorMartin Tolchin\|dateOctober 14, 1991\|workThe New York Times\|access-date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> <!-- unused<ref name="private deal"/> --> <ref name"race, gender">{{cite book\|editor1Anita F. Hill\|editor2Emma Coleman Jordan\|titleRace, Gender and Power in America: The Legacy of the Hill-Thomas Hearings\|isbn978-0-19-508774-1\|publisherOxford University Press\|dateOctober 1995\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195087741}}</ref> <ref name"reimagining">{{cite book\|titleReimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home\|authorAnita Hill\|dateOctober 4, 2011\|isbn978-0-8070-1437-0\|publisherBeacon Press\|url=https://archive.org/details/reimaginingequal00hill}}</ref> <ref name"seeks quiet">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/09/us/the-thomas-nomination-woman-at-center-of-furor-seeks-quiet-of-law-classes.html\|titleThe Thomas Nomination – Woman at Center of Furor Seeks Quiet of Law Classes\|dateOctober 9, 1991\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateOctober 25, 2011\|firstRoberto\|lastSuro}}</ref> <ref name"sexual harassment">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/opinion/sexual-harassment-20-years-later.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/22/opinion/sexual-harassment-20-years-later.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleSexual Harassment 20 Years Later\|dateOctober 21, 2011\|workThe New York Times\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref> <ref name"smear">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/02/opinion/02hill.html\|titleThe Smear This Time\|authorAnita F. Hill\|workThe New York Times\|dateOctober 2, 2007\|access-date=October 27, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"smearing">{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,167355,00.html\|titleSmearing Anita Hill: A Writer Confesses\|authorMargaret Carlson\|dateJuly 9, 2001\|magazineTime\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101124034248/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,167355,00.html\|archive-dateNovember 24, 2010\|url-statusdead\|access-dateJanuary 8, 2018}}</ref> <ref name"speaking truth">{{cite book\|titleSpeaking Truth to Power\|authorAnita Hill\|dateSeptember 17, 1997\|isbn978-0-385-47625-6\|publisherDoubleday\|url=https://archive.org/details/speakingtruthtop00hill}}</ref> <ref name"strange justice">{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,981809,00.html\|titleStrange Justice: A Book on Clarence Thomas\|authorRichard Lacayo\|dateNovember 14, 1994\|magazineTime\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101104024759/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,981809,00.html\|archive-dateNovember 4, 2010\|url-statusdead\|access-dateJanuary 8, 2018}}</ref> <ref name"svc">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.svc.edu/about/board.html \|titleBoard of Trustees \|publisherSouthern Vermont College \|access-dateOctober 28, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111020232649/http://www.svc.edu/about/board.html \|archive-dateOctober 20, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"the selling">{{cite book\|author1Jill Abramson\|author2Jane Mayer\|titleStrange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas\|year1994\|publisherHoughton Mifflin\|isbn978-0-395-63318-2\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/strangejusticese00maye}}</ref> <ref name"supreme discomfort">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2007/04/22/DI2007042200950.html\|titleLive Q & A - Books:Supreme Discomfort\|author1Kevin Merida\|author2Michael A. Fletcher\|dateApril 23, 2007\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|access-dateOctober 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"the nine">{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/nineinsidesecret00toob\|url-accessregistration\|quoteclarence thomas qualified.\|titleThe Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court\|authorJeffrey Toobin\|pages[https://archive.org/details/nineinsidesecret00toob/page/30 30]–32\|isbn978-0-385-51640-2\|dateSeptember 18, 2007\|publisherDoubleday}}</ref> <ref name"the stories">{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://ideas.time.com/2011/10/12/anita-hill-the-stories-i-carry-with-me/\|titleThe Stories I Carry With Me\|authorAnita Hill\|magazineTime\|dateOctober 12, 2011\|access-date=October 22, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"then & now">{{cite news \|titleThen & Now: Anita Hill \|publisherCNN.com \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2005/US/01/03/cnn25.tan.anita.hill/ \|dateJune 19, 2005 \|access-dateOctober 21, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"testimony of thomas">{{cite web\|urlhttp://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new-yitna?idUsaThom&imagesimages/modeng&data/lv6/workspace/yitna&tagpublic&part24 \|titleHearing of the Senate Judiciary Committee on the Nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court, Testimony of Clarence Thomas, October 11, 1991 \|publisherElectronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library \|access-dateOctober 24, 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130913093438/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new-yitna?idUsaThom&imagesimages%2Fmodeng&data%2Flv6%2Fworkspace%2Fyitna&tagpublic&part24 \|archive-dateSeptember 13, 2013}}</ref> <ref name"uc berkeley">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/97legacy/hill.html\|titleAnita Hill to be visiting scholar at UC Berkeley during spring 1997 to work on book, give seminars \|publisherThe Regents of the University of California\|access-dateOctober 3, 2007\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071013115425/http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/97legacy/hill.html\| archive-dateOctober 13, 2007 \| url-status live}}</ref> <ref name"weighs in">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/30/washington/30thomas.html\|titleIn New Book, Justice Thomas Weighs In on Former Accuser\|authorNeil A. Lewis\|dateSeptember 30, 2007\|workThe New York Times\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"wife seeks">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304510704575562993761893962 \| titleJustice's Wife Seeks Apology From His Accuser\|newspaperThe Wall Street Journal\| authorJess Bravin\| dateOctober 20, 2010\|access-date=October 25, 2011}}</ref> <ref name"scraps">{{cite news\|urlhttps://newsok.com/article/2652628/ou-scraps-anita-hill-law-professorship\|titleOU Scraps Anita Hill Law Professorship\|newspaperThe Oklahoman\|firstJim\|last Killackey\| date=May 8, 1999}}</ref> }} External links {{commons category}} * [http://www.heller.brandeis.edu/faculty/guide.php?emplid=e69d2f368b67d963832f9d1d8a5b8a07c6e976d5 Faculty profile at Brandeis University] * {{C-SPAN\|20624}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112090036/http://forum-network.org/lecture/anita-hill-reimagining-gender-race-and-finding-home Audio lecture: Anita Hill discusses Reimagining Equality: Stories of Gender, Race, and Finding Home] on October 4, 2011, on Forum Network. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181208175629/http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/hillframe.htm An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy] at Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media * [https://library.search.tulane.edu/discovery/fulldisplay?docidalma9911697913806326&contextL&vid01TUL_INST:Tulane&langen&search_scopeMyInst_and_CI&adaptorLocal%20Search%20Engine&tabEverything&queryany,contains,anita%20hill&offset=0 African American women speak out on Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas] * The complete transcripts of the Clarence Thomas--Anita Hill hearings : October 11,12,13, 1991 {{Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hill, Anita}} Category:1956 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century African-American academics Category:20th-century American academics Category:21st-century African-American academics Category:21st-century American academics Category:20th-century American lawyers Category:20th-century American women lawyers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century African-American women writers Category:20th-century African-American writers Category:20th-century American women writers Category:21st-century African-American women writers Category:21st-century African-American writers Category:21st-century American women writers Category:American legal scholars Category:African-American legal scholars Category:American women legal scholars Category:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission members Category:Sexual harassment in the United States Category:American feminists Category:African-American feminists Category:American women non-fiction writers Category:American autobiographers Category:American women autobiographers Category:American political writers Category:American political women Category:Brandeis University faculty Category:University of Oklahoma faculty Category:Oklahoma State University faculty Category:Oral Roberts University faculty Category:Yale Law School alumni Category:Oklahoma State University alumni Category:People from Okmulgee County, Oklahoma Category:Lawyers from Washington, D.C. Category:Writers from Oklahoma Category:Clarence Thomas Category:20th-century African-American lawyers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Hill	2025-04-05T18:26:00.282314
2315	August 10	{{distinguish\|10 August (French Revolution)}} {{pp-move}} {{pp-pc}} {{calendar}} {{This date in recent years}} {{Day}} Events Pre-1600 * 654 &ndash; Pope Eugene I elected to succeed Martinus I. * 955 &ndash; Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor defeats the Magyars, ending 50 years of Magyar invasion of the West. * 991 &ndash; Battle of Maldon: The English, led by Byrhtnoth, Ealdorman of Essex, are defeated by a band of inland-raiding Vikings near Maldon, Essex. 1030 &ndash; The Battle of Azaz ends with a humiliating retreat of the Byzantine emperor, Romanos III Argyros, against the Mirdasid rulers of Aleppo. The retreat degenerates into a rout, in which Romanos himself barely escapes capture.<ref>{{cite book \| lastHalm \| firstHeinz \| author-link Heinz Halm \| title Die Kalifen von Kairo: Die Fatimiden in Ägypten, 973–1074 \| language de \| trans-title The Caliphs of Cairo: The Fatimids in Egypt, 973–1074 \| publisher C. H. Beck \| location Munich \| year 2003 \| isbn 3-406-48654-1 \| pages341–342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| lastShepard \| firstJ. \| author-link Jonathan Shepard \| chapterAzaz, Battle near \| editor-lastRogers \| editor-firstC. \| editor-linkClifford J. Rogers \| titleThe Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, Volume 1 \| locationOxford \| publisherOxford University Press \| year2010 \| page102 \| chapter-url{{Google Books\|mzwpq6bLHhMC\|page102\|plainurly}} \| isbn=978-0-19-533403-6}}</ref> 1270 &ndash; Yekuno Amlak takes the imperial throne of Ethiopia, restoring the Solomonic dynasty to power after a 100-year Zagwe interregnum. 1316 &ndash; The Second Battle of Athenry takes place near Athenry during the Bruce campaign in Ireland. 1346 &ndash; Jaume Ferrer sets out from Majorca for the "River of Gold", the Senegal River.<ref>{{cite book\|first1Pierre\|last1Channu\|first2Katharine\|last2Bertram\|titleEuropean expansion in the later Middle Ages\|locationAmsterdam\|publisherNorth-Holland Publishing\|year1979\|pages83–84\|isbn978-0-44485-132-1}}</ref> 1512 &ndash; The naval Battle of Saint-Mathieu, during the War of the League of Cambrai, sees the simultaneous destruction of the Breton ship La Cordelière and the English ship The Regent. 1519 &ndash; Ferdinand Magellan's five ships set sail from Seville to circumnavigate the globe. The Basque second-in-command Juan Sebastián Elcano will complete the expedition after Magellan's death in the Philippines. 1557 &ndash; Battle of St. Quentin: Spanish victory over the French in the Italian War of 1551–59. 1585 &ndash; The Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Rebels. 1601–1900 1628 &ndash; The Swedish warship Vasa sinks on her maiden voyage off Stockholm.<ref>{{cite book\|lastCederlund\|firstCarl Olof\|titleVasa I, The Archaeology of a Swedish Warship of 1628\|pages53–54\|editorFred Hocker\|year2006\|publisherNational Maritime Museums of Sweden \|isbn91-974659-0-9}}</ref> 1641 &ndash; The Treaty of London between England and Scotland, ending the Bishops' Wars, is signed.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://bcw-project.org/church-and-state/crisis-in-scotland/treaty-of-london \|titleThe Treaty of London, 1641 \|websiteBCW Project \|access-date3 January 2020}}</ref> 1680 &ndash; The Pueblo Revolt begins in New Mexico. 1741 &ndash; King Marthanda Varma of Travancore defeats the Dutch East India Company at the Battle of Colachel, effectively bringing about the end of the Dutch colonial rule in India. <!--The first "major" defeat of a European colonial military power in India--> 1755 &ndash; Under the direction of Charles Lawrence, the British begin to forcibly deport the Acadians from Nova Scotia to the Thirteen Colonies and France. 1792 &ndash; French Revolution: Storming of the Tuileries Palace: Louis XVI is arrested and taken into custody as his Swiss Guards are massacred by the Parisian mob. 1808 &ndash; Finnish War: Swedish forces led by General von Döbeln defeat Russian forces led by General Šepelev in the Battle of Kauhajoki.<ref>{{cite book \| last Ruismäki \| first Liisa \| title Kauhajoen historia: esihistoriasta vuoteen 1918 \| page 398 \| year 1987 \| location Jyväskylä \| publisher Kauhajoen kunta ja seurakunta \| isbn 951-99888-2-3 \| language = fi}}</ref> 1835 &ndash; P. T. Barnum begins his career as a showman and circus entrepreneur by exhibiting Joice Heth, an octogenerian African slave whom he claims was George Washington's nursemaid.<ref>{{cite book\|lastWashington\|firstHarriet\|titleMedical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans From Colonial Times to the Present\|locationNew York\|publisherAnchor Books\|date2008\|isbn9780767915472\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idapGhwRt6A7QC\|page86}}</ref> 1856 &ndash; The Last Island hurricane strikes Louisiana, resulting in over 200 deaths. 1861 &ndash; American Civil War: Battle of Wilson's Creek: A mixed force of Confederate, Missouri State Guard, and Arkansas State troops defeat outnumbered attacking Union forces in the southwestern part of the state. 1864 &ndash; After Uruguay's governing Blanco Party refuses Brazil's demands, José Antônio Saraiva announces that the Brazilian military will begin reprisals, beginning the Uruguayan War. 1901–present 1901 &ndash; The U.S. Steel recognition strike by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers begins. 1904 &ndash; Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of the Yellow Sea between the Russian and Japanese battleship fleets takes place. 1905 &ndash; Russo-Japanese War: Peace negotiations begin in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 1913 &ndash; Second Balkan War: Delegates from Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece sign the Treaty of Bucharest, ending the war. 1920 &ndash; World War I: Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI's representatives sign the Treaty of Sèvres that divides up the Ottoman Empire between the Allies. 1937 &ndash; Spanish Civil War: The Regional Defence Council of Aragon is dissolved by the Second Spanish Republic.<ref Name"Gacetarepublica">{{cite news\| url http://www.boe.es/datos/pdfs/BOE/1937/223/B00573-00573.pdf \| title Presidencia del Consejo de Ministros: Decretos \| publisher Gaceta de la República: Diario Oficial \| issue 223 \| date August 11, 1937 \| language = es}}</ref> 1944 &ndash; World War II: The Battle of Guam comes to an effective end. * 1944 &ndash; World War II: The Battle of Narva ends with a defensive German victory. 1945 &ndash; The Japanese government announced that a message had been sent to the Allies accepting the terms of the Potsdam Declaration provided that it "does not comprise any demand that prejudices the prerogatives of the Emperor as sovereign ruler."<ref>"On War.com, August 1945" \| https://www.onwar.com/wwii/chronology/194508.html</ref> 1948 &ndash; Candid Camera makes its television debut after being on radio for a year as The Candid Microphone. 1949 &ndash; An amendment to the National Security Act of 1947 enhances the authority of the United States Secretary of Defense over the Army, Navy and Air Force, and replaces the National Military Establishment with the Department of Defense. 1953 &ndash; First Indochina War: The French Union withdraws its forces from Operation Camargue against the Viet Minh in central Vietnam. 1954 &ndash; At Massena, New York, the groundbreaking ceremony for the Saint Lawrence Seaway is held. 1961 &ndash; Vietnam War: The U.S. Army begins Operation Ranch Hand, spraying an estimated {{convert\|20\|e6USgal\|m3}} of defoliants and herbicides over rural areas of South Vietnam in an attempt to deprive the Viet Cong of food and vegetation cover.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329797/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-054.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329797/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-054.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleOperation Ranch Hand: The Air Force and Herbicides in Southeast Asia 1961–1971 \|firstWilliam A. Jr. \|lastBuckingham \|publisherOffice of Air Force History \|year1982 \|page11}}</ref> 1966 &ndash; The Heron Road Bridge collapses while being built, killing nine workers in the deadliest construction accident in both Ottawa and Ontario. 1969 &ndash; A day after murdering Sharon Tate and four others, members of Charles Manson's cult kill Leno and Rosemary LaBianca. 1971 &ndash; The Society for American Baseball Research is founded in Cooperstown, New York. 1977 &ndash; In Yonkers, New York, 24-year-old postal employee David Berkowitz ("Son of Sam") is arrested for a series of killings in the New York City area over the period of one year. 1978 &ndash; Three members of the Ulrich family are killed in an accident. This leads to the Ford Pinto litigation. 1981 &ndash; Murder of Adam Walsh: The head of John Walsh's son is found. This inspires the creation of the television series ''America's Most Wanted and the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. 1988 &ndash; Japanese American internment: U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, providing $20,000 payments to Japanese Americans who were either interned in or relocated by the United States during World War II. 1990 &ndash; The Magellan space probe reaches Venus. 1993 &ndash; Two earthquakes affect New Zealand. A 7.0 {{M\|w}} shock (intensity VI (Strong)) in the South Island was followed nine hours later by a 6.4 {{M\|w}} event (intensity VII (Very strong)) in the North Island. 1995 &ndash; Oklahoma City bombing: Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols are indicted for the bombing. Michael Fortier pleads guilty in a plea-bargain for his testimony. 1997 &ndash; Sixteen people are killed when Formosa Airlines Flight 7601 crashes near Beigan Airport in the Matsu Islands of Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastRanter\|firstHarro\|titleASN Aircraft accident Dornier 228-212 B-12256 Matsu Airport (MFK)\|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19970810-0\|access-date2020-06-11\|websiteaviation-safety.net\|publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref> 1998 &ndash; HRH Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah is proclaimed the crown prince of Brunei with a Royal Proclamation. 1999 &ndash; Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting.<ref>"Shooting suspect gives up White supremacist held in L.A. attack." The Florida Times-Union. August 11, 1999. p. A-1</ref><ref>[http://apalc.org/iletoevent/iletomurder.php The Asian Pacific American Legal Center of Southern California]. Retrieved August 3, 2006. {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051218175134/http://apalc.org/iletoevent/iletomurder.php \|dateDecember 18, 2005 }}</ref><ref namehate1>"Joined Against Hate Crimes Families of Victims Speak Out About Gun Violence". Daily News. August 11, 2004. p. N4</ref><ref nameCNN3>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/US/9908/12/california.shooting.03//\|dateAugust 12, 1999\|titleL.A. shooting suspect charged with hate crimes \|workCNN}}</ref> 2001 &ndash; The 2001 Angola train attack occurred, causing 252 deaths. * 2001 &ndash; Space Shuttle program: The Space Shuttle Discovery'' is launched on STS-105 to the International Space Station, carrying the astronauts of Expedition 3 to replace the crew of Expedition 2.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastWarnock\|firstLynda\|titleSTS-105\|urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-105.html\|url-statuslive\|access-date2021-07-31\|websitewww.nasa.gov\|publisherNASA\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061011162657/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-105.html \|archive-date2006-10-11 }}</ref> 2003 &ndash; The Okinawa Urban Monorail is opened in Naha, Okinawa. 2009 &ndash; Twenty people are killed in Handlová, Trenčín Region, in the deadliest mining disaster in Slovakia's history. 2012 &ndash; The Marikana massacre begins near Rustenburg, South Africa, resulting in the deaths of 47 people. 2014 &ndash; Forty people are killed when Sepahan Airlines Flight 5915 crashes at Tehran's Mehrabad International Airport. 2018 &ndash; Horizon Air employee Richard Russell hijacks and performs an unauthorized takeoff on a Horizon Air Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 plane at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport in Washington, flying it for more than an hour before crashing the plane and killing himself on Ketron Island in Puget Sound.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastStewart\|firstAshley\|dateAugust 10, 2018\|titleAlaska Air Horizon plane crashes after being stolen by airline employee\|workPuget Sound Business Journal\|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/news/2018/08/10/horizon-jet-crashes-after-being-stolen-by-sea-tac.html\|access-date=August 11, 2018}}</ref> 2018 &ndash; An anti-government rally turns into a riot when members of the Romanian Gendarmerie attack the 100,000 people protesting in front of the Victoria Palace, leading to 452 recorded injuries. The authorities alleged that the crowd was infiltrated by hooligans who began attacking law enforcement agents.<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45156598 \| titleRomania protests: Thousands hold fresh rallies after clashes \| workBBC News \| date11 August 2018 }}</ref> 2019 &ndash; Thirty-two are killed and one million are evacuated as Typhoon Lekima makes landfall in Zhejiang, China. Earlier it had caused flooding in the Philippines.<ref>{{citation\|websiteBusiness Insider\|access-dateAugust 11, 2019\|titleDevastating photos show the damage of Typhoon Lekima, which left at least 32 people dead and forced 1 million to evacuate in China\|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/typhoon-lekima-photos-china-evacuations-flight-cancellations-landslide-2019-8}}</ref> 2019 &ndash; Philip Manshaus shoots his stepsister and attacks a mosque in the Bærum mosque shooting.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Hammer \|first1Anders \|titleTerroristen Philip Manshaus' stemor advarer: – Ikke vent med å slå alarm \|urlhttps://www.nrk.no/dokumentar/xl/terroristen-philip-manshaus_-stemor-advarer_-_-ikke-vent-med-a-sla-alarm-1.15538323 \|access-date17 September 2023 \|workNRK \|date24 June 2021 \|languagenb}}</ref> 2020 &ndash; Derecho in Iowa becomes the most costly thunderstorm disaster in U.S. history.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastHenson\|firstBob\|date17 October 2020\|titleIowa derecho in August was most costly thunderstorm disaster in U.S. history\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/weather/2020/10/17/iowa-derecho-damage-cost/}}</ref> 2024 – Israel strikes Al-Tabaeen school in eastern Gaza City, killing at least 80 Palestinians. <ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-08-10 \|titleIsraeli airstrike on a Gaza school used as a shelter kills at least 80, Palestinian officials say \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-hamas-war-10-august-2024-f33867d7596ebb70c1cb3a77fd4437cc \|access-date2024-08-21 \|websiteAP News \|languageen}}</ref> Births Pre-1600 * 941 &ndash; Lê Hoàn, Vietnamese emperor (d. 1005) 1267 &ndash; James II of Aragon (d. 1327) 1296 &ndash; John of Bohemia (d. 1346)<ref>{{cite book\|titleChambers' Encyclopædia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUoFRAAAAYAAJ\|year1897\|publisherW. R. Chambers\|page344}}</ref> 1360 &ndash; Francesco Zabarella, Italian cardinal (d. 1417) 1397 &ndash; Albert II of Germany (d. 1439) 1439 &ndash; Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter, Duchess of York (d. 1476) 1449 &ndash; Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1503) 1466 &ndash; Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua (d. 1519) 1489 &ndash; Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German lawyer and politician (d. 1553) 1520 &ndash; Madeleine of Valois (d. 1537)<ref>{{cite book\|authorAnne Commire\|titleWomen in World History\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRT0OAQAAMAAJ\|year2000\|publisherGale\|isbn978-0-7876-4069-9\|page292}}</ref> 1528 &ndash; Eric II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1584) 1547 &ndash; Francis II, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1619) 1560 &ndash; Hieronymus Praetorius, German organist and composer (d. 1629)<ref>{{cite book\|authorHieronymus Praetorius\|titlePolychoral Motets, Part 1: Six Motets for Two Choirs\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDV_9RPgHlwAC&pgPR7\|date1974\|publisherA-R Editions, Inc.\|isbn978-0-89579-052-1\|page7}}</ref>1601–1900 1602 &ndash; Gilles de Roberval, French mathematician and academic (d. 1675) 1645 &ndash; Eusebio Kino, Italian priest and missionary (d. 1711) 1734 &ndash; Naungdawgyi, Burmese king (d. 1763)<ref>{{cite book \| lastMaung Maung Tin \| firstU \| titleKonbaung Hset Maha Yazawin \| volume1 \|page263 \| orig-year1905 \| year2004 \| publisherDepartment of Universities History Research, University of Yangon \| locationYangon \| languagemy}}</ref> 1737 &ndash; Anton Losenko, Russian painter and academic (d. 1773) 1740 &ndash; Samuel Arnold, English organist and composer (d. 1802) 1744 &ndash; Alexandrine Le Normant d'Étiolles, daughter of Madame de Pompadour (d. 1754) 1755 &ndash; Narayan Rao, fifth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire (d. 1773) 1782 &ndash; Vicente Guerrero, Mexican insurgent leader and President of Mexico (d. 1831) 1805 &ndash; Ferenc Toldy, German-Hungarian historian and critic (d. 1875) 1809 &ndash; John Kirk Townsend, American ornithologist and explorer (d. 1851) 1810 &ndash; Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Italian soldier and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1861)<ref>{{cite book \|last1Orsi \|first1Pietro \|titleCavour and the Making of Modern Italy, 1810–1861 \|date1914 \|publisherG.P. Putnam's Sons \|locationNew York \|page=53}}</ref> 1814 &ndash; Henri Nestlé, German businessman, founded Nestlé (d. 1890) * 1814 &ndash; John C. Pemberton, United States soldier and Confederate general (d. 1881) 1821 &ndash; Jay Cooke, American financier, founded Jay Cooke & Company (d. 1905) 1823 &ndash; Hugh Stowell Brown, English minister and reformer (d. 1886) 1825 &ndash; István Türr, Hungarian soldier, architect, and engineer, co-designed the Corinth Canal (d. 1908) 1827 &ndash; Lovro Toman, Slovenian lawyer and politician (d. 1870) 1839 &ndash; Aleksandr Stoletov, Russian physicist and academic (d. 1896) 1845 &ndash; Abai Qunanbaiuli, Kazakh poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1904) 1848 &ndash; William Harnett, Irish-American painter and educator (d. 1892) 1856 &ndash; William Willett, English inventor, founded British Summer Time (d. 1915) 1860 &ndash; Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, Indian singer and musicologist (d. 1936) 1865 &ndash; Alexander Glazunov, Russian composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1936) 1868 &ndash; Hugo Eckener, German pilot and businessman (d. 1954) 1869 &ndash; Laurence Binyon, English poet, playwright, and scholar (d. 1943) 1870 &ndash; Trần Tế Xương, Vietnamese poet and satirist (d. 1907) 1872 &ndash; William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (d. 1972) 1874 &ndash; Herbert Hoover, American engineer and politician, 31st President of the United States (d. 1964) 1874 &ndash; Antanas Smetona, Lithuanian jurist and politician, President of Lithuania (d. 1944)<ref>{{cite book\|titleCurrent News on the Lithuanian Situation\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSc0KAQAAMAAJ\|year1944\|publisher=Lithuanian Legation}}</ref> 1877 &ndash; Frank Marshall, American chess player and author (d. 1944) 1878 &ndash; Alfred Döblin, Polish-German physician and author (d. 1957) 1880 &ndash; Robert L. Thornton, American businessman and politician, Mayor of Dallas (d. 1964) 1884 &ndash; Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (d. 1935) 1888 &ndash; Prince Christopher of Greece and Denmark (d. 1940) 1889 &ndash; Charles Darrow, American game designer, created Monopoly (d. 1967) * 1889 &ndash; Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, Polish writer and member of the WW II Polish Resistance (d. 1968)<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.zofiakossak.pl/aktualnosci/?nzwinfo&nr20\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927181637/http://www.zofiakossak.pl/aktualnosci/?nzwinfo&nr20\|url-statusdead\|archive-date2007-09-27\|titleZofia Kossak\|date2007-09-27\|access-date=2019-01-10}}</ref> 1890 &ndash; Angus Lewis Macdonald, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1954) 1894 &ndash; V. V. Giri, Indian lawyer and politician, 4th President of India (d. 1980) 1895 &ndash; Hammy Love, Australian cricketer (d. 1969) 1897 &ndash; John W. Galbreath, American businessman and philanthropist, founded Darby Dan Farm (d. 1988) * 1897 &ndash; Jack Haley, American actor and singer (d. 1979) 1900 &ndash; Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt, New Zealand physician and politician, 11th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1994) 1901–present 1902 &ndash; Norma Shearer, Canadian-American actress (d. 1983) * 1902 &ndash; Curt Siodmak, German-English author and screenwriter (d. 2000) * 1902 &ndash; Arne Tiselius, Swedish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) 1903 &ndash; Ward Moore, American author (d. 1978) 1905 &ndash; Era Bell Thompson, American journalist and author (d. 1986) 1907 &ndash; Su Yu, Chinese general and politician (d. 1984) 1908 &ndash; Rica Erickson, Australian botanist, historian, and author (d. 2009) * 1908 &ndash; Billy Gonsalves, American soccer player (d. 1977) 1909 &ndash; Leo Fender, American businessman, founded Fender Musical Instruments Corporation (d. 1991) 1909 &ndash; Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (d. 1992) 1910 &ndash; Guy Mairesse, French racing driver (d. 1954) 1911 &ndash; Leonidas Andrianopoulos, Greek footballer (d. 2011) * 1911 &ndash; A. N. Sherwin-White, English historian and author (d. 1993) 1912 &ndash; Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (d. 2001) 1913 &ndash; Noah Beery Jr., American actor (d. 1994) * 1913 &ndash; Kalevi Kotkas, Estonian-Finnish high jumper and discus thrower (d. 1983) * 1913 &ndash; Wolfgang Paul, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1993) 1914 &ndash; Jeff Corey, American actor and director (d. 2002) 1914 &ndash; Carlos Menditeguy, Argentinian racing driver and polo player (d. 1973) * 1914 &ndash; Ray Smith, English cricketer (d. 1996) 1918 &ndash; Eugene P. Wilkinson, American admiral (d. 2013) 1920 &ndash; Red Holzman, American basketball player and coach (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite web \|titleRed Holzman \|urlhttp://www.hoophall.com/hall-of-famers/red-holzman \|websitewww.hoophall.com \|publisherThe Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame \|access-date7 August 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> 1922 &ndash; Al Alberts, American pop singer and composer (d. 2009) 1923 &ndash; Bill Doolittle, American football player and coach (d. 2014) * 1923 &ndash; Rhonda Fleming, American actress (d. 2020) * 1923 &ndash; Fred Ridgway, English cricketer and footballer (d. 2015) * 1923 &ndash; SM Sultan, Bangladeshi painter and illustrator (d. 1994) 1924 &ndash; Nancy Buckingham, English author (d. 2022) 1924 &ndash; Martha Hyer, American actress (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite book \| lastLentz \| firstHarris M. \| titleObituaries in the Performing Arts, 2014 \| placeJefferson, NC \| publisherMcFarland & Company \| year2015 \| isbn978-0-7864-7666-4 \| page168}}</ref> * 1924 &ndash; Jean-François Lyotard, French philosopher, sociologist, and literary theorist (d. 1998)<ref>Gratton, Peter, [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/lyotard/ Jean François Lyotard], The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)</ref> 1925 &ndash; George Cooper, English general (d. 2020) 1926 &ndash; Marie-Claire Alain, French organist and educator (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite book \| last1Commire \| first1Anne \| titleWomen of World History \| placeDetroit \| publisherGale \| year1999 \| volume1 \| isbn 978-0-7876-4080-4 \| page=164}}</ref> * 1926 &ndash; Carol Ruth Vander Velde, American mathematician (d. 1972)<ref>{{cite book \| last1Grinstein \| first1Louise S. \| last2Campbell \| first2Paul J. \| titleWomen of Mathematics : a Biobibliographic Sourcebook \| placeNew York \| publisherGreenwood Press \| year1987 \| isbn978-0-3132-4849-8 \| page[https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/86 86] \| url=https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/86 }}</ref> 1927 &ndash; Jimmy Martin, American singer and guitarist (d. 2005) 1927 &ndash; Vernon Washington, American actor (d. 1988) 1928 &ndash; Jimmy Dean, American singer, actor, and businessman, founded the Jimmy Dean Food Company (d. 2010) 1928 &ndash; Eddie Fisher, American singer and actor (d. 2010) * 1928 &ndash; Gerino Gerini, Italian racing driver (d. 2013) * 1928 &ndash; Gus Mercurio, American-Australian actor (d. 2010) 1930 &ndash; Barry Unsworth, English-Italian author and academic (d. 2012) 1931 &ndash; Dolores Alexander, American journalist and activist (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttp://www2.timesreview.com/ST/Stories/T052208_Alexander_jal \| titleFeminist leader dies at 76 \| lastLane \| firstJulie \| date27 June 2008 \| publisherThe Suffolk Times \| access-date24 August 2019 \| url-statusdead \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003161111/http://www2.timesreview.com/ST/Stories/T052208_Alexander_jal \| archive-date3 October 2011}}</ref> * 1931 &ndash; Tom Laughlin, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1932 &ndash; Alexander Goehr, English composer and academic 1932 &ndash; Gaudencio Rosales, Filipino cardinal 1933 &ndash; Doyle Brunson, American poker player (d. 2023)<ref name="Brunson">Schoen, David. [https://www.reviewjournal.com/sports/poker/poker-legend-doyle-brunson-dies-at-89-2777279/ "Poker legend Doyle Brunson dies at 89"]. Las Vegas Review-Journal. May 14, 2023. Retrieved on 2023-05-14.</ref> 1933 &ndash; Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss, English lawyer and judge<ref>{{cite book \| titleBurke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knighthood \| publisherBurke's Peerage & Gentry \| editorMosley, Charles \| edition107th \| year2003 \|isbn978-0-9711-9662-9 \| page=617}}</ref> * 1933 &ndash; Rocky Colavito, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGoldstein \|firstRichard \|dateDecember 10, 2024 \|titleRocky Colavito, All-Star Slugger for Cleveland, Dies at 91 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/10/sports/baseball/rocky-colavito-dead.html \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20241211025713/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/10/sports/baseball/rocky-colavito-dead.html \|archive-dateDecember 11, 2024 \|access-dateDecember 12, 2024 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen}}</ref> * 1933 &ndash; Keith Duckworth, English engineer, founded Cosworth (d. 2005) 1934 &ndash; Tevfik Kış, Turkish wrestler and trainer (d. 2019) 1935 &ndash; Ian Stewart, Baron Stewartby, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces (d. 2018) * 1935 &ndash; Ad van Luyn, Dutch bishop 1936 &ndash; Malene Schwartz, Danish actress 1937 &ndash; Anatoly Sobchak, Russian scholar and politician, Mayor of Saint Petersburg (d. 2000) 1938 &ndash; Tony Ross, English author and illustrator 1939 &ndash; Kate O'Mara, English actress (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite web \|titleKate O'Mara obituary \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2014/mar/30/kate-omara \|websitethe Guardian \|access-date7 April 2022 \|languageen \|date30 March 2014}}</ref> * 1939 &ndash; Charlie Rose, American lawyer and politician (d. 2012) 1940 &ndash; Bobby Hatfield, American singer-songwriter (d. 2003) 1940 &ndash; Sid Waddell, English sportscaster (d. 2012) 1941 &ndash; Anita Lonsbrough, English swimmer and journalist 1941 &ndash; Susan Dorothea White, Australian painter and sculptor 1942 &ndash; Speedy Duncan, American football player (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news\|firstIvan\|lastLambert\|titleFormer Washington cornerback Leslie 'Speedy' Duncan dies at 79\|dateDecember 11, 2021\|newspaperUSA Today\|urlhttps://washingtonfootballwire.usatoday.com/2021/12/11/former-washington-redskin-leslie-speedy-duncan-1942-2021/\|access-date=December 13, 2021}}</ref> 1942 &ndash; Betsey Johnson, American fashion designer * 1942 &ndash; Michael Pepper, English physicist and engineer 1943 &ndash; Louise Forestier, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress 1943 &ndash; Jimmy Griffin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005) * 1943 &ndash; Michael Mantler, American trumpet player and composer * 1943 &ndash; Shafqat Rana, Indian-Pakistani cricketer * 1943 &ndash; Ronnie Spector, American singer-songwriter (d. 2022) 1947 &ndash; Ian Anderson, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1947 &ndash; Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysian academic and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Malaysia<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anwar-Ibrahim\|titleAnwar Ibrahim\|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica\|access-date26 November 2019}}</ref> * 1947 &ndash; John Spencer, English rugby player and manager * 1947 &ndash; Alan Ward, English cricketer 1948 &ndash; Nick Stringer, English actor 1950 &ndash; Patti Austin, American singer-songwriter 1951 &ndash; Juan Manuel Santos, Colombian businessman and politician, 59th President of Colombia 1952 &ndash; Daniel Hugh Kelly, American actor * 1952 &ndash; Diane Venora, American actress 1954 &ndash; Peter Endrulat, German footballer 1954 &ndash; Rick Overton, American screenwriter, actor and comedian 1955 &ndash; Thomas Kidd, American illustrator<ref>{{cite web\|titleKidd, Tom\|websiteEncyclopedia of Science Fiction\|dateSeptember 12, 2022\|accessdateFebruary 17, 2024\|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/kidd_tom}}</ref> 1955 &ndash; Jim Mees, American set designer (d. 2013) * 1955 &ndash; Mel Tiangco, Filipino journalist and talk show host * 1955 &ndash; Rainer Wimmer, Austrian politician<ref>{{cite web \|titleRecherchieren: Personen - Rainer Wimmer \|urlhttps://www.parlament.gv.at/person/2013 \|publisherAustrian Parliament \|access-date4 November 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240929195923/https://www.parlament.gv.at/person/2013 \|archive-date29 September 2024 \|locationVienna, Austria \|languagede}}</ref> 1956 &ndash; Dianne Fromholtz, Australian tennis player 1956 &ndash; José Luis Montes, Spanish footballer and manager (d. 2013) * 1956 &ndash; Fred Ottman, American wrestler * 1956 &ndash; Charlie Peacock, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer * 1956 &ndash; Perween Warsi, Indian-English businesswoman 1957 &ndash; Fred Ho, American saxophonist, composer, and playwright (d. 2014) 1957 &ndash; Andres Põime, Estonian architect * 1957 &ndash; Aqeel Abbas Jafari, Pakistani writer, poet, architect and chief editor Urdu Dictionary Board 1958 &ndash; Michael Dokes, American boxer (d. 2012) 1958 &ndash; Jack Richards, English cricketer, coach, and manager * 1958 &ndash; Rosie Winterton, English nurse and politician, Shadow Leader of the House of Commons 1959 &ndash; Rosanna Arquette, American actress, director, and producer 1959 &ndash; Albert Owen, Welsh sailor and politician * 1959 &ndash; Mark Price, English drummer * 1959 &ndash; Florent Vollant, Canadian singer-songwriter 1960 &ndash; Antonio Banderas, Spanish actor and producer<ref>{{cite web \|titleAntonio Banderas \|urlhttps://www.biography.com/actor/antonio-banderas \|websiteBiography.com \|publisherA&E Television Networks \|access-date7 August 2020 \|languageen-us}}</ref> 1960 &ndash; Annely Ojastu, Estonian sprinter and long jumper * 1960 &ndash; Kenny Perry, American golfer 1961 &ndash; Jon Farriss, Australian drummer, songwriter, and producer 1962 &ndash; Suzanne Collins, American author and screenwriter * 1962 &ndash; Julia Fordham, English singer-songwriter 1963 &ndash; Phoolan Devi, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 2001) 1963 &ndash; Anton Janssen, Dutch footballer and coach * 1963 &ndash; Andrew Sullivan, English-American journalist and author * 1963 &ndash; Henrik Fisker, Danish automotive designer and businessman<ref name"csquatriglia">{{Cite magazine \|lastSquatriglia \|firstChuck \|titleHenrik Fisker's 'Timeless' Automotive Designs \|languageen-US \|magazineWired \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2010/07/henrik-fisker-design-gallery/ \|access-date2023-02-07 \|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> 1964 &ndash; Aaron Hall, American singer-songwriter 1964 &ndash; Kåre Kolve, Norwegian saxophonist and composer * 1964 &ndash; Hiro Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005) 1965 &ndash; Claudia Christian, American actress, singer, writer, and director 1965 &ndash; Pat Pitney, American university leader and sport shooter<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePat Spurgin \|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/44591 \|websiteolympedia.org \|access-date25 March 2024 }}</ref> * 1965 &ndash; Mike E. Smith, American jockey and sportscaster * 1965 &ndash; John Starks, American basketball player and coach 1966 &ndash; Charlie Dimmock, English gardener and television host 1966 &ndash; Hansi Kürsch, German singer-songwriter and bass player * 1966 &ndash; Hossam Hassan, Egyptian footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web \|titleHossam Hassan – Player Profile – Football \|urlhttps://www.eurosport.com/football/hossam-hassan_prs78946/person.shtml \|publisherEurosport \|access-date26 October 2023}}</ref> 1967 &ndash; Philippe Albert, Belgian footballer and sportscaster 1967 &ndash; Riddick Bowe, American boxer * 1967 &ndash; Todd Nichols, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1967 &ndash; Reinout Scholte, Dutch cricketer 1968 &ndash; Michael Bivins, American singer and producer 1968 &ndash; Greg Hawgood, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1969 &ndash; Emily Symons, Australian actress 1969 &ndash; Brian Drummond, Canadian voice actor 1970 &ndash; Doug Flach, American tennis player 1970 &ndash; Bret Hedican, American ice hockey player and sportscaster * 1970 &ndash; Brendon Julian, New Zealand-Australian cricketer and journalist * 1970 &ndash; Steve Mautone, Australian footballer and coach 1971 &ndash; Sal Fasano, American baseball player and coach 1971 &ndash; Stephan Groth, Danish singer-songwriter * 1971 &ndash; Roy Keane, Irish footballer and manager * 1971 &ndash; Mario Kindelán, Cuban boxer * 1971 &ndash; Paul Newlove, English rugby player * 1971 &ndash; Kevin Randleman, American mixed martial artist and wrestler (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite web \|last1Kurchak \|first1Sarah \|titleIn Memoriam: The MMA Fighters Who Passed Away In 2016 \|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/4xz4wb/in-memoriam-the-mma-fighters-who-passed-away-in-2016 \|websiteVice \|access-date13 February 2020 \|languageen \|date2 January 2017}}</ref> * 1971 &ndash; Justin Theroux, American actor 1972 &ndash; Dilana, South African singer-songwriter and actress 1972 &ndash; Lawrence Dallaglio, English rugby player and sportscaster * 1972 &ndash; Angie Harmon, American model and actress * 1972 &ndash; Christofer Johnsson, Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1973 &ndash; Lisa Raymond, American tennis player 1973 &ndash; Javier Zanetti, Argentinian footballer 1974 &ndash; Haifaa al-Mansour, Saudi Arabian director and producer 1974 &ndash; Luis Marín, Costa Rican footballer and manager * 1974 &ndash; Rachel Simmons, American scholar and author * 1974 &ndash; David Sommeil, French footballer 1975 &ndash; İlhan Mansız, Turkish footballer and figure skater 1976 &ndash; Roadkill, American wrestler * 1976 &ndash; Ian Murray, Scottish businessman and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland 1977 &ndash; Danny Griffin, Irish footballer 1977 &ndash; Matt Morgan, English comedian, actor, and radio host 1978 &ndash; Danny Allsopp, Australian footballer 1978 &ndash; Marcus Fizer, American basketball player * 1978 &ndash; Chris Read, English cricketer 1979 &ndash; Dinusha Fernando, Sri Lankan cricketer 1979 &ndash; JoAnna Garcia Swisher, American actress<ref name="AP" /> * 1979 &ndash; Ted Geoghegan, American author, screenwriter, and producer * 1979 &ndash; Brandon Lyon, American baseball player * 1979 &ndash; Rémy Martin, French rugby player * 1979 &ndash; Matjaž Perc, Slovene physicist * 1979 &ndash; Yannick Schroeder, French racing driver 1980 &ndash; Wade Barrett, English boxer, wrestler, and actor 1980 &ndash; Aaron Staton, American actor<ref name="AP" /> 1981 &ndash; Taufik Hidayat, Indonesian badminton player 1982 &ndash; John Alvbåge, Swedish footballer * 1982 &ndash; Josh Anderson, American baseball player * 1982 &ndash; Julia Melim, Brazilian actress * 1982 &ndash; Shaun Murphy, English snooker player<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200220174617/https://wst.tv/players/shaun-murphy/ Shaun Murphy] wst.tv</ref> 1983 &ndash; Kyle Brown, American soccer player 1983 &ndash; C. B. Dollaway, American mixed martial artist * 1983 &ndash; Héctor Faubel, Spanish motorcycle racer * 1983 &ndash; Alexander Perezhogin, Russian ice hockey player * 1983 &ndash; Mathieu Roy, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 &ndash; Ryan Eggold, American actor and composer 1984 &ndash; Mokomichi Hayami, Japanese model and actor * 1984 &ndash; Jigar Naik, English cricketer * 1984 &ndash; Matt Prater, American football player<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatt Prater Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, College \|urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/P/PratMa20.htm \|websitePro-Football-Reference.com \|access-dateAugust 10, 2024}}</ref> 1985 &ndash; Enrico Cortese, Italian footballer 1985 &ndash; Roy O'Donovan, Irish footballer * 1985 &ndash; Kakuryū Rikisaburō, Mongolian sumo wrestler * 1985 &ndash; Julia Skripnik, Estonian tennis player 1986 &ndash; Andrea Hlaváčková, Czech tennis player 1987 &ndash; Jim Bakkum, Dutch singer and actor * 1987 &ndash; Ari Boyland, New Zealand actor and singer 1989 &ndash; Sam Gagner, Canadian ice hockey player 1989 &ndash; Ben Sahar, Israeli footballer * 1989 &ndash; Brenton Thwaites, Australian actor 1990 &ndash; Cruze Ah-Nau, Australian rugby player 1990 &ndash; Lee Sung-kyung, South Korean model, actress, and singer<ref name"ize">{{cite web \|lastLee \|firstJi-hye \|dateSeptember 17, 2014 \|titleSpotlight 이성경:②이성경's story \|trans-titleSpotlight Lee Sung-kyung: Lee Sung-kyung's story \|urlhttp://ize.co.kr/articleView.html?no2014091420077248312 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160105221852/http://www.ize.co.kr/articleView.html?no2014091420077248312 \|archive-dateJanuary 5, 2016 \|access-dateNovember 17, 2014 \|websiteIze \|language=ko}}</ref> * 1990 &ndash; Lucas Till, American actor<ref name="AP" /> 1991 &ndash; Dagný Brynjarsdóttir, Icelandic footballer 1991 &ndash; Marcus Foligno, American-Canadian ice hockey player * 1991 &ndash; Nikos Korovesis, Greek footballer * 1991 &ndash; Chris Tremain, Australian cricketer 1992 &ndash; Archie Bradley, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web \|titleArchie Bradley \|urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/archie-bradley-605151 \|publisherMajor League Baseball \|access-date9 August 2023}}</ref> 1992 &ndash; Michelle Khare, American YouTuber and television host<ref>{{cite web\|titleMichelle Khare\|urlhttps://www.procyclingstats.com/rider/michelle-khare\|websitePro Cycling Stats\|access-dateMay 28, 2020}}</ref> * 1992 &ndash; Oliver Rowland, English racing driver<ref>{{Cite web \|titleOliver Rowland \|urlhttps://www.fiaformulae.com/en/drivers/00098f8a-69be-4f84-a7ac-baedcc5f9e9c/oliver-rowland \|access-date30 November 2023 \|websiteABB FIA Formula E World Championship}}</ref> 1993 &ndash; Andre Drummond, American basketball player 1994 &ndash; Bernardo Silva, Portuguese footballer 1995 &ndash; Dalvin Cook, American football player<ref>{{cite web \|titleDalvin Cook \|urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/3116593/dalvin-cook \|publisherESPN \|access-date9 August 2023}}</ref> 1996 &ndash; Lauren Tait, Scottish netball player<ref>{{cite web \|titleLAUREN TAIT \|urlhttps://sirensnetball.com/player/lauren-tait/ \|websiteStrathclyde Sirens \|access-date14 February 2020 \|archive-date19 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200819111521/https://sirensnetball.com/player/lauren-tait/ \|url-status=dead }}</ref> 1997 &ndash; Kylie Jenner, American television personality and businesswoman<ref name"AP">{{cite web \|last1Rose \|first1Mike \|titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 10, 2022 includes celebrities Antonio Banderas, Kylie Jenner \|urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-10-2022-includes-celebrities-antonio-banderas-kylie-jenner.html \|websiteThe Plain Dealer \|publisherAssociated Press \|access-date9 August 2023 \|date=10 August 2022}}</ref> 1997 &ndash; Luca Marini, Italian motorcycle rider<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLuca Marini \|urlhttps://www.motogp.com/en/riders/luca-marini/5dfc20db-c3c4-4ecd-9c7c-f6cfd042031a \|access-date30 November 2023 \|websiteMotoGP.com}}</ref> 1999 &ndash; Ja Morant, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web \|titleJa Morant \|urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1629630/ja-morant \|publisherNational Basketball Association \|access-date9 August 2023}}</ref> 1999 &ndash; Ritomo Miyata, Japanese racing driver<ref>{{Cite web \|title2023 37宮田莉朋 \|urlhttps://superformula.net/sf3/driver/1345/ \|access-date30 November 2023 \|websiteSuper Formula official web site \|language=ja}}</ref> * 1999 &ndash; Nick Suzuki, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web \|titleNick Suzuki Stats And News \|urlhttps://www.nhl.com/canadiens/player/nick-suzuki-8480018 \|websiteNHL.com \|access-dateAugust 10, 2024}}</ref> 2000 &ndash; Sophia Smith, American soccer player<ref>{{cite web\|last\|first\|date\|titleSophia Smith\|urlhttps://www.thorns.com/players/sophia-smith\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200213021923/https://www.timbers.com/players/sophia-smith \|archive-date2020-02-13 \|access-date14 January 2021\|websitePortland Timbers}}</ref> 2000 &ndash; Jüri Vips, Estonian racing driver<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJüri Vips \|urlhttps://www.fiaformula2.com/Drivers/1172/Juri-Vips \|access-date30 November 2023 \|websiteFIA Formula 2 Championship}}</ref> <!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Deaths Pre-1600 * 258 &ndash; Lawrence of Rome, Spanish-Italian deacon and saint (b. 225) * 794 &ndash; Fastrada, Frankish noblewoman (b. 765) * 796 &ndash; Eanbald, archbishop of York * 847 &ndash; Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (b. 816) * 955 &ndash; Conrad ('the Red'), duke of Lorraine 1241 &ndash; Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany (b. 1184) 1250 &ndash; Eric IV of Denmark (b. 1216) 1284 &ndash; Tekuder, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate 1316 &ndash; Felim mac Aedh Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht 1322 &ndash; John of La Verna, Italian ascetic (b. 1259) 1410 &ndash; Louis II, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1337) 1535 &ndash; Ippolito de' Medici, Italian cardinal (b. 1509) 1536 &ndash; Francis III, Duke of Brittany, Dauphin of France, Brother of Henry II (b. 1518) 1601–1900 1653 &ndash; Maarten Tromp, Dutch admiral (b. 1598) 1655 &ndash; Alfonso de la Cueva, 1st Marquis of Bedmar, Spanish cardinal and diplomat (b. 1572) 1660 &ndash; Esmé Stewart, 2nd Duke of Richmond (b. 1649) 1723 &ndash; Guillaume Dubois, French cardinal and politician, French Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1656) 1759 &ndash; Ferdinand VI of Spain (b. 1713) 1784 &ndash; Allan Ramsay, Scottish-English painter (b. 1713) 1796 &ndash; Ignaz Anton von Indermauer, Austrian nobleman and government official (b. 1759) 1802 &ndash; Franz Aepinus, German-Russian philosopher and academic (b. 1724) 1806 &ndash; Michael Haydn, Austrian composer and educator (b. 1737) 1839 &ndash; Sir John St Aubyn, 5th Baronet, English lawyer and politician (b. 1758) 1862 &ndash; Hon'inbō Shūsaku, Japanese Go player (b. 1829) 1875 &ndash; Karl Andree, German geographer and journalist (b. 1808) 1889 &ndash; Arthur Böttcher, German pathologist and anatomist (b. 1831) 1890 &ndash; John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish-born poet, journalist and fiction writer (b. 1844) 1896 &ndash; Otto Lilienthal, German pilot and engineer (b. 1848) 1901–present 1904 &ndash; Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (b. 1846) 1913 &ndash; Johannes Linnankoski, Finnish author (b. 1869)<ref>[http://authorscalendar.info/linnanko.htm Johannes Linnankoski (1869-1913) - pseudonym for Johannes Vihtori Peltonen]</ref> 1915 &ndash; Henry Moseley, English physicist and engineer (b. 1887) 1916 &ndash; John J. Loud, American inventor (b. 1844) 1918 &ndash; Erich Löwenhardt, German lieutenant and pilot (b. 1897) 1920 &ndash; Ádám Politzer, Hungarian-Austrian physician and academic (b. 1835) 1922 &ndash; Reginald Dunne, Irish Republican, executed for the killing of Sir Henry Wilson<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2020/09/17/mary-dunne-a-mothers-struggle-for-recognition/#.YvKhN_jMJPZ \| titleMary Dunne, A Mother's Struggle for Recognition – the Irish Story }}</ref> 1922 &ndash; Joseph O'Sullivan, Irish Republican, executed for the killing of Sir Henry Wilson<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/an-irish-diary/2022/08/08/the-felons-cap-is-the-noblest-crown-an-irish-head-can-wear/ \| title'The felon's cap is the noblest crown an Irish head can wear' \| newspaper=The Irish Times }}</ref> 1929 &ndash; Pierre Fatou, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1878) * 1929 &ndash; Aletta Jacobs, Dutch physician (b. 1854)<ref>{{cite book\|editor-firstBonnie G.\|editor-lastSmith\|titleThe Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History\|volume1\|placeOxford\|publisherOxford University Press\|year2008\|isbn978-0-19514-890-9\|page=637}}</ref> 1932 &ndash; Rin Tin Tin, American acting dog (b. 1918) 1933 &ndash; Alf Morgans, Welsh-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1850) 1945 &ndash; Robert H. Goddard, American physicist and engineer (b. 1882) 1948 &ndash; Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese-American historian, author, and academic (b. 1873) * 1948 &ndash; Andrew Brown, Scottish footballer and coach (b. 1870) * 1948 &ndash; Montague Summers, English clergyman and author (b. 1880) 1949 &ndash; Homer Burton Adkins, American chemist (b. 1892) 1954 &ndash; Robert Adair, American-born British actor (b. 1900) 1958 &ndash; Frank Demaree, American baseball player and manager (b. 1910) 1960 &ndash; Hamide Ayşe Sultan, Ottoman princess (b. 1887) 1961 &ndash; Julia Peterkin, American author (b. 1880) 1963 &ndash; Estes Kefauver, American lawyer and politician (b. 1903) * 1963 &ndash; Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and jurist (b. 1877) 1969 &ndash; János Kodolányi, Hungarian author (b. 1899) 1976 &ndash; Bert Oldfield, Australian cricketer (b. 1894) 1979 &ndash; Dick Foran, American actor and singer (b. 1910) 1979 &ndash; Walter Gerlach, German physicist and academic (b. 1889) 1980 &ndash; Yahya Khan, Pakistani general and politician, 3rd President of Pakistan (b. 1917) 1982 &ndash; Anderson Bigode Herzer, Brazilian author and poet (b. 1962) 1985 &ndash; Nate Barragar, American football player and sergeant (b. 1906) 1987 &ndash; Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas, Greek lawyer and politician, 163rd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1893) 1991 &ndash; Lưu Trọng Lư, Vietnamese poet and playwright (b. 1912) 1993 &ndash; Euronymous, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer (b. 1968) 1997 &ndash; Jean-Claude Lauzon, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1953) 1997 &ndash; Conlon Nancarrow, American-Mexican pianist and composer (b. 1912) 1999 &ndash; Jennifer Paterson, English chef and television presenter (b. 1928) 1999 &ndash; Baldev Upadhyaya, Indian historian, scholar, and critic (b. 1899) 2000 &ndash; Gilbert Parkhouse, Welsh cricketer and rugby player (b. 1925) 2001 &ndash; Lou Boudreau, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917) 2002 &ndash; Michael Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1962) 2002 &ndash; Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and politician (b. 1926) 2007 &ndash; Henry Cabot Lodge Bohler, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1925) 2007 &ndash; James E. Faust, American lawyer and religious leader (b. 1920) * 2007 &ndash; Jean Rédélé, French race car driver and pilot, founded Alpine (b. 1922) * 2007 &ndash; Tony Wilson, English journalist, producer, and manager, co-founded Factory Records (b. 1950) 2008 &ndash; Isaac Hayes, American singer-songwriter, pianist, producer, and actor (b. 1942) 2010 &ndash; Markus Liebherr, German-Swiss businessman (b. 1948) * 2010 &ndash; Adam Stansfield, English footballer (b. 1978) * 2010 &ndash; David L. Wolper, American director and producer (b. 1928) 2011 &ndash; Billy Grammer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1925) 2012 &ndash; Philippe Bugalski, French race car driver (b. 1963) * 2012 &ndash; Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (b. 1916) * 2012 &ndash; Irving Fein, American producer and manager (b. 1911) * 2012 &ndash; William W. Momyer, American general and pilot (b. 1916) * 2012 &ndash; Carlo Rambaldi, Italian special effects artist (b. 1925) 2013 &ndash; William P. Clark Jr., American judge and politician, 12th United States National Security Advisor (b. 1931) 2013 &ndash; Jonathan Dawson, Australian historian and academic (b. 1941) * 2013 &ndash; Eydie Gormé, American singer and actress (b. 1928) * 2013 &ndash; David C. Jones, American general (b. 1921) * 2013 &ndash; Jody Payne, American singer and guitarist (b. 1936) * 2013 &ndash; Amy Wallace, American author (b. 1955) 2014 &ndash; Jim Command, American baseball player and scout (b. 1928) 2014 &ndash; Dotty Lynch, American journalist and academic (b. 1945) * 2014 &ndash; Kathleen Ollerenshaw, English mathematician, astronomer, and politician, Lord Mayor of Manchester (b. 1912) * 2014 &ndash; Bob Wiesler, American baseball player (b. 1930) 2015 &ndash; Buddy Baker, American race car driver and sportscaster (b. 1941) 2015 &ndash; Endre Czeizel, Hungarian physician, geneticist, and academic (b. 1935) * 2015 &ndash; Knut Osnes, Norwegian footballer and coach (b. 1922) * 2015 &ndash; Eriek Verpale, Belgian author and poet (b. 1952) 2017 &ndash; Ruth Pfau, German-Pakistani doctor and nun (b. 1929) 2019 &ndash; Jeffrey Epstein, American financier (b. 1953)<ref name"nytimes suicide">{{cite news \| url https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/10/nyregion/jeffrey-epstein-suicide.html \|title Jeffrey Epstein Dead in Suicide at Jail, Spurring Inquiries \| first1 William K. \|last1Rashbaum \| first2 Benjamin \| last2Weiser \| first3Michael \| last3Gold \| date August 10, 2019 \| access-date August 10, 2019 \| work The New York Times }}</ref> 2021 &ndash; Tony Esposito, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1943)<ref>{{Cite web\|lastBrehm\|firstMike\|date2021-08-10\|titleLegendary Chicago Blackhawks goalie Tony Esposito dies at 78\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nhl/2021/08/10/tony-esposito-dies-78-chicago-blackhawks-hall-of-fame-goalie/5562319001/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210811013044/https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nhl/2021/08/10/tony-esposito-dies-78-chicago-blackhawks-hall-of-fame-goalie/5562319001/\|archive-date2021-08-11\|access-date2021-08-11\|websiteUSA Today\|language=en-US}}</ref> 2022 &ndash; Vesa-Matti Loiri, Finnish actor, musician and comedian (b. 1945)<ref>{{citation\|urlhttps://www.hs.fi/muistot/art-2000007998459.html\| titleVesa-Matti Loiri on kuollut\| access-date10 August 2022\| workHelsingin Sanomat\| date10 August 2022\|languagefi}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Rachael Lillis, American voice actress and scriptwriter (b. 1978)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTinoco \|firstArmando \|date2024-08-12 \|titleRachael Lillis Dies: 'Pokémon' Voice Actor For Misty & Jessie From Team Rocket Was 46 \|urlhttps://deadline.com/2024/08/rachael-lillis-dead-pokemon-voice-misty-jessie-team-rocket-1236037939/ \|access-date2024-08-12 \|websiteDeadline \|languageen-US}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Peggy Moffitt, American model and actress (b. 1937)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRourke \|firstMary \|date2024-08-14 \|titleFashion model Peggy Moffitt has died \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/obituaries/story/2024-08-14/peggy-moffitt-dead \|access-date2024-08-24 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> <!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances * Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina) * Christian feast day: Bessus Blane (Roman Catholic Church) Geraint of Dumnonia Lawrence of Rome Nicola Saggio Nuestra Señora del Buen Suceso de Parañaque, Patroness of Parañaque, Philippines ** August 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) * Declaration of Independence of Quito, proclaimed independence from Spain on August 10, 1809. Independence was finally attained on May 24, 1822, at the Battle of Pichincha. (Ecuador) * International Biodiesel Day * National Veterans Day (Indonesia) * World Lion Day<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.worldanimalprotection.org/our-campaigns/sentience/animal-awareness-days/world-lion-day/ \| titleWorld Lion Day \| dateJuly 2022 }}</ref>References{{reflist}}External links {{commons}} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/10 \|titleOn This Day \|publisher=BBC}} * {{NYT On this day\|month08\|day10}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/10 \|titleHistorical Events on August 10 \|publisher=OnThisDay.com}} {{months}} {{DEFAULTSORT:August 10}} Category:Days of August	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_10	2025-04-05T18:26:00.343661
2316	Audio file format	thumb\|Audio file icons of various formats An audio file format is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system. The bit layout of the audio data (excluding metadata) is called the audio coding format and can be uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size, often using lossy compression. The data can be a raw bitstream in an audio coding format, but it is usually embedded in a container format or an audio data format with defined storage layer. Format types It is important to distinguish between the audio coding format, the container containing the raw audio data, and an audio codec. A codec performs the encoding and decoding of the raw audio data while this encoded data is (usually) stored in a container file. Although most audio file formats support only one type of audio coding data (created with an audio coder), a multimedia container format (as Matroska or AVI) may support multiple types of audio and video data. There are three major groups of audio file formats: Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF, AU or raw header-less PCM; Note wav can alternatively use compression. Formats with lossless compression, such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio (filename extension .ape), WavPack (filename extension .wv), TTA, ATRAC Advanced Lossless, ALAC, MPEG-4 SLS, MPEG-4 ALS, MPEG-4 DST, Windows Media Audio Lossless (WMA Lossless), and Shorten (SHN). Formats with lossy compression, such as Opus, MP3, Vorbis, Musepack, AAC, ATRAC and Windows Media Audio Lossy (WMA lossy). Uncompressed audio format One major uncompressed audio format, LPCM, is the same variety of PCM as used in Compact Disc Digital Audio and is the format most commonly accepted by low level audio APIs and D/A converter hardware. Although LPCM can be stored on a computer as a raw audio format, it is usually stored in a .wav file on Windows or in a .aiff file on macOS. The Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) format is based on the Interchange File Format (IFF), and the WAV format is based on the similar Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF). WAV and AIFF are designed to store a wide variety of audio formats, lossless and lossy; they just add a small, metadata-containing header before the audio data to declare the format of the audio data, such as LPCM with a particular sample rate, bit depth, endianness and number of channels. Since WAV and AIFF are widely supported and can store LPCM, they are suitable file formats for storing and archiving an original recording. BWF (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the European Broadcasting Union as a successor to WAV. Among other enhancements, BWF allows more robust metadata to be stored in the file. See European Broadcasting Union: Specification of the Broadcast Wave Format (EBU Technical document 3285, July 1997). This is the primary recording format used in many professional audio workstations in the television and film industry. BWF files include a standardized timestamp reference which allows for easy synchronization with a separate picture element. Stand-alone, file based, multi-track recorders from AETA, Sound Devices, Zaxcom, HHB Communications Ltd, Fostex, Nagra, Aaton, and TASCAM all use BWF as their preferred format. Lossless compressed audio format A lossless compressed audio format stores data in less space without losing any information. The original, uncompressed data can be recreated from the compressed version. Uncompressed audio formats encode both sound and silence with the same number of bits per unit of time. Encoding an uncompressed minute of absolute silence produces a file of the same size as encoding an uncompressed minute of music. In a lossless compressed format, however, the music would occupy a smaller file than an uncompressed format and the silence would take up almost no space at all. Lossless compression formats include FLAC, WavPack, Monkey's Audio, ALAC (Apple Lossless). They provide a compression ratio of about 2:1 (i.e. their files take up half the space of PCM). Development in lossless compression formats aims to reduce processing time while maintaining a good compression ratio. Lossy compressed audio format Lossy audio format enables even greater reductions in file size by removing some of the audio information and simplifying the data. This, of course, results in a reduction in audio quality, but a variety of techniques are used, mainly by exploiting psychoacoustics, to remove the parts of the sound that have the least effect on perceived quality, and to minimize the amount of audible noise added during the process. The popular MP3 format is probably the best-known example, but the AAC format found on the iTunes Music Store is also common. Most formats offer a range of degrees of compression, generally measured in bit rate. The lower the rate, the smaller the file and the more significant the quality loss. List of formats File Extension Creation Company Description .3gp Multimedia container format can contain proprietary formats as AMR, AMR-WB or AMR-WB+, but also some open formats .aa Audible (Amazon) A low-bitrate audiobook container format with DRM, containing audio encoded as either MP3 or the ACELP speech codec. .aac The Advanced Audio Coding format is based on the MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 standards. AAC files are usually ADTS or ADIF containers. .aax Audible (Amazon) An Audiobook format, which is a variable-bitrate (allowing high quality) M4B file encrypted with DRM. MPB contains AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. (More details below.) .act ACT is a lossy ADPCM 8 kbit/s compressed audio format recorded by most Chinese MP3 and MP4 players with a recording function, and voice recorders .aiff Apple A standard uncompressed CD-quality, audio file format used by Apple. Established 3 years prior to Microsoft's uncompressed version wav. .alac Apple An audio coding format developed by Apple Inc. for lossless data compression of digital music. .amr AMR-NB audio, used primarily for speech. .ape Matthew T. Ashland Monkey's Audio lossless audio compression format. .au Sun Microsystems The standard audio file format used by Sun, Unix and Java. The audio in au files can be PCM or compressed with the μ-law, a-law or G.729 codecs. .awb AMR-WB audio, used primarily for speech, same as the ITU-T's G.722.2 specification. .dss Olympus DSS files are an Olympus proprietary format. DSS files use a high compression rate, which reduces the file size and allows files to be copied and transferred quickly. It allows additional data to be held in the file header. .dvf Sony A Sony proprietary format for compressed voice files; commonly used by Sony dictation recorders. .flac A file format for the Free Lossless Audio Codec, an open-source lossless compression codec. .gsm Designed for telephony use in Europe, GSM is used to store telephone voice messages and conversations. With a bitrate of 13 kbit/s, GSM files can compress and encode audio at telephone quality. Note that WAV files can also be encoded with the GSM codec. .iklax iKlax An iKlax Media proprietary format, the iKlax format is a multi-track digital audio format allowing various actions on musical data, for instance on mixing and volumes arrangements. .ivs 3D Solar UK Ltd A proprietary version with DRM developed by 3D Solar UK Ltd for use in music downloaded from their Tronme Music Store and interactive music and video player. .m4a An audio-only MPEG-4 file, used by Apple for unprotected music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store. Audio within the m4a file is typically encoded with AAC, although lossless ALAC may also be used. .m4b An Audiobook / podcast extension with AAC or ALAC encoded audio in an MPEG-4 container. Both M4A and M4B formats can contain metadata including chapter markers, images, and hyperlinks, but M4B allows "bookmarks" (remembering the last listening spot), whereas M4A does not. .m4p Apple A version of AAC with proprietary DRM developed by Apple for use in music downloaded from their iTunes Music Store and their music streaming service known as Apple Music. .mmf Yamaha, Samsung A Samsung audio format that is used in ringtones. Developed by Yamaha (SMAF stands for "Synthetic music Mobile Application Format", and is a multimedia data format invented by the Yamaha Corporation, .mmf file format). .movpkg Apple An Apple audio format primarily used for Lossless and Hi-Res audio files through Apple Music. Also used for storing Apple TV videos. .mp3 MPEG Layer III Audio .mpc Musepack or MPC (formerly known as MPEGplus, MPEG+ or MP+) is an open source lossy audio codec, specifically optimized for transparent compression of stereo audio at bitrates of 160–180 kbit/s. .msv Sony A Sony proprietary format for Memory Stick compressed voice files. .nmfNICENICE Media Player audio file .ogg, .oga, .mogg Xiph.Org Foundation A free, open source container format supporting a variety of formats, the most popular of which is the audio format Vorbis. Vorbis offers compression similar to MP3 but is less popular. Mogg, the "Multi-Track-Single-Logical-Stream Ogg-Vorbis", is the multi-channel or multi-track Ogg file format. .opus Internet Engineering Task Force A lossy audio compression format developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and made especially suitable for interactive real-time applications over the Internet. As an open format standardised through RFC 6716, a reference implementation is provided under the 3-clause BSD license. .ra, .rm RealNetworks A RealAudio format designed for streaming audio over the Internet. The .ra format allows files to be stored in a self-contained fashion on a computer, with all of the audio data contained inside the file itself. .raw A raw file can contain audio in any format but is usually used with PCM audio data. It is rarely used except for technical tests. .rf64 One successor to the Wav format, overcoming the 4GiB size limitation. .sln Signed Linear PCM format used by Asterisk. Prior to v.10 the standard formats were 16-bit Signed Linear PCM sampled at 8 kHz and at 16 kHz. With v.10 many more sampling rates were added. .tta The True Audio, real-time lossless audio codec. .voc Creative Technology The file format consists of a 26-byte header and a series of subsequent data blocks containing the audio information .vox The vox format most commonly uses the Dialogic ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) codec. Similar to other ADPCM formats, it compresses to 4-bits. Vox format files are similar to wave files except that the vox files contain no information about the file itself so the codec sample rate and number of channels must first be specified in order to play a vox file. .wav IBM and Microsoft Standard audio file container format used mainly in Windows PCs. Commonly used for storing uncompressed (PCM), CD-quality sound files, which means that they can be large in size—around 10 MB per minute. Wave files can also contain data encoded with a variety of (lossy) codecs to reduce the file size (for example the GSM or MP3 formats). Wav files use a RIFF structure. .wma Microsoft Windows Media Audio format, created by Microsoft. Designed with DRM abilities for copy protection. .wv Format for wavpack files. .webm Royalty-free format created for HTML video. .8svx Electronic Arts The IFF-8SVX format for 8-bit sound samples, created by Electronic Arts in 1984 at the birth of the Amiga. .cda Format for cda files for Radio. See also Video file format Audio compression (data) Comparison of audio coding formats Comparison of video container formats Comparison of video codecs List of open-source audio codecs Timeline of audio formats References Category:Digital container formats	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_file_format	2025-04-05T18:26:00.360887
2321	Area 51	{{Short description\|U.S Air Force facility in southern Nevada, United States}} {{About\|the U.S. Air Force facility in Nevada}} {{Redirect\|Groom Lake}} {{Pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2019}} {{Infobox military installation \| name = Homey Airport \| ensign \| ensign_size \| native_name \| partof <!-- for elements within a larger site --> \| location \| nearest_town Rachel, Lincoln County, Nevada \| country = United States \| image = Sentinel-Homey.png \| alt = A satellite image taken in 2022 captured by Sentinel-2 of ESA showing the base with Groom Lake just to the north-northeast \| caption = A satellite image taken in 2022 captured by Sentinel-2 of ESA showing the base with Groom Lake just to the north-northeast \| image2 = Air Force Materiel Command shield.svg \| alt2 \| caption2 \| type = Development and testing facility \| coordinates {{Coord\|37\|14\|0\|N\|115\|48\|30\|W\|region:US-NV_type:airport\|display inline,title}} \| gridref \| image_map \| image_mapsize \| image_map_alt \| image_map_caption \| pushpin_map USA \| pushpin_mapsize \| pushpin_map_alt \| pushpin_map_caption = Location in the United States \| pushpin_relief \| pushpin_image \| pushpin_label = Homey Airport \| pushpin_label_position = right \| pushpin_mark \| pushpin_marksize \| ownership = Department of Defense \| operator = United States Air Force \| controlledby = Air Force Materiel Command \| open_to_public = <!-- for out of use sites/sites with museums etc --> \| site_other_label = <!-- for renaming "other facilities" in infobox --> \| site_other = <!-- for other sorts of facilities radar types etc --> \| site_area = <!-- area of site m2, km2 square mile etc --> \| code = <!--facility/installation code, applies to US --> \| built = {{Start date\|1955}} (as Paradise Ranch) \| used = 1955–present<!--{{End date\|1946}} --> \| builder \| materials \| height = <!-- height of tallest part, not above sea level --> \| length = <!-- for border fences or other DMZs --> \| fate = <!--changed from demolished parameter--> \| condition = Operational \| battles \| events Storm Area 51 (2019) \| current_commander = <!-- current commander --> \| past_commanders = <!-- past notable commander(s) --> \| garrison = Air Force Test Center (Detachment 3) \| occupants = <!-- squadrons only --> \| designations \| website <!-- begin airfield information --> \| IATA \| ICAO KXTA \| FAA = XTA \| elevation = {{Convert\|4494\|ft\|0}} \| r1-number 14L/32R<ref>{{cite book \|lastCherif \|firstMohamed \|author-link \|date30 May 2015 \|titleUFOs: Aliens or Extraterrestrials \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0mHIgkjhFF4C&dqArea+51+runways+14l%2F32r&pgPA345 \|location\|publisherTheBookEdition\|page345 \|isbn9789938052633 }} </ref> \| r1-length = {{Convert\|3657\|m\|0}} \| r1-surface = asphalt \| r2-number 12/30{{Efn\|Part of a taxiway can be temporarily used as a runway if announced by NOTAM<ref name"Jeppesen">{{Cite web \|last\|date2021-01-08 \|titleKXTA \|urlhttps://dlr.thexhunters.com/maps/KXTA.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210731231525/https://dlr.thexhunters.com/maps/KXTA.pdf \|archive-date2021-07-31 \|access-date2021-08-31 \|publisher=Jeppesen}}</ref>}} \| r2-length = {{Convert\|1652\|m\|0}} \| r2-surface = paved \| r3-number = 09L/27R \| r3-length = {{Convert\|3470\|m\|0}} \| r3-surface = dry lake \| r4-number = 09R/27L \| r4-length = {{Convert\|3470\|m\|0}} \| r4-surface = dry lake \| r5-number = 03L/21R \| r5-length = {{Convert\|3048\|m\|0}} \| r5-surface = dry lake \| r6-number = 03R/21L \| r6-length = {{Convert\|3048\|m\|0}} \| r6-surface = dry lake \| h1-number \| h1-length <!-- {{Convert\| \|m\|0}} --> \| h1-surface \| airfield_other_label <!-- for renaming "other facilities" in infobox --> \| airfield_other = <!-- for other sorts of airfield facilities --> <!-- end airfield information --> \| footnotes Sources: Jeppesen<ref name"Jeppesen"/> }} Area 51 is the common name of a highly classified United States Air Force (USAF) facility within the Nevada Test and Training Range. A remote detachment administered by Edwards Air Force Base, the facility is officially called Homey Airport {{Airport codes\|\|KXTA\|XTA}}<ref name"Jeppesen"/> or Groom Lake (after the salt flat next to its airfield). Details of its operations are not made public, but the USAF says that it is an open training range,<ref name"McAndrewsWaPo">{{cite news \|last1Brice-Saddler \|first1Michael \|titleHalf a million people signed up to storm Area 51. What happens if they actually show? \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2019/07/13/half-million-people-signed-up-storm-area-what-happens-if-they-actually-show-up/ \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|date12 July 2019 \|languageen \|access-date13 July 2019}}</ref> and it is commonly thought to support the development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems.{{sfn\|Rich\|Janos\|1994\|p57}}<ref name"McAndrewsWaPo" /> The USAF and CIA acquired the site in 1955, primarily for flight testing the Lockheed U-2 aircraft.<ref name"BBC">{{cite news \|titleArea 51 'declassified' in U-2 spy plane history \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23731759 \|access-date25 September 2014 \|workBBC News \|date16 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141015153938/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-23731759 \|archive-date15 October 2014 \|url-status=live}}</ref> The intense secrecy surrounding the base has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component of unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore.{{sfn\|Jacobsen\|2012\|pp11–15, 320–321}}<ref name"lacitis20100327"/> It has never been declared a secret base, but all research and occurrences in Area 51 are Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information (TS/SCI).{{sfn\|Jacobsen\|2012\|pp65–66, 77–80}} The CIA publicly acknowledged the base's existence on 25 June 2013, following a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request filed in 2005, and declassified documents detailing its history and purpose.<ref name"cia1992"/> Area 51 is located in the southern portion of Nevada, {{convert\|83\|mi\|km}} north-northwest of Las Vegas. The surrounding area is a popular tourist destination, including the small town of Rachel on the "Extraterrestrial Highway". Geography Area 51 ]] The original rectangular base of {{convert\|6\|by\|10\|mi\|km\|0}} is now part of the so-called "Groom box", a rectangular area, measuring {{convert\|23\|by\|25\|mi\|km}}, of restricted airspace. The area is connected to the internal Nevada Test Site (NTS) road network, with paved roads leading south to Mercury and west to Yucca Flat. Leading northeast from the lake, the wide and well-maintained Groom Lake Road runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills. The road formerly led to mines in the Groom basin but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course runs past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends farther east. After leaving the restricted area, Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before converging with State Route 375, the "Extraterrestrial Highway", south of Rachel.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://travel.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/travel/escapes/13extraterrestrial.html \|titleLonesome Highway to Another World? \|access-date8 July 2007 \|authorRegenold, Stephen \|date13 April 2007 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070617100409/http://travel.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/travel/escapes/13extraterrestrial.html \|archive-date17 June 2007 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site, the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf \|titleUS Department of Energy. Nevada Operations Office. United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992 (December 2000) \|access-date10 June 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100615231826/http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf \|archive-date15 June 2010 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"ndepmap">{{cite web \|urlhttp://ndep.nv.gov/boff/nts-use.jpg \|titleNavigation map \|publisherndep.nv.gov \|access-date4 October 2008 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080216102228/http://ndep.nv.gov/boff/nts-use.jpg \|archive-date16 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/facility/nts_fig1.gif \|titleGuide \|websitefas.org \|formatGIF \|access-date4 April 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106165252/http://fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/facility/nts_fig1.gif \|archive-date6 November 2015 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is southwest of Groom Lake.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Business/yucca-mountain-neighbors-area-51-area-25-nevada/story?id19963355 \|titleArea 51, 25 Among Yucca Mountain's Nuclear Neighbors \|workabc News \|firstAlan \|lastFarnham \|date15 August 2013 \|access-date20 December 2020}}</ref> Groom Lake Groom Lake is a salt flat<ref name"LeibyWaPo">{{cite news \|lastLeiby \|firstRichard \|titleGovernment officially acknowledges existence of Area 51, but not the UFOs \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/government-officially-acknowledges-existence-of-area-51-but-not-the-ufos/2013/08/16/ca4feaec-06be-11e3-a07f-49ddc7417125_story.html \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|date24 August 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170807070834/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/government-officially-acknowledges-existence-of-area-51-but-not-the-ufos/2013/08/16/ca4feaec-06be-11e3-a07f-49ddc7417125_story.html \|archive-date7 August 2017 \|access-date16 July 2019 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> in Nevada used for runways of the Nellis Bombing Range Test Site airport (XTA/KXTA) on the north of the Area 51 USAF military installation. The lake at {{convert\|4409\|ft\|m\|abbron}} elevation is approximately {{convert\|3+3/4\|mi\|km\|0\|abbron}} from north to south and {{convert\|3\|mi\|km\|0\|abbron}} from east to west at its widest point.<ref name=GNIS> {{cite gnis\|840824\|Groom Lake\|access-date9 November 2010}}</ref> Located within the namesake Groom Lake Valley portion of the Tonopah Basin, the lake is {{convert\|25\|mi\|abbron}} south of Rachel, Nevada.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dreamlandresort.com/area51/dreamland_50years.html \|titleDREAMLAND: Fifty Years of Secret Flight Testing in NevadaBy Peter W. Merlin \|websitedreamlandresort.com \|firstPeter \|lastMerlin \|date16 October 2010 \|access-date7 January 2021}}</ref>HistoryThe origin of the name "Area 51" is unclear. It is believed to be from an Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) numbering grid, although Area 51 is not part of this system; it is adjacent to Area 15. Another explanation is that 51 was used because it was unlikely that the AEC would use the number.<ref>{{cite news \|lastStrickland \|firstJonathan \|titleHow Area 51 Works \|urlhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/space/aliens-ufos/area-51.htm#mkcpgnfb6 \|newspaperHow Stuff Work \|access-date16 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130821042029/http://science.howstuffworks.com/space/aliens-ufos/area-51.htm#mkcpgnfb6 \|archive-date21 August 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the correct names for the facility are Homey Airport (XTA/KXTA) and Groom Lake,<ref>{{cite web \|titleIntelligence Officer's Bookshelf \|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol.-55-no.-4/intelligence-officer2019s-bookshelf.html#8 \|websiteCIA.gov \|date11 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203005622/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol.-55-no.-4/intelligence-officer2019s-bookshelf.html#8 \|archive-date3 December 2013 \|access-date15 July 2019 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"FASOverhead">{{cite web \|urlhttps://fas.org/irp/overhead/groom.htm \|titleOverhead: Groom Lake – Area 51 \|publisherFederation of American Scientists \|access-date11 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130605064724/http://www.fas.org/irp/overhead/groom.htm \|archive-date5 June 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> though the name "Area 51" was used in a CIA document from the Vietnam War.<ref name"cia_oxcart_kadena">{{cite web \|authorHelms, Richard \|title"OXCART reconnaissance of North Vietnam", Memo to the Deputy Secretary of Defense from the office of CIA Director Richard Helms, 15 May 1967 \|urlhttp://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0001471747/0001471747_0017.gif \|websiteFOIA.CIA.gov \|date15 May 1967 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121015022815/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0001471747/0001471747_0017.gif \|archive-date15 October 2012 \|access-date15 July 2019 \|url-statusdead}} (the full declassified document is mirrored at Wikimedia Commons)</ref> The facility has also been referred to as "Dreamland" and "Paradise Ranch",<ref name"rich_groom_1977_p56">{{cite book \|titleSkunk Works: A personal memoir of my years at Lockheed \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/skunkworks00benr \|url-accessregistration \|publisherLittle, Brown \|author1Rich, Ben R \|author2Janos, Leo \|author1-linkBen Rich (engineer) \|year1994 \|locationBoston \|page[https://archive.org/details/skunkworks00benr/page/56 56] \|isbn978-0-316-74300-6}}</ref> among other nicknames, with the former also being the approach control call sign for the surrounding area.<ref>{{Cite book \|last99th Air Base Wing \|urlhttps://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/nellisafb/publication/nellisafbi11-250/nellisafbi11-250.pdf \|titleNellis Air Force Base Instruction 11-250 \|date2022-06-17 \|publisherUnited States Air Force \|locationLas Vegas \|page105 \|languageen \|author-link99th Air Base Wing \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220716225145/https://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/nellisafb/publication/nellisafbi11-250/nellisafbi11-250.pdf \|archive-date2022-07-16 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastNevada Test and Training Range \|urlhttps://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/nellisafb/publication/afi13-212v1_accsup_nttrsup_add_a/afman13-212v1_nttr_add_a.pdf \|titleAir Force Manual 13-212 Volume 1 ACC Supplement NTTR Addendum A \|date2020-07-24 \|publisherUnited States Air Force \|locationLas Vegas \|pages16 \|languageen \|author-linkNevada Test and Training Range (military unit) \|access-date2022-07-31 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220731113004/https://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/nellisafb/publication/afi13-212v1_accsup_nttrsup_add_a/afman13-212v1_nttr_add_a.pdf \|archive-date2022-07-31 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The USAF public relations has referred to the facility as "an operating location near Groom Dry Lake". The special use airspace around the field is referred to as Restricted Area 4808 North (R-4808N).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://skyvector.com/?ll37.014066054376556,-116.14755298456771&chart17&zoom2 \|titleFlight Planning / Aeronautical Charts \|publisherSkyVector \|access-date11 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203023814/http://skyvector.com/?ll37.014066054376556,-116.14755298456771&chart17&zoom2 \|archive-date3 December 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Lead and silver were discovered in the southern part of the Groom Range in 1864,<ref name"nevada-bureau">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nbmg.unr.edu/dox/r44.pdf \|titleMineral resources of the pahranagat range 30' by 60' quadrangle \|publisherUniversity of Nevada-Reno \|firstJoseph \|lastTingley \|access-date15 January 2021 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120415145449/http://www.nbmg.unr.edu/dox/r44.pdf \|archive-date15 April 2012}}</ref> and the English company Groome Lead Mines Limited financed the Conception Mines in the 1870s, giving the district its name (nearby mines included Maria, Willow, and White Lake).<ref name"unr-guide-groom-mining">{{cite web \|urlhttp://knowledgecenter.unr.edu/specoll/mss/99-19.html \|titleGroom Mining District Collection 99-19 \|publisherKnowledgecenter.unr.edu \|access-date10 June 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130312051621/http://knowledgecenter.unr.edu/specoll/mss/99-19.html \|archive-date12 March 2013}}</ref> J. B. Osborne and partners acquired the controlling interest in Groom in 1876, and Osborne's son acquired it in the 1890s.<ref name"unr-guide-groom-mining"/> Mining continued until 1918, then resumed after World War II until the early 1950s.<ref name"unr-guide-groom-mining"/> The airfield on the Groom Lake site began service in 1942 as Indian Springs Air Force Auxiliary Field<ref name"mueller">{{cite book \|urlhttp://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/21/2001330255/-1/-1/0/AFD-100921-026.pdf \|titleActive Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982 \|publisherCenter for Air Force History, USAF \|authorMueller, Robert \|year1989 \|locationMaxwell AFB, Alabama \|isbn0-912799-53-6 \|access-date23 December 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220183332/http://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/21/2001330255/-1/-1/0/AFD-100921-026.pdf \|archive-date20 December 2016 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and consisted of two unpaved 5,000-foot (1,524 m) runways.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.airfieldsdatabase.com/WW2/WW2%20R27e%20ID-NH.htm \|titleWW2 Military Airfields including Auxiliaries and Support fields \|publisherAirfieldsdatabase.com \|access-date10 June 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120608222535/http://www.airfieldsdatabase.com/WW2/WW2%20R27e%20ID-NH.htm \|archive-date8 June 2012}}</ref>U-2 program {{Main\|Lockheed U-2}} The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) established the Groom Lake test facility in April 1955 for Project AQUATONE: the development of the Lockheed U-2 strategic reconnaissance aircraft. Project director Richard M. Bissell Jr. understood that the flight test and pilot training programs could not be conducted at Edwards Air Force Base or Lockheed's Palmdale facility, given the extreme secrecy surrounding the project. He conducted a search for a suitable testing site for the U-2 under the same extreme security as the rest of the project.<ref name"Peebles">{{cite book \|titleDark Eagles, Revised Edition \|publisherPresidio Press \|authorPeebles, Curtis \|year1999 \|locationNovato, CA \|isbn0-89141-696-X}}</ref>{{rp\|25}} He notified Lockheed, who sent an inspection team out to Groom Lake. According to Lockheed's U-2 designer Kelly Johnson:<ref name"Peebles"/> {{rp\|26}} {{blockquote\|1=We flew over it and within thirty seconds, you knew that was the place{{nbsp}}[...] it was right by a dry lake. Man alive, we looked at that lake, and we all looked at each other. It was another Edwards, so we wheeled around, landed on that lake, taxied up to one end of it. It was a perfect natural landing field{{nbsp}}[...] as smooth as a billiard table without anything being done to it.}} The lake bed made an ideal strip for testing aircraft, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter protected the site from visitors; it was about {{cvt\|100\|mi\|km}} north of Las Vegas.<ref name"shadow">{{cite book \|titleShadow Flights: America's Secret Air War Against the Soviet Union \|publisherPresidio Press \|authorPeebles, Curtis \|year2000 \|locationNovato, CA \|pages[https://archive.org/details/shadowflightsame0000peeb/page/141 141–144] \|isbn978-0-89141-700-2 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/shadowflightsame0000peeb/page/141}}</ref> The CIA asked the AEC to acquire the land, designated "Area 51" on the map, and to add it to the Nevada Test Site.<ref name"cia1992">{{cite book \|urlhttp://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/ \|titleThe Central Intelligence Agency and Overhead Reconnaissance: The U-2 and OXCART Programs, 1954–1974 \|publisherHistory Staff, Central Intelligence Agency \|author1Pedlow, Gregory W. \|author2Welzenbach, Donald E. \|year1992 \|locationWashington DC \|access-date17 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130818070925/http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB434/ \|archive-date18 August 2013 \|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp\|56–57}} Johnson named the area "Paradise Ranch" to encourage workers to move to "the new facility in the middle of nowhere", as the CIA later described it, and the name became shortened to "the Ranch".<ref name"cia1992" />{{rp\|57}} On 4{{nbsp}}May 1955, a survey team arrived at Groom Lake and laid out a {{convert\|5000\|ft\|m\|adjon}} north–south runway on the southwest corner of the lakebed and designated a site for a base support facility. The Ranch initially consisted of little more than a few shelters, workshops, and trailer homes in which to house its small team.<ref name"shadow" /> A little over three months later, the base consisted of a single paved runway, three hangars, a control tower, and rudimentary accommodations for test personnel. The base's few amenities included a movie theater and volleyball court. There was also a mess hall, several wells, and fuel storage tanks. CIA, Air Force, and Lockheed personnel began arriving by July 1955. The Ranch received its first U-2 delivery on 24 July 1955 from Burbank on a C-124 Globemaster II cargo plane, accompanied by Lockheed technicians on a Douglas DC-3.<ref name"shadow" /> Regular Military Air Transport Service flights were set up between Area 51 and Lockheed's offices in Burbank, California. To preserve secrecy, personnel flew to Nevada on Monday mornings and returned to California on Friday evenings.<ref name"cia1992" />{{rp\|72}}OXCART program {{For\|testing of a similar aircraft in December 1964\|SR-71 Blackbird}} (CIA) diagram of Area 51, found in an untitled, declassified paper, showing the runway overrun for OXCART (Lockheed A-12) and the turnaround areas (CIA / CREST RDP90b00184r000100040001-4)\|alt=]] Project OXCART was established in August 1959 for "antiradar studies, aerodynamic structural tests, and engineering designs" and all later work on the Lockheed A-12.<ref>{{Cite report \|titleThe U-2's Intended Successor: Project Oxcart, 1956–1968 \|dateOctober 1994}}</ref> This included testing at Groom Lake, which had inadequate facilities consisting of buildings for only 150 people, a {{convert\|5000\|ft\|abbron}} asphalt runway, and limited fuel, hangar, and shop space.<ref name"Peebles" />{{rp\|58}} Groom Lake had received the name "Area 51"<ref name"Peebles" />{{rp\|59}}<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/area-51s-existence-acknowledged-by-cia-in-declassified-documents/ \|titleArea 51's existence acknowledged by CIA in declassified documents \|workCBS News \|date16 August 2013 \|access-date27 November 2020}}</ref> when A-12 test facility construction began in September 1960, including a new {{convert\|8500\|ft\|abbr=on}} runway to replace the existing runway.<ref>"OSA History, chap. 20, pp. 39–40, 43, 51 ... "OXCART Story" pp. 7–9 (S) (cited by "The U-2's Intended Successor")</ref> Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo) began construction of "Project 51" on 1{{nbsp}}October 1960 with double-shift construction schedules. The contractor upgraded base facilities and built a new {{convert\|10000\|ft\|abbron}} runway (14/32) diagonally across the southwest corner of the lakebed. They marked an Archimedean spiral on the dry lake approximately {{convert\|2\|mi\|km\|0\|abbroff\|spus\|spellon}} across so that an A-12 pilot approaching the end of the overrun could abort instead of plunging into the sagebrush. Area 51 pilots called it "The Hook". For crosswind landings, they marked two unpaved airstrips (runways 9/27 and 03/21) on the dry lakebed.<ref name"TheOxcartStory">{{cite web \|lastMcIninch \|firstThomas P. \|titleThe Oxcart Story \|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol15no1/html/v15i1a01p_0001.htm \|websiteCIA.gov \|date2 July 1996 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004234639/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol15no1/html/v15i1a01p_0001.htm \|archive-date4 October 2013 \|access-date15 July 2019 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> By August 1961, construction of the essential facilities was complete; three surplus Navy hangars were erected on the base's north side while hangar{{nbsp}}7 was new construction. The original U-2 hangars were converted to maintenance and machine shops. Facilities in the main cantonment area included workshops and buildings for storage and administration, a commissary, a control tower, a fire station, and housing. The Navy also contributed more than 130 surplus Babbitt duplex housing units for long-term occupancy facilities. Older buildings were repaired, and additional facilities were constructed as necessary. A reservoir pond surrounded by trees served as a recreational area {{convert\|1\|mi\|km\|round0.5\|abbroff\|spus\|spellin}} north of the base. Other recreational facilities included a gymnasium, a movie theater, and a baseball diamond.<ref name"TheOxcartStory"/> A permanent aircraft fuel tank farm was constructed by early 1962 for the special JP-7 fuel required by the A-12. Seven tanks were constructed, with a total capacity of {{convert\|1,320,000\|USgal\|L\|abbroff\|spus}}.<ref name"Peebles" />{{rp\|58}} Security was enhanced for the arrival of OXCART and the small mine was closed in the Groom basin. In January 1962, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) expanded the restricted airspace in the vicinity of Groom Lake, and the lakebed became the center of a {{convert\|600\|sqmi\|km2\|abbroff\|adjon\|spus}} addition to restricted area R-4808N.<ref name"TheOxcartStory"/> The CIA facility received eight USAF F-101 Voodoos for training, two T-33 Shooting Star trainers for proficiency flying, a C-130 Hercules for cargo transport, a U-3A for administrative purposes, a helicopter for search and rescue, and a Cessna 180 for liaison use, and Lockheed provided an F-104 Starfighter for use as a chase plane.<ref name="TheOxcartStory"/> The first A-12 test aircraft was covertly trucked from Burbank on 26 February 1962 and arrived at Groom Lake on 28 February.<ref name"Peebles" />{{rp\|60}} It made its first flight 26 April 1962 when the base had over 1,000 personnel.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|60–62}} The closed airspace above Groom Lake was within the Nellis Air Force Range airspace, and pilots saw the A-12 20 to 30 times.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|63–64}} Groom was also the site of the first Lockheed D-21 drone test flight on 22 December 1964.<ref name"Peebles" />{{rp\|123}} By the end of 1963, nine A-12s were at Area 51, assigned to the CIA-operated "1129th Special Activities Squadron".<ref name"1129CIA">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ais.org/~schnars/aero/ol-det.htm \|titleU-2 and SR-71 Units, Bases and Detachments \|publisherAis.org \|year1995 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130507021406/http://www.ais.org/~schnars/aero/ol-det.htm \|archive-date7 May 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>D-21 Tagboard {{Main\|Lockheed D-21}} Following the loss of Gary Powers' U-2 over the Soviet Union, there were several discussions about using the A-12 OXCART as an unpiloted drone aircraft. Although Kelly Johnson had come to support the idea of drone reconnaissance, he opposed the development of an A-12 drone, contending that the aircraft was too large and complex for such a conversion. However, the Air Force agreed to fund the study of a high-speed, high-altitude drone aircraft in October 1962. The Air Force interest seems to have moved the CIA to take action, the project designated "Q-12". By October 1963, the drone's design had been finalized. At the same time, the Q-12 underwent a name change. To separate it from the other A-12-based projects, it was renamed the "D-21". (The "12" was reversed to "21"). "Tagboard" was the project's code name.<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|121}} The first D-21 was completed in the spring of 1964 by Lockheed. After four more months of checkouts and static tests, the aircraft was shipped to Groom Lake and reassembled. It was to be carried by a two-seat derivative of the A-12, designated the "M-21". When the D-21/M-21 reached the launch point, the first step would be to blow off the D-21's inlet and exhaust covers. With the D-21/M-21 at the correct speed and altitude, the LCO would start the ramjet and the other systems of the D-21. "With the D-21's systems activated and running, and the launch aircraft at the correct point, the M-21 would begin a slight pushover, the LCO would push a final button, and the D-21 would come off the pylon".<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|122}} Difficulties were addressed throughout 1964 and 1965 at Groom Lake with various technical issues. Captive flights showed unforeseen aerodynamic difficulties. By late January 1966, more than a year after the first captive flight, everything seemed ready. The first D-21 launch was made on 5{{nbsp}}March 1966 with a successful flight, with the D-21 flying 120 miles with limited fuel. A second D-21 flight was successful in April 1966 with the drone flying 1,200 miles, reaching Mach 3.3 and 90,000 feet. An accident on 30 July 1966 with a fully fueled D-21, on a planned checkout flight, suffered from an unstart of the drone after its separation, causing it to collide with the M-21 launch aircraft. The two crewmen ejected and landed in the ocean 150 miles offshore. One crew member was picked up by a helicopter, but the other, having survived the aircraft breakup and ejection, drowned when sea water entered his pressure suit. Kelly Johnson personally cancelled the entire program, having had serious doubts about its feasibility from the start. A number of D-21s had already been produced, and rather than scrapping the whole effort, Johnson again proposed to the Air Force that they be launched from a B-52H bomber.<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|125}} By late summer of 1967, the modification work to both the D-21 (now designated D-21B) and the B-52Hs was complete. The test program could now resume. The test missions were flown out of Groom Lake, with the actual launches over the Pacific. The first D-21B to be flown was Article 501, the prototype. The first attempt was made on 28 September 1967 and ended in complete failure. As the B-52 was flying toward the launch point, the D-21B fell off the pylon. The B-52H gave a sharp lurch as the drone fell free. The booster fired and was "quite a sight from the ground". The failure was traced to a stripped nut on the forward right attachment point on the pylon. Several more tests were made, none of which met with success. However, the fact is that the resumptions of D-21 tests took place against a changing reconnaissance background. The A-12 had finally been allowed to deploy, and the SR-71 was soon to replace it. At the same time, new developments in reconnaissance satellite technology were nearing operation. Up to this point, the limited number of satellites available restricted coverage to the Soviet Union. A new generation of reconnaissance satellites could soon cover targets anywhere in the world. The satellites' resolution would be comparable to that of aircraft but without the slightest political risk. Time was running out for the Tagboard.<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|129}} Several more test flights, including two over China, were made from Beale AFB, California, in 1969 and 1970, to varying degrees of success. On 15 July 1971, Kelly Johnson received a wire canceling the D-21B program. The remaining drones were transferred by a C-5A and placed in dead storage. The tooling used to build the D-21Bs was ordered destroyed. Like the A-12 Oxcart, the D-21B Tagboard drones remained a Black airplane, even in retirement. Their existence was not suspected until August 1976, when the first group was placed in storage at the Davis-Monthan AFB Military Storage and Disposition Center. A second group arrived in 1977. They were labeled "GTD-21Bs" (GT stood for ground training).<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|132}} Davis-Monthan is an open base, with public tours of the storage area at the time, so the odd-looking drones were soon spotted and photos began appearing in magazines. Speculation about the D-21Bs circulated within aviation circles for years, and it was not until 1982 that details of the Tagboard program were released. However, it was not until 1993 that the B-52/D-21B program was made public. That same year, the surviving D-21Bs were released to museums.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|132–133}}Foreign technology evaluation {{Main\|Tonopah Test Range Airport}} During the Cold War, one of the missions carried out by the United States was the test and evaluation of captured Soviet fighter aircraft. Beginning in the late 1960s, and for several decades, Area 51 played host to an assortment of Soviet-built aircraft.<ref>{{cite web \|lastRichelson \|firstJeffrey T. \|date2013-10-29 \|titleThe Area 51 File: Secret Aircraft and Soviet MiGs \|urlhttps://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/intelligence/2013-10-29/area-51-file-secret-aircraft-soviet-migs \|access-date2025-03-13 \|website=National Security Archive}}</ref> , a MiG-21F-13 flown by United States Navy and Air Force Systems Command during its 1968 exploitation]] Munir Redfa{{'}}s defection with a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 from Iraq for Israel's Mossad in Operation Diamond led to the HAVE DOUGHNUT, HAVE DRILL and HAVE FERRY programs. The first MiGs flown in the United States were used to evaluate the aircraft in performance, technical, and operational capabilities, pitting the types against U.S. fighters.<ref name="Red Eagles">Steve Davies: "Red Eagles. America's Secret MiGs", Osprey Publishing, 2008</ref> This was not a new mission, as testing of foreign technology by the USAF began during World War II. After the war, testing of acquired foreign technology was performed by the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC, which became very influential during the Korean War), under the direct command of the Air Materiel Control Department. In 1961, ATIC became the Foreign Technology Division (FTD) and was reassigned to Air Force Systems Command. ATIC personnel were sent anywhere where foreign aircraft could be found.{{cn\|date=August 2024}} The focus of Air Force Systems Command limited the use of the fighter as a tool with which to train the front line tactical fighter pilots.<ref name"Red Eagles"/> Air Force Systems Command recruited its pilots from the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, California, who were usually graduates from various test pilot schools. Tactical Air Command selected its pilots primarily from the ranks of the Weapons School graduates.<ref name"Red Eagles"/> In August 1966, Iraqi Air Force fighter pilot Captain Munir Redfa defected, flying his MiG-21 to Israel after being ordered to attack Iraqi Kurd villages with napalm. His aircraft was transferred to Groom Lake in late 1967 for study. Israel loaned the MiG-21 to the US Air Force from January 1968 to April 1968.<ref name"jpost/330330">{{cite news \|last1Rosen \|first1Benji \|titleIsrael loaned Soviet jets to US for testing in 1968 \|urlhttps://www.jpost.com/defense/israel-loaned-soviet-jets-to-us-for-testing-in-1968-330330 \|access-date22 December 2022 \|workThe Jerusalem Post \|dateNovember 1, 2013}}</ref> In 1968, the US Air Force and Navy jointly formed a project known as HAVE DOUGHNUT in which Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and the U.S. Navy's Air Test and Evaluation Squadron Four (VX-4) flew this acquired Soviet-made aircraft in simulated air combat training.<ref name"Red Eagles"/> As U.S. possession of the Soviet MiG-21 was, itself, secret, it was tested at Groom Lake. A joint Air Force-Navy team was assembled for a series of dogfight tests.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|219}} "Fresco"s loaned to the United States by Israel in 1969\|alt=]] Comparisons between the F-4 and the MiG-21 indicated that, on the surface, they were evenly matched. The HAVE DOUGHNUT tests showed the skill of the man in the cockpit was what made the difference. When the Navy or Air Force pilots flew the MiG-21, the results were a draw; the F-4 would win some fights, the MiG-21 would win others. There were no clear advantages. The problem was not with the planes, but with the pilots flying them. The pilots would not fly either plane to its limits. One of the Navy pilots was Marland W. "Doc" Townsend, then commander of VF-121, the F-4 training squadron at NAS Miramar. He was an engineer and a Korean War veteran and had flown almost every Navy aircraft. When he flew against the MiG-21, he would outmaneuver it every time. The Air Force pilots would not go vertical in the MiG-21. The HAVE DOUGHNUT project officer was Tom Cassidy, a pilot with VX-4, the Navy's Air Development Squadron at Point Mugu. He had been watching as Townsend "waxed" the Air Force MiG-21 pilots. Cassidy climbed into the MiG-21 and went up against Townsend's F-4. This time the result was far different. Cassidy was willing to fight in the vertical, flying the plane to the point where it was buffeting, just above the stall. Cassidy was able to get on the F-4's tail. After the flight, they realized the MiG-21 turned better than the F-4 at lower speeds. The key was for the F-4 to keep its speed up. An F-4 had defeated the MiG-21; the weakness of the Soviet plane had been found. Further test flights confirmed what was learned. It was also clear that the MiG-21 was a formidable enemy. United States pilots would have to fly much better than they had been to beat it. This would require a special school to teach advanced air combat techniques.<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|220–221}} On 12 August 1968, two Syrian air force lieutenants, Walid Adham and Radfan Rifai, took off in a pair of MiG-17Fs on a training mission. They lost their way and, believing they were over Lebanon, landed at the Betzet Landing Field in northern Israel. (One version has it that they were led astray by an Arabic-speaking Israeli).<ref name"Peebles"/> Prior to the end of 1968 these MiG-17s were transferred from Israeli stocks and added to the Area 51 test fleet. The aircraft were given USAF designations and fake serial numbers so that they could be identified in DOD standard flight logs. As in the earlier program, a small group of Air Force and Navy pilots conducted mock dogfights with the MiG-17s. Selected instructors from the Navy's Top Gun school at NAS Miramar, California, were chosen to fly against the MiGs for familiarization purposes. Very soon, the MiG-17's shortcomings became clear. It had an extremely simple, even crude, control system that lacked the power-boosted controls of American aircraft. The F-4's twin engines were so powerful it could accelerate out of range of the MiG-17's guns in thirty seconds. It was important for the F-4 to keep its distance from the MiG-17. As long as the F-4 was one and a half miles from the MiG-17, it was outside the reach of the Soviet fighter's guns, but the MiG was within reach of the F-4's missiles.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|222–225}} The data from the HAVE DOUGHNUT and HAVE DRILL tests were provided to the newly formed Top Gun school at NAS Miramar. By 1970, the HAVE DRILL program was expanded; a few selected fleet F-4 crews were given the chance to fight the MiGs. The most important result of Project HAVE DRILL is that no Navy pilot who flew in the project defeated the MiG-17 Fresco in the first engagement. The HAVE DRILL dogfights were by invitation only. The other pilots based at Nellis Air Force Base were not to know about the U.S.-operated MiGs. To prevent any sightings, the airspace above the Groom Lake range was closed. On aeronautical maps, the exercise area was marked in red ink. The forbidden zone became known as "Red Square".<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|226}} During the remainder of the Vietnam War, the Navy kill ratio climbed to 8.33 to 1. In contrast, the Air Force rate improved only slightly to 2.83 to 1. The reason for this difference was Top Gun. The Navy had revitalized its air combat training, while the Air Force had stayed stagnant. Most of the Navy MiG kills were by Top Gun graduates.<ref name="Peebles"/>{{rp\|231}} In May 1973, Project HAVE IDEA was formed, which took over from the older HAVE DOUGHNUT, HAVE FERRY and HAVE DRILL projects, and the project was transferred to the Tonopah Test Range Airport. At Tonopah, testing of foreign technology aircraft continued and expanded throughout the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Red Eagles"/> Area 51 also hosted another foreign materiel evaluation program called HAVE GLIB. This involved testing Soviet tracking and missile control radar systems. A complex of actual and replica Soviet-type threat systems began to grow around "Slater Lake", a mile northwest of the main base, along with an acquired Soviet "Barlock" search radar placed at Tonopah Air Force Station. They were arranged to simulate a Soviet-style air defense complex.<ref name="Red Eagles"/> The Air Force began funding improvements to Area 51 in 1977 under project SCORE EVENT. In 1979, the CIA transferred jurisdiction of the Area 51 site to the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California. Sam Mitchell, the last CIA commander of Area 51, relinquished command to USAF Lt. Col. Larry D. McClain.<ref name="Red Eagles"/> In 2017, a USAF aircraft crashed at the site, killing the pilot, Lt. Colonel Eric "Doc" Schultz. The USAF refused to release further information regarding the crash. In 2022, unconfirmed reports emerged that the crash involved an SU-27 that was part of the classified Foreign Materials Exploitation program. The reports claimed that the aircraft suffered a technical issue that resulted in both crew members ejecting from the aircraft, resulting in the death of Schultz.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateMay 7, 2022 \|titleArea 51 Test Pilot Died During Heroic Su-27 Flight: Report \|urlhttps://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/area-51-test-pilots-mysterious-death-happened-heroically-flying-an-su-27-report \|websiteThe Drive}}</ref> Have Blue/F-117 program {{Main\|Lockheed Have Blue\|Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk\|Tonopah Test Range Airport}} The Lockheed Have Blue prototype stealth fighter (a smaller proof-of-concept model of the F-117 Nighthawk) first flew at Groom in December 1977.{{sfn\|Rich\|Janos\|1994\|pp=56–60}} In 1978, the Air Force awarded a full-scale development contract for the F-117 to Lockheed Corporation's Advanced Development Projects. On 17 January 1981 the Lockheed test team at Area 51 accepted delivery of the first full-scale development (FSD) prototype 79–780, designated YF-117A. At 6:05&nbsp;am on 18 June 1981 Lockheed Skunk Works test pilot Hal Farley lifted the nose of YF-117A 79–780 off the runway of Area 51.<ref name"F117hist">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.usafpatches.com/pubs/stealth.pdf \|titleInfo \|websitewww.usafpatches.com \|access-date6 September 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106164327/http://www.usafpatches.com/pubs/stealth.pdf \|archive-date6 November 2015 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Meanwhile, Tactical Air Command (TAC) decided to set up a group-level organization to guide the F-117A to an initial operating capability. That organization became the 4450th Tactical Group (Initially designated "A Unit"), which officially activated on 15 October 1979 at Nellis AFB, Nevada, although the group was physically located at Area 51. The 4450th TG also operated the A-7D Corsair II as a surrogate trainer for the F-117A, and these operations continued until 15 October 1982 under the guise of an avionics test mission.<ref name="F117hist"/> Flying squadrons of the 4450th TG were the 4450th Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "I Unit") activated on 11 June 1981, and 4451st Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "P Unit") on 15 January 1983. The 4450th TS, stationed at Area 51, was the first F-117A squadron, while the 4451st TS was stationed at Nellis AFB and was equipped with A-7D Corsair IIs painted in a dark motif, tail coded "LV". Lockheed test pilots put the YF-117 through its early paces. A-7Ds were used for pilot training before any F-117As had been delivered by Lockheed to Area 51, later the A-7D's were used for F-117A chase testing and other weapon tests at the Nellis Range. On 15 October 1982, Major Alton C. Whitley Jr. became the first USAF 4450th TG pilot to fly the F-117A.<ref name="F117hist"/> Although ideal for testing, Area 51 was not a suitable location for an operational group, so a new covert base had to be established for F-117 operations.<ref name"F117Area51">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.f-117a.com/Area51.html \|titleArea 51 Test Site \|publisherF-117A \|date14 July 2003 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022172405/http://www.f-117a.com/Area51.html \|archive-date22 October 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Tonopah Test Range Airport was selected for operations of the first USAF F-117 unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.f-117a.com/4450th.html \|title4450th TG \|publisherF-117A \|date1 April 2002 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022172332/http://www.f-117a.com/4450th.html \|archive-date22 October 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> From October 1979, the Tonopah Airport base was reconstructed and expanded. The 6,000-foot runway was lengthened to 10,000 feet. Taxiways, a concrete apron, a large maintenance hangar, and a propane storage tank were added.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.f-117a.com/Tonopah.html \|titleTonopah Test Range (TTR) \|publisherF-117A \|date14 July 2003 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022171214/http://www.f-117a.com/Tonopah.html \|archive-date22 October 2013 \|url-status=live}}</ref> By early 1982, four more YF-117As were operating at the base.<ref name"Peebles"/>{{rp\|162}} After finding a large scorpion in their offices, the testing team (Designated "R Unit") adopted it as their mascot and dubbed themselves the "Baja Scorpions".<ref name"BScorpions"/> Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued at Area 51 until mid-1981 when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. The F-117s were moved to and from Area 51 by C-5 during darkness to maintain security. The aircraft were defueled, disassembled, cradled, and then loaded aboard the C-5 at night, flown to Lockheed, and unloaded at night before reassembly and flight testing. Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots.<ref name="Peebles" />{{rp\|161}} While the "Baja Scorpions" were working on the F-117, there was also another group at work in secrecy, known as "the Whalers" working on Tacit Blue. A fly-by-wire technology demonstration aircraft with curved surfaces and composite material, to evade radar, was a prototype, and never went into production. Nevertheless, this strange-looking aircraft was responsible for many of the stealth technology advances that were used on several other aircraft designs, and had a direct influence on the B-2; with the first flight of Tacit Blue being performed on 5{{nbsp}}February 1982, by Northrop Grumman test pilot, Richard G. Thomas.<ref name="Peebles" />{{rp\|249–250}} Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG.<ref name"BScorpions">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.f-117a.com/Baja.html \|titleJTF "Baja Scorpions" of Groom Lake \|publisherF-117A \|date14 July 2003 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120604035142/http://www.f-117a.com/Baja.html \|archive-date4 June 2012 \|url-status=live}}</ref> On 17 May 1982, the move of the 4450th TG from Groom Lake to Tonopah was initiated, with the final components of the move completed in early 1983. Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG at Tonopah.<ref name="BScorpions"/> The R-Unit was inactivated on 30 May 1989. Upon inactivation, the unit was reformed as Detachment 1, 57th Fighter Weapons Wing (FWW). In 1990, the last F-117A (843) was delivered from Lockheed. After completion of acceptance flights at Area 51 of this last new F-117A aircraft, the flight test squadron continued flight test duties of refurbished aircraft after modifications by Lockheed. In February/March 1992 the test unit moved from Area 51 to the USAF Palmdale Plant 42 and was integrated with the Air Force Systems Command 6510th Test Squadron. Some testing, especially RCS verification and other classified activity was still conducted at Area 51 throughout the operational lifetime of the F-117. The recently inactivated (2008) 410th Flight Test Squadron traces its roots, if not its formal lineage to the 4450th TG R-unit.<ref name"BScorpions"/>Later operations with Groom Lake in the background (March 2013)]] Since the F-117 became operational in 1983, operations at Groom Lake have continued. The base and its associated runway system were expanded, including the expansion of housing and support facilities.<ref name"FASOverhead"/><ref name"space_com_expand">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.space.com/news/area51_exclusive_00421.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010926202205/http://www.space.com/news/area51_exclusive_00421.html \|archive-date26 September 2001 \|titleImages of Top-Secret U.S. Air Base Show Growth \|publisherspace.com \|authorMary Motta \|date22 April 2000}}</ref> In 1995, the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base, prohibiting access to {{convert\|3972\|acre\|km2}} of land formerly administered by the Bureau of Land Management.<ref name"FASOverhead"/> Legal status U.S. government's positions on Area 51 The United States government has provided minimal information regarding Area 51. The area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits to both civilian and normal military air traffic. Security clearances are checked regularly; cameras and weaponry are not allowed.<ref name"lacitis20100327">{{cite web \|lastLacitis \|firstErik \|urlhttp://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2011461015_area51vets28m.html \|titleArea 51 vets break silence: Sorry, but no space aliens or UFOs \|publisherSeattle Times Newspaper \|date27 March 2010 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120620003544/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2011461015_area51vets28m.html \|archive-date20 June 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Even military pilots training in the NAFR risk disciplinary action if they stray into the exclusionary "box" surrounding Groom's airspace.<ref name"lacitis20100327"/> Surveillance is supplemented using buried motion sensors.<ref name"poulsen">{{cite web \|authorKevin Poulsen \|author-linkKevin Poulsen \|date25 May 2004 \|titleArea 51 hackers dig up trouble \|urlhttp://www.securityfocus.com/news/8768 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121130074024/http://www.securityfocus.com/news/8768 \|archive-date30 November 2012 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|publisherSecurityfocus.com}}</ref> Area 51 is a common destination for Janet, a small fleet of passenger aircraft operated on behalf of the Air Force to transport military personnel, primarily from Harry Reid International Airport.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dreamlandresort.com/info/janet.html \|titleJanet Airline / EG&G / JT3 \|websitedreamlandresort.com \|date5 November 2020 \|access-date8 January 2021}}</ref> The United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.topoquest.com/map.asp?lat37.34583&lon-115.76583&datumnad27&u4&layerDRG25&sizel \|titleGroom Mine, NV – N37.34583° W115.76583° \|publisherTopoquest.com \|access-date10 June 2013}}</ref> but USGS aerial photographs of the site in 1959 and 1968 were publicly available.{{r\|day20230123}} A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, defined as part of the Nellis restricted airspace.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nevadadot.com/uploadedFiles/NDOT/Traveler_Info/Maps/Nevada%20Aviaton%202013-2014%20Front.pdf \|titleState of Nevada Aeronautical Chart 2013-2014 \|access-date11 June 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130425161328/http://www.nevadadot.com/uploadedFiles/NDOT/Traveler_Info/Maps/Nevada%20Aviaton%202013-2014%20Front.pdf \|archive-date25 April 2013}}</ref> The National Atlas shows the area as lying within the Nellis Air Force Base.<ref name"NationalAtlasFederalLands">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/pdf/fedlands/NV.pdf \|titleMap of Federal lands in Nevada \|publisherUS Department of the Interior \|access-date10 June 2013 \|authornationalatlas.gov \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130910211437/http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/pdf/fedlands/NV.pdf \|archive-date10 September 2013}}</ref> There are higher resolution and newer images available from other satellite imagery providers, including Russian providers and the IKONOS.<ref name"FASOverhead"/> These show the runway markings, base facilities, aircraft, and vehicles.<ref name="FASOverhead"/> In 1998 USAF officially acknowledged the site's existence.<ref name"day20230123">{{Cite web \|lastDay \|firstDwayne Allen \|date2023-01-23 \|titleNot-so ancient astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident \|urlhttps://www.thespacereview.com/article/4518/1 \|access-date2023-01-24 \|websiteThe Space Review}}</ref> On 25 June 2013, the CIA released an official history of the U-2 and OXCART projects which acknowledged that the U-2 was tested at Area 51, in response to a Freedom of Information Act request submitted in 2005 by Jeffrey T. Richelson of George Washington University's National Security Archive. It contains numerous references to Area 51 and Groom Lake, along with a map of the area.<ref name"cia1992" /> Media reports stated that releasing the CIA history was the first governmental acknowledgement of Area 51's existence;<ref>{{cite news \|titleCIA acknowledges its mysterious Area 51 test site for first time \|date17 August 2013 \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-area51-cia-idUSBRE97G01120130817 \|agencyReuters Archive \|access-date17 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130817013201/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/17/us-usa-area51-cia-idUSBRE97G01120130817 \|archive-date17 August 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleArea 51 officially acknowledged, mapped in newly released documents \|urlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/08/15/us/area-51-documents/index.html \|publisherCNN \|access-date17 August 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130817025040/http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/15/us/area-51-documents/index.html \|archive-date17 August 2013 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"LeibyWaPo" /> rather, it was the first official acknowledgement of specific activity at the site.{{r\|day20230123}}Environmental lawsuitIn 1994, five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the Air Force and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. They alleged that they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. Rutgers University biochemists analyzed biopsies from the complainants and found high levels of dioxin, dibenzofuran, and trichloroethylene in their body fat. The complainants alleged that they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries, claiming that the Air Force had illegally handled toxic materials and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act which governs the handling of dangerous materials. They also sought detailed information about the chemicals, hoping that this would facilitate the medical treatment of survivors.<ref name"Lawsuit"/> Congressman Lee H. Hamilton, former chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, told 60 Minutes reporter Lesley Stahl, "The Air Force is classifying all information about Area 51 in order to protect themselves from a lawsuit."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ufomind.com/area51/articles/1996/60min_960317.html \|title60 Minutes Transcript an Area 51 \|websiteufomind.com \|date17 March 1996 \|access-date=31 December 2020}}</ref> The government invoked the State Secrets Privilege and petitioned U.S. District Judge Philip Pro to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, claiming that this would expose classified information and threaten national security.<ref namelvrj_jun2002>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2002/Jun-04-Tue-2002/news/18894771.html \|titleFederal judges to hear case involving Area 51 \|firstKeith \|lastRogers \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100214093647/http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2002/Jun-04-Tue-2002/news/18894771.html \|archive-date14 February 2010 \|newspaperLas Vegas Review-Journal \|date4 June 2002 \|access-date10 June 2013}}</ref> Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, so President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination exempting what it called "the Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Jonathan Turley, the attorney who was handling the lawsuit, appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief which stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal<ref>{{cite web \|titleAppeal from the United States District Court for the District of Nevada, Philip M. Pro, District Judge, Presiding. Argued and Submitted June 14, 2002 \|urlhttp://archive.ca9.uscourts.gov/coa/newopinions.nsf/77F9FB6C3552927E88256D05007AE266/$file/0016378.pdf?openelement \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120314151234/http://archive.ca9.uscourts.gov/coa/newopinions.nsf/77F9FB6C3552927E88256D05007AE266/$file/0016378.pdf?openelement \|archive-date14 March 2012 \|date14 March 2012}}</ref> and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case.<ref name"Lawsuit">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rcfp.org/high-court-wont-review-state-secrets-privilege-area-51-case/ \|titleHigh court won't review "state secrets" privilege in 'Area 51' case \|publisherRCFP.org \|date16 November 1998 \|access-date31 December 2020}}</ref> The President annually issues a determination continuing the Groom exception<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname2001_cfr_3v1&docid3CFRSep19 \|title2000 Presidential Determination \|access-date10 June 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120604211107/http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname2001_cfr_3v1&docid3CFRSep19 \|archive-date4 June 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/09/20020918-9.html \|title2002 Presidential Determination \|publisherGeorgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov \|date18 September 2002 \|access-date10 June 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110615103519/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/09/20020918-9.html \|archive-date15 June 2011 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html \|title2003 Presidential Determination \|publisherGeorgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov \|date16 September 2003 \|access-date10 June 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100510015728/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html \|archive-date10 May 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> which is the only formal recognition that the government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex. An unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force web site in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information, which the government had claimed was classified. The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2006/May-21-Sun-2006/news/7488359.html \|url-statusdead \|titleWarnings for emergency responders kept from Area 51 workers \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100214093550/http://www.reviewjournal.com/lvrj_home/2006/May-21-Sun-2006/news/7488359.html \|archive-date14 February 2010 \|newspaperLas Vegas Review-Journal \|date21 May 2006 \|access-date10 June 2013}}</ref> Civil aviation identification In December 2007, pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as "Homey Airport".<ref name"aopa-kxta-20080111">{{cite web \|lastMarsh \|firstAlton K. \|urlhttp://www.aopa.org/aircraft/articles/2008/080110area51.html \|titleDon't ask, don't tell: Area 51 gets airport identifier – Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association \|publisherAopa.org \|date10 January 2008 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130512063545/http://www.aopa.org/aircraft/articles/2008/080110area51.html \|archive-date12 May 2013}}</ref> The probably inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases.<ref name"aopa-kxta-20080111"/> Security The perimeter of the base is marked out by orange posts and patrolled by guards in white pickup trucks and camouflage fatigues. The guards are popularly referred to as "camo dudes" by enthusiasts.<ref>{{cite news \|titleArea 51 \|firstDonovan \|lastWebster \|date26 June 1994 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/26/magazine/area-51.html}}</ref><ref name"nydailynews06Aug2019"/> The guards will not answer questions about their employers; however, according to the New York Daily News, there are indications they are employed through a contractor such as AECOM.<ref name"nydailynews06Aug2019">{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/camo-dudes-patrol-area-51-article-1.2828248 \|titleHere's what we know about the 'Cammo Dudes' who patrol Area 51 \|websitenydailynews.com \|access-date6 August 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180806150939/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/camo-dudes-patrol-area-51-article-1.2828248 \|archive-date6 August 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.area51.org/area-51-camo-dudes/ \|titleArea 51 Camo Dudes: Lethal Force Authorized – Area 51 \|date9 January 2017 \|websitearea51.org \|access-date6 August 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180806145715/http://www.area51.org/area-51-camo-dudes/ \|archive-date6 August 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Signage around the base perimeter advises that deadly force is authorized against trespassers.<ref name"Magazines2000">{{cite book \|authorHearst Magazines \|titlePopular Mechanics \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhdthT2uNftoC&pgPA142 \|dateApril 2000 \|publisherHearst Magazines \|pages142–}}</ref> Technology is also heavily used to maintain the border of the base; this includes surveillance cameras and motion detectors. Some of these motion detectors are placed some distance away from the base on public land to notify guards of people approaching.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/01/28/area_51_charges_dropped/ \|titleArea 51 'hacker' charges dropped \|websitetheregister.co.uk \|access-date6 August 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180806145618/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/01/28/area_51_charges_dropped/ \|archive-date6 August 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>1974 Skylab photographyDwayne A. Day published "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident" in The Space Review in January 2006. It was based on a memo written in 1974 to CIA director William Colby by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board Skylab had inadvertently photographed a certain location:<ref name"Photo" /> {{blockquote\|There were specific instructions not to do this. [redacted] was the only location which had such an instruction.}} The name of the location was obscured,{{efn\|In the declassified documents, the name Area 51 is redacted in all but two instances (probably mistakes).{{sfn\|Jacobsen\|2012\|pxvi}}}} but the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake. Day wrote that "the CIA considered no other spot on Earth to be as sensitive as Groom Lake". Even within the agency's National Photographic Interpretation Center that handled classified reconnaissance satellite photographs, images of the site were removed from film rolls and stored separately as not all photo interpreters had security clearance for the information.<ref name"Photo">{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.thespacereview.com/article/531/1 \|lastDay \|firstDwayne A. \|titleAstronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident \|author-linkDwayne A. Day \|publisherThe Space Review (online) \|date9 January 2006 \|access-date2 April 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060316181549/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/531/1 \|archive-date16 March 2006 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html \|titlePresidential Determination No. 2003–39 \|publisherGeorgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov \|date16 September 2003 \|access-date10 June 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100510015728/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html \|archive-date10 May 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should and NASA and the State Department arguing that it should not be classified. The memo itself questions the legality of retroactively classifying unclassified images.<ref name"Photo" /> The memo includes handwritten remarks,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.thespacereview.com/archive/531.pdf \|titleCIA memo to DCI Colby \|publisherHosted by The Space Review \|access-date2 April 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060326030802/http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/531.pdf \|archive-date26 March 2006 \|url-status=live}}</ref> apparently by Director of Central Intelligence Colby: {{blockquote\|[Secretary of State Rusk] did raise it—said State Dept. people felt strongly. But he inclined leave decision to me (DCI)—I confessed some question over need to protect since: # USSR has it from own sats # What really does it reveal? # If exposed, don't we just say classified USAF work is done there?}} The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The debate proved moot, as the photograph appeared in the Federal Government's Archive of Satellite Imagery along with the remaining Skylab photographs.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.thespacereview.com/article/1010/1 \|lastDay \|firstDwayne A. \|titleSecret Apollo \|author-linkDwayne A. Day \|publisherThe Space Review (online) \|date26 November 2007 \|access-date16 February 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090712145524/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1010/1 \|archive-date12 July 2009 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>2019 shooting incidentOn 28 January 2019, an unidentified man drove through a security checkpoint near Mercury, Nevada, in an apparent attempt to enter the base. After an {{convert\|8\|mi\|km\|abbroff\|spus\|adjon}} vehicle pursuit by base security, the man exited his vehicle carrying a "cylindrical object" and was shot dead by NNSS security officers and sheriff's deputies after refusing to obey requests to halt. There were no other injuries reported.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/news/weird/1154069/area-51-raid-event-facebook-where-is-area-51-aliens-ufo-2019 \|titleArea 51 warning: Man shot dead for trying to enter military base \|workExpress \|lastMartin \|firstSean \|dateJuly 16, 2019 \|access-dateAugust 11, 2021 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190717060935/https://www.express.co.uk/news/weird/1154069/area-51-raid-event-facebook-where-is-area-51-aliens-ufo-2019 \|archive-date17 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.reviewjournal.com/crime/shootings/chase-at-nevada-national-security-site-ends-with-man-shot-dead-1584482/ \|titleChase at Nevada National Security Site ends with man shot dead \|workLas Vegas Review-Journal \|lastShoro \|firstMike \|dateJanuary 28, 2019 \|access-dateAugust 11, 2021 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190129212815/https://www.reviewjournal.com/crime/shootings/chase-at-nevada-national-security-site-ends-with-man-shot-dead-1584482/ \|archive-date29 January 2019}}</ref> UFO and other conspiracy theories , protestors and UFO conspiracy theorists gathered at the back gate of Area 51.]] Area 51 has become a focus of modern conspiracy theories due to its secretive nature and connection to classified aircraft research.{{sfn\|Jacobsen\|2012\|pp=65–66, 77–80}} Theories include: * The storage, examination, and reverse engineering of crashed alien spacecraft, including material supposedly recovered at Roswell, the study of their occupants, and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology * Meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials * The development of exotic energy weapons for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or other weapons programs * The development of weather control * The development of time travel and teleportation technology * The development of exotic propulsion systems related to the Aurora Program * Activities related to the conspiracy theory of a one-world government Many of the hypotheses concern underground facilities at Groom or at Papoose Lake (also known as "S-4 location"), {{convert\|8.5\|mi\|km}} south, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip nicknamed the "Cheshire Airstrip", after Lewis Carroll's Cheshire cat, which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its camouflaged asphalt, and engineering based on alien technology.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/area19/cheshire.htm \|titleThe Cheshire Airstrip \|firstTom \|lastMahood \|dateOctober 1996 \|access-date2 April 2006 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060316110233/http://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/area19/cheshire.htm \|archive-date16 March 2006}}</ref> In the mid-1950s, civilian aircraft flew under 20,000 feet while military aircraft flew up to 40,000 feet. The U-2 began flying above 60,000 feet and there was an increasing number of UFO sighting reports. Sightings occurred most often during early evening hours, when airline pilots flying west saw the U-2's silver wings reflect the setting sun, giving the aircraft a "fiery" appearance. Many sighting reports came to the Air Force's Project Blue Book, which investigated UFO sightings, through air-traffic controllers and letters to the government. The project checked U-2 and later OXCART flight records to eliminate the majority of UFO reports that it received during the late 1950s and 1960s, although it could not reveal to the letter writers the truth behind what they saw.<ref name"cia1992" />{{rp\|72–73}} Similarly, veterans of experimental projects such as OXCART at Area 51 agree that their work inadvertently prompted many of the UFO sightings and other rumors:{{sfn\|Jacobsen\|2012\|pp204–208}} {{blockquote\|The shape of OXCART was unprecedented, with its wide, disk-like fuselage designed to carry vast quantities of fuel. Commercial pilots cruising over Nevada at dusk would look up and see the bottom of OXCART whiz by at 2,000-plus mph. The aircraft's titanium body, moving as fast as a bullet, would reflect the sun's rays in a way that could make anyone think, UFO.<ref nameautogenerated1>{{cite news \|lastJacobsen \|firstAnnie \|urlhttp://www.latimes.com/la-mag-april052009-backstory,0,786384.story \|titleThe Road to Area 51 \|newspaperLos Angeles Times \|date5 April 2009 \|access-date10 June 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120121215002/http://www.latimes.com/la-mag-april052009-backstory,0,786384.story \|archive-date21 January 2012 \|url-status=live}}</ref>}} They believe that the rumors helped maintain secrecy over Area 51's actual operations.<ref name"lacitis20100327"/> The veterans deny the existence of a vast underground railroad system.<ref nameautogenerated1 /> On October 14, 1988, the syndicated television broadcast UFO Coverup? Live introduced Americans to the Majestic 12 hoax.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id81LpCQAAQBAJ&pgPA20\|titleThe Paranormal and the Paranoid: Conspiratorial Science Fiction Television\|firstAaron\|lastGulyas\|dateJune 11, 2015\|publisherRowman & Littlefield\|viaGoogle Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzjI4X7ZOvOIC\|titleWatch the Skies!: A Chronicle of the Flying Saucer Myth\|firstCurtis\|lastPeebles\|dateDecember 12, 1995\|publisherBerkley Books\|viaGoogle Books}}</ref> It featured the first public mention of Nevada's Area 51 as a site associated with aliens.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH9ij_QAvyEEC\|titleBefore and After Roswell: The Flying Saucer in America, 1947-1999\|firstDavid A.\|lastClary\|dateJanuary 22, 2001\|publisherXlibris Corporation\|via=Google Books}}</ref> Bob Lazar claimed in 1989 that he had worked at Area 51's "Sector Four (S-4)", said to be located underground inside the Papoose Range near Papoose Lake. He claimed that he was contracted to work with alien spacecraft that the government had in its possession.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Knapp\|first1George\|author1-linkGeorge Knapp (television journalist)\|titleBob Lazar describes alien technology housed at secret S-4 base in Nevada \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v4UjqFaQq_7I \|websiteyoutube.com \|publisherKLAS-TV \|languageen \|formatvideo \|dateNovember 10, 1989}}</ref> Similarly, the 1996 documentary Dreamland directed by Bruce Burgess included an interview with a 71-year-old mechanical engineer who claimed to be a former employee at Area 51 during the 1950s. His claims included that he had worked on a "flying disc simulator" which had been based on a disc originating from a crashed extraterrestrial craft and was used to train pilots. He also claimed to have worked with an extraterrestrial being named "J-Rod" and described as a "telepathic translator".<ref>Dreamland, Transmedia and Dandelion Production for Sky Television (1996).</ref> In 2004, Dan Burisch (pseudonym of Dan Crain) claimed to have worked on cloning alien viruses at Area 51, also alongside the alien named "J-Rod". Burisch's scholarly credentials are the subject of much debate, as he was apparently working as a Las Vegas parole officer in 1989 while also earning a PhD at State University of New York (SUNY).<ref>{{cite journal \|urlhttp://www.csicop.org/si/2004-11/ \|publisherCommittee for Skeptical Inquiry \|journalSkeptical Inquirer \|volume28 \|issue6 \|dateNovember–December 2004 \|firstRobert \|lastSheaffer \|titleTunguska 1, Roswell 0 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090313001822/http://www.csicop.org/si/2004-11/ \|archive-date13 March 2009 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> In July 2019, more than 2,000,000 people responded to a joke proposal to storm Area 51 which appeared in an anonymous Facebook post.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/1-7-million-want-to-raid-area-51-to-see-them-aliens/ \|title1.7 million want to raid Area 51 to 'see them aliens' \|firstDaniel \|lastvan Boom \|date18 July 2019 \|access-date23 July 2019 \|publisherCNET News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/16/storm-area-51-internet-meme-facebook-event \|title1.5 million people have signed up to storm Area 51. What could go wrong? \|firstAdrienne \|lastMatei \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date17 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/storm-area-51-when-where-aliens-military-base-raid-facebook-event-a9005546.html \|titleStorm Area 51: Are Alien-hunters Really Planning to 'Raid' the Secret U.S. Military Base? \|firstAndrew \|lastGriffin \|newspaperThe Independent \|date17 July 2019}}</ref> The event, scheduled for 20 September 2019, was billed as "Storm Area 51, They Can't Stop All of Us", an attempt to "see them aliens".<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/jul/16/storm-area-51-internet-meme-facebook-event \|title1.3 million people have signed up to storm Area 51. What could go wrong? \|lastMatei \|firstAdrienne \|date16 July 2019 \|newspaperThe Guardian \|access-date2019-07-16 \|languageen-GB \|issn0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://m.facebook.com/events/area-51/storm-area-51-they-cant-stop-all-of-us/448435052621047/ \|titleStorm Area 51, They Can't Stop All of Us \|websitem.facebook.com \|access-date2019-07-25}}</ref> Air Force spokeswoman Laura McAndrews said the government "would discourage anyone from trying to come into the area where we train American armed forces".<ref name"McAndrewsWaPo"/> Two music festivals in rural Nevada, AlienStock and Storm Area 51 Basecamp, were subsequently organized to capitalize on the popularity of the original Facebook event. Between 1,500 and 3,000 people showed up at the festivals, while over 150 people made the journey over several miles of rough roads to get near the gates to Area 51.<ref name":0">{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-area51/in-nevada-desert-area-51-raid-lures-festive-ufo-hunters-three-arrested-idUSKBN1W51H6 \|titleArea 51 raid lures festive UFO hunters to Nevada desert; five arrested \|lastRichwine \|firstLisa \|dateSeptember 20, 2019 \|workReuters \|access-dateSeptember 22, 2019}}</ref><ref name":1">{{cite web \|lastZialcita \|firstPaolo \|title'Storm Area 51' Fails To Materialize \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2019/09/20/762897934/storm-area-51-fails-to-materialize \|websiteNPR \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2019 \|dateSeptember 20, 2019}}</ref> Seven people were reportedly arrested at the event.<ref name":0" /> In popular culture Because of Area 51's prominence in relation to aliens and conspiracy theories, it has often been used as a setting and theme in popular culture, especially in science fiction works involving aliens.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWard \|firstAlex \|date2019-09-19 \|titleArea 51 and aliens: the myth, the meme, and the strange reality, explained \|urlhttps://www.vox.com/2019/9/19/20857221/storm-area-51-aliens-ufos-meme-myth-lore-history-bob-lazar-explained \|access-date2024-02-20 \|websiteVox \|languageen}}</ref> See also * Area 52 * Black operation * Black project * Black site * List of United States Air Force installations * Special access program Footnotes {{notelist}} Citations {{Reflist}} Sources {{Refbegin}} * Darlington, David (1998). Area 51: The Dreamland Chronicles. New York: Henry Holt. {{ISBN\|978-0-8050-6040-9}} * {{cite book \|lastJacobsen \|firstAnnie \|author-linkAnnie Jacobsen \|orig-year2011 \|year2012 \|titleArea 51: An Uncensored History of America's Top Secret Military Base \|locationNew York \|publisherBack Bay Books \|isbn=978-0-316-13294-7}} * Patton, Phil (1998). Dreamland: Travels Inside the Secret World of Roswell and Area 51. New York: Villard/Random House {{ISBN\|978-0-375-75385-5}} * {{cite book \|last1Rich \|first1Ben R. \|author-linkBen Rich (engineer) \|last2Janos \|first2Leo \|year1994 \|titleSkunk Works: A personal memoir of my years at Lockheed \|locationBoston \|publisherLittle, Brown \|isbn978-0-316-74300-6}} * Stahl, Lesley "Area 51 / Catch 22" 60 Minutes CBS Television 17 March 1996, a US TV news magazine's segment about the environmental lawsuit. {{Refend}} External links {{geoGroup}} {{Commons category-inline\|Area 51}} [https://skyvector.com/?ll37.27599241681214,-115.80154026998743&chart17&zoom=5 Las Vegas sectional aeronautical chart, centered on Groom Lake] (Federal Aviation Administration – SkyVector.com) {{UFOs}} {{Conspiracy theories}} {{Authority control}} Category:1942 establishments in Nevada Category:Buildings and structures in Lincoln County, Nevada Category:Installations of the Central Intelligence Agency Category:Military installations in Nevada Category:Military UFO conspiracy theories in the United States Category:Research installations of the United States Air Force Category:Secret places in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_51	2025-04-05T18:26:00.395259
2322	Audio signal processing	Audio signal processing is a subfield of signal processing that is concerned with the electronic manipulation of audio signals. Audio signals are electronic representations of sound waves—longitudinal waves which travel through air, consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The energy contained in audio signals or sound power level is typically measured in decibels. As audio signals may be represented in either digital or analog format, processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on its digital representation. History The motivation for audio signal processing began at the beginning of the 20th century with inventions like the telephone, phonograph, and radio that allowed for the transmission and storage of audio signals. Audio processing was necessary for early radio broadcasting, as there were many problems with studio-to-transmitter links. The theory of signal processing and its application to audio was largely developed at Bell Labs in the mid 20th century. Claude Shannon and Harry Nyquist's early work on communication theory, sampling theory and pulse-code modulation (PCM) laid the foundations for the field. In 1957, Max Mathews became the first person to synthesize audio from a computer, giving birth to computer music. Major developments in digital audio coding and audio data compression include differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) by C. Chapin Cutler at Bell Labs in 1950, linear predictive coding (LPC) by Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966, adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) by P. Cummiskey, Nikil S. Jayant and James L. Flanagan at Bell Labs in 1973, discrete cosine transform (DCT) coding by Nasir Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974, and modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) coding by J. P. Princen, A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987. LPC is the basis for perceptual coding and is widely used in speech coding, while MDCT coding is widely used in modern audio coding formats such as MP3 and Advanced Audio Coding (AAC). Types Analog An analog audio signal is a continuous signal represented by an electrical voltage or current that is analogous to the sound waves in the air. Analog signal processing then involves physically altering the continuous signal by changing the voltage or current or charge via electrical circuits. Historically, before the advent of widespread digital technology, analog was the only method by which to manipulate a signal. Since that time, as computers and software have become more capable and affordable, digital signal processing has become the method of choice. However, in music applications, analog technology is often still desirable as it often produces nonlinear responses that are difficult to replicate with digital filters. Digital A digital representation expresses the audio waveform as a sequence of symbols, usually binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as digital signal processors, microprocessors and general-purpose computers. Most modern audio systems use a digital approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and efficient than analog domain signal processing. Applications Processing methods and application areas include storage, data compression, music information retrieval, speech processing, localization, acoustic detection, transmission, noise cancellation, acoustic fingerprinting, sound recognition, synthesis, and enhancement (e.g. equalization, filtering, level compression, echo and reverb removal or addition, etc.). Audio broadcasting Audio signal processing is used when broadcasting audio signals in order to enhance their fidelity or optimize for bandwidth or latency. In this domain, the most important audio processing takes place just before the transmitter. The audio processor here must prevent or minimize overmodulation, compensate for non-linear transmitters (a potential issue with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting), and adjust overall loudness to the desired level. Active noise control Active noise control is a technique designed to reduce unwanted sound. By creating a signal that is identical to the unwanted noise but with the opposite polarity, the two signals cancel out due to destructive interference. Audio synthesis Audio synthesis is the electronic generation of audio signals. A musical instrument that accomplishes this is called a synthesizer. Synthesizers can either imitate sounds or generate new ones. Audio synthesis is also used to generate human speech using speech synthesis. Audio effects Audio effects alter the sound of a musical instrument or other audio source. Common effects include distortion, often used with electric guitar in electric blues and rock music; dynamic effects such as volume pedals and compressors, which affect loudness; filters such as wah-wah pedals and graphic equalizers, which modify frequency ranges; modulation effects, such as chorus, flangers and phasers; pitch effects such as pitch shifters; and time effects, such as reverb and delay, which create echoing sounds and emulate the sound of different spaces. Musicians, audio engineers and record producers use effects units during live performances or in the studio, typically with electric guitar, bass guitar, electronic keyboard or electric piano. While effects are most frequently used with electric or electronic instruments, they can be used with any audio source, such as acoustic instruments, drums, and vocals. Computer audition Computer audition (CA) or machine listening is the general field of study of algorithms and systems for audio interpretation by machines. Since the notion of what it means for a machine to "hear" is very broad and somewhat vague, computer audition attempts to bring together several disciplines that originally dealt with specific problems or had a concrete application in mind. The engineer Paris Smaragdis, interviewed in Technology Review, talks about these systems "software that uses sound to locate people moving through rooms, monitor machinery for impending breakdowns, or activate traffic cameras to record accidents." Inspired by models of human audition, CA deals with questions of representation, transduction, grouping, use of musical knowledge and general sound semantics for the purpose of performing intelligent operations on audio and music signals by the computer. Technically this requires a combination of methods from the fields of signal processing, auditory modelling, music perception and cognition, pattern recognition, and machine learning, as well as more traditional methods of artificial intelligence for musical knowledge representation. See also Sound card Sound effect References Further reading Category:Audio electronics Category:Signal processing	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal_processing	2025-04-05T18:26:00.407045
2323	Amdahl's law	thumb\|400px\|Amdahl's Law demonstrates the theoretical maximum speedup of an overall system and the concept of diminishing returns. Plotted here is logarithmic parallelization vs linear speedup. If exactly 50% of the work can be parallelized, the best possible speedup is 2 times. If 95% of the work can be parallelized, the best possible speedup is 20 times. According to the law, even with an infinite number of processors, the speedup is constrained by the unparallelizable portion. In computer architecture, Amdahl's law (or Amdahl's argument) is a formula that shows how much faster a task can be completed when more resources are added to the system. The law can be stated as: "the overall performance improvement gained by optimizing a single part of a system is limited by the fraction of time that the improved part is actually used". It is named after computer scientist Gene Amdahl, and was presented at the American Federation of Information Processing Societies (AFIPS) Spring Joint Computer Conference in 1967. Amdahl's law is often used in parallel computing to predict the theoretical speedup when using multiple processors. Definition In the context of Amdahl's law, speedup can be defined as: \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} = \frac{1}{(1 - \text{time}_{\text{optimized}}) + \frac{\text{time}_{\text{optimized}}}{\text{speedup}_{\text{optimized}}}} where \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} represents the total speedup of a program \text{Time}_{\text{optimized}} represents the proportion of time spent on the portion of the code where improvements are made \text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}} represents the extent of the improvement The \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} is frequently much lower than one might expect. For instance, if a programmer enhances a part of the code that represents 10% of the total execution time (i.e. \text{Time}_{\text{optimized}} of 0.10) and achieves a \text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}} of 10,000, then \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} becomes 1.11 which means only 11% improvement in total speedup of the program. So, despite a massive improvement in one section, the overall benefit is quite small. In another example, if the programmer optimizes a section that accounts for 99% of the execution time (i.e. \text{Time}_{\text{optimized}} of 0.99) with a speedup factor of 100 (i.e. \text{Speedup}_{\text{optimized}}of 100), the \text{Speedup}_\text{overall} only reaches 50. This indicates that half of the potential performance gain (\text{Speedup}_\text{overall} will reach 100 if 100% of the execution time is covered) is lost due to the remaining 1% of execution time that was not improved. Diminishing Returns: Adding more processors gives diminishing returns. Beyond a certain point, adding more processors doesn't significantly increase speedup. Limited Speedup: Even with many processors, there's a limit to how much faster a task can be completed due to parts of the task that cannot be parallelized. Limitations Followings are limitations of Amdahl's law: Assumption of Fixed Workload: Amdahl's Law assumes that the workload remains constant. It doesn't account for dynamic or increasing workloads, which can impact the effectiveness of parallel processing. Overhead Ignored: Amdahl's Law neglects overheads associated with concurrency, including coordination, synchronization, inter-process communication, and concurrency control. Notably, merging data from multiple threads or processes incurs significant overhead due to conflict resolution, data consistency, versioning, and synchronization. Neglecting extrinsic factors: Amdahl's Law addresses computational parallelism, neglecting extrinsic factors such as data persistence, I/O operations, and memory access overheads, and assumes idealized conditions. Scalability Issues: While it highlights the limits of parallel speedup, it doesn't address practical scalability issues, such as the cost and complexity of adding more processors. Non-Parallelizable Work: Amdahl's Law emphasizes the non-parallelizable portion of the task as a bottleneck but doesn’t provide solutions for reducing or optimizing this portion. Assumes Homogeneous Processors: It assumes that all processors are identical and contribute equally to speedup, which may not be the case in heterogeneous computing environments. Amdahl's law applies only to the cases where the problem size is fixed. In practice, as more computing resources become available, they tend to get used on larger problems (larger datasets), and the time spent in the parallelizable part often grows much faster than the inherently serial work. In this case, Gustafson's law gives a less pessimistic and more realistic assessment of the parallel performance. Universal Scalability Law (USL), developed by Neil J. Gunther, extends the Amdahl's law and accounts for the additional overhead due to inter-process communication. USL quantifies scalability based on parameters such as contention and coherency. Derivation A task executed by a system whose resources are improved compared to an initial similar system can be split up into two parts: a part that does not benefit from the improvement of the resources of the system; a part that benefits from the improvement of the resources of the system. An example is a computer program that processes files. A part of that program may scan the directory of the disk and create a list of files internally in memory. After that, another part of the program passes each file to a separate thread for processing. The part that scans the directory and creates the file list cannot be sped up on a parallel computer, but the part that processes the files can. The execution time of the whole task before the improvement of the resources of the system is denoted as T . It includes the execution time of the part that would not benefit from the improvement of the resources and the execution time of the one that would benefit from it. The fraction of the execution time of the task that would benefit from the improvement of the resources is denoted by p . The one concerning the part that would not benefit from it is therefore . Then: T = (1 - p)T + pT. It is the execution of the part that benefits from the improvement of the resources that is accelerated by the factor s after the improvement of the resources. Consequently, the execution time of the part that does not benefit from it remains the same, while the part that benefits from it becomes: \frac{p}{s}T. The theoretical execution time T (s) of the whole task after the improvement of the resources is then: T(s) = (1 - p)T + \frac p s T. Amdahl's law gives the theoretical speedup in latency of the execution of the whole task at fixed workload W , which yields S_\text{latency}(s) \frac{TW}{T(s)W} \frac{T}{T(s)} = \frac 1 {1 - p + \frac p s}. Parallel programs If 30% of the execution time may be the subject of a speedup, p will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the affected part twice as fast, s will be 2. Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be: S_\text{latency} \frac{1}{1 - p + \frac{p}{s}} \frac 1 {1 - 0.3 + \frac {0.3} 2} = 1.18. For example, assume that we are given a serial task which is split into four consecutive parts, whose percentages of execution time are , , , and respectively. Then we are told that the 1st part is not sped up, so , while the 2nd part is sped up 5 times, so , the 3rd part is sped up 20 times, so , and the 4th part is sped up 1.6 times, so . By using Amdahl's law, the overall speedup is S_\text{latency} \frac{1}{\frac{p1}{s1} + \frac{p2}{s2} + \frac{p3}{s3} + \frac{p4}{s4}} \frac{1}{\frac{0.11}{1} + \frac{0.18}{5} + \frac{0.23}{20} + \frac{0.48}{1.6}} = 2.19. Notice how the 5 times and 20 times speedup on the 2nd and 3rd parts respectively don't have much effect on the overall speedup when the 4th part (48% of the execution time) is accelerated by only 1.6 times. Serial programs For example, with a serial program in two parts A and B for which and , if part B is made to run 5 times faster, that is and , then S_\text{latency} \frac 1 {1 - 0.25 + \frac{0.25}{5}} 1.25; if part A is made to run 2 times faster, that is and , then S_\text{latency} \frac 1 {1 - 0.75 + \frac{0.75}{2}} 1.60. Therefore, making part A to run 2 times faster is better than making part B to run 5 times faster. The percentage improvement in speed can be calculated as \text{percentage improvement} = 100 \left(1 - \frac 1 {S_\text{latency}}\right). Improving part A by a factor of 2 will increase overall program speed by a factor of 1.60, which makes it 37.5% faster than the original computation. However, improving part B by a factor of 5, which presumably requires more effort, will achieve an overall speedup factor of 1.25 only, which makes it 20% faster. Optimizing the sequential part of parallel programs If the non-parallelizable part is optimized by a factor of , then T(O,s) = (1 - p)\frac{T}{O} + \frac{p}{s} T. It follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by S_\text{latency}(O,s) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac {(1 - p)\frac{1}{O} + {p} } {\frac{1 - p}{O} + \frac p s}. When s1, we have S_\text{latency}(O,s)1, meaning that the speedup is measured with respect to the execution time after the non-parallelizable part is optimized. When s=\infty, S_\text{latency}(O,\infty) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac {(1 - p)\frac{1}{O} + {p} } {\frac{1 - p}{O} + \frac p s}= 1 + \frac{p}{1-p}O. If 1-p0.4, O2 and s=5, then: S_\text{latency}(O,s) \frac{T(O)}{T(O,s)} \frac{ {0.4} \frac{1}{2} + 0.6} {\frac{0.4}{2} + \frac{0.6}{5} } = 2.5. Transforming sequential parts of parallel programs into parallelizable Next, we consider the case wherein the non-parallelizable part is reduced by a factor of , and the parallelizable part is correspondingly increased. Then T'(O',s) = \frac{1 - p}{O'} T + \left(1-\frac{1-p}{O'}\right) \frac{T}{s}. It follows from Amdahl's law that the speedup due to parallelism is given by S'_\text{latency}(O',s) \frac{T'(O')}{T'(O',s)} \frac { 1 } { \frac{1 - p}{O'} + \left(1-\frac{1-p}{O'}\right) \frac{1}{s}}. Relation to the law of diminishing returns Amdahl's law is often conflated with the law of diminishing returns, whereas only a special case of applying Amdahl's law demonstrates law of diminishing returns. If one picks optimally (in terms of the achieved speedup) what is to be improved, then one will see monotonically decreasing improvements as one improves. If, however, one picks non-optimally, after improving a sub-optimal component and moving on to improve a more optimal component, one can see an increase in the return. Note that it is often rational to improve a system in an order that is "non-optimal" in this sense, given that some improvements are more difficult or require larger development time than others. Amdahl's law does represent the law of diminishing returns if one is considering what sort of return one gets by adding more processors to a machine, if one is running a fixed-size computation that will use all available processors to their capacity. Each new processor added to the system will add less usable power than the previous one. Each time one doubles the number of processors the speedup ratio will diminish, as the total throughput heads toward the limit of 1/(1 − p''). This analysis neglects other potential bottlenecks such as memory bandwidth and I/O bandwidth. If these resources do not scale with the number of processors, then merely adding processors provides even lower returns. An implication of Amdahl's law is that to speed up real applications which have both serial and parallel portions, heterogeneous computing techniques are required. There are novel speedup and energy consumption models based on a more general representation of heterogeneity, referred to as the normal form heterogeneity, that support a wide range of heterogeneous many-core architectures. These modelling methods aim to predict system power efficiency and performance ranges, and facilitates research and development at the hardware and system software levels. See also Gustafson's law Universal Law of Computational Scalability Analysis of parallel algorithms Critical path method Moore's law References Further reading External links . Amdahl discusses his graduate work at the University of Wisconsin and his design of WISC. Discusses his role in the design of several computers for IBM including the STRETCH, IBM 701, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process. Mentions work with Ramo-Wooldridge, Aeronutronic, and Computer Sciences Corporation "Amdahl's Law" by Joel F. Klein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project (2007) Amdahl's Law in the Multicore Era (July 2008) Category:Analysis of parallel algorithms Category:Computer architecture statements	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl's_law	2025-04-05T18:26:00.424024
2326	April 27	{{pp-move}} {{pp-pc}} {{calendar}} {{This date in recent years}} {{Day}} Events Pre-1600 * 247 &ndash; Philip the Arab marks the millennium of Rome with a celebration of the ludi saeculares.<ref>{{cite book\|firstJacques\|lastLegrand\|titleChronicle of the World\|publisherEcam Publication\|year1989\|page244\|isbn=0-13-133463-8}}</ref> * 395 &ndash; Emperor Arcadius marries Aelia Eudoxia, daughter of the Frankish general Flavius Bauto. She becomes one of the more powerful Roman empresses of Late Antiquity. 711 &ndash; Islamic conquest of Hispania: Moorish troops led by Tariq ibn Ziyad land at Gibraltar to begin their invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus). 1296 &ndash; First War of Scottish Independence: John Balliol's Scottish army is defeated by an English army commanded by John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey at the Battle of Dunbar.<ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland\|numBTL31\|descBattle of Dunbar I\|access-date=19 June 2020}}</ref> 1509 &ndash; Pope Julius II places the Italian state of Venice under interdict. 1521 &ndash; Battle of Mactan: Explorer Ferdinand Magellan is killed by natives in the Philippines led by chief Lapulapu. 1539 &ndash; Official founding of the city of Bogotá, New Granada (nowadays Colombia), by Nikolaus Federmann and Sebastián de Belalcázar. 1565 &ndash; Cebu is established becoming the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines. 1595 &ndash; The relics of Saint Sava are incinerated in Belgrade on the Vračar plateau by Ottoman Grand Vizier Sinan Pasha; the site of the incineration is now the location of the Church of Saint Sava, one of the largest Orthodox churches in the world 1601–1900 1650 &ndash; The Battle of Carbisdale: A Royalist army from Orkney invades mainland Scotland but is defeated by a Covenanter army.<ref>{{Historic Environment Scotland\|numBTL19\|descBattle of Carbisdale\|access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref> 1667 &ndash; Blind and impoverished, John Milton sells Paradise Lost to a printer for £10, so that it could be entered into the Stationers' Register. 1805 &ndash; First Barbary War: United States Marines and Berbers attack the Tripolitan city of Derna (The "shores of Tripoli" part of the Marines' Hymn). 1813 &ndash; War of 1812: American troops capture York, the capital of Upper Canada, in the Battle of York. 1861 &ndash; American President Abraham Lincoln suspends the writ of habeas corpus. 1901–present 1906 &ndash; The State Duma of the Russian Empire meets for the first time. 1909 &ndash; Sultan of Ottoman Empire Abdul Hamid II is overthrown, and is succeeded by his brother, Mehmed V. 1911 &ndash; The Second Canton Uprising took place in Guangzhou, Qing China but was suppressed.<ref>{{Cite web \|title4月27日：黄花岗起义 \|urlhttp://www.gov.cn/lssdjt/content_1593139.htm \|access-date2023-04-14 \|websitewww.gov.cn}}</ref> 1927 &ndash; Carabineros de Chile (Chilean national police force and gendarmerie) are created. 1936 &ndash; The United Auto Workers (UAW) gains autonomy from the American Federation of Labor. 1941 &ndash; World War II: German troops enter Athens. 1945 &ndash; World War II: The last German formations withdraw from Finland to Norway. The Lapland War and thus, World War II in Finland, comes to an end and the Raising the Flag on the Three-Country Cairn photograph is taken. 1945 &ndash; World War II: Benito Mussolini is arrested by Italian partisans in Dongo, while attempting escape disguised as a German soldier. 1953 &ndash; Operation Moolah offers $50,000 to any pilot who defects with a fully mission-capable Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 to South Korea. The first pilot was to receive $100,000. 1967 &ndash; Expo 67 officially opens in Montreal, Quebec, Canada with a large opening ceremony broadcast around the world. It opens to the public the next day. 1974 &ndash; 109 people are killed in a plane crash near Pulkovo Airport.<ref name"avsafetydotnet">{{Cite web \|lastRanter \|firstHarro \|date \|titleASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin 18V CCCP-75559 Leningrad-Pulkovo Airport (LED) \|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19740427-1 \|access-date2018-02-17 \|website=Aviation Safety Network}}</ref> 1976 &ndash; Thirty-seven people are killed when American Airlines Flight 625 crashes at Cyril E. King Airport in Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastRanter \|firstHarro \|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 727-95 N1963 Saint Thomas-Harry S. Truman Airport (STT) \|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19760427-1 \|access-date2022-04-26 \|websiteaviation-safety.net \|publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref> 1978 &ndash; John Ehrlichman, a former aide to U.S. President Richard Nixon, is released from the Federal Correctional Institution, Safford, Arizona, after serving 18 months for Watergate-related crimes.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1978/04/28/archives/ehrlichman-leaves-prison-saying-hes-a-better-man-personal.html\|titleEhrlichman Leaves Prison, Saying He's a Better Man\|date28 April 1978\|newspaperThe New York Times\|agencyAP\|pageA16\|access-date=2 September 2021}}</ref> 1978 &ndash; The Saur Revolution begins in Afghanistan, ending the following morning with the murder of Afghan President Mohammed Daoud Khan and the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.historyguy.com/afghan_civil_war.html\|titleThe Afghan Civil War (1978–Present)\|publisherhistoryguy.com\|access-date25 August 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttps://americandiplomacy.web.unc.edu/2019/02/1978-revolution-in-afghanistan/\|titleThe 1978 Revolution in Afghanistan\|lastThompson\|firstLarry Clinton\|dateFebruary 2019\|journalAmerican Diplomacy\|departmentEyewitness\|access-date25 August 2021}}</ref> * 1978 &ndash; Willow Island disaster: In the deadliest construction accident in United States history, 51 construction workers are killed when a cooling tower under construction collapses at the Pleasants Power Station in Willow Island, West Virginia.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://wvgazette.com/News/WillowIsland/200804250422\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080501181924/http://wvgazette.com/News/WillowIsland/200804250422\|archive-date1 May 2008\|lastWard\|firstKen Jr.\|author-linkKen Ward Jr.\|title'It was gone': String of problems led to 51 deaths at Willow Island\|date27 April 2008\|journalThe Charleston Gazette\|access-date17 August 2021}}</ref> 1986 &ndash; The city of Pripyat and surrounding areas are evacuated due to the Chernobyl disaster. 1987 &ndash; The U.S. Department of Justice bars Austrian President Kurt Waldheim (and his wife, Elisabeth, who had also been a Nazi) from entering the US, charging that he had aided in the deportations and executions of thousands of Jews and others as a German Army officer during World War II. 1989 &ndash; The April 27 demonstrations, student-led protests responding to the April 26 Editorial, during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. 1992 &ndash; The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, comprising Serbia and Montenegro, is proclaimed. * 1992 &ndash; Betty Boothroyd becomes the first woman to be elected Speaker of the British House of Commons in its 700-year history. * 1992 &ndash; The Russian Federation and 12 other former Soviet republics become members of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. 1993 &ndash; Most of the Zambia national football team lose their lives in a plane crash off Libreville, Gabon en route to Dakar, Senegal to play a 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifying match against Senegal. 1994 &ndash; South African general election: The first democratic general election in South Africa, in which black citizens could vote. The Interim Constitution comes into force. 2005 &ndash; Airbus A380 aircraft has its maiden test flight. 2006 &ndash; Construction begins on the Freedom Tower (later renamed One World Trade Center) in New York City. 2007 &ndash; Estonian authorities remove the Bronze Soldier, a Soviet Red Army war memorial in Tallinn, amid political controversy with Russia. 2007 &ndash; Israeli archaeologists discover the tomb of Herod the Great south of Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web\|lastHoffman\|firstScot\|titleHerod's Tomb\|websiteNational Geographic\|dateApril 19, 2019\|access-dateMay 7, 2019\|urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/archaeology/herods-tomb/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170501223703/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/archaeology/herods-tomb/\|url-statusdead\|archive-dateMay 1, 2017}}</ref> 2011 &ndash; The 2011 Super Outbreak devastates parts of the Southeastern United States, especially the states of Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Tennessee. Two hundred five tornadoes touched down on April 27 alone, killing more than 300 and injuring hundreds more. 2012 &ndash; At least four explosions hit the Ukrainian city of Dnipropetrovsk with at least 27 people injured. 2018 &ndash; The Panmunjom Declaration is signed between North and South Korea, officially declaring their intentions to end the Korean conflict. 2024 &ndash; The worst day of the tornado outbreak sequence of April 25–28, 2024, with 42 tornadoes, including one confirmed EF4 tornado, and two confirmed EF3 tornadoes, which killed 4 people in total.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/wx/afos/p.php?pilPNSOUN&e202405011719 \| titleIEM :: PNS from NWS OUN }}</ref> Births <!-- Please do not add yourself or anyone else without a biography in Wikipedia to this list.--> Pre-1600 85 BC &ndash; Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, Roman politician and general (d. 43 BC) 1468 &ndash; Frederick Jagiellon, Primate of Poland (d. 1503) 1564 &ndash; Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland (d. 1632) 1556 &ndash; François Béroalde de Verville, French writer (d. 1626) 1593 &ndash; Mumtaz Mahal, Mughal empress buried at the Taj Mahal (d. 1631)<ref>{{cite book\|last1Pickthall\|first1Marmaduke William\|last2Asad\|first2Muhammad\|titleIslamic Culture\|date1 January 1975\|volume49\|page196\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id839CAAAAYAAJ\|publisherIslamic Culture Board\|languageen}}</ref> 1601–1900 1650 &ndash; Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Kassel, Queen Consort of Denmark (1670–1699) (d. 1714) 1654 &ndash; Charles Blount, English deist and philosopher (d. 1693) 1701 &ndash; Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (d. 1773) 1718 &ndash; Thomas Lewis, Irish-born American surveyor and lawyer (d. 1790) 1748 &ndash; Adamantios Korais, Greek-French philosopher and scholar (d. 1833) 1755 &ndash; Marc-Antoine Parseval, French mathematician and theorist (d. 1836) 1759 &ndash; Mary Wollstonecraft, English philosopher, historian, and novelist (d. 1797) 1788 &ndash; Charles Robert Cockerell, English architect, archaeologist, and writer (d. 1863) 1791 &ndash; Samuel Morse, American painter and inventor, co-invented the Morse code (d. 1872) 1812 &ndash; William W. Snow, American lawyer and politician (d. 1886) 1812 &ndash; Friedrich von Flotow, German composer (d. 1883) 1820 &ndash; Herbert Spencer, English biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher (d. 1903) 1822 &ndash; Ulysses S. Grant, American general and politician, 18th President of the United States (d. 1885) 1840 &ndash; Edward Whymper, English-French mountaineer, explorer, author, and illustrator (d. 1911) 1848 &ndash; Otto, King of Bavaria (d. 1916) 1850 &ndash; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, German general and politician (d. 1921) 1853 &ndash; Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (d. 1914) 1857 &ndash; Theodor Kittelsen, Norwegian painter and illustrator (d. 1914) 1861 &ndash; William Arms Fisher, American composer and music historian (d. 1948) 1866 &ndash; Maurice Raoul-Duval, French polo player (d. 1916) 1875 &ndash; Frederick Fane, Irish-born, English cricketer (d. 1960) 1880 &ndash; Mihkel Lüdig, Estonian organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1958) 1882 &ndash; Jessie Redmon Fauset, American author and poet (d. 1961) 1887 &ndash; Warren Wood, American golfer (d. 1926) 1888 &ndash; Florence La Badie, Canadian actress (d. 1917) 1891 &ndash; Sergei Prokofiev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1953) 1893 &ndash; Draža Mihailović, Serbian general (d. 1946) * 1893 &ndash; Allen Sothoron, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1939) 1894 &ndash; George Petty, American painter and illustrator (d. 1975) 1894 &ndash; Nicolas Slonimsky, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1995) 1896 &ndash; Rogers Hornsby, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1963) 1896 &ndash; William Hudson, New Zealand-Australian engineer (d. 1978) * 1896 &ndash; Wallace Carothers, American chemist and inventor of nylon (d. 1937) 1898 &ndash; Ludwig Bemelmans, Italian-American author and illustrator (d. 1962) 1899 &ndash; Walter Lantz, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and actor (d. 1994) 1900 &ndash; August Koern, Estonian politician and diplomat, Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs in exile (d. 1989) 1901–present 1902 &ndash; Tiemoko Garan Kouyaté, Malian educator and activist (d. 1942) 1904 &ndash; Cecil Day-Lewis, Anglo-Irish poet and author (d. 1972) 1904 &ndash; Nikos Zachariadis, Greek politician (d. 1973) 1905 &ndash; John Kuck, American javelin thrower and shot putter (d. 1986) 1906 &ndash; Yiorgos Theotokas, Greek author and playwright (d. 1966) 1909 &ndash; Lim Bo Seng, Chinese businessman, resistance fighter of Force 136 and war hero of Singapore (d. 1944)<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid18b892a1-9b32-4f8c-a72a-6ad72122bdd4 \| title=Lim Bo Seng }}</ref> 1910 &ndash; Chiang Ching-kuo, Chinese politician, 3rd President of the Republic of China (d. 1988) 1911 &ndash; Bruno Beger, German anthropologist and ethnologist (d. 2009) 1911 &ndash; Chris Berger, Dutch sprinter and footballer (d. 1965) 1912 &ndash; Jacques de Bourbon-Busset, French author and politician (d. 2001) 1912 &ndash; Zohra Sehgal, Indian actress, dancer, and choreographer (d. 2014) 1913 &ndash; Philip Abelson, American physicist and author (d. 2004) 1913 &ndash; Irving Adler, American mathematician, author, and academic (d. 2012) * 1913 &ndash; Luz Long, German long jumper and soldier (d. 1943) 1916 &ndash; Robert Hugh McWilliams, Jr., American sergeant, lawyer, and judge (d. 2013) 1916 &ndash; Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (d. 2002) 1917 &ndash; Roman Matsov, Estonian violinist, pianist, and conductor (d. 2001) 1918 &ndash; Sten Rudholm, Swedish lawyer and jurist (d. 2008) 1920 &ndash; Guido Cantelli, Italian conductor (d. 1956) 1920 &ndash; Mark Krasnosel'skii, Ukrainian mathematician and academic (d. 1997) * 1920 &ndash; James Robert Mann, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (d. 2010) * 1920 &ndash; Edwin Morgan, Scottish poet and translator (d. 2010) 1921 &ndash; Robert Dhéry, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2004) 1922 &ndash; Jack Klugman, American actor (d. 2012) * 1922 &ndash; Sheila Scott, English nurse and pilot (d. 1988) 1923 &ndash; Betty Mae Tiger Jumper, Seminole chief (d. 2011) 1924 &ndash; Vernon B. Romney, American lawyer and politician, 14th Attorney General of Utah (d. 2013) 1925 &ndash; Derek Chinnery, English broadcaster (d. 2015) 1926 &ndash; Tim LaHaye, American minister, activist, and author (d. 2016) * 1926 &ndash; Basil A. Paterson, American lawyer and politician, 59th Secretary of State of New York (d. 2014) * 1926 &ndash; Alan Reynolds, English painter and educator (d. 2014) 1927 &ndash; Coretta Scott King, African-American activist and author (d. 2006) 1927 &ndash; Joe Moakley, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2001) 1929 &ndash; Nina Ponomaryova, Russian discus thrower and coach (d. 2016) 1931 &ndash; Igor Oistrakh, Ukrainian violinist and educator (d. 2021) 1932 &ndash; Anouk Aimée, French actress<ref name"Chase's2020"/> (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGates \|firstAnita \|date2024-06-18 \|titleAnouk Aimée, Enigmatic Star of 'A Man and a Woman,' Dies at 92 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/18/obituaries/anouk-aimee-dead.html \|access-date2024-06-18 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> 1932 &ndash; Pik Botha, South African lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 8th South African Ambassador to the United States (d. 2018) * 1932 &ndash; Casey Kasem, American disc jockey, radio celebrity, and voice actor; co-created American Top 40 (d. 2014) * 1932 &ndash; Chuck Knox, American football coach (d. 2018) * 1932 &ndash; Derek Minter, English motorcycle racer (d. 2015) * 1932 &ndash; Gian-Carlo Rota, Italian-American mathematician and philosopher (d. 1999) 1933 &ndash; Peter Imbert, Baron Imbert, English police officer and politician, Lord Lieutenant for Greater London (d. 2017) 1935 &ndash; Theodoros Angelopoulos, Greek director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) * 1935 &ndash; Ron Morris, American pole vaulter and coach (d. 2024) 1936 &ndash; Geoffrey Shovelton, English singer and illustrator (d. 2016) 1937 &ndash; Sandy Dennis, American actress (d. 1992) * 1937 &ndash; Robin Eames, Irish Anglican archbishop * 1937 &ndash; Richard Perham, English biologist and academic (d. 2015) 1938 &ndash; Earl Anthony, American bowler and sportscaster (d. 2001) 1938 &ndash; Alain Caron, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1986) 1939 &ndash; Judy Carne, English actress and comedian (d. 2015) 1939 &ndash; Stanisław Dziwisz, Polish cardinal 1941 &ndash; Fethullah Gülen, Turkish preacher and theologian (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHubbard \|firstBen \|dateOctober 21, 2024 \|titleFethullah Gulen, Turkish Cleric and Erdogan Rival, Dies at 83 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/21/world/europe/fethullah-gulen-dead.html \|access-dateOctober 22, 2024 \|work=The New York Times}}</ref> 1941 &ndash; Dilip Kumar Chakrabarti, Indian archaeologist * 1941 &ndash; Lee Roy Jordan, American football player 1942 &ndash; Ruth Glick, American author 1942 &ndash; Jim Keltner, American drummer 1943 &ndash; Helmut Marko, Austrian race car driver and manager 1944 &ndash; Michael Fish, English meteorologist and journalist * 1944 &ndash; Cuba Gooding Sr., American singer (d. 2017) * 1944 &ndash; Herb Pedersen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1945 &ndash; Martin Chivers, English footballer and manager<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/tottenham-hotspur-fc/martin-chivers-8712/biography-of-his-career-at-spurs-and-england_a11177/\|titleMartin Chivers\|publishersporting-heroes.net\|access-date13 April 2020}}</ref> 1945 &ndash; Terry Willesee, Australian journalist and television host * 1945 &ndash; August Wilson, American author and playwright (d. 2005) 1946 &ndash; Franz Roth, German footballer 1947 &ndash; G. K. Butterfield, African-American soldier, lawyer, and politician * 1947 &ndash; Nick Greiner, Hungarian-Australian politician, 37th Premier of New South Wales * 1947 &ndash; Pete Ham, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975) * 1947 &ndash; Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003) * 1947 &ndash; Ann Peebles, American soul singer-songwriter 1948 &ndash; Frank Abagnale Jr., American security consultant and criminal 1948 &ndash; Josef Hickersberger, Austrian footballer, coach, and manager * 1948 &ndash; Kate Pierson, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1950 &ndash; Jaime Fresnedi, Filipino politician 1950 &ndash; David W. Duclon, American television writer and producer (d. 2025)<ref>[https://deadline.com/2025/01/david-w-duclon-dead-punky-brewster-creator-silver-spoons-1236258206/ David W. Duclon Dies: ‘Punky Brewster’ Creator Was 74]</ref><ref>[https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv-news/david-w-duclon-dead-producer-punky-brewster-1236110320/ David W. Duclon, ‘Punky Brewster’ Creator, Dies at 74]</ref> 1951 &ndash; Ace Frehley, American guitarist and songwriter 1952 &ndash; Larry Elder, American lawyer and talk show host * 1952 &ndash; George Gervin, American basketball player * 1952 &ndash; Ari Vatanen, Finnish race car driver and politician 1953 &ndash; Arielle Dombasle, French-American actress and model 1954 &ndash; Frank Bainimarama, Fijian commander and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Fiji * 1954 &ndash; Herman Edwards, American football player, coach, and sportscaster * 1954 &ndash; Mark Holden, Australian singer, actor, and lawyer 1955 &ndash; Eric Schmidt, American engineer and businessman 1956 &ndash; Bryan Harvey, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006) 1957 &ndash; Dietmar Keck, Austrian politician<ref>{{cite web \|titleRecherchieren: Personen - Dietmar Keck \|urlhttps://www.parlament.gv.at/person/14840 \|publisherAustrian Parliament \|access-date14 October 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241009111643/https://www.parlament.gv.at/person/14840 \|archive-date9 October 2024 \|locationVienna, Austria \|languagede}}</ref> 1957 &ndash; Willie Upshaw, American baseball player and manager 1959 &ndash; Sheena Easton, Scottish-American singer-songwriter, actress, and producer 1959 &ndash; Marco Pirroni, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1960 &ndash; Mike Krushelnyski, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1961 &ndash; Andrew Schlafly, American lawyer and activist, founded Conservapedia 1962 &ndash; Ángel Comizzo, Argentinian footballer and manager 1962 &ndash; Seppo Räty, Finnish javelin thrower and coach * 1962 &ndash; Im Sang-soo, South Korean director and screenwriter * 1962 &ndash; Andrew Selous, English soldier and politician 1963 &ndash; Russell T Davies, Welsh screenwriter and producer 1965 &ndash; Anna Chancellor, English actress 1966 &ndash; Peter McIntyre, Australian cricketer<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cricinfo.com/ci/content/player/6573.html\| titleCricInfo Biography\|publisher=CricInfo}}</ref> 1966 &ndash; Yoshihiro Togashi, Japanese illustrator 1967 &ndash; Willem-Alexander, King of the Netherlands<ref name="Chase's2020"/> 1967 &ndash; Tommy Smith, Scottish saxophonist, composer, and educator * 1967 &ndash; Erik Thomson, Scottish-New Zealand actor * 1967 &ndash; Jason Whitlock, American football player and journalist 1968 &ndash; Dana Milbank, American journalist and author 1969 &ndash; Cory Booker, African-American lawyer and politician * 1969 &ndash; Darcey Bussell, English ballerina 1972 &ndash; Nigel Barker, English photographer and author<ref name="Chase's2020"/> 1973 &ndash; Sharlee D'Angelo, Swedish bass player and songwriter * 1973 &ndash; Sébastien Lareau, Canadian tennis player 1974 &ndash; Frank Catalanotto, American baseball player 1975 &ndash; Chris Carpenter, American baseball player * 1975 &ndash; Pedro Feliz, Dominican baseball player * 1975 &ndash; Kazuyoshi Funaki, Japanese ski jumper 1976 &ndash; Isobel Campbell, Scottish singer-songwriter and cellist 1976 &ndash; Sally Hawkins, English actress<ref name="Chase's2020"/> * 1976 &ndash; Walter Pandiani, Uruguayan footballer 1979 &ndash; Vladimir Kozlov, Ukrainian actor and wrestler 1980 &ndash; Sybille Bammer, Austrian tennis player * 1980 &ndash; Christian Lara, Ecuadorian footballer 1983 &ndash; Ari Graynor, American actress and producer 1984 &ndash; Pierre-Marc Bouchard, Canadian ice hockey player * 1984 &ndash; Daniel Holdsworth, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/daniel-holdsworth/summary.html\|titleDaniel Holdsworth - Playing Career - Summary\|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org\|accessdate13 May 2023}}</ref> * 1984 &ndash; Patrick Stump, American musician, singer, and songwriter<ref>{{cite web \|last1Anderson \|first1Kyle \|titleHappy Birthday, Patrick Stump! \|urlhttps://www.mtv.com/news/8derbq/patrick-stump-birthday \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230404065005/https://www.mtv.com/news/8derbq/patrick-stump-birthday \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateApril 4, 2023 \|publisherMTV \|access-date21 April 2023 \|date27 April 2010}}</ref> 1985 &ndash; Meselech Melkamu, Ethiopian runner 1986 &ndash; Jenna Coleman, English actress<ref name="Chase's2020"/> * 1986 &ndash; Dinara Safina, Russian tennis player<ref>{{WTA\|190950}}</ref> 1987 &ndash; Taylor Chorney, American ice hockey player 1987 &ndash; William Moseley, English actor * 1987 &ndash; Wang Feifei, Chinese singer and actress 1988 &ndash; Lizzo, American singer and rapper<ref name"Chase's2020">{{cite book\|author((Editors of Chase's))\|titleChase's Calendar of Events 2021\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCPcCEAAAQBAJ&pgPA244\|date27 October 2020\|publisherRowman & Littlefield\|isbn978-1-64143-424-9\|pages244}}</ref> 1988 &ndash; Semyon Varlamov, Russian ice hockey player 1989 &ndash; Lars Bender, German footballer 1989 &ndash; Sven Bender, German footballer 1990 &ndash; Austin Dillon, American race car driver<ref>{{cite web \|titleAustin Dillon \|urlhttps://www.nascar.com/drivers/austin-dillon \|publisherNASCAR \|access-date21 April 2023}}</ref> 1991 &ndash; Lara Gut, Swiss skier 1992 &ndash; Keenan Allen, American football player 1994 &ndash; Corey Seager, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web \|titleCorey Seager Stats \|urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/corey-seager-608369 \|websitemlb.com \|publisherMLB \|access-date=26 April 2024}}</ref> 1995 &ndash; Nick Kyrgios, Australian tennis player 1997 &ndash; Jesse Ramien, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/jesse-ramien/summary.html\|titleJesse Ramien - Playing Career - Summary\|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org\|accessdate13 May 2023}}</ref> 1998 &ndash; Cristian Romero, Argentine footballer<ref>{{cite web\|titleCristian Romero\|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/66635/Cristian-Romero/overview\|websitePremier League\|access-date27 April 2024}}</ref> 1999 &ndash; Peter Hola, Australian rugby league player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/peter-hola/summary.html\|titlePeter Hola - Playing Career - Summary\|websitewww.rugbyleagueproject.org\|accessdate13 May 2023}}</ref> 2003 &ndash; Xavier Worthy, American football player<ref>{{cite web \|titleXavier Worthy - Kansas City Chiefs Wide Receiver \|urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/4683062/xavier-worthy \|websiteespn.com \|publisherESPN \|access-date=26 April 2024}}</ref> <!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.--> Deaths Pre-1600 630 &ndash; Ardashir III of Persia (b. 621) 1160 &ndash; Rudolf I, Count of Bregenz (b. 1081) 1272 &ndash; Zita, Italian saint (b. 1212) 1321 &ndash; Nicolò Albertini, Italian cardinal statesman (b. c. 1250) 1353 &ndash; Simeon of Moscow, Grand Prince of Moscow and Vladimir 1403 &ndash; Maria of Bosnia, Countess of Helfenstein (b. 1335) 1404 &ndash; Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1342) 1463 &ndash; Isidore of Kiev (b. 1385) 1521 &ndash; Ferdinand Magellan, Portuguese sailor and explorer (b. 1480) 1599 &ndash; Maeda Toshiie, Japanese general (b. 1538) 1601–1900 1605 &ndash; Pope Leo XI (b. 1535) 1607 &ndash; Edward Cromwell, 3rd Baron Cromwell, Governor of Lecale (b. 1560) 1613 &ndash; Robert Abercromby, Scottish priest and missionary (b. 1532) 1656 &ndash; Jan van Goyen, Dutch painter and illustrator (b. 1596) 1694 &ndash; John George IV, Elector of Saxony (b. 1668) 1695 &ndash; John Trenchard, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1640) 1702 &ndash; Jean Bart, French admiral (b. 1651) 1782 &ndash; William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot, English politician, Lord Steward of the Household (b. 1710) 1813 &ndash; Zebulon Pike, American general and explorer (b. 1779) 1873 &ndash; William Macready, English actor and manager (b. 1793) 1882 &ndash; Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet and philosopher (b. 1803) 1893 &ndash; John Ballance, Irish-born New Zealand journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1839) 1896 &ndash; Henry Parkes, English-Australian businessman and politician, 7th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1815) 1901–present 1915 &ndash; John Labatt, Canadian businessman (b. 1838) 1915 &ndash; Alexander Scriabin, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1872) 1932 &ndash; Hart Crane, American poet (b. 1899)<ref>{{cite web \|titleHart Crane {{!}} American poet \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Hart-Crane \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date27 July 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> 1936 &ndash; Karl Pearson, English mathematician and academic (b. 1857) 1937 &ndash; Antonio Gramsci, Italian sociologist, linguist, and politician (b. 1891) 1938 &ndash; Edmund Husserl, Czech mathematician and philosopher (b. 1859) 1949 &ndash; Benjamin Faunce, American druggist and businessman (b. 1873)<ref>{{Cite web\|titleBoost Co. v. Faunce\|urlhttps://law.justia.com/cases/new-jersey/appellate-division-published/1952/17-n-j-super-458-0.html\|date1952\|access-date9 September 2022\|websiteJustia\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220909180534/https://law.justia.com/cases/new-jersey/appellate-division-published/1952/17-n-j-super-458-0.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-date9 September 2022}}</ref> 1952 &ndash; Guido Castelnuovo, Italian mathematician and statistician (b. 1865) 1961 &ndash; Roy Del Ruth, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1893) 1962 &ndash; A. K. Fazlul Huq, Bangladeshi-Pakistani lawyer and politician, Pakistani Minister of the Interior (b. 1873) 1965 &ndash; Edward R. Murrow, American journalist (b. 1908) 1967 &ndash; William Douglas Cook, New Zealand farmer, founded the Eastwoodhill Arboretum (b. 1884) 1969 &ndash; René Barrientos, Bolivian soldier, pilot, and politician, 55th President of Bolivia (b. 1919) 1970 &ndash; Arthur Shields, Irish rebel and actor (b. 1896) 1972 &ndash; Kwame Nkrumah, Ghanaian politician, 1st President of Ghana (b. 1909) 1973 &ndash; Carlos Menditeguy, Argentinian race car driver and polo player (b. 1914) 1977 &ndash; Stanley Adams, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1915) 1988 &ndash; Fred Bear, American hunter and author (b. 1902) 1989 &ndash; Konosuke Matsushita, Japanese businessman, founded Panasonic (b. 1894) 1992 &ndash; Olivier Messiaen, French organist and composer (b. 1908) * 1992 &ndash; Gerard K. O'Neill, American physicist and astronomer (b. 1927) 1995 &ndash; Katherine DeMille, Canadian-American actress (b. 1911) 1995 &ndash; Willem Frederik Hermans, Dutch author, poet, and playwright (b. 1921) 1996 &ndash; William Colby, American diplomat, 10th Director of Central Intelligence (b. 1920) 1996 &ndash; Gilles Grangier, French director and screenwriter (b. 1911) 1998 &ndash; John W. H. Bassett, Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1915) 1998 &ndash; Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (b. 1925) * 1998 &ndash; Anne Desclos, French journalist and author (b. 1907)<ref>{{cite book \|last1Flower \|first1John \|titleHistorical Dictionary of French Literature \|date17 January 2013 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn978-0-8108-7945-4 \|pages44–45 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKd6tAAAAQBAJ&pgPA44 \|language=en}}</ref> * 1998 &ndash; Browning Ross, American runner and soldier (b. 1924) 1999 &ndash; Al Hirt, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1922) 1999 &ndash; Dale C. Thomson, Canadian historian, author, and academic (b. 1923) * 1999 &ndash; Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (b. 1914) 2002 &ndash; George Alec Effinger, American author (b. 1947) 2002 &ndash; Ruth Handler, American inventor and businesswoman, created the Barbie doll (b. 1916) 2005 &ndash; Red Horner, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1909) 2006 &ndash; Julia Thorne, American author (b. 1944) 2007 &ndash; Mstislav Rostropovich, Russian cellist and conductor (b. 1927) 2009 &ndash; Frankie Manning, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1914) * 2009 &ndash; Woo Seung-yeon, South Korean model and actress (b. 1983) 2009 &ndash; Feroz Khan (actor), Indian Actor, Film Director & Producer (b. 1939) 2011 &ndash; Marian Mercer, American actress and singer (b. 1935) 2012 &ndash; Daniel E. Boatwright, American soldier and politician (b. 1930) 2012 &ndash; Bill Skowron, American baseball player (b. 1930) 2013 &ndash; Aída Bortnik, Argentinian screenwriter (b. 1938) 2013 &ndash; Lorraine Copeland, Scottish archaeologist (b. 1921) * 2013 &ndash; Antonio Díaz Jurado, Spanish footballer (b. 1969) * 2013 &ndash; Jérôme Louis Heldring, Dutch journalist and author (b. 1917) * 2013 &ndash; Aloysius Jin Luxian, Chinese bishop (b. 1916) * 2013 &ndash; Mutula Kilonzo, Kenyan lawyer and politician, Kenyan Minister of Justice (b. 1948) 2014 &ndash; Yigal Arnon, Israeli lawyer (b. 1929) 2014 &ndash; Vujadin Boškov, Serbian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1931) * 2014 &ndash; Daniel Colchico, American football player and coach (b. 1935) * 2014 &ndash; Harry Firth, Australian race car driver and manager (b. 1918) 2015 &ndash; Gene Fullmer, American boxer (b. 1931) 2015 &ndash; Verne Gagne, American football player, wrestler, and trainer (b. 1926) * 2015 &ndash; Alexander Rich, American biologist, biophysicist, and academic (b. 1924) 2017 &ndash; Vinod Khanna, Indian actor, producer and politician (b. 1946) 2017 &ndash; Sadanoyama Shinmatsu, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1938) 2021 &ndash; Manoj Das, Indian writer (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite web \|titlePadma Shri Manoj Das, An Iconic Writer Of Modern Odisha, Passes Away \|urlhttps://odishatv.in/odisha-news/padma-shri-manoj-das-an-iconic-writer-of-modern-odisha-passes-away-538248 \|websiteodishatv.in \|access-date27 April 2021}}</ref> 2022 &ndash; Liao Guoxun, Chinese politician (b. 1963)<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-04-29 \|titleLiao Guoxun, mayor of China's port city Tianjin, dead at 59 \|urlhttps://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3175925/liao-guoxun-mayor-chinas-port-city-tianjin-dead-59 \|access-date2022-06-02 \|websiteSouth China Morning Post \|languageen}}</ref> 2023 &ndash; Jerry Springer, American politician and actor (b. 1944)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleJerry Springer, daytime television pioneer, dies at 79 \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/obituaries/jerry-springer-daytime-television-pioneer-dies-79-rcna81773 \|access-dateApril 27, 2023 \|websiteNBC News \|date27 April 2023 \|languageen}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; C. J. Sansom, British author (b. 1952)<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-04-29 \|titleC.J. Sansom, bestselling British author of Tudor crime thriller series, dies at 71 \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/author-cj-sansom-dies-993c6116742a7a898c6164d9f7c5616f \|access-date2024-04-29 \|websiteAP News \|languageen}}</ref> Holidays and observances Christian feast days: Anthimus of Nicomedia Assicus Floribert of Liège John of Constantinople Liberalis of Treviso Pollio Virgin of Montserrat Zita Origen Adamantius<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienO/Origines_Adamantios.html\|titleOrigenes Adamantios\|website=Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon}}</ref> April 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia) Day of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia) Flag Day (Moldova) Freedom Day (South Africa) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Sierra Leone from United Kingdom in 1961. Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Togo from France in 1960. King's Day (Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten) (celebrated on April 26 if April 27 falls on a Sunday) National Veterans' Day (Finland) References {{reflist}} External links {{commons}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27 BBC: On This Day] * {{NYT On this day\|month4\|day27}} * [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/27 Historical Events on April 27] {{months}} Category:Days of April	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_27	2025-04-05T18:26:00.469640
2328	Ayahuasca	{{Short description\|South American psychoactive brew}} {{About\|the psychoactive brew\|the vine\|Banisteriopsis caapi{{!}}Banisteriopsis caapi\|other uses}} {{Infobox botanical product \| product = Ayahuasca \| image = Ayahuasca prep.JPG \| caption = A pot containing ingredients for the ayahuasca beverage in Ecuador \| pronounce \| plant {{ubil \| Liana \| Banisteriopsis caapi}} \| part = {{ubil \| Stems of the Banisteriopsis caapi \| Leaves of the Psychotria viridis}} \| origin = South America \| active = {{ubil \| N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) \| Harmala alkaloid as MAOI}} \| uses = Polysubstance indigenous drink \| producers \| consumers \| wholesale \| retail \| legal_AU \| legal_BR \| legal_CA \| legal_DE \| legal_UK \| legal_US \| legal_UN \| legal_EU \| legal_status = }} Ayahuasca<ref group"note">Pronounced as {{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|aɪ\|(\|j\|)\|\|ə\|ˈ\|w\|æ\|s\|k\|ə}} in the UK and {{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|aɪ\|(\|j\|)\|\|ə\|ˈ\|w\|ɑː\|s\|k\|ə}} in the US. Also occasionally known in English as ayaguasca (Spanish-derived), aioasca (Brazilian Portuguese-derived), or as yagé, pronounced {{IPAc-en\|j\|ɑː\|ˈ\|h\|eɪ}} or {{IPAc-en\|j\|æ\|ˈ\|h\|eɪ}}. Etymologically, all forms but yagé descend from the compound Quechua word ayawaska, from aya ({{Translation\|soul}}) and waska ({{Translation\|vine}}). For more names for ayahuasca, see § Etymology.</ref> is a South American psychoactive beverage, traditionally used by Indigenous cultures and folk healers in the Amazon and Orinoco basins for spiritual ceremonies, divination, and healing a variety of psychosomatic complaints.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMcKenna \|firstDennis J \|date2004-05-01 \|titleClinical investigations of the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca: rationale and regulatory challenges \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163725804000464 \|journalPharmacology & Therapeutics \|seriesPsychoactive Plants \|volume102 \|issue2 \|pages111–129 \|doi10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.03.002 \|pmid15163593 \|issn0163-7258}}</ref> Originally restricted to areas of Peru, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador, in the middle of the 20th century it became widespread in Brazil in the context of the appearance of syncretic religions that use ayahuasca as a sacrament, like Santo Daime, União do Vegetal and Barquinha, which blend elements of Amazonian Shamanism, Christianity, Kardecist Spiritism, and African-Brazilian religions such as Umbanda, Candomblé and Tambor de Mina, later expanding to several countries across all continents, notably the United States and Western Europe, and, more incipiently, in Eastern Europe, South Africa, Australia, and Japan.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Labate \|first1Beatriz Caiuby \|titleThe internationalization of ayahuasca \|last2Jungaberle \|first2Henrik \|date2011 \|publisherLit \|isbn978-3-643-90148-4 \|seriesPerformanzen, interkulturelle Studien zu Ritual, Speil and Theater \|locationZürich}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDobkin de Rios \|firstMarlene \|dateDecember 1971 \|titleAyahuasca—The Healing Vine \|urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002076407101700402 \|journalInternational Journal of Social Psychiatry \|languageen \|volume17 \|issue4 \|pages256–269 \|doi10.1177/002076407101700402 \|pmid5145130 \|issn0020-7640}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Schultes \|first1Richard Evans \|titlePlants of the gods: their sacred, healing and hallucinogenic powers \|last2Hofmann \|first2Albert \|date1992 \|publisherHealing arts press \|isbn978-0-89281-406-0 \|locationRochester (Vt.)}}</ref> More recently, new phenomena regarding ayahuasca use have evolved and moved to urban centers in North America and Europe, with the emergence of neoshamanic hybrid rituals and spiritual and recreational drug tourism.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Labate \|first1Beatriz Caiuby \|titleThe expanding world Ayahuasca diaspora: appropriation, integration, and legislation \|last2Cavnar \|first2Clancy \|date2018 \|publisherRoutledge, Taylor & Francis Group \|isbn978-0-415-78618-8 \|seriesVitality of indigenous religions \|locationAbingdon, Oxon New York, NY}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastWolff \|firstTom John \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkSzPDwAAQBAJ&qBrugmansia+insignis+ayahuasca&pgPA66 \|titleThe Touristic Use of Ayahuasca in Peru: Expectations, Experiences, Meanings and Subjective Effects \|date2020-02-07 \|publisherSpringer Nature \|isbn978-3-658-29373-4 \|pages66 \|languageen}}</ref> Also, anecdotal evidence, studies conducted among ayahuasca consumers and clinical trials suggest that ayahuasca has therapeutic potential, especially for the treatment of substance dependence, anxiety, and mood disorders.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Santos \|first1R.G. \|last2Landeira-Fernandez \|first2J. \|last3Strassman \|first3R.J. \|last4Motta \|first4V. \|last5Cruz \|first5A.P.M. \|dateJuly 2007 \|titleEffects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo Daime members \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012 \|journalJournal of Ethnopharmacology \|volume112 \|issue3 \|pages507–513 \|doi10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012 \|pmid17532158 \|issn0378-8741}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Osório \|first1Flávia de L. \|last2Sanches \|first2Rafael F. \|last3Macedo \|first3Ligia R. \|last4dos Santos \|first4Rafael G. \|last5Maia-de-Oliveira \|first5João P. \|last6Wichert-Ana \|first6Lauro \|last7de Araujo \|first7Draulio B. \|last8Riba \|first8Jordi \|last9Crippa \|first9José A. \|last10Hallak \|first10Jaime E. \|dateMarch 2015 \|titleAntidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report \|journalRevista Brasileira de Psiquiatria \|volume37 \|issue1 \|pages13–20 \|doi10.1590/1516-4446-2014-1496 \|pmid25806551 \|issn1516-4446\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Bouso \|first1José Carlos \|last2González \|first2Débora \|last3Fondevila \|first3Sabela \|last4Cutchet \|first4Marta \|last5Fernández \|first5Xavier \|last6Ribeiro Barbosa \|first6Paulo César \|last7Alcázar-Córcoles \|first7Miguel Ángel \|last8Araújo \|first8Wladimyr Sena \|last9Barbanoj \|first9Manel J. \|last10Fábregas \|first10Josep Maria \|last11Riba \|first11Jordi \|date2012-08-08 \|titlePersonality, Psychopathology, Life Attitudes and Neuropsychological Performance among Ritual Users of Ayahuasca: A Longitudinal Study \|journalPLOS ONE \|volume7 \|issue8 \|pagese42421 \|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0042421 \|pmid22905130 \|issn1932-6203\|pmc3414465 \|bibcode2012PLoSO...742421B \|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|last1Palhano-Fontes \|first1Fernanda \|titleThe Therapeutic Potentials of Ayahuasca in the Treatment of Depression \|date2014 \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-40426-9_2 \|workThe Therapeutic Use of Ayahuasca \|pages23–39 \|access-date2023-08-10 \|placeBerlin, Heidelberg \|publisherSpringer Berlin Heidelberg \|isbn978-3-642-40425-2 \|last2Alchieri \|first2Joao C. \|last3Oliveira \|first3Joao Paulo M. \|last4Soares \|first4Bruno Lobao \|last5Hallak \|first5Jaime E. C. \|last6Galvao-Coelho \|first6Nicole \|last7de Araujo \|first7Draulio B.\|doi10.1007/978-3-642-40426-9_2 \|s2cid140456338 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1dos Santos \|first1Rafael G. \|last2Osório \|first2Flávia L. \|last3Crippa \|first3José Alexandre S. \|last4Hallak \|first4Jaime E. C. \|dateMarch 2016 \|titleAntidepressive and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca: a systematic literature review of animal and human studies \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2015-1701 \|journalRevista Brasileira de Psiquiatria \|volume38 \|issue1 \|pages65–72 \|doi10.1590/1516-4446-2015-1701 \|pmid27111702 \|issn1516-4446\|pmc7115465 }}</ref> Thus, currently, despite continuing to be used in a traditional way, ayahuasca is also consumed recreationally worldwide, and is considered as a potential future treatment in modern medicine.<ref name":5">{{Cite web \|lastDavidson \|firstColin \|date2022-11-16 \|titleAyahuasca: just how safe is this psychoactive brew? \|urlhttp://theconversation.com/ayahuasca-just-how-safe-is-this-psychoactive-brew-194475 \|access-date2024-08-07 \|websiteThe Conversation \|languageen-US}}</ref> Ayahuasca often causes nausea and vomiting and has a number of rarer more serious possible side effects including breathing difficulties and seizure; it may cause psychosis in those predisposed to the condition.<ref nametox/> Ayahuasca is a hallucinogen commonly made by the prolonged decoction of the stems of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the leaves of the Psychotria viridis shrub, although hundreds of species are used in addition or substitution (See "Preparation" below).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Schultes \|first1R. E. \|last2Ceballos \|first2L. F. \|last3Castillo \|first3A. \|date1986 \|title[Not Available] \|urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11631122/ \|journalAmerica Indigena \|volume46 \|issue1 \|pages9–47 \|issn0185-1179 \|pmid11631122}}</ref> P. viridis contains N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a highly psychedelic substance. Although orally inactive, B. caapi is rich with harmala alkaloids, such as harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), which can act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI). This halts the liver and gastrointestinal metabolism of DMT, allowing it to reach the systemic circulation and the brain, where it activates 5-HT<sub>1A/2A/2C</sub> receptors in frontal and paralimbic areas.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Riba \|first1Jordi \|last2Valle \|first2Marta \|last3Urbano \|first3Gloria \|last4Yritia \|first4Mercedes \|last5Morte \|first5Adelaida \|last6Barbanoj \|first6Manel J. \|date2003-03-26 \|titleHuman Pharmacology of Ayahuasca: Subjective and Cardiovascular Effects, Monoamine Metabolite Excretion, and Pharmacokinetics \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1124/jpet.103.049882 \|journalJournal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics \|volume306 \|issue1 \|pages73–83 \|doi10.1124/jpet.103.049882 \|pmid12660312 \|s2cid6147566 \|issn0022-3565}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Riba \|first1Jordi \|last2Romero \|first2Sergio \|last3Grasa \|first3Eva \|last4Mena \|first4Esther \|last5Carrió \|first5Ignasi \|last6Barbanoj \|first6Manel J. \|date2006-03-31 \|titleIncreased frontal and paralimbic activation following ayahuasca, the pan-amazonian inebriant \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0358-7 \|journalPsychopharmacology \|volume186 \|issue1 \|pages93–98 \|doi10.1007/s00213-006-0358-7 \|pmid16575552 \|issn0033-3158\|hdl2117/9378 \|s2cid15046798 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref>EtymologyAyahuasca is the hispanicized spelling (i.e., spelled according to Spanish orthography) of a word that originates from the Quechuan languages, which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. Speakers of Quechuan languages who use modern Quechuan orthography spell it ayawaska.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Sanz-Biset \|first1Jaume \|last2Cañigueral \|first2Salvador \|date2013-01-09 \|titlePlants as medicinal stressors, the case of depurative practices in Chazuta valley (Peruvian Amazonia) \|journalJournal of Ethnopharmacology \|languageen \|volume145 \|issue1 \|pages67–76 \|doi10.1016/j.jep.2012.09.053 \|issn0378-8741 \|pmid23123268}}</ref> The word refers both to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi, and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means "spirit, soul", or "corpse, dead body", and waska means "rope" or "woody vine", "liana".<ref>Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua-Spanish dictionary)</ref> The word ayahuasca has been variously translated as "liana of the soul", "liana of the dead", and "spirit liana".<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Bois-Mariage \|first1Frédérick \|year2002 \|titleAyahuasca : une synthèse interdisciplinaire \|journalPsychotropes \|volume8 \|pages79–113 \|doi10.3917/psyt.081.0079 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In the cosmovision of its users, the ayahuasca is the vine that allows the spirit to wander detached from the body, entering the spiritual world, otherwise forbidden for the alive. Common names Although ayahuasca is the most widely used term in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Brazil, the brew is known by many names throughout northern South America: * hoasca or oasca in Brazil * {{lang\|con\|yagé}} (or {{lang\|con\|yajé}}, from the Cofán language or iagê in Portuguese). Relatively widespread use in Andean and Amazonian regions throughout the border areas of Colombia, Peru, Ecuador and Brazil.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSchultes \|firstRichard Evans \|titlePrestonia: An Amazon Narcotic or Not? \|date1960 \|journalBotanical Museum Leaflets\|volume19 \|issue5 \|pages109–122 \|doi10.5962/p.168526 \|jstor41762210 \|s2cid91123988 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The Cofán people also use the word {{lang\|con\|oofa}}. * {{lang\|tup\|caapi}} (or {{lang\|tup\|kahpi}}/{{lang\|tup\|gahpi}} in Tupi–Guarani language{{Which\|dateFebruary 2025}} or {{lang\|awd\|kaapi}} in proto-Arawak language), used to address both the brew and the B. caapi itself. Meaning "weed" or "thin leaf", it was the word utilized by Spruce for naming the liana.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Spruce \|first1Richard \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.17908 \|titleNotes of a botanist on the Amazon & Andes : being records of travel on the Amazon and its tributaries, the Trombetas, Rio Negro, Uaupés, Casiquiari, Pacimoni, Huallaga, and Pastasa; as also to the cataracts of the Orinoco, along the eastern side of the Andes of Peru and Ecuador, and the shores of the Pacific, during the years 1849-1864 \|last2Wallace \|first2Alfred Russel \|date1908 \|publisherMacmillan \|locationLondon\|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.17908 }}</ref> {{lang\|cof\|pinde}} (or {{lang\|cof\|pindê}}/{{lang\|cof\|pilde}}), used by the Colorado people<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNaranjo \|firstPlutarco \|date1986 \|titleEl Ayahuasca en la arqueologia ecuatoriana \|journalAmerica Indigena \|volume46 \|pages=117–128}}</ref> * {{lang\|jiv\|patem}} (or {{lang\|jiv\|nátema}}), from the Chicham languages{{Which\|dateFebruary 2025}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastDescola \|firstPhilippe \|titleIn the Society of Nature: A Native Ecology in Amazonia \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year1996 \|isbn978-0-521-57467-9 \|pages99–100, 163}}</ref><ref name":22">{{cite book \|lastIncayawar \|firstMario \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/psychiatriststra00inca \|titlePsychiatrists and Traditional Healers: Unwitting Partners in Global Mental Health \|author2Lise Bouchard \|author3Ronald Wintrob \|author4Goffredo Bartocci \|publisherWiley \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-470-51683-6 \|page[https://archive.org/details/psychiatriststra00inca/page/n182 69]}}</ref> * {{lang\|yaa\|shori}}, {{lang\|yaa\|mii}} (or {{lang\|yaa\|miiyagi}}) and {{lang\|yaa\|uni}}, from the Yaminawa language<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Grob \|first1CS \|last2McKenna \|first2DJ \|last3Callaway \|first3JC \|last4Brito \|first4GS \|last5Oberlaender \|first5G \|last6Saide \|first6OL \|last7Labigalini \|first7E \|last8Tacla \|first8C \|last9Miranda \|first9CT \|last10Strassman \|first10RJ \|last11Boone \|first11KB \|date1996 \|titleHuman Psychopharmacology of Hoasca: a plant hallucinogen used in ritual context in Brazil \|urlhttps://erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_journal1.shtml \|journalJournal of Nervous and Mental Disorders \|volume184 \|issue2 \|pages86–94 \|doi10.1097/00005053-199602000-00004 \|pmid8596116 \|s2cid17975501 \|access-date22 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Davis \|first1E. Wade \|last2Yost \|first2James A. \|date1983 \|titleNovel Hallucinogens from Eastern Ecuador \|journalBotanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University \|volume29 \|issue3 \|pages291–295 \|doi10.5962/p.168664 \|jstor41762852 \|s2cid132171127 \|issn0006-8098\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> * {{lang\|shp\|nishi cobin}}, from the Shipibo language<ref name":0">{{cite web \|titleNovedades - Página Jimdo de shamanesshipibos \|urlhttps://shamanesshipibos.jimdo.com/novedades/ \|access-date21 December 2016 \|website=shamanesshipibos.jimdo.com}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> * {{lang\|cbs\|nixi pae}}, {{lang\|cbs\|shuri}}, {{lang\|cbs\|ondi}}, {{lang\|cbs\|rambi}} and {{lang\|cbs\|rame}}, from the Kashinawa language<ref>{{cite journal \|firstKenneth \|date1976 \|editor-firstMichael \|titleEl uso del Banipteropsis entre los cashinahua del Perú \|locationMadrid \|publisherGuadarrama \|lastKensinger \|editor-lastHarner \|periodicalAlucinógenos y chamanes}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleKaxinawá, Rituals \|urlhttps://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/kaxinawa/399 \|access-date1 March 2017 \|websitePovos Indígenas do Brasil}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Rivier \|first1Laurent \|last2Lindgren \|first2Jan-Erik \|date1972-04-01 \|title"Ayahuasca," the South American hallucinogenic drink: An ethnobotanical and chemical investigation \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860772 \|journalEconomic Botany \|languageen \|volume26 \|issue2 \|pages101–129 \|doi10.1007/BF02860772 \|bibcode1972EcBot..26..101R \|s2cid34669901 \|issn=1874-9364}}</ref> * {{lang\|tuo\|kaji}}, {{lang\|tuo\|kadana}} and {{lang\|tuo\|kadanapira}}, used by the Tucano people<ref>{{Cite book \|lastReichel-Dolmatoff \|firstGerardo \|titleShamanism and art of the Eastern Tukanoan Indians \|date1987 \|publisherE. J. Brill \|othersInstituut voor godsdiensthistorische beelddocumentatie \|isbn978-90-04-08110-9 \|seriesIconography of religions \|location=Leiden}}</ref> * {{lang\|awd\|kamarampi}} (or {{lang\|awd\|kamalampi}}) and {{lang\|awd\|hananeroca}}, from the Arawakan languages{{Which\|date=February 2025}}<ref>DE MORI, Brabec (2011): Tracing Hallucinations – Contributing to a Critical Ethnohistory of Ayahuasca Usage in the Peruvian Amazon</ref> * {{lang\|boa\|bakko}}, from Bora-Muinane languages{{Which\|dateFebruary 2025}}<ref name"Seifart">Seifart, Frank, & Echeverri, Juan Alvaro (2015). [https://periodicos.sbu.unicamp.br/ojs/index.php/liames/article/view/8642303 Proto Bora-Muinane]. LIAMES: Línguas Indígenas Americanas, 15(2), 279 - 311. {{doi\|10.20396/liames.v15i2.8642303}}</ref> * {{lang\|ese\|jono pase}}, used by Ese'Ejja people<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Desmarchelier \|first1C. \|last2Mongelli \|first2E. \|last3Coussio \|first3J. \|last4Ciccia \|first4G. \|date1996-02-01 \|titleStudies on the cytotoxicity, antimicrobial and DNA-binding activities of plants used by the Ese'ejas \|urlhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-8741%2895%2901334-2 \|journalJournal of Ethnopharmacology \|volume50 \|issue2 \|pages91–96 \|doi10.1016/0378-8741(95)01334-2 \|pmid8866729 \|issn0378-8741}}</ref> * {{lang\|guh\|uipa}}, from Guahibo language<ref>{{Cite book \|lastReichel-Dolmatoff \|firstGerardo \|titleThe sacred mountain of Colombia's Kogi Indians \|date1990 \|publisherE. J. Brill \|othersInstituut voor godsdiensthistorische beelddocumentatie \|isbn978-90-04-09274-7 \|seriesIconography of religions \|location=Leiden}}</ref> * {{lang\|cof\|napa}} (or {{lang\|cof\|nepe}}/{{lang\|cof\|nepi}}), used by Tsáchila people<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastOller \|firstMontserrat Ventura i \|date2012 \|titleChamanismo, liderazgo y poder indígena: el caso tsachila \|urlhttps://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/REAA/article/view/38637 \|journalRevista Española de Antropología Americana \|languagees \|volume42 \|issue1 \|pages91–106 \|doi10.5209/rev_REAA.2012.v42.n1.38637 \|issn1988-2718\|doi-access=free }}</ref> * {{lang\|kbh\|Biaxije}}, from Kamëntšá language<ref name="Huber">Huber, Randall Q. and Robert B. Reed. 1992. [https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/18886 Vocabulario comparativo: Palabras selectas de lenguas indígenas de Colombia (Comparative vocabulary: Selected words in indigenous languages of Colombia)]. Bogota, Colombia: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</ref> * {{lang\|pt\|Cipó}} ("{{lang\|pt\|liana}}") or {{lang\|pt\|Vegetal}}, in Portuguese language, used by União do Vegetal church members * Daime or Santo Daime, meaning "give me" in Portuguese, the term was coined by Santo Daime's founder Mestre Irineu in the 1940s, from a prayer dai-me alegria, dai-me resistência ("give me happiness, give me strength"). Daime members also uses the words Luz ("light") or Santa Luz ("holy light") * Some nomenclature are created by the cultural and symbolic signification of ayahuasca, with names like planta professora ("plant teacher"), professor dos professores ("teacher of the teachers"), sagrada medicina ("holy medicine") or la purga ("the purge"). Other names in the Western world In the last decades, two new important terminologies emerged. Both are commonly used in the Western world in neoshamanic, recreative or pharmaceutical contexts to address ayahuasca-like substances created without the traditional botanical species, due to it being expensive and/or hard to find in these countries. These concepts are surrounded by some controversies involving ethnobotany, patents, commodification and biopiracy:<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastPress \|firstSara V. \|date2022-07-25 \|titleAyahuasca on Trial: Biocolonialism, Biopiracy, and the Commodification of the Sacred \|urlhttps://hopp.uwpress.org/content/63/2/328 \|journalHistory of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals \|languageen \|volume63 \|issue2 \|pages328–353 \|doi10.3368/hopp.63.2.328 \|s2cid251078878 \|issn2694-3034}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastTupper \|firstKenneth W. \|dateJanuary 2009 \|titleAyahuasca healing beyond the Amazon: the globalization of a traditional indigenous entheogenic practice \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00245.x \|journalGlobal Networks \|languageen \|volume9 \|issue1 \|pages117–136 \|doi10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00245.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Schenberg \|first1Eduardo Ekman \|last2Gerber \|first2Konstantin \|dateOctober 2022 \|titleOvercoming epistemic injustices in the biomedical study of ayahuasca: Towards ethical and sustainable regulation \|urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13634615211062962 \|journalTranscultural Psychiatry \|languageen \|volume59 \|issue5 \|pages610–624 \|doi10.1177/13634615211062962 \|pmid34986699 \|s2cid245771857 \|issn1363-4615}}</ref> * Anahuasca (ayahuasca analogues). A term usually used to refer to the ayahuasca produced with other plant species as sources of DMT (e.g., Mimosa hostilis) or β-carbolines (e.g., Peganum harmala).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kaasik \|first1Helle \|last2Souza \|first2Rita C. Z. \|last3Zandonadi \|first3Flávia S. \|last4Tófoli \|first4Luís Fernando \|last5Sussulini \|first5Alessandra \|date2020-09-08 \|titleChemical Composition of Traditional and Analog Ayahuasca \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2020.1815911 \|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \|volume53 \|issue1 \|pages65–75 \|doi10.1080/02791072.2020.1815911 \|pmid32896230 \|s2cid221543172 \|issn=0279-1072}}</ref> * Pharmahuasca (pharmaceutical ayahuasca). This indicates the pills produced from freebase DMT, synthetic harmaline, MAOI medications (such as moclobemide) and other isolated or purified compounds or extracts.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastOtt \|firstJonathan \|dateApril 1999 \|titlePharmahuasca: Human Pharmacology of Oral DMT Plus Harmine \|urlhttp://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02791072.1999.10471741 \|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \|languageen \|volume31 \|issue2 \|pages171–177 \|doi10.1080/02791072.1999.10471741 \|pmid10438001 \|issn0279-1072}}</ref> History Origins Archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive plants in northeastern Amazon dates back to 1500–2000 BCE. Anthropomorphic figurines, snuffing trays and pottery vessels, often adorned with mythological figures and sacred animals, offer a glimpse of the pre-Columbian culture regarding use of the sacred plants, their preparation and ritual consumption [citar naranjo 86].{{Citation needed\|dateJuly 2024}} Although several botanical specimens (like tobacco, coca and Anadenanthera spp.) were identified among these objects,<ref name":02">{{Cite book \|lastMcKenna \|firstDennis \|titleSacred Vine of Spirits: Ayahuasca \|publisherInner Traditions / Bear & Co \|year2005 \|isbn1594777810 \|pages42 \|chapterAyahuasca : An Ethnopharmacologic History}}</ref> there is no unequivocal evidence of this date referring directly to ayahuasca. Banisteriopsis caapi use is suggested from a pouch containing carved snuffing trays, bone spatulas and other paraphernalia with traces of harmine and DMT, discovered in a cave in southwestern Bolivia in 2008,<ref name"pnas_Chem2">{{cite journal \|last1Miller \|first1Melanie J. \|last2Albarracin-Jordan \|first2Juan \|last3Moore \|first3Christine \|last4Capriles \|first4José M. \|date4 June 2019 \|titleChemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America \|journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \|volume116 \|issue23 \|pages11207–11212 \|bibcode2019PNAS..11611207M \|doi10.1073/pnas.1902174116 \|pmc6561276 \|pmid31061128 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> and chemical traces of harmine in the hair of two mummies found in northern Chile.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ogalde \|first1Juan P. \|last2Arriaza \|first2Bernardo T. \|last3Soto \|first3Elia C. \|dateFebruary 2009 \|titleIdentification of psychoactive alkaloids in ancient Andean human hair by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.036 \|journalJournal of Archaeological Science \|volume36 \|issue2 \|pages467–472 \|doi10.1016/j.jas.2008.09.036 \|bibcode2009JArSc..36..467O \|issn0305-4403}}</ref> Both cases are linked to Tiwanaku people, circa 900 CE. There are several reports of oral and nasal use of Anadenanthera spp. (rich in bufotenin) ritualistically and therapeutically during labor and infancy, and researchers suggest that addition of Banisteriopsis spp. to catalyze its psychoactivity emerged later, due to contact between different groups of Amazon and Altiplano.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ogalde \|first1Juan Pablo \|last2Arriaza \|first2Bernardo T. \|last3Santoro \|first3Calogero M. \|last4Capriles \|first4Jose M. \|last5Puddu \|first5Giannin \|last6Ugalde \|first6Paula C. \|last7Rothhammer Engel \|first7Francisco \|date2017 \|titleConsumo prehispánico de sustancias psicoactivas en el norte de Chile sugiere redes tempranas de intercambio con el Altiplano central y la Amazonía \|urlhttps://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/149398 \|journalInterciencia \|languagees \|issn=0378-1844}}</ref> Despite claims by numerous anthropologists and ethnologists, such as Plutarco Naranjo,<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNaranjo \|firstPlutarco \|date1986 \|titleEl ayahuasca en la arqueología ecuatoriana \|journalAm. Indígena \|volume46 \|pages117–127}}</ref> regarding the millennial usage of ayahuasca, compelling evidence substantiating its pre-Columbian consumption is yet to be firmly established. As articulated by Dennis McKenna:<ref name":02" /> <blockquote>"No one can say for certain where the practice may have originated, and about all that can be stated with certainty is that is already spread among numerous indigenous tribes throughout Amazon basin by the time ayahuasca came to the attention of Western ethnographers in the mid-nineteenth century" </blockquote>The first western references of the ayahuasca beverage dates back to seventeenth century, during the European colonization of the Americas. The earlier report is a letter from Vincente de Valverde to the Holy Office of the Inquisition.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastVarella \|firstAlexandre Camera \|titleA Cultura do uso de psicoativos nas grandes civilizações pré-colombianas (aproximações e perspectivas). \|year2005}}</ref> Jose Chantre y Herrera still in the seventeenth century, provided the first detailed description of a "devilish potion" cooked from bitter herbs and lianas (called ayaguasca) and its rituals:<ref>{{Cite book \|lastChantre Y Herrera \|firstJosé \|titleHistoria de las misiones de la Compañía de Jesús en el Marañón español \|publisherMadrid: Imprenta de A. Avrial \|year1901}}</ref> <blockquote>"[...] In other nations, they set aside an entire night for divination. For this purpose, they select the most capable house in the vicinity because many people are expected to attend the event. The diviner hangs his bed in the middle and places an infernal potion, known as ayahuasca, by his side, which is particularly effective at altering one's senses. They prepare a brew from bitter vines or herbs, which, when boiled sufficiently, must become quite potent. Since it's so strong at altering one's judgment in small quantities, the precaution is not excessive, and it fits into two small pots. The witch doctor drinks a very small amount each time and knows well how many times he can sample the brew without losing his senses to properly conduct the ritual and lead the choir". </blockquote>Another report produced in 1737 by the missionary Pablo Maroni, describes the use of a psychoactive liana called ayahuasca for divination in the Napo River, Ecuador:<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMaroni \|firstPablo \|titleNoticias auténticas del famoso Río Marañón y misión apostólica de la Compañía de Jesús de la Provincia de Quito en los dilatados bosques de dicho río, escribíalas por los años de 1738, un misionero de la misma compañía \|publisherIquitos: Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP) \|year1988}}</ref> <blockquote>"For divination, they use a beverage, some of white datura flowers, which they also call Campana due to its shape, and others from a vine commonly known as Ayahuasca, both highly effective at numbing the senses and even at taking one's life if taken in excess. They also occasionally use these substances for the treatment of common illnesses, especially headaches. So, the person who wants to divine drinks the chosen substance with certain rituals, and while deprived of their senses from the mouth downwards, to prevent the strength of the plant from harming them, they remain in this state for many hours and sometimes even two or three days until the effects run their course, and the intoxication subsides. After this, they reflect on what their imagination revealed, which occasionally remains with them for delirium. This is what they consider accomplished and propagate as an oracle." </blockquote>Latter reports were produced by Juan Magnin in 1740, describing ayahuasca use as a medicinal plant by the Jivaroan peoples (called ayahuessa)<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMagnin \|firstJuan \|titleBreve descripción de la provincia de Quito, en la América Meridional, y de sus missiones de Succumbíos de religiosos de S. Franc.º y de Maynas de PP. de la Comp.ª de Jhs, a las orillas del gran río Marañón, hecha para el mapa que se hizo el año 1740. \|publisherSociedad Ecuatoriana de Investigaciones Históricas y Geográficas \|year1988}}</ref> and by Franz Xaver Veigl in 1768, that reports about several "dangerous plants", including a bitter liana used for precognition and sorcery.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Veigl \|first1Franz Xaver \|titleNoticias detalladas sobre el estado de la provincia de Maynas en América meridional hasta el año de 1768 \|last2Gasché \|first2Jorge \|last3Veigl \|first3Franz Xaver \|date2006 \|publisherCETA \|isbn978-9972-2510-8-5 \|edition[Nachdr. der Ausg.] von 1785 \|seriesMonumenta Amazónica B \|locationIquitos}}</ref> All these reports were written in context of Jesuit missions in South America, specially the Mainas missions,<ref name":13">{{Cite book \|lastBrabec de Mori \|firstBernd \|titleThe Internationalization of Ayahuasca \|year2011 \|chapterTracing Hallucinations – Contributing to a Critical Ethnohistory of Ayahuasca Usage in the Peruvian Amazon}}</ref> in Latin and sent only to Rome, so their audience wasn't very large and they were promptly lost in the archives. For this reason, ayahuasca didn't receive interest for the entire subsequent century.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-04-05 \|title1648–1768 – The First Written Reports of Ayahuasca Made by Jesuit Missionaries \|urlhttps://ayahuasca-timeline.kahpi.net/ayahuasca-first-reports-jesuit-missionaries/ \|access-date2023-08-14 \|websiteAyahuasca Timeline – From Mythic Origins to Global Popularity \|languageen-US}}</ref> Early academic research In academic discourse, the initial mention of ayahuasca dates back to Manuel Villavicencio's 1858 book, "Geografía de la República del Ecuador." This work vividly delineates the employment and rituals involving ayahuasca by the Jivaro people.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastWilliams \|firstJustin \|date2015 \|titleInvestigating a Century-Long Hole in History: The Untold Story of Ayahuasca From 1755–1865 \|urlhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/54847411.pdf \|journalUndergraduate Honors Theses. Paper 802, University of Colorado, Boulder}}</ref> Concurrently, Richard Spruce embarked on an Amazonian expedition in 1852 to collect and classify previously unidentified botanical specimens. During this journey, Spruce encountered and documented Banisteriopsis caapi (at time named Banisteria caapi) and observed an ayahuasca ceremony among the Tucano community situated along the Vaupés River. Subsequently, Spruce uncovered the usage and cultivation of B. caapi among various indigenous groups dispersed across the Amazon and Orinoco basins, like the Guahibo and Sápara. These multifarious encounters, together with Spruce's personal accounts of subjective ayahuasca experiences, were collated in his work, "Notes of a Botanist On The Amazon and Andes.".<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSpruce \|firstRichard \|titleNotes of a Botanist on the Amazon & Andes: Being Records of Travel on the Amazon and Its Tributaries, the Trombetas, Rio Negro, Uaupés, Casiquiari, Pacimoni, Huallaga and Pastasa; as Also to the Cataracts of the Orinoco, Along the Eastern Side of the Andes of Peru and Ecuador, and the Shores of the Pacific, During the Years 1849–1864 \|publisherMacmillan \|year1908}}</ref> By the end of the century, other explorers and anthropologists contributed more extensive documentation concerning ayahuasca, notably the Theodor Koch-Grünberg's documents about Tucano and Arecuna's rituals and ceremonies,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKoch-Grünberg \|firstTheodor \|titleindianertypen aus dem Amazonasgebiet nach eigenen Aufnahmen während seiner Reise in Brasilien \|publisherErnst Wasmuth, Berlin. \|year1906}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastKoch-Grünberg \|firstTheodor \|titleZwei Jahre unter den Indianern: Reisen in Nordwest-Brasilien 1903–1905 \|publisherErnst Wasmuth, Berlin \|year1909}}</ref> Stradelli's first-hand reports of ayahuasca rituals and mythology along the Jurupari and Vaupés<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastStradelli \|firstErmanno \|date1890 \|titleL'Uaupés e gli Uaupés, Bollettino della Società Geografica Italiana \|journalBollettino della Società Geografica Italiana \|volume3 \|issue27 \|pages425–453}}</ref> and Alfred Simson's first description of admixture of several ingredients in the making of ayahuasca in Putumayo region, published in 1886.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSimson \|firstAlfred \|titleTravels in the Wilds of Ecuador. \|publisherLondon: Lowe, Livinston, Marston & Searle \|year1886}}</ref> In 1905, Rafael Zerda Bayón named the active extract of ayahuasca as telepathine, a name latter used by the Colombian chemist Guillermo Fischer Cárdenas when he isolated the substance in 1932.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-04-05 \|title1905 – "Telepathine" is Suggested as a Name for the Active Ingredient in the Ayahuasca Vine \|urlhttps://ayahuasca-timeline.kahpi.net/telepathine-ayahuasca-vine/ \|access-date2023-08-14 \|websiteAyahuasca Timeline - From Mythic Origins to Global Popularity \|languageen-US}}</ref> Contemporaneously, Lewin<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastLewin \|firstLouis \|date1928 \|titleUntersuchungen über Banisteria Caapi Spr \|journalArchiv für Experimental Pathologie und Pharmacologie \|volume129 \|issue3–4 \|pages133–149\|doi10.1007/BF01864238 \|s2cid44355378 }}</ref> and Gunn<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGunn \|firstJ. A. \|date1929 \|titleA note on banisterine or harmine \|journalLancet \|volume213 \|issue5511 \|pages769–770\|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(00)98824-X }}</ref> were independently studying the properties of the banisterine, extracted of the B. caapi, and its effects on animal models.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastLewin \|firstLouis \|date1928 \|titleSur une substance enivrante, la banisterine, extraite de Banisteria caapi. \|journalC. R. Acad. Sci.}}</ref> Further clinical trials were being conducted, exploring the effects of banisterine on Parkinson's disease.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBeringer \|firstK. \|date1928 \|titleÜber ein neues, auf das extrapyramidal-motorische System wirkendes Alkaloid (Banisterin). \|journalNervenarzt \|volume1 \|pages265–275}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBeringer \|firstK. \|date1929 \|titleZur banisterin-und harminfrage. \|journalNervenarzt \|volume2 \|pages548–549}}</ref> Later it was found that both telepathine and banisterine are the same substance, identical to a chemical already isolated from Peganum harmala and given the name Harmine.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastElger\|firstF.\|date1928\|titleÜber das Vorkommen von Harmin in einer südamerikanischen Liane (Yagé)\|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hlca.19280110113\|journalHelvetica Chimica Acta\|languageen\|volume11\|issue1\|pages162–166\|doi10.1002/hlca.19280110113}}</ref> Shamanism, mestizos and vegetalistas Researchers like Peter Gow and Brabec de Mori argue that ayahuasca use indeed developed alongside the Jesuit missions after the 17th century. By examining the ícaros (ayahuasca-related healing chants), they found that the chants are always sung in Quechua (a lingua franca along the Jesuit and Franciscan missions in the region), no matter the linguistic background of the group, with similar language structures between different ícaros that are markedly different from other indigenous songs. Moreover, often the cosmology of ayahuasca often mirrors the Catholicism, with particular similarities in the belief that ayahuasca is thought to be the body of ayahuascamama that is imbibed as part of the ritual, like wine and bread are taken as being the body and blood of Jesus Christ during Christian Eucharist. Brabec de Mori called this “Christian camouflage” and suggested that rather than being a way for disguising the ayahuasca ritual, it suggests that practice evolved entirely within these contexts.<ref name":23">{{Cite book \|last1Gow \|first1Peter \|titleRiver people: Shamanism and history in Western Amazonia Shamanism, History, and the State \|last2Thomas \|first2Nicholas \|publisherAnn Arbor, The University of Michigan Press \|year1994}}</ref><ref name":13"/> Indeed, the colonial processes in Western Amazon are intrinsically related with the development of ayahuasca use in the last three centuries, as it promoted a deep reshape in traditional ways of life in the region. Many indigenous groups moved into the Missions, seeking protection from death and slavery promoted by the Bandeiras, inter-tribal violence, starvation and disease (smallpox). This movement resulted in an intense cultural exchange and resulted in the formation of mestizos (in Spanish) or caboclos (in Portuguese), a social category formed by people with mixture of European and native ancestry, who were an important part of the economy and culture of the region.<ref name":42">{{Cite book \|last1Dobkin de Rios \|first1Marlene \|titleA Hallucinogenic Tea, Laced With Controversy. Ayahuasca in the Amazon and the United States \|last2Rumrrill \|first2Roger \|publisherPraeger Publishers, Westport, CT \|year2008}}</ref> According to Peter Gow, the ayahuasca shamanism (the use of ayahuasca by a trained shaman to diagnose and cure illnesses) was developed by these mestizos in the processes of colonial transformation.<ref name":23" /> The Amazon rubber cycles (1879–1912 and 1945–1945) sped up these transformations, due to slavery, genocide and brutality against indigenous populations and large migratory movements, specially from the Brazilian Northeast Region as a workforce for the rubber plantations. The mestizo practices became deeply intertwined with the culture of rubber workers, called caucheros (in Spanish) or seringueiros (in Portuguese). Ayahuasca use with therapeutic goals is the main result of this Trans-cultural diffusion, with some practitioners pointing the caucheros as the main responsible for using ayahuasca to cure all sort of ailments of the body, mind and soul, with even some regions using the term Yerba de Cauchero ("rubber-worker herb"). As a result, the ayahuasca shamans in urban areas and mestizo settlements, specially in the regions of Iquitos and Pucallpa (in Peru), became the vegetalistas, folk healers who are said to gain all their knowledge from the plants and the spirits bound to it.<ref name":32">{{Cite book \|lastLuna \|firstLuís Eduardo \|titleVegetalismo : Shamanism among the Mestizo population of the Peruvian Amazon \|publisherAlmqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm, Sweden \|year=1986}}</ref> So the vegetalist movement was a heterogeneous mixture of Western Amazon (mestizo shamanic practices and cauchero culture) and Andean elements (shaped by other migratory movements, like those originated from Cuzco through Urubamba Valley and from western Ecuador), influenced by Christian aspects derived from the Jesuit missions, as reflected by the mythology, rituals and moral codes related to vegetalista ayahuasca use.<ref name":32" /> Ayahuasca religions Although mestizo, vegetalista and indigenous ayahuasca use was part of a longer tradition, these several configurations of mestizo vegetalismo were not isolated phenomena. In the end of the nineteenth century, several messianic/millennialist cults sparkled across semi-urban areas across the entire Amazon region, merging different elements of indigenous and mestizo folk culture with Catholicism, Spiritism and Protestantism.<ref name":32" /><ref>{{Cite book \|lastOro \|firstAri Pedro \|titleNa Amazônia um messias de índios e brancos: traços para uma antropologia do messianismo. \|publisherPetrópolis, Vozes/ Porto Alegre, EDIPUCRS \|year1989}}</ref> In this context, the use of ayahuasca will take form of urban, organized non-indigenous religions in outskirts of main cities of northwest of Brazil, (along the basins of Madeira, Juruá and Purus River)<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGoulart \|firstSandra Lúcia \|titleAs Raízes culturais do Santo Daime \|journalDissertação de Mestrado apresentada ao programa de pós-graduação de Antropologia Social da FFLCH-USP \|publication-date1996}}</ref> within the cauchero/seringueiro cultural complex, resignifying and adapting both the vegetalista and mestizo shamanism to new urban formations, unifying essential elements to building a cosmology for the new emerging cult/faith, merging with elements of folk Catholicism, African-Brazilian religions and Kardecist spiritism. These new cults arise from charismatic leaderships, often messianic and prophetic, who came from rural areas after migration movements, sometimes called ayahuasqueiros, in semi-urban communities across the borders of Brazil, Bolívia and Peru (a region that will later form the state of Acre).<ref name":42" /> This new configuration of these belief systems is referred by Goulart as tradição religiosa ayahuasqueira urbana amazônica ("urban-amazonian ayahuasqueiro religious tradition")<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGoulart \|firstSandra Lúcia \|titleContrastes e Continuidades em uma Tradição Amazônica: as Religiões da Ayahuasca \|publisherTese de Doutorado em Ciências Sociais apresentada ao Departamento de Antropologia do Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas \|year2004}}</ref> or campo ayahuasqueiro brasileiro ("brazilian ayahuasqueiro field") by Labate,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLabate \|firstBeatriz Cauby \|titleA reinvenção do uso da ayahuasca nos centros urbanos \|publisherDissertação de mestrado apresentada ao curso de Antropologia Social do Instituto de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas da Universidade de Campinas (UNICAMP) \|year2000}}</ref> emerging as three main structured religions, the Santo Daime and Barquinha, in Rio Branco and the União do Vegetal (UDV) in Porto Velho, three denominations that, notwithstanding shared characteristics besides ayahuasca utilization, have several particularities regarding its practices, conceptions and processes building social legitimacy and relationships with Brazilian government, media, science and other society stances.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastGoulart \|firstSandra Lúcia \|titleO universo cultural das religiões ayahuasqueiras brasileiras e a questão das drogas \|journalReunião Equatorial de Antropologia e Reunião de Antropólogos do Norte e Nordeste}}</ref> Since the latter half of twentieth century, the ayahuasca religious expanded to other parts of Brazil and several countries in the world, notably in the West.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Labate, B.C. \|author2Rose, I.S. \|author3Santos, R.G. \|name-list-styleamp \|titleAyahuasca Religions: a comprehensive bibliography and critical essays \|locationSanta Cruz \|publisherMultidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies – MAPS \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-9798622-1-2}}</ref> Modern use Beat writer William S. Burroughs read a paper by Richard Evans Schultes on the subject and while traveling through South America in the early 1950s sought out ayahuasca in the hopes that it could relieve or cure opiate addiction (see The Yage Letters). Ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations. Dennis McKenna later studied pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, which became the subject of his master's thesis. Richard Evans Schultes allowed Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study ayahuasca with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of the beverage and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Naranjo\|first1Claudio\|titleThe Healing Journey\|year1974\|publisherPantheon Books\|isbn978-0-394-48826-4\|pagesx\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/healingjourneyne00nara\|url-access=registration}}</ref> In recent years, the brew has been popularized by Wade Davis (One River), English novelist Martin Goodman in I Was Carlos Castaneda,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/mar/19/featuresreviews.guardianreview3 \|titleLetters: Mar 19 &#124; Books \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date2005-03-19 \|access-date2018-05-05}}</ref> Chilean novelist Isabel Allende,<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/donotmigrate/3672060/Isabel-Allende-kith-and-tell.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/donotmigrate/3672060/Isabel-Allende-kith-and-tell.html \|archive-date2022-01-11 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationLondon \|titleIsabel Allende: kith and tell \|firstCatherine \|lastElsworth \|date2008-03-21 \|access-date2010-04-26}}{{cbignore}}</ref> writer Kira Salak,<ref name"Salak's Article">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html \|titleHell And Back \|authorSalak, Kira \|access-date29 December 2010}}</ref><ref name"Salak's Summary">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.kirasalak.com/Ayahuasca.html \|titleAyahuasca Healing in Peru \|authorSalak, Kira \|access-date27 December 2010}}</ref> author Jeremy Narby (The Cosmic Serpent), author Jay Griffiths (Wild: An Elemental Journey), American novelist Steven Peck, radio personality Robin Quivers,<ref>{{citation \|urlhttp://www.wcqj.com/ \|titlestern show blog, podcast and videos \|publisherwcqj.com \|access-date2012-01-14}}</ref>{{unreliable source?\|dateJune 2015}}, writer Paul Theroux (Figures in a Landscape: People and Places),<ref>{{cite book\|firstPaul\|lastTheroux\|titleFigures in a Landscape: People & Places\|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt / Eamon Dolan\|locationBoston\|date2018\|isbn978-0-544-87030-7}}</ref> and NFL quarterback Aaron Rodgers.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAaron Rodgers Talks Participating in 3-Night Ayahuasca Event and His Love of Washing Dishes: It's 'Meditative' \|urlhttps://people.com/sports/aaron-rodgers-talks-about-participating-in-3-night-ayahuasca-ceremony/ \|access-date2023-05-13 \|websitePeoplemag \|languageen}}</ref> Preparation region of Ecuador]] Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, including Psychotria viridis (chacruna), Diplopterys cabrerana (also known as chaliponga and chacropanga),<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://www.spiritvine.net/ayahuasca/ \|titleAyahuasca Vine Facts {{!}} Spirit Vine Ayahuasca Retreats \|workSpirit Vine \|access-date2017-05-25 \|languageen-US}}</ref> and Mimosa tenuiflora, among other ingredients which can vary greatly from one shaman to the next. The resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug dimethyltryptamine and monoamine oxidase inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active by allowing it (DMT) to be processed by the liver. The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a ritual process that requires the user to pick the lower Chacruna leaf at sunrise, then say a prayer. The vine must be "cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons"<ref name"levy">{{cite news \|last1Levy \|first1Ariel \|titleThe Drug of Choice for the Age of Kale \|urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/09/12/the-ayahuasca-boom-in-the-u-s \|magazineThe New Yorker \|date12 September 2016}}</ref> and pounded "with wooden mallets until it's fibre."<ref name="levy"/> Brews can also be made with plants that do not contain DMT, Psychotria viridis being replaced by plants such as Justicia pectoralis, Brugmansia, or sacred tobacco, also known as mapacho (Nicotiana rustica), or sometimes left out with no replacement. This brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in potency and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the shaman or brewer, as well as other admixtures sometimes added and the intent of the ceremony. Natural variations in plant alkaloid content and profiles also affect the final concentration of alkaloids in the brew, and the physical act of cooking may also serve to modify the alkaloid profile of harmala alkaloids.<ref name"Callaway2005b">{{cite journal \|lastCallaway \|firstJ. C. \|titleVarious Alkaloid Profiles in Decoctions of Banisteriopsis Caapi \|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \|volume37 \|issue2 \|pages151–5 \|dateJune 2005 \|pmid16149328 \|issn0279-1072 \|oclc7565359 \|doi10.1080/02791072.2005.10399796 \|s2cid1420203 \|urlhttp://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/various%20alkaloid%20profiles%20in%20aya%20decoction.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://catbull.com/alamut/Bibliothek/various%20alkaloid%20profiles%20in%20aya%20decoction.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"CallawayBritoNeves2005">{{cite journal \|last1Callaway \|first1J. C. \|last2Brito \|first2Glacus S. \|last3Neves \|first3Edison S. \|s2cid30736017 \|titlePhytochemical Analyses of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis \|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \|issn0279-1072 \|oclc7565359 \|volume37 \|issue2 \|pages145–50 \|dateJune 2005 \|doi10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795 \|pmid16149327}}</ref> The actual preparation of the brew takes several hours, often taking place over the course of more than one day. After adding the plant material, each separately at this stage, to a large pot of water, it is boiled until the water is reduced by half in volume. The individual brews are then added together and brewed until reduced significantly. This combined brew is what is taken by participants in ayahuasca ceremonies. Traditional use region of Peru]] ]] The uses of ayahuasca in traditional societies in South America vary greatly.<ref name"Hay20">{{cite web \|lastHay \|firstMark \|date4 November 2020 \|titleThe Colonization of the Ayahuasca Experience \|urlhttps://daily.jstor.org/the-colonization-of-the-ayahuasca-experience/ \|access-date21 May 2021 \|websiteJSTOR Daily \|publisherJSTOR}}</ref> Some cultures do use it for shamanic purposes, but in other cases, it is consumed socially among friends, in order to learn more about the natural environment, and even in order to visit friends and family who are far away.<ref name"Hay20"/> Nonetheless, people who work with ayahuasca in non-traditional contexts often align themselves with the philosophies and cosmologies associated with ayahuasca shamanism, as practiced among Indigenous peoples like the Urarina of the Peruvian Amazon.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Dean \|first1 Bartholomew \|year2009 \|titleUrarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia \|locationGainesville \|publisherUniversity Press of Florida \|isbn978-0-8130-3378-5 \|urlhttp://www.upf.com/book.asp?idDEANXS07 }}</ref><ref name"Hay20"/> Dietary taboos are often associated with the use of ayahuasca,<ref name"Jonathan Ott, 1994">{{cite book \|last1Ott \|first1J. \|titleAyahuasca Analogues: Pangaean Entheogens \|locationKennewick, WA \|publisherNatural Books \|year1994 \|isbn978-0-9614234-4-5}}</ref> although these seem to be specific to the culture around Iquitos, Peru, a major center of ayahuasca tourism.<ref name"Hay20"/> Ayahuasca retreats or healing centers can also be found in the Sacred Valley of Peru, in areas such as Cusco and Urubamba, where similar dietary preparations can be observed. These retreats often employ members of the Shipibo-Konibo tribe, an indigenous community native to the Peruvian Amazon.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSpirit \|firstIkaro's \|titleIkaro's Spirit \|urlhttps://ikarospirit.com/ \|access-date2024-12-18 \|websiteIkaro's Spirit \|languageen-US}}</ref> In the rainforest, these taboos tend towards the purification of one's self—abstaining from spicy and heavily seasoned foods, excess fat, salt, caffeine, acidic foods (such as citrus) and sex before, after, or during a ceremony. A diet low in foods containing tyramine has been recommended, as the speculative interaction of tyramine and MAOIs could lead to a hypertensive crisis; however, evidence indicates that harmala alkaloids act only on MAO-A, in a reversible way similar to moclobemide (an antidepressant that does not require dietary restrictions). Dietary restrictions are not used by the highly urban Brazilian ayahuasca church União do Vegetal, suggesting the risk is much lower than perceived and probably non-existent.<ref name="Jonathan Ott, 1994"/> The ritual use of ayahuasca by the Achuar people is featured in the Bruce Parry 2008 documentary series Amazon, in which Parry forces himself to participate in the rite. Ceremony and the role of shamans Shamans, curanderos and experienced users of ayahuasca advise against consuming ayahuasca when not in the presence of one or several well-trained shamans.<ref name"Campos 2011">{{cite book \|lastCampos \|firstDon Jose \|titleThe Shaman & Ayahuasca: Journeys to Sacred Realms \|year=2011}}</ref> In some areas, there are purported brujos (Spanish for "witches") who masquerade as real shamans and who entice tourists to drink ayahuasca in their presence. Shamans believe one of the purposes for this is to steal one's energy and/or power, of which they believe every person has a limited stockpile.<ref name="Campos 2011"/> The shamans lead the ceremonial consumption of the ayahuasca beverage,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/15/fashion/ayahuasca-a-strong-cup-of-tea.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/15/fashion/ayahuasca-a-strong-cup-of-tea.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleAyahuasca: A Strong Cup of Tea \|date13 June 2014\|workThe New York Times\|authorBob Morris}}{{cbignore}}</ref> in a rite that typically takes place over the entire night. During the ceremony, the effect of the drink lasts for hours. Prior to the ceremony, participants are instructed to abstain from spicy foods, red meat and sex.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://ayahuascahealings.com/ayahuasca-retreats-usa-ayahuasca-church/ayahuasca-ceremony-trip-preparation/ \|titleAyahuasca Ceremony Preparation \|publisherayahuascahealings.com \|access-date5 January 2019 }}</ref> The ceremony is usually accompanied with purging which include vomiting and diarrhea, which is believed to release built-up emotions and negative energy.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://www.marieclaire.com/politics/news/a8965/ayahuasca-new-power-trip/ \|titleThe New Power Trip: Inside the World of Ayahuasca \|year2014\|magazine Marie Claire \|access-date5 January 2019 }}</ref> Shipibo-Konibo and their relation to Ayahuasca It is believed that the Shipibo-Konibo are among the earliest practitioners of Ayahuasca ceremonies, with their connection to the brew and ceremonies surrounding it dating back centuries, perhaps a millennium.<ref>{{Cite journal \|dateMay 5, 2021 \|titleThe Shipibo Ceremonial Use of Ayahuasca to Promote Well-Being: An Observational Study \|pmc8131827 \|last1Gonzalez \|first1D. \|last2Cantillo \|first2J. \|last3Perez \|first3I. \|last4Carvalho \|first4M. \|last5Aronovich \|first5A. \|last6Farre \|first6M. \|last7Feilding \|first7A. \|last8Obiols \|first8J. E. \|last9Bouso \|first9J. C. \|journalFrontiers in Pharmacology \|volume12 \|doi10.3389/fphar.2021.623923 \|pmid34025402 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Some members of the Shipibo community have taken to the media to express their views on Ayahuasca entering the mainstream, with some calling it "the commercialization of ayahuasca." Some of them have even expressed their worry regarding the increased popularity, saying "the contemporary 'ayahuasca ceremony' may be understood as a substitute for former cosmogonical rituals that are nowadays not performed anymore."<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 2014 \|titleFrom the Native's Point of View: How Shipibo-Konibo Experience and Interpret Ayahuasca Drinking with "Gringos" \|urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/3308/chapter-abstract/144338325?redirectedFromfulltext \|websiteacademic.oup.com\|doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199341191.003.0010 \|isbn978-0-19-934119-1 }}</ref> Icaros The Shipibo have their own language, called Shipibo, a Panoan language spoken by approximately 26,000 people in Peru and Brazil. This language is commonly sung by the shaman in the form of a chant, called an Icaro, during the Ayahuasca ritual as a way to establish a "balance of energy" during the ritual to help protect and guide the user during their experience.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleShamanism at Arkana healing Ayahuasca and San Pedro Spiritual Retreats \|urlhttps://www.arkanainternational.com/shamanism \|access-date2023-11-11 \|websiteArkana Spiritual Center \|languageen-US}}</ref> Traditional brew ]] Traditional ayahuasca brews are usually made with Banisteriopsis caapi as an MAOI, while dimethyltryptamine sources and other admixtures vary from region to region. There are several varieties of caapi, often known as different "colors", with varying effects, potencies, and uses. DMT admixtures: * Psychotria viridis (Chacruna)<ref name="RatschIngredients">Rätsch, Christian (2005), pp. 704-708. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications. Rochester, Vermont: Park Street Press, 1998. {{ISBN\|978-0-89281-978-2}}</ref> – leaves * Psychotria carthagenensis (Amyruca)<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> – leaves * Diplopterys cabrerana (Chaliponga, Chagropanga, Banisteriopsis rusbyana)<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> – leaves * Mimosa tenuiflora (M. hostilis) - root bark Other common admixtures: * Justicia pectoralis<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|lastThoricatha \|firstWesley \|date2017-04-04 \|titleBreaking Down the Brew: Examining the Plants Commonly Used in Ayahuasca \|urlhttps://psychedelictimes.com/breaking-down-the-brew-examining-the-plants-commonly-used-in-ayahuasca/ \|access-date2020-05-17 \|websitePsychedelic Times \|language=en-US}}</ref> * Brugmansia sp. (Toé)<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> * Opuntia sp.<ref name":1">{{Cite journal \|last1Rivier \|first1Laurent \|last2Lindgren \|first2Jan-Erik \|dateApril 1972 \|title"Ayahuasca," the South American hallucinogenic drink: An ethnobotanical and chemical investigation \|urlhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02860772 \|journalEconomic Botany \|languageen \|volume26 \|issue2 \|pages101–129 \|doi10.1007/BF02860772 \|bibcode1972EcBot..26..101R \|s2cid34669901 \|issn=0013-0001}}</ref> * Epiphyllum sp. <ref name=":1" /> * Cyperus sp.<ref name=":1" /> * Nicotiana rustica<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> (Mapacho, variety of tobacco) * Ilex guayusa,<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> a relative of yerba mate * Lygodium venustum, (Tchai del monte)<ref name=":1" /> * Phrygilanthus eugenioides and Clusia sp (both called Miya)<ref name=":1" /> * Lomariopsis japurensis (Shoka)<ref name=":1" /> Common admixtures with their associated ceremonial values and spirits: Ayahuma<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> bark: Cannon Ball tree. Provides protection and is used in healing susto (soul loss from spiritual fright or trauma). Capirona<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> bark: Provides cleansing, balance and protection. It is noted for its smooth bark, white flowers, and hard wood. Chullachaki caspi<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> bark (Byrsonima christianeae): Provides cleansing to the physical body. Used to transcend physical body ailments. Lopuna blanca bark: Provides protection. Punga amarilla bark: Yellow Punga. Provides protection. Used to pull or draw out negative spirits or energies. Remo caspi<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> bark: Oar Tree. Used to move dense or dark energies. Wyra (huaira) caspi<ref name="RatschIngredients" /> bark (Cedrelinga catanaeformis): Air Tree. Used to create purging, transcend gastro/intestinal ailments, calm the mind, and bring tranquility. Shiwawaku bark: Brings purple medicine to the ceremony. Uchu sanango: Head of the sanango plants. Huacapurana: Giant tree of the Amazon with very hard bark. Bobinsana (Calliandra angustifolia): Mermaid Spirit. Provides major heart chakra opening, healing of emotions and relationships. Non-traditional use In the late 20th century, the practice of ayahuasca drinking began spreading to Europe, North America and elsewhere.<ref name"Tupper">{{cite journal\|lastTupper\|firstKenneth\|dateAugust 2008\|titleThe Globalization of Ayahuasca: Harm Reduction or Benefit Maximization?\|journalInternational Journal of Drug Policy\|volume19\|issue4\|pages297–303\|citeseerx10.1.1.517.9508\|doi10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.001\|pmid18638702}}<!--\|access-date2013-12-12--></ref> The first ayahuasca churches, affiliated with the Brazilian Santo Daime, were established in the Netherlands. A legal case was filed against two of the Church's leaders, Hans Bogers (one of the original founders of the Dutch Santo Daime community) and Geraldine Fijneman (the head of the Amsterdam Santo Daime community). Bogers and Fijneman were charged with distributing a controlled substance (DMT); however, the prosecution was unable to prove that the use of ayahuasca by members of the Santo Daime constituted a sufficient threat to public health and order such that it warranted denying their rights to religious freedom under ECHR Article 9. The 2001 verdict of the Amsterdam district court is an important precedent. Since then groups that are not affiliated to the Santo Daime have used ayahuasca, and a number of different "styles" have been developed, including non-religious approaches.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastAlì\|firstMaurizio\|year2015\|titleHow to Disappear Completely. Community Dynamics and Deindividuation in Neo-Shamanic Urban Practices\|urlhttps://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01201764/document\|journalShaman - Journal of the International Society for Academic Research on Shamanism\|volume23\|issue1–2\|pages17–52\|viaHAL}}</ref> Ayahuasca analogs {{See also\|Pharmahuasca}} seeds can be used to provide an MAOI.]] {{more citations needed\|section\|date=July 2023}} In modern Europe and North America, ayahuasca analogs are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant can be used as a substitute for the ayahuasca vine, and the DMT-rich Mimosa hostilis is used in place of chacruna. Australia has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of Acacia. The name "ayahuasca" specifically refers to a botanical decoction that contains Banisteriopsis caapi. A synthetic version, known as pharmahuasca, is a combination of an appropriate MAOI and typically DMT. In this usage, the DMT is generally considered the main psychoactive active ingredient, while the MAOI merely preserves the psychoactivity of orally ingested DMT, which would otherwise be destroyed in the gut before it could be absorbed in the body. In contrast, traditionally among Amazonian tribes, the B. Caapi vine is considered to be the "spirit" of ayahuasca, the gatekeeper, and guide to the otherworldly realms.<ref>{{citation \|urlhttp://ayahuasca-recipe.com/ayahuasca-espana-dmt-molecula-dio-espiritual/ \|titleAyahuasca DMT La Molecula Dios \|publisherAyahuasca-Recipe.com \|date2017-07-29 \|access-date2017-07-31 \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJuly 31, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170731120620/http://ayahuasca-recipe.com/ayahuasca-espana-dmt-molecula-dio-espiritual/ }}</ref> Brews similar to ayahuasca may be prepared using several plants not traditionally used in South America: DMT admixtures: Acacia maidenii (Maiden's wattle) – bark not all plants are "active strains", meaning some plants will have very little DMT and others larger amounts Acacia phlebophylla, and other Acacias, most commonly employed in Australia – bark * Anadenanthera peregrina, A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa * Desmanthus illinoensis (Illinois bundleflower) – root bark is mixed with a native source of beta-Carbolines (e.g., passion flower in North America) to produce a hallucinogenic drink called prairiehuasca.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Hegnauer, R. \|author2Hegnauer, M. \|year1996 \|titleCaesalpinioideae und Mimosoideae Volume 1 Part 2 \|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media \|isbn978-3-7643-5165-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbUV8C6iLFkEC \|page=199}}</ref> MAOI admixtures: * Harmal (Peganum harmala, Syrian rue) – seeds * Passion flower * synthetic MAOIs, especially RIMAs (due to the dangers presented by irreversible MAOIs) Effects {{See also\|N,N-Dimethyltryptamine#Effects{{!}}DMT effects}} Adverse effects In the short term, ingesting Ayahuasca can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. These three effects, known as purging, are traditionally recognized to be a part of the spiritual experience of ayahuasca. Physiologically, vomiting is a result of increased serotonin circulating in the gut, which directly stimulates the vagus nerve.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Fotiou \|first1Evgenia \|last2Gearin \|first2Alex K. \|date2019-10-01 \|titlePurging and the body in the therapeutic use of ayahuasca \|urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027795361930526X \|journalSocial Science & Medicine \|volume239 \|pages112532 \|doi10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112532 \|issn0277-9536}}</ref> Other short-term side effects include increased blood pressure and tachycardia. Additionally, increased secretion of hormones like prolactin, cortisone, and growth hormone has been correlated with ayahuasca consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Frecska \|first1Ede \|last2Bokor \|first2Petra \|last3Winkelman \|first3Michael \|date2016-03-02 \|titleThe Therapeutic Potentials of Ayahuasca: Possible Effects against Various Diseases of Civilization \|journalFrontiers in Pharmacology \|languageEnglish \|volume7 \|page35 \|doi10.3389/fphar.2016.00035 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid26973523 \|pmc4773875 \|issn1663-9812}}</ref> Rarer side effects include dyspnea, seizures and serotonin syndrome. Ayahuasca is suspected of triggering psychosis in people with a predisposition to the condition, and there is a lack of safety information for Ayahuasca's possible effects on pregnancy and breastfeeding.<ref nametox>{{cite journal \|vauthorsWhite E, Kennedy T, Ruffell S, Perkins D, Sarris J \|titleAyahuasca and Dimethyltryptamine Adverse Events and Toxicity Analysis: A Systematic Thematic Review \|journalInt J Toxicol \|volume43 \|issue3 \|pages327–339 \|date2024 \|pmid38363085 \|pmc11088222 \|doi10.1177/10915818241230916 \|typeReview}}</ref> Psychological effects People who have consumed ayahuasca report having mystical experiences and spiritual revelations regarding their purpose on earth, the true nature of the universe, and deep insight into how to be the best person they possibly can.<ref>{{cite book \|lastGorman \|firstPeter \|titleAyahuasca in My Blood: 25 Years of Medicine Dreaming \|year2010 \|publisherJohan Fremin \|isbn978-1-4528-8290-1}}</ref> Many people also report therapeutic effects, especially around depression and personal traumas.<ref name":3">{{Cite book \|lastHarris \|firstRachel \|titleListening to Ayahuasca \|publisherNew World Library \|year2017 \|isbn978-1-60868-402-1 \|locationNovato, California \|pages120–200 \|language=English}}</ref> This is viewed by many as a spiritual awakening and what is often described as a near-death experience or rebirth.<ref name"Campos 2011" />{{rp\|67–70}} It is often reported that individuals feel they gain access to higher spiritual dimensions and make contact with various spiritual or extra-dimensional beings who can act as guides or healers.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMetzner \|firstRalph \|titleAyahuasca: Human Consciousness and the Spirits of Nature \|year1999 \|pages46–55}}</ref> The experiences that people have while under the influence of ayahuasca are also culturally influenced.<ref name"Hay20" /> Westerners typically describe experiences with psychological terms like "ego death" and understand the hallucinations as repressed memories or metaphors of mental states.<ref name"Hay20" /> However, at least in Iquitos, Peru (a center of ayahuasca ceremonies), those from the area describe the experiences more in terms of the actions in the body and understand the visions as reflections of their environment, sometimes including the person who they believe caused their illness, as well as interactions with spirits.<ref name="Hay20" /> Most psychological effects can be accredited to the influx of serotonin caused by the psychoactive combination of DMT with beta-carbolines. Serotonin stimulates a group of G-protein coupled receptors known as 5-HT receptors. Specifically, stimulation of the 5-HT2A receptor type is correlated with hallucinogenic effects.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Nichols \|first1David E. \|last2Nichols \|first2Charles D. \|date2008-05-01 \|titleSerotonin Receptors \|urlhttps://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr078224o \|journalChemical Reviews \|volume108 \|issue5 \|pages1614–1641 \|doi10.1021/cr078224o \|issn0009-2665}}</ref> Potential therapeutic effects {{See also\|Psychedelic therapy}}There are potential antidepressant and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca.<ref name"Nunes dos Santos Osório Sanches pp. 195–205">{{cite journal \| last1Nunes \| first1Amanda A. \| last2dos Santos \| first2Rafael G. \| last3Osório \| first3Flávia L. \| last4Sanches \| first4Rafael F. \| last5Crippa \| first5José Alexandre S. \| last6Hallak \| first6Jaime E. C. \| titleEffects of Ayahuasca and its Alkaloids on Drug Dependence: A Systematic Literature Review of Quantitative Studies in Animals and Humans \| journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \| publisherInforma UK Limited \| volume48 \| issue3 \| date2016-05-26 \| issn0279-1072 \| doi10.1080/02791072.2016.1188225 \| pmid27230395 \| pages195–205\| hdl11449/159021 \| s2cid5840140 \| hdl-accessfree }}</ref><ref name"Carbonaro Gatch 2016 pp. 74–88">{{cite journal \| last1Carbonaro \| first1Theresa M. \| last2Gatch \| first2Michael B. \| titleNeuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine \| journalBrain Research Bulletin \| publisherElsevier BV \| volume126 \| issuePt 1 \| year2016 \| issn0361-9230 \| doi10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.016 \| pmid27126737 \| pmc5048497 \| pages74–88}}</ref><ref name"Frecska Bokor Winkelman p. ">{{cite journal \| last1Frecska \| first1Ede \| last2Bokor \| first2Petra \| last3Winkelman \| first3Michael \| titleThe Therapeutic Potentials of Ayahuasca: Possible Effects against Various Diseases of Civilization \| journalFrontiers in Pharmacology \| publisherFrontiers Media SA \| volume7 \| pages35 \| date2016-03-02 \| issn1663-9812 \| doi10.3389/fphar.2016.00035 \| pmid26973523 \| pmc4773875 \| doi-access=free }}</ref> Ayahuasca has also been studied for the treatment of addictions and shown to be effective, with lower Addiction Severity Index scores seen in users of ayahuasca compared to controls.<ref name"FábregasGonzález2010">{{cite journal\|last1Fábregas\|first1Josep Maria\|last2González\|first2Débora\|last3Fondevila\|first3Sabela\|last4Cutchet\|first4Marta\|last5Fernández\|first5Xavier\|last6Barbosa\|first6Paulo César Ribeiro\|last7Alcázar-Córcoles\|first7Miguel Ángel\|last8Barbanoj\|first8Manel J.\|last9Riba\|first9Jordi\|last10Bouso\|first10José Carlos\|titleAssessment of addiction severity among ritual users of ayahuasca\|journalDrug and Alcohol Dependence\|volume111\|issue3\|year2010\|pages257–261\|issn0376-8716\|doi10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.03.024\|pmid20554400}}</ref><ref name"LiesterPrickett2012">{{cite journal\|last1Liester\|first1Mitchell B.\|last2Prickett\|first2James I.\|titleHypotheses Regarding the Mechanisms of Ayahuasca in the Treatment of Addictions\|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs\|volume44\|issue3\|year2012\|pages200–208\|issn0279-1072\|doi10.1080/02791072.2012.704590\|pmid23061319\|s2cid32698157}}</ref><ref name"McKenna2004">{{cite journal\|last1McKenna\|first1Dennis J\|titleClinical investigations of the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca: rationale and regulatory challenges\|journalPharmacology & Therapeutics\|volume102\|issue2\|year2004\|pages111–129\|issn0163-7258\|doi10.1016/j.pharmthera.2004.03.002\|pmid15163593}}</ref><ref name"Frecska Bokor Winkelman p. "/> Ayahuasca users have also been seen to consume less alcohol.<ref name"HarrisGurel2012">{{cite journal\|last1Harris\|first1Rachel\|last2Gurel\|first2Lee\|titleA Study of Ayahuasca Use in North America\|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs\|volume44\|issue3\|year2012\|pages209–215\|issn0279-1072\|doi10.1080/02791072.2012.703100\|pmid23061320\|s2cid24580577}}</ref> Pharmacology {{Main article\|N,N-Dimethyltryptamine\|Monoamine oxidase inhibitor}} Harmala alkaloids {{Main article\|Harmala alkaloid}} ]] ]] ]] Harmala alkaloids are MAO-inhibiting beta-carbolines. The three most studied harmala alkaloids in the B. caapi vine are harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. Harmine and harmaline are selective and reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), while tetrahydroharmine is a weak serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI).{{medical citation needed\|date=July 2023}} Individual polymorphisms of the cytochrome P450-2D6 enzyme, and more over the isolated indocine metabolite from the inhabitation of CPY134a, with a varied rate of gustation due to physiological factors affect the ability of individuals to metabolize harmine.<ref name"Callaway2005a">{{cite journal \|lastCallaway \|firstJ. C. \|titleFast and Slow Metabolizers of Hoasca \|journalJournal of Psychoactive Drugs \|issn0279-1072 \|oclc7565359 \|volume37 \|issue2 \|pages157–61 \|dateJune 2005 \|pmid16149329 \|doi10.1080/02791072.2005.10399797 \|s2cid41427434 }}</ref> Interactions {{See also\|Psychedelic drug#Interactions\|Trip killer#Serotonergic psychedelic antidotes}} Legal status {{main\|Legal status of ayahuasca by country}} Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:<ref>{{citation\|urlhttp://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html \|titleDMT – UN report \|publisherMAPS \|date2001-03-31 \|access-date2012-01-14 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120121083150/http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html \|archive-dateJanuary 21, 2012 }}</ref> {{blockquote\| The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention... Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin. }} A fax from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) to the Netherlands Ministry of Public Health sent in 2001 goes on to state that "Consequently, preparations (e.g. decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca, are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention."<ref>{{citation \|urlhttp://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law10.shtml \|titleAyahuasca Vault : Law : UNDCP's Ayahuasca Fax \|publisherErowid.org \|date2001-01-17 \|access-date=2012-01-14}}</ref> Despite the INCB's 2001 affirmation that ayahuasca is not subject to drug control by international convention, in its 2010 Annual Report the Board recommended that governments consider controlling (i.e. criminalizing) ayahuasca at the national level. This recommendation by the INCB has been criticized as an attempt by the Board to overstep its legitimate mandate and as establishing a reason for governments to violate the human rights (i.e., religious freedom) of ceremonial ayahuasca drinkers.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Tupper\|first1Kenneth W.\|last2Labate\|first2Beatriz C.\|titlePlants, Psychoactive Substances and the International Narcotics Control Board: The Control of Nature and the Nature of Control\|journalHuman Rights & Drugs\|volume2\|issue1\|pages17–28\|year2012\|access-date=2012-12-12 \|url=http://www.hr-dp.org/files/2013/12/12/HRDP_Journal_Tupper_Labate.pdf}}</ref> Under American federal law, DMT is a Schedule I drug that is illegal to possess or consume; however, certain religious groups have been legally permitted to consume ayahuasca.<ref>[https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/schedules/orangebook/orangebook.pdf orangebook.pdf] www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov</ref> A court case allowing the União do Vegetal to import and use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies pursuant to the Religious Freedom Restoration Act. In a similar case in Ashland, Oregon-based Santo Daime church sued for their right to import and consume ayahuasca tea. In March 2009, U.S. District Court Judge Panner ruled in favor of the Santo Daime, acknowledging its protection from prosecution under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.<ref>{{citation \|urlhttp://csp.org/society/docs/SantoDaimeAshland20090318.pdf \|titleRuling by District Court Judge Panner in Santo Daime case in Oregon \|access-date2012-01-14 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003151720/http://csp.org/society/docs/SantoDaimeAshland20090318.pdf \|archive-date2011-10-03 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2017 the Santo Daime Church Céu do Montréal in Canada received religious exemption to use ayahuasca as a sacrament in their rituals.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://chacruna.net/how-ayahuasca-church-received-religious-exemption-canada/\|titleHow Our Santo Daime Church Received Religious Exemption to Use Ayahuasca in Canada\|lastRochester\|firstJessica\|date2017-07-17\|websiteChacruna\|languageen-US\|access-date2019-05-01}}</ref> Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses.<ref>More on the legal status of ayahuasca can be found in the Erowid vault on the [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law.shtml legality of ayahuasca].</ref> In France, Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060510000632/http://www.santodaime.it/Library/LAW/Francia/courdapeldeparis05_france.pdf ''Cour d'appel de Paris, 10ème chambre, section B, dossier n° 04/01888. Arrêt du 13 janvier 2005] Court of Appeal of Paris, 10th Chamber, Section B, File No. 04/01888. Judgement of 13 January 2005</ref> Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared stupéfiants, or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess.<ref>JO, 2005-05-03. [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jopdf/common/jo_pdf.jsp?numJO0&dateJO20050503&numTexte18&pageDebut07636&pageFin=07636 Arrêté du 20 avril 2005 modifiant l'arrêté du 22 février 1990 fixant la liste des substances classées comme stupéfiants (PDF)] [Decree of 20 April 2005 amending the decree of 22 February 1990 establishing the list of substances scheduled as narcotics].</ref> In June 2019, Oakland, California, decriminalized natural entheogens. The City Council passed the resolution in a unanimous vote, ending the investigation and imposition of criminal penalties for use and possession of entheogens derived from plants or fungi. The resolution states: "Practices with Entheogenic Plants have long existed and have been considered to be sacred to human cultures and human interrelationships with nature for thousands of years, and continue to be enhanced and improved to this day by religious and spiritual leaders, practicing professionals, mentors, and healers throughout the world, many of whom have been forced underground."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-oakland-magic-mushroom-legal-20190605-story.html\|titleOakland becomes 2nd U.S. city to decriminalize magic mushrooms\|lastShalby\|firstColleen\|websiteLos Angeles Times\|date5 June 2019\|access-date=2019-06-06}}</ref> In January 2020, Santa Cruz, California, and in September 2020, Ann Arbor, Michigan, decriminalized natural entheogens.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/santa-cruz-decriminalizes-psychedelic-mushrooms/story?id68611065\|titleSanta Cruz decriminalizes psychedelic mushrooms\|lastMcCarthy\|firstKelly\|date2020-01-29\|websiteABC News\|languageen\|access-date2020-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2020/01/30/us/santa-cruz-mushrooms-psychedelics-trnd/index.html\|titleSanta Cruz decriminalizes magic mushrooms and other natural psychedelics, making it the third US city to take such a step\|lastKaur\|firstHarmeet\|date2020-01-30\|websiteCNN\|access-date2020-02-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastStanton\|firstRyan\|date2020-09-22\|titleAnn Arbor OKs move to decriminalize psychedelic mushrooms, plants\|urlhttps://www.mlive.com/news/ann-arbor/2020/09/ann-arbor-oks-move-to-decriminalize-psychedelic-mushrooms-plants.html\|access-date2020-09-22\|websitemlive\|languageen}}</ref> <!-- NPR reported in August 2010 that it was legal, is that wrong? In Peru, the government is undergoing the legislation process of legalizing and regulating ayahuasca usage and monitoring ayahuasca centers. Currently (April 2010) the use of ayahuasca is not technically legal but since it is an accepted practice of Indigenous cultures in Peru, the Peruvian government is going through of the process maintaining the continuity of these cultures whilst avoiding international issues. --> Intellectual property issues Ayahuasca has stirred debate regarding intellectual property protection of traditional knowledge.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastTupper\|firstKenneth\|s2cid144295220\|dateJanuary 2009\|titleAyahuasca Healing Beyond the Amazon: The Globalization of a Traditional Indigenous Entheogenic Practice\|journalGlobal Networks\|volume9\|issue1\|pages117–136\|doi10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00245.x}}<!--\|access-date2013-12-12--></ref> In 1986 the US Patent and Trademarks Office (PTO) allowed the granting of a patent on the ayahuasca vine B. caapi''. It allowed this patent based on the assumption that ayahuasca's properties had not been previously described in writing. Several public interest groups, including the Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA) and the Coalition for Amazonian Peoples and Their Environment (Amazon Coalition) objected. In 1999 they brought a legal challenge to this patent which had granted a private US citizen "ownership" of the knowledge of a plant that is well-known and sacred to many Indigenous peoples of the Amazon, and used by them in religious and healing ceremonies.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.ciel.org/Bio/Biodiversity_Accomplishments.html \|titleCIEL Biodiversity Program Accomplishments \|publisherCiel.org \|access-date2012-01-14 \|archive-date2015-04-20 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150420214258/http://www.ciel.org/Bio/Biodiversity_Accomplishments.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Later that year the PTO issued a decision rejecting the patent, on the basis that the petitioners' arguments that the plant was not "distinctive or novel" were valid; however, the decision did not acknowledge the argument that the plant's religious or cultural values prohibited a patent. In 2001, after an appeal by the patent holder, the US Patent Office reinstated the patent, albeit to only a specific plant and its asexually reproduced offspring. The law at the time did not allow a third party such as COICA to participate in that part of the reexamination process. The patent, held by US entrepreneur Loren Miller, expired in 2003.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Ayahuasca Patent Case \|urlhttp://www.ciel.org/reports/legal-elements-of-the-ayahuasca-patent-case-november-1999-wiser-bw99-10-2/ \|departmentOur Programs: Biodiversity \|publisherThe Centre for International Environmental Law \|access-dateJanuary 22, 2018}}</ref> See also Changa Icaro Kambo (drug) Ibogaine Yachay Dimethyltryptamine/harmine Notes <references group"note" /> References {{Reflist\|30em}} Further reading {{Prone to spam\|dateJanuary 2014}} <!-- Please be cautious adding more links and "references." Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Many of the "references" added here are not sources for this article, but spam. Strongly consider cutting any "references" from this section that do not directly contribute to the article content. If they are truly references, incorporate them in inline reference format. Excessive or inappropriate links and irrelevant "references" will be removed. See Wikipedia:Spam for details. Propose links, additions or replacements on the article's talk page. --> {{refbegin\|30em}} * Burroughs, William S. and Allen Ginsberg. The Yage Letters. San Francisco: City Lights, 1963. {{ISBN\|978-0-87286-004-9}} * Langdon, E. Jean Matteson & Gerhard Baer, eds. Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. {{ISBN\|978-0-8263-1345-4}} * Shannon, Benny. The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-925293-0}} * Taussig, Michael. Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. {{ISBN\|978-0-226-79012-1}} * {{cite journal\|lastTupper\|firstKenneth\|titleThe Globalization of Ayahuasca: Harm Reduction or Benefit Maximization?\|journalInternational Journal of Drug Policy\|volume19\|issue4\|pages297–303\|dateAugust 2008\|doi10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.001\|pmid18638702\|urlhttp://www.kentupper.com/resources/Globalization+of+Ayahuasca+-+IJDP+2008.pdf\|access-date2008-07-25\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081217031309/http://www.kentupper.com/resources/Globalization+of+Ayahuasca+-+IJDP+2008.pdf\|archive-date2008-12-17\|url-statusdead\|citeseerx10.1.1.517.9508}} * {{cite journal\|lastTupper\|firstKenneth\|s2cid144295220\|titleAyahuasca Healing Beyond the Amazon: The Globalization of a Traditional Indigenous Entheogenic Practice\|journalGlobal Networks\|volume9\|issue1\|pages117–136\|date2009\|doi10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00245.x}} * {{cite journal\|last1Tupper\|first1Kenneth W.\|last2Labate\|first2Beatriz C.\|titlePlants, Psychoactive Substances and the International Narcotics Control Board: The Control of Nature and the Nature of Control\|journalHuman Rights & Drugs\|volume2\|issue1\|pages17–28\|year2012\|url=http://www.hr-dp.org/files/2013/12/12/HRDP_Journal_Tupper_Labate.pdf}} * {{cite journal\|last1Tupper\|first1Kenneth W.\|last2Labate\|first2Beatriz C.\|titleAyahuasca, Psychedelic Studies and Health Sciences: The Politics of Knowledge and Inquiry into an Amazonian Plant Brew\|journalCurrent Drug Abuse Reviews\|volume7\|issue2\|pages71–80\|year2014\|urlhttp://www.kennethtupper.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Ayahuasca-Psychedelic-Studied-Health-Sciences-CDAR-2014.pdf\|doi10.2174/1874473708666150107155042\|pmid25563448\|access-date2015-10-18\|archive-date2015-09-22\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150922073351/http://www.kennethtupper.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Ayahuasca-Psychedelic-Studied-Health-Sciences-CDAR-2014.pdf\|url-status=dead}} {{refend}} External links * {{Commons-inline}} * {{Wiktionary-inline}} * [https://psychonautwiki.org/wiki/Ayahuasca Ayahuasca - PsychonautWiki] * [https://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Ayahuasca - Erowid] * [https://tripsitter.com/ayahuasca/ What is Ayahuasca? - Tripsitter] * [https://doubleblindmag.com/ayahuasca-experience/ The Ayahuasca Experience: A Pilgrimage to the Spirit - Double Blind Magazine] {{Traditional Medicine}} {{Hallucinogens}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ayahuasca}} Category:Biopiracy Category:Entheogens Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens Category:Indigenous culture of the Amazon Category:Mixed drinks Category:Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Category:Polysubstance drinks	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayahuasca	2025-04-05T18:26:00.884037
2329	Alfonso Leng	thumb\|Alfonso Leng Alfonso Leng Haygus (11 February 1884 – 11 November 1974) was a post-romantic composer of classical music. He was born in Santiago, Chile. He wrote the first important symphonic work in Chilean tradition, "La Muerte de Alcino", a symphonic poem inspired by the novel of Pedro Prado. He composed many art songs in different languages and important piano pieces, like the five "Doloras" (1914), which he later orchestrated and are normally played in concerts in Chile and Latin America. He won the National Art Prize in 1957. Leng was also an accomplished dentist in Santiago. As a dentist, he was the main founder of the dentistry faculty of the University of Chile, and he was eventually elected as the first dean. Leng was the nephew of composer Carmela Mackenna. References Category:1884 births Category:1974 deaths Category:Chilean male composers Category:Chilean dentists Category:Musicians from Santiago, Chile Category:Academic staff of the University of Chile Category:Chilean people of Chinese descent Category:20th-century Chilean musicians Category:20th-century Chilean classical composers Category:20th-century male composers Category:Chilean male classical composers Category:20th-century dentists Category:20th-century Chilean male artists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Leng	2025-04-05T18:26:00.913195
2330	Abbe number	In optics and lens design, the Abbe number, also known as the Vd-number or constringence of a transparent material, is an approximate measure of the material's dispersion (change of refractive index versus wavelength), with high values of Vd indicating low dispersion. It is named after Ernst Abbe (1840–1905), the German physicist who defined it. The term Vd-number should not be confused with the normalized frequency in fibers. right\|thumb\|300px\|Refractive index variation for SF11 flint glass, BK7 borosilicate crown glass, and fused quartz, and calculation for two Abbe numbers for SF11. The Abbe number, V_\mathsf d\ , of a material is defined as V_\mathsf d \equiv \frac{ n_\mathsf d - 1 }{\ n_\mathsf F - n_\mathsf C\ }, where n_\mathsf C, n_\mathsf d, and n_\mathsf F are the refractive indices of the material at the wavelengths of the Fraunhofer's C, d, and F spectral lines (656.3 nm, 587.56 nm, and 486.1 nm respectively). This formulation only applies to the human vision. Outside this range requires the use of different spectral lines. For non-visible spectral lines the term "V-number" is more commonly used. The more general formulation defined as, V \equiv \frac{ n_\mathsf{center} - 1 }{ n_\mathsf{short} - n_\mathsf{long} }, where n_\mathsf{short}, n_\mathsf{center}, and n_\mathsf{long}, are the refractive indices of the material at three different wavelengths. The shortest wavelength's index is n_\mathsf{short}, and the longest's is n_\mathsf{long}. Abbe numbers are used to classify glass and other optical materials in terms of their chromaticity. For example, the higher dispersion flint glasses have relatively small Abbe numbers V whereas the lower dispersion crown glasses have larger Abbe numbers. Values of V_\mathsf d range from below 25 for very dense flint glasses, around 34 for polycarbonate plastics, up to 65 for common crown glasses, and 75 to 85 for some fluorite and phosphate crown glasses. thumb\|Most of the human eye's wavelength sensitivity curve, shown here, is bracketed by the Abbe number reference wavelengths of 486.1 nm (blue) and 656.3 nm (red) Abbe numbers are used in the design of achromatic lenses, as their reciprocal is proportional to dispersion (slope of refractive index versus wavelength) in the wavelength region where the human eye is most sensitive (see graph). For different wavelength regions, or for higher precision in characterizing a system's chromaticity (such as in the design of apochromats), the full dispersion relation (refractive index as a function of wavelength) is used. Abbe diagram right\|thumb\|380px\|An Abbe diagram, also known as 'the glass veil', plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram. 250px\|thumb\|Influences of selected glass component additions on the Abbe number of a specific base glass. An Abbe diagram, also called 'the glass veil', is produced by plotting the Abbe number V_\mathsf d of a material versus its refractive index n_\mathsf d . Glasses can then be categorised and selected according to their positions on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the Schott Glass catalogue, or a 6 digit glass code. Glasses' Abbe numbers, along with their mean refractive indices, are used in the calculation of the required refractive powers of the elements of achromatic lenses in order to cancel chromatic aberration to first order. These two parameters which enter into the equations for design of achromatic doublets are exactly what is plotted on an Abbe diagram. Due to the difficulty and inconvenience in producing sodium and hydrogen lines, alternate definitions of the Abbe number are often substituted (ISO 7944). For example, rather than the standard definition given above, that uses the refractive index variation between the F and C hydrogen lines, one alternative measure using the subscript "e" for mercury's e line compared to cadmium's and  lines is V_\mathsf e = \frac{ n_\mathsf e - 1 }{\ n_\mathsf{F'} - n_\mathsf{C'}\ } ~. This alternate takes the difference between cadmium's blue () and red () refractive indices at wavelengths 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm, relative to \ n_\mathsf e\ for mercury's e line at 546.073 nm, all of which are close by, and somewhat easier to produce than the C, F, and e lines. Other definitions can similarly be employed; the following table lists standard wavelengths at which \ n\ is commonly determined, including the standard subscripts used. (nm) Fraunhofer'ssymbol Lightsource Color 365.01 i Hg UV-A 404.66 h Hg violet 435.84 g Hg blue 479.99 Cd blue 486.13 F H blue 546.07 e Hg green 587.56 d He yellow 589.3 D Na yellow 643.85 Cd red 656.27 C H red 706.52 r He red 768.2 K IR-A 852.11 s Cs IR-A 1013.98 t Hg IR-A Derivation Starting from the Lensmaker's equation we obtain the thin lens equation by dropping a small term that accounts for lens thickness, \ d\ : P \frac{ 1 }{\ f ~} (n - 1) \Biggl[ \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } + \frac{\ (n-1)\ d ~}{\ n\ R_1 R_2\ } \Biggr] \approx (n - 1) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\ , when d \ll \sqrt{\ R_1 R_2\ } ~. The change of refractive power \ P\ between the two wavelengths \ \lambda_\mathsf{short}\ and \ \lambda_\mathsf{long}\ is given by \Delta P P_\mathsf{short} - P_\mathsf{\ \!long} (n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf \ell) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\ , where \ n_\mathsf s\ and \ n_\mathsf \ell\ are the short and long wavelengths' refractive indexes, respectively, and \ n_\mathsf c\ , below, is for the center. The power difference can be expressed relative to the power at the center wavelength (\ \lambda_\mathsf{center}\ ) \ P_\mathsf c\ = (n_\mathsf c - 1) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right)\, ; by multiplying and dividing by \ n_\mathsf c - 1\ and regrouping, get \Delta P \left( n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf\ell \right) \left( \frac{\ n_\mathsf c - 1\ }{ n_\mathsf c - 1 } \right) \left( \frac{ 1 }{\ R_1\ } - \frac{ 1 }{\ R_2\ } \right) \left( \frac{\ \ n_\mathsf s - n_\mathsf\ell\ }{ n_\mathsf c - 1 } \right) P_\mathsf c = \frac{\ P_\mathsf c\ }{ V_\mathsf c } ~. The relative change is inversely proportional to \ V_\mathsf c\ : \frac{\ \Delta P\ }{ P_\mathsf c } = \frac{ 1 }{\ V_\mathsf c\ } ~. See also Abbe prism Abbe refractometer Calculation of glass properties, including Abbe number Glass code Sellmeier equation, more comprehensive and physically based modeling of dispersion References External links Abbe graph and data for 356 glasses from Ohara, Hoya, and Schott Category:Dimensionless numbers of physics Category:Optical quantities Category:Glass physics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbe_number	2025-04-05T18:26:00.947426
2331	ACN	ACN may refer to: Aviation ACN, the IATA airport code for Ciudad Acuña International Airport, Coahuila, Mexico Aircraft Classification Number, pavement load of an aircraft Chemistry Acetonitrile, CH3CN Acrylonitrile, CH2CHCN Corporate names and media Accenture, professional services company, listed on the NYSE as ACN ACN Inc., multi-level marketing company providing telecommunications and other services Agencia Carabobeña de Noticias, news agency, Valencia, Venezuela Agència Catalana de Notícies, news agency, Barcelona, Spain American Collectibles Network, former name for Jewelry Television, US Atlantis Cable News, fictional news channel on The Newsroom (American TV series) Australian Company Number, unique identifier for companies registered in Australia Sport Africa Cup of Nations, biennial football tournament Hockey Africa Cup of Nations, biennial field hockey tournament: Men's Hockey Africa Cup of Nations Women's Hockey Africa Cup of Nations Other uses Achang language, a Tibeto-Burman language of China Achnasheen railway station, UK, National Rail code Acineta, a genus of orchid Action Congress of Nigeria, political party of Nigeria Agenzia per la Cybersicurezza Nazionale, Italian government cybersecurity agency, Italy Aid to the Church in Need, international Catholic charity based in Königstein im Taunus, Germany Algebraic notation (chess), the standard notation for recording chess games (Algebraic chess notation) Andean Community of Nations, free trade area Anglican Communion Network, network of Anglican and Episcopalian dioceses and parishes ante Christum natum, seldom-used Latin equivalent of BC Architecture for Control Networks, network protocol for theatrical control	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACN	2025-04-05T18:26:00.972692
2332	AD (disambiguation)	AD (Anno Domini) is a designation used to label years following 1 BC in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Ad (advertisement) is a form of marketing communication. AD, A.D. or Ad may also refer to: Art, entertainment, and media Film and television A.D. (film), a 2010 animated zombie horror film A.D. (miniseries), a 1985 television miniseries set in ancient Rome A.D. The Bible Continues, a 2015 biblical drama television miniseries Arrested Development, an American television sitcom Attarintiki Daredi, 2013 Indian film by Trivikram Srinivas Audio description, a service for visually impaired audience on some TV programs Music AD (band), a Christian rock band A.D. (album), by Solace Publications AD (poem), by Kenneth Fearing A.D.: New Orleans After the Deluge, a nonfiction graphic novel about Hurricane Katrina Algemeen Dagblad, a Dutch newspaper Architectural Digest, an interior design and landscaping magazine Other art, entertainment, and media Audio description track, a narration track for visually impaired consumers of visual media Brands and enterprises Alexander Dennis, a British bus manufacturer Akcionersko društvo (aкционерско друштво), a Macedonian name for a type of company Aktsionerno drujestvo (акционерно дружество), a Bulgarian name for a type of company akcionarsko društvo (aкционарско друштво), a Serbian name for a type of company Analog Devices, a semiconductor company Educational qualifications Artist diploma, a music performance certificate conferred by higher education institutions. Military Accidental discharge, a mechanical failure of a firearm causing it to fire Active duty, a status of full duty or service, usually in the armed forces Air defense, an anti-aircraft weaponry and systems Air Department, part of the British Admiralty A US Navy hull classification symbol: Destroyer tender (AD) AD Skyraider, former name of the Douglas A-1 Skyraider, a Navy attack aircraft Organizations Action Directe, a French far-left militant group Democratic Action (Venezuela) (), a social democratic and center-left political party Democratic Alliance (Portugal, 1979) (), a former centre-right political alliance Democratic Alternative (Malta) (), a green political party People Ad (name), a given name, and a list of people with the name ‘Ad, great-grandson of Shem, son of Noah Anthony Davis (born 1993), American basketball player A. D. Loganathan (1888–1949), officer of the Indian National Army A. D. Whitfield (born 1943), American football player A. D. Winans (born 1936), American poet, essayist, short story writer and publisher A.D., nickname of Adrian Peterson (born 1985), American football player Places AD, ISO 3166-1 country for Andorra Abu Dhabi, capital of the United Arab Emirates AD, herbarium code for the State Herbarium of South Australia Andhra Pradesh, a state in southern India (HASC code) Professions Art director, for a magazine or newspaper Assistant director, a film or television crew member Athletic director, the administrator of an athletics program Science and technology Biology and medicine Addison's disease, an endocrine disorder Adenovirus, viruses of the family Adenoviridae Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative disease Anaerobic digestion, processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material Anti-diarrheal, medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhea Aortic dissection, which occurs when an injury to the innermost layer of the aorta allows blood to flow between the layers of the aortic wall, forcing the layers apart Approximate digestibility, an index measure of the digestibility of animal feed Atopic dermatitis, form of skin inflammation Atypical depression, a type of depression Autosomal dominant, a classification of genetic traits Autonomic dysreflexia, a potential medical emergency Chemistry Adamantyl, abbreviated "Ad" in organic chemistry Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, a type of organic chemical reaction Computing .ad, the top level domain for Andorra Administrative distance, a metric in routing Active Directory, software for the management of Microsoft Windows domains Administrative domain, a computer networking facility Analog-to-digital converter, a type of electronic circuit Automatic differentiation, a set of computer programming techniques to speedily compute derivatives AD16, the hexadecimal number equal to decimal number 173 Mathematics Adjoint representation of a Lie group, abbreviated "Ad" in mathematics Axiom of determinacy, a set theory axiom Physics Antiproton Decelerator, a device at the CERN physics laboratory Autodynamics, a physics theory Other uses in science and technology Active disassembly, a technology supporting the cost-effective deconstruction of complex materials Transportation AD, IATA code for: Air Paradise, a defunct Indonesian airline Azul Brazilian Airlines Airworthiness Directive, an aircraft maintenance requirement notice Other uses ʿĀd, an ancient Arab tribe, mentioned in the Quran Aggregate demand, in macroeconomics Anno Diocletiani, an alternative year numbering system United States Academic Decathlon, a high school academic competition See also Anno Domini (disambiguation) BC (disambiguation) Domino (disambiguation) Dominus (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:26:01.003246
2333	Ablative case	thumb\|upright=1.3\|Introduction to the ablative case from a 1903 Latin textbook In grammar, the ablative case (pronounced ; abbreviated ) is a grammatical case for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the grammars of various languages. It is used to indicate motion away from something, make comparisons, and serve various other purposes. The word "ablative" derives from the Latin , the (suppletive) perfect, passive participle of auferre "to carry away". The ablative case is found in several language families, such as Indo-European (e.g. Sanskrit, Latin, Albanian, Armenian, Punjabi), Turkic (e.g. Turkish, Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar), Tungusic (e.g. Manchu, Evenki), Uralic (e.g. Hungarian), and the Dravidian languages. There is no ablative case in modern Germanic languages such as German and English. There was an ablative case in the early stages of Ancient Greek, but it quickly fell into disuse by the classical period. Indo-European languages Latin The ablative case in Latin () appears in various grammatical constructions, including following various prepositions, in an ablative absolute clause, and adverbially. The Latin ablative case was derived from three Proto-Indo-European cases: ablative (from), instrumental (with), and locative (in/at). Greek In Ancient Greek, there was an ablative case ( ) which was used in the Homeric, pre-Mycenaean, and Mycenean periods. It fell into disuse during the classical period and thereafter with some of its functions taken by the genitive and others by the dative. The genitive case with the prepositions and is an example. German German does not have an ablative case but, exceptionally, Latin ablative case-forms were used from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century after some prepositions, for example after in : ablative of the Latin loanword . Grammarians at that time, Justus Georg Schottel, Kaspar von Stieler, Johann Balthasar von Antesperg and Johann Christoph Gottsched, listed an ablative case (as the sixth case after nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative) for German words. They arbitrarily considered the dative case after some prepositions to be an ablative, as in and , while they considered the dative case after other prepositions or without a preposition, as in , to be a dative. Albanian The ablative case is found in Albanian; it is the fifth case, . Sanskrit In Sanskrit, the ablative case is the fifth case () and has a similar function to that in Latin. Sanskrit nouns in the ablative often refer to a subject "out of" which or "from" whom something (an action, an object) has arisen or occurred: . It is also used for nouns in several other senses, as for actions occurring "because of" or "without" a certain noun, indicating distance or direction. When it appears with a comparative adjective, ( ), the ablative is used to refer to what the adjective is comparing: . Armenian The modern Armenian ablative has different markers for each main dialect, both originating from Classical Armenian. The Western Armenian affix (definite ) derives from the classical singular; the Eastern Armenian affix (both indefinite and definite) derives from the classical plural. For both dialects, those affixes are singular, with the corresponding plurals being and . Western Eastern Gloss from (a) man from the man from a house/from home from the house The ablative case has several uses. Its principal function is to show "motion away" from a location, point in space or time: Western Eastern Gloss I came from the city I used to live far from here It also shows the agent when it is used with the passive voice of the verb: Western Eastern Gloss You were always loved by me. We were freed by the liberators. It is also used for comparative statements in colloquial Armenian (including infinitives and participles): Western Eastern Gloss "What is sweeter than honey?" (proverb) Mary is younger (lit. smaller) than her brother Figs are better to taste than to see Finally, it governs certain postpositions: Western Eastern Gloss below me above you after them before us Uralic languages Finnish In Finnish, the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning "from, off, of": pöytä – pöydältä "table – off from the table". It is an outer locative case, used like the adessive and allative cases, to denote both being on top of something and "being around the place" (as opposed to the inner locative case, the elative, which means "from out of" or "from the inside of"). With the locative, the receding object was near the other place or object, not inside it. The Finnish ablative is also used in time expressions to indicate times of something happening (kymmeneltä "at ten") as well as with verbs expressing feelings or emotions. The Finnish ablative has the ending -lta or -ltä, depending on vowel harmony. Usage away from a place katolta: off the roof pöydältä: off the table rannalta: from the beach maalta: from the land mereltä: from the sea from a person, object or other entity häneltä: from him/her/them with the verb lähteä (stop) lähteä tupakalta: stop smoking (in the sense of putting out the cigarette one is smoking now, lit. 'leave from the tobacco') lähteä hippasilta: stop playing tag (hippatag, olla hippasillaplaying tag) to smell/taste/feel/look/sound like something haisee pahalta: smells bad maistuu hyvältä: tastes good tuntuu kamalalta: feels awful näyttää tyhmältä: looks stupid kuulostaa mukavalta: sounds nice Estonian The ablative case in Estonian is the ninth case and has a similar function to that in Hungarian. Hungarian The ablative case in Hungarian is used to describe movement away from, as well as a concept, object, act or event originating from an object, person, location or entity. For example, one walking away from a friend who gave him a gift could say the following: a barátomtól jövök (I am coming (away) from my friend). a barátomtól kaptam egy ajándékot (I got a gift from my friend). When used to describe movement away from a location, the case may only refer to movement from the general vicinity of the location and not from inside of it. Thus, a postától jövök would mean one had been standing next to the post office before, not inside the building. When the case is used to refer to the origin of a possible act or event, the act/event may be implied while not explicitly stated, such as : I will defend you from the robber. The application of vowel harmony gives two different suffixes: -tól and -től. These are applied to back-vowel and front-vowel words, respectively. Hungarian has a narrower delative case, similar to ablative, but more specific: movement off/from a surface of something, with suffixes -ról and -ről. Turkic languages Azerbaijani The ablative in Azerbaijani () is expressed through the suffixes or : Tatar The ablative in Tatar () is expressed through the suffixes ,, , , , or : Turkish The ablative in Turkish ( or ) is expressed through the suffix (which changes to , , or to accommodate the vowel and voicing harmony): In some situations simple ablative can have a "because of" meaning; in these situations, ablative can be optionally followed by the postposition . Tungusic Manchu The ablative in Manchu is expressed through the suffix and can also be used to express comparisons. It is usually not directly attached to its parent word. Evenki The ablative in Evenki is expressed with the suffix . See also Allative case Delative case Locative case Further reading References Category:Grammatical cases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ablative_case	2025-04-05T18:26:01.069234
2335	Adamic language	{{Short description\|Language spoken by Adam in the Garden of Eden}} {{redirect\|Adamic}} {{pp\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2020}} . In some interpretations, he uses the “Adamic language” to do so.]] The Adamic language, according to Jewish tradition (as recorded in the midrashim) and some Christians, is the language spoken by Adam (and possibly Eve) in the Garden of Eden. It is variously interpreted as either the language used by God to address Adam (the divine language), or the language invented by Adam with which he named all things (including Eve), as in the second Genesis creation narrative ({{bibleref\|Genesis\|2:19\|KJV}}). In the Middle Ages, various Jewish commentators held that Adam spoke Hebrew, a view also addressed in various ways by the late medieval Italian poet Dante Alighieri. In the early modern period, some authors continued to discuss the possibility of an Adamic language, some continuing to hold to the idea that it was Hebrew, while others such as John Locke were more skeptical. According to Ethiopian and Eritrean traditions, the ancient Semitic language of Geʽez is the language of Adam, the first and original language.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleIs 'Ge'ez' the original language of humanity? {{!}} Ethiopia The Kingdom of God \|urlhttps://ethiopiathekingdomofgod.org/content/%E2%80%98geez%E2%80%99-original-language-humanity \|access-date2023-01-03 \|websiteethiopiathekingdomofgod.org}}</ref> More recently, a variety of Mormon authors have expressed various opinions about the nature of the Adamic language. Patristic period Augustine addresses the issue in The City of God.<ref>Book XVI, chs. 10 – 12.</ref> While not explicit, the implication of there being but one human language prior to the Tower of Babel's collapse is that the language, which was preserved by Heber and his son Peleg, and which is recognized as the language passed down to Abraham and his descendants, is the language that would have been used by Adam. Middle Ages {{further\|Confusion of tongues\|Lingua ignota}} Traditional Jewish exegesis such as Midrash<ref>Genesis Rabbah 38</ref> says that Adam spoke the Hebrew language because the names he gives Eve – Isha<ref>Book of Genesis 2:23</ref> and Chava<ref>Genesis 3:20</ref> – only make sense in Hebrew. By contrast, Kabbalah assumed an "eternal Torah" which was not identical to the Torah written in Hebrew. Thus, Abraham Abulafia in the 13th century assumed that the language spoken in Paradise had been different from Hebrew, and rejected the claim then-current also among Christian authors, that a child left unexposed to linguistic stimulus would automatically begin to speak in Hebrew.<ref>Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language (1993), p. 32 f.</ref> Both Muslim and Christian Arabs, such as Sulayman al-Ghazzi, considered Syriac the language spoken by Adam and Eve.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Noble \|first1Samuel \|last2Treiger \|first2Alexander \|titleThe Orthodox Church in the Arab World, 700–1700: An Anthology of Sources \|date15 March 2014 \|publisherCornell University Press \|isbn978-1-5017-5130-1 \|page164 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq6rMDwAAQBAJ \|access-date17 March 2024 \|language=en}}</ref> Umberto Eco (1993) notes that Genesis is ambiguous on whether the language of Adam was preserved by Adam's descendants until the confusion of tongues,<ref>Genesis 11:1–9</ref> or if it began to evolve naturally even before Babel.<ref>Genesis 10:5</ref><ref>Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language (1993), 7–10.</ref> Dante Alighieri addresses the topic in his De vulgari eloquentia (1302–1305). He argues that the Adamic language is of divine origin and therefore unchangeable.<ref>Mazzocco, p. 159</ref> He also notes that according to Genesis, the first speech act is due to Eve, addressing the serpent, and not to Adam.<ref>mulierem invenitur ante omnes fuisse locutam. Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language (1993), p. 50.</ref> In his Divine Comedy (c. 1308–1320), however, Dante changes his view to another that treats the Adamic language as the product of Adam.<ref>Mazzocco, p. 170</ref> This had the consequence that it could no longer be regarded as immutable, and hence Hebrew could not be regarded as identical with the language of Paradise. Dante concludes (Paradiso XXVI) that Hebrew is a derivative of the language of Adam. In particular, the chief Hebrew name for God in scholastic tradition, El, must be derived of a different Adamic name for God, which Dante gives as I.<ref>Pria ch’i’ scendessi a l’infernale ambascia,<br> I s’appellava in terra il sommo bene<br> onde vien la letizia che mi fascia<br> <br> Before I was sent down to Hell’s torments,<br> on earth, the Highest Good—from which derives<br> the joy that now enfolds me—was called I.<br> Paradiso 26.133f.; Mazzocco, p. 178f.</ref> Early modern period Proponents {{more citations needed section\|date=January 2018}} Elizabethan scholar John Dee makes references to a language he called "Angelical", which he recorded in his private journals and those of scryer Edward Kelley. Dee's journals did not describe the language as "Enochian", instead preferring "Angelical", the "Celestial Speech", the "Language of Angels", the "First Language of God-Christ", the "Holy Language", or "Adamical" because, according to Dee's Angels, it was used by Adam in Paradise to name all things. The language was later dubbed Enochian, due to Dee's assertion that the Biblical Patriarch Enoch had been the last human (before Dee and Kelley) to know the language. Dutch physician, linguist, and humanist Johannes Goropius Becanus (1519–1572) theorized in Origines Antwerpianae (1569) that Antwerpian Babrantic, spoken in the region between the Scheldt and Meuse Rivers, was the original language spoken in Paradise. Goropius believed that the most ancient language on Earth would be the simplest language, and that the simplest language would contain mostly short words. Since Brabantic has a higher number of short words than do Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, Goropius reasoned that it was the older language.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGorporius Becanus \|firstJohannes \|date2014 \|titleVan Adam tot Antwerpen: Een bloemlezing uit de Origines Antwerpianae en de Opera van Johannes Goropius Becanus \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbgWyCAAAQBAJ&pg265 \|locationHilversum \|publisherUitgeverij Verloren \|pages265–77 \|isbn9789087044312}}</ref> His work influenced that of Simon Stevin (1548–1620), who espoused similar ideas in "Uytspraeck van de weerdicheyt der Duytse tael", a chapter in De Beghinselen Der Weeghconst (1586). Opponents By the 17th century, the existence and nature of the alleged Adamic language was commonly discussed amongst European Jewish and Christian mystics and primitive linguists.<ref name"Noordegraaf">{{Cite journal \|lastNoordegraaf \|firstJan \|date1983 \|titleNog eens Hedendaagsch fetischisme \|urlhttp://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_voo004198301_01/_voo004198301_01_0009.php \|journalVoortgang \|publisherStichting Neerlandistiek VU \|volume4 \|issue10 \|pages193–230 \|access-date=16 January 2018}}</ref> Robert Boyle (1627–1691) was skeptical that Hebrew was the language best capable of describing the nature of things, stating: <blockquote>I could never find, that the Hebrew names of animals, mentioned in the beginning of Genesis, argued a (much) clearer insight into their natures, than did the names of the same or some other animals in Greek, or other languages (1665:45).<ref name="Noordegraaf"/></blockquote> John Locke (1632–1704) expressed similar skepticism in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).<ref name"Noordegraaf"/> Modern period Latter Day Saint movement Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, in his revision of the Bible, declared the Adamic language to have been "pure and undefiled".<ref>Book of Moses [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/6.6?langeng 6:6].</ref> Some Mormons believe it to be the language of God.<ref>{{citation \|firstJohn S. \|last Robertson \|contribution-urlhttp://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/5449 \|contribution Adamic Language \|pages18–19 \|editor-last Ludlow \|editor-firstDaniel H \|editor-link Daniel H. Ludlow \|year1992 \|title Encyclopedia of Mormonism \|locationNew York \|publisher Macmillan Publishing \|isbn0-02-879602-0 \|oclc 24502140 }}</ref> Glossolalia, or speaking in tongues, was commonplace in the early years of the movement, and it was commonly believed that the incomprehensible language spoken during these incidents was the language of Adam. However, this belief seems to have never been formally or officially adopted.<ref>Copeland, Lee. "Speaking in Tongues in the Restoration Churches", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Vol 24, No. 1</ref> Some other early Latter Day Saint leaders, including Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT/MStar&CISOPTR7661&filename7662.pdf "History of Brigham Young"] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110612023524/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT%2FMStar&CISOPTR7661&filename7662.pdf \|date12 June 2011 }}, Millennial Star, vol. 25, no. 28, p. 439 (1863-07-11), cited in History of the Church 1:297, footnote (Young prays in the Adamic tongue).</ref> Orson Pratt,<ref name"Pratt">Journal of Discourses [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT/JournalOfDiscourses3&CISOPTR1953&filename100504_170857_cp342_Va_M230_J82_v02.pdf 2:342] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071025133000/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT%2FJournalOfDiscourses3&CISOPTR1953&filename100504_170857_cp342_Va_M230_J82_v02.pdf \|date25 October 2007 }} (God "Ahman"; Son of God "Son Ahman"; Men "Sons Ahman"; Angel "Anglo-man").</ref> and Elizabeth Ann Whitney,<ref>''Woman's Exponent [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT/WomansExp&CISOPTR6638&filename6639.pdf 7:83] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071025132953/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT%2FWomansExp&CISOPTR6638&filename6639.pdf \|date25 October 2007 }} (1 November 1878) (Whitney sings a hymn in the Adamic tongue).</ref> claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language by revelation. Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language is the "pure language" spoken of by Zephaniah<ref>Zephaniah {{bibleverse-nb\|\|Zephaniah\|3:9}}</ref> and that it will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.<ref>Oliver Cowdery, [http://patriot.lib.byu.edu/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT/NCMP1820-1846&CISOPTR10065&filename5298.pdf "The Prophecy of Zephaniah"]{{dead link\|dateOctober 2016 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}, Evening and Morning Star, vol. 2, no. 18, p. 142 (March 1834).</ref><ref>Bruce R. McConkie (1966, 2d ed.). Mormon Doctrine (Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft) p. 19.</ref><ref>Ezra Taft Benson (1988). Teachings of Ezra Taft Benson (Salt Lake City, Utah: Bookcraft) p. 93.</ref> Apostle Orson Pratt declared that "Ahman", part of the name of the settlement "Adam-ondi-Ahman" in Daviess County, Missouri, was the name of God in the Adamic language.<ref name = Pratt/> An 1832 handwritten page from the Joseph Smith Papers, titled "A Sample of the Pure Language", and reportedly dictated by Smith to "Br. Johnson", asserts that the name of God is Awman.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161122044333/http://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/sample-of-pure-language-between-circa-4-and-circa-20-march-1832/1 "Sample of the Pure Language" ca. March 1832]</ref> The Latter Day Saint endowment prayer circle once included use of the words "Pay Lay Ale".<ref>Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith, The Mormon Murders'' (New York: St. Martins's Press, 1988) {{ISBN\|0-312-93410-6}}, p. 69. "the sign of the Second Token [is] raising both hands and then lowering them while repeating the incantation "Pay Lay Ale" three times"</ref> These untranslated words are no longer used in temple ordinances and have been replaced by an English version, "O God, hear the words of my mouth".<ref name"SLCM">[http://www.utlm.org/newsletters/no76.htm "Current Mormon Temple Ceremony Now Available"], Salt Lake City Messenger, no. 76, November 1990.</ref> Some believe that the "Pay Lay Ale" sentence is derived from the Hebrew phrase "pe le-El" ({{lang\|he\|פה לאל}}), "mouth to God".<ref name SLCM/> "Pay Lay Ale" was identified in the temple ceremony as words from the "pure Adamic language".<ref name"Mirage">{{cite book \|last Scott\|firstLatayne\|date2009\|titleThe Mormon Mirage: A Former Member Looks at the Mormon Church Today \|publisher Zondervan\|page332 \|isbn 978-0-310-29153-4}}</ref> Other words thought by some Latter Day Saints to derive from the Adamic language include deseret ("honey bee")<ref>{{cite book\|titleBook of Mormon\|urlhttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm/ether/2.3?langeng\|othersEther 2:3}}</ref> and Ahman ("God").<ref>{{cite book\|titleDoctrine and Covenants\|urlhttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/scriptures/doctrineandcovenants/78.20?langeng\|othersDoctrine and Covenants 78:20}}</ref> The Book of Moses refers to "a book of remembrance" written in the language of Adam.<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/moses/6.5,46?langeng Moses 6:5, 46].</ref>Goidelic languagesNicholas Wolf writes that 19th-century Irish language speakers and publications claim that Irish (or some Goidelic language) is a language of Biblical primacy comparable to Hebrew, with some claiming it was the language of Adam.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Wolf \|first1Nicholas M. \|titleWhen Irish was still the greatest little language in the world \|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/when-irish-was-still-the-greatest-little-language-in-the-world-1.2082623 \|access-date9 February 2019 \|newspaperThe Irish Times \|languageen \|postscript,}} citing {{cite book\| lastWolf \|firstNicholas M. \|titleAn Irish-Speaking Island: State, Religion, Community, and the Linguistic Landscape in Ireland, 1770–1870 \|publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Press \|dateNovember 2014 \|isbn978-0-299-30274-0 \|page36-37}} See also an overview at {{cite web \|last1McEwan \|first1Emily \|titleGaelic design for the 21st century: A laptop decal \|urlhttps://gaelic.co/gaelic-laptop-decal/ \|access-date9 February 2019 \|websiteGaelic.co \|date27 February 2015 \|languageen}}</ref> In popular culture In the videogame Indiana Jones and the Great Circle, the language Adamic is discovered by the protagonist as an early human language spoken by giants, which was adapted into Egyptian and Sumerian in ancient times. It is also represented on stone tablets, resembling logographic writing systems of the early Bronze age. See also * History of linguistics * Mythical origins of language * Origin of language * Proto-Human language * Universal language * Enochian * Sacred language References {{reflist}} Bibliography * Allison P. Coudert (ed.), The Language of Adam = Die Sprache Adams, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999. * Angelo Mazzocco, Linguistic Theories in Dante and the Humanists, (chapter 9: "Dante's Reappraisal of the Adamic language", 159–181). * Umberto Eco, The Search for the Perfect Language (1993). {{Adam and Eve}} {{authority control}} Category:Dante Alighieri Category:Hebrew language Category:Kabbalah Category:Language and mysticism Category:Latter Day Saint temple practices Category:Midrashim Category:Obsolete scientific theories Category:Religious language Category:Spurious languages Category:Adam and Eve	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamic_language	2025-04-05T18:26:01.116991
2338	Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny	{{short description\|Political-satirical opera composed by Kurt Weill to a German libretto by Bertolt Brecht}} {{redirect\|Havana Song\|the 2017 song\|Havana (Camila Cabello song)}} {{Redirect\|Mahagonny\|the Mahagonny-Songspiel\|Mahagonny-Songspiel}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2020}} {{Infobox opera \| name = {{lang\|de\|Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny}} \| type = Political-satirical opera \| composer = {{nowrap\|Kurt Weill}} \| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2005-0119, Kurt Weill.jpg \| caption = Weill in 1932 \| image_upright = 1.2 \| translated_name = Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny \| librettist = Bertolt Brecht \| language = German \| based_on \| premiere_date {{Start date\|1930\|03\|09\|df=y}} \| premiere_location {{Lang\|de\|Neues Theater\|italicno}}, Leipzig }} Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny ({{langx\|de\|Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny\|linksyes}}) is a political-satirical opera composed by Kurt Weill to a German libretto by Bertolt Brecht. It was first performed on 9 March 1930 at the {{Lang\|de\|Neues Theater\|italicno}} in Leipzig. Some interpreters have viewed the play as a critique of American society. Others have perceived it as a critique of the chaotic and immoral Weimar Republic, particularly Berlin of the 1920s with its rampant prostitution, unstable government, political corruption, and economic crises.<ref>[https://www.enotes.com/topics/rise-fall-city-mahagonny Study Guide: Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny], enotes.com {{subscription required}}</ref> {{unreliable source?\|dateAugust 2023}} Composition history Weill was asked by the 1927 Baden-Baden music festival committee to write a one-act chamber opera for the festival. He ended up writing Mahagonny-Songspiel, sometimes known as Das kleine Mahagonny, a concert work commissioned for voices and a small orchestra. The work was written in May 1927, and performed in June. It consisted of eleven numbers, including "Alabama Song" and "Benares Song".<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.kwf.org/kurt-weill/recommended/1926-1933-rise-to-fame-text-only/\|title1926-1933: Rise to Fame\|websitewww.kwf.org \|access-date=June 10, 2024}}</ref> Weill then continued to rework the material into a full opera while Brecht worked on the libretto. The opera had its premiere in Leipzig on 9 March 1930 and played in Berlin in December of the following year. The opera was banned by the Nazis in 1933 and did not have a significant production until the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2015/mar/03/when-brecht-met-weill-a-dazzling-but-doomed-partnership\|titleWhen Brecht met Weill: a dazzling but doomed partnership\|lastHensher\|firstPhilip\|date2015-03-03\|workThe Guardian\|access-date2019-02-23\|issn0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2010/12/10/131932982/decadence-and-decay-kurt-weill-s-mahagonny\|titleDecadence and Decay: Kurt Weill's Mahagonny\|websiteNPR\|access-date2019-02-23}}</ref><ref nameDrew>{{Cite journal\|lastDrew\|firstDavid\|author-linkDavid Drew (music critic)\|dateJanuary 1963\|titleThe History of Mahahonny\|journalThe Musical Times\|volume184\|issue1439\|pages18–24\|doi10.2307/951087\|jstor951087}}</ref> Weill's score uses a number of styles, including ragtime, jazz and formal counterpoint. The "Alabama Song" has been interpreted by a range of artists, notably Ute Lemper, The Doors and David Bowie.{{fact\|dateDecember 2023}} Language The lyrics for the "Alabama Song" and another song, the "Benares Song", are in English (albeit specifically idiosyncratic English) and are performed in that language even when the opera is performed in its original (German) language. A few lines of the briefly interpolated song, "Asleep in the Deep" (1897), lyrics by Arthur J. Lamb, music by H. W. Petrie, referred to in the opera by its opening words, "Stürmisch die Nacht " or "Stormy the Deep", are sung in the German version of the song, composed on verses of Martell, under the title "Des Seemanns Los" (The Sailor's Fate), when the opera is sung in the original German. Although the name of the city itself sounds like the English word mahogany and its German-language equivalent, Mahagoni, the character Leokadja Begbick states that it means "City of Nets"{{efn\|1Act 1, scene: Begbick: "Darum lasst uns hier eine Stadt gründen und sie nennen Mahagonny, das heißt: Netzestadt! ... Sie soll sein wie ein Netz, das für die essbaren Vögel gestellt wird." [Therefore let us here found a city und name it Mahagonny, which means: city of nets! It shall be like a net that is set for edible birds.]}} while Brecht stated that it was a made-up word.<ref nameDrew /><ref>{{cite journal\|lastMüller-Schöll\|firstNikolaus\|author-link:de:Nikolaus Müller-Schöll\|title'... just an invented word'\|journalTDR\|volume43\|number4\|seriesGerman Brecht, European Reading\|dateWinter 1999\|pages27–30\|doi10.1162/105420499760263471\|s2cid57566817}}</ref> Performance history The opera has played in opera houses around the world. Never achieving the popularity of Weill and Brecht's The Threepenny Opera, Mahagonny is still considered a work of stature with a haunting score. Herbert Lindenberger in his book Opera in History, for example, views Mahagonny alongside Schoenberg's Moses und Aron as indicative of the two poles of modernist opera. Following the Leipzig premiere, the opera was presented in Berlin in December 1931 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm conducted by Alexander von Zemlinsky with Lotte Lenya as Jenny, Trude Hesterberg as Begbick, and Harald Paulsen as Jimmy. Another production was presented in January 1934 in Copenhagen at the Det Ny Teater. Other productions within Europe waited until the end of the Second World War, some notable ones being in January 1963 in London at Sadler's Wells Opera conducted by Colin Davis and in Berlin in September 1977 by the Komische Oper. It was not presented in the United States until 1970, when a short-lived April production at the Phyllis Anderson Theatre off Broadway starred Barbara Harris as Jenny, Frank Porretta as Jimmy, and Estelle Parsons as Begbick.<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw2sZLVpH_jwC&pgPA129\|titleOff-Broadway Musicals since 1919: From Greenwich Village Follies to The Toxic Avenger\|authorThomas S. Hischak\|publisherScarecrow Press\|year2011\|page129\|isbn9780810877726}}</ref> It was then presented in Boston in 1973 under the direction of Sarah Caldwell.<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttp://www.thecrimson.com/article/1973/2/15/nights-at-the-opera-pinsofar-as/\|titleNights at the Opera\|authorSeth M. Kupferberg\|date15 February 1973\|magazineThe Harvard Crimson}}</ref> The first university production in the US was in 1973 at UC Berkeley, directed by Jean-Bernard Bucky and Michael Senturia.<ref>{{Cite journal\|titleAmerican Productions of The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny, 1970–2004\|authorSteve Earnest\|journalCommunications from the International Brecht Society\|volume33\|page38\|dateJune 2004\|urlhttps://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/AAA66FECTVFAAY8O/pages/ACXQO6SGVEA2528A\|access-date2021-07-09\|publisher=University of Wisconsin–Madison Libraries}}</ref> A full version was presented at the Yale Repertory Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1974, with Gilbert Price as Jimmy and Stephanie Cotsirilos as Jenny. Kurt Kasznar played Moses. The libretto was performed in an original translation by Michael Feingold; the production was directed by Alvin Epstein. In October 1978, Yale presented a "chamber version" adapted and directed by Keith Hack, with John Glover as Jimmy and June Gable as Begbick. Mark Linn-Baker played Fatty; Michael Gross was Trinity Moses. In November 1979, Mahagonny debuted at the Metropolitan Opera in a John Dexter production conducted by James Levine. The cast included Teresa Stratas as Jenny, Astrid Varnay as Begbick, Richard Cassilly as Jimmy, Cornell MacNeil as Moses, Ragnar Ulfung as Fatty and Paul Plishka as Joe. The production was televised in 1979 and was released on DVD in 2010. This production was streamed through the Met Opera on Demand platform on 12 December 2020 and 3-4 July 2021. The Los Angeles Opera presented the opera in September 1989 under conductor Kent Nagano and with a Jonathan Miller production. Other notable productions in Europe from the 1980s included the March 1986 presentation by the Scottish Opera in Glasgow; a June 1990 production in Florence by the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino. In October 1995 and 1997, the Paris Opera staged by Graham Vick, under the baton of Jeffrey Tate starring Marie McLaughlin as Jenny, Felicity Palmer (1995) and Kathryn Harries (1997) as Begbick, and Kim Begley (1995)/Peter Straka (1997) as Jimmy. The July 1998 Salzburg Festival production featured Catherine Malfitano as Jenny, Gwyneth Jones as Begbick, and Jerry Hadley as Jimmy.<ref>{{IMDb title\|qidQ130342885\|idtt0260714\|titleAufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny\|description(1998)}}</ref> The Vienna State Opera added it to its repertoire in January 2012 in a production by Jérôme Deschamps conducted by Ingo Metzmacher starring Christopher Ventris as Jimmy and Angelika Kirchschlager as Jenny, notably casting young mezzo-soprano Elisabeth Kulman as Begbick, breaking the tradition of having a veteran soprano (like Varnay or Jones) or musical theater singer (like Patti LuPone) perform the role. Productions within the US have included those in November 1998 by the Lyric Opera of Chicago directed by David Alden. Catherine Malfitano repeated her role as Jenny, while Felicity Palmer sang Begbick, and Kim Begley sang the role of Jimmy. The Los Angeles Opera's February 2007 production directed by John Doyle and conducted by James Conlon included Audra McDonald as Jenny, Patti LuPone as Begbick, and Anthony Dean Griffey as Jimmy. This production was recorded on DVD, and subsequently won the 2009 Grammy Awards for "Best Classical Album" and "Best Opera Recording."<ref>{{cite web\| titleThe 51st Annual Grammy Awards Winners List \|urlhttp://www.grammy.com/grammy_awards/51st_show/list.aspx#30 \| access-date=19 February 2009}}</ref> In 2014 it was performed using an alternate libretto as a "wrestling opera" at the Oakland Metro by the performers of Hoodslam.<ref>{{cite web\| titleHoodslam: The Opera \|urlhttp://birdswillfall.com/ \| access-date=23 November 2014}}</ref> A major new production had its world premiere in July 2019 at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in France conducted by Esa-Pekka Salonen with stage direction by Ivo van Hove. It is a co-production of Dutch National Opera, Metropolitan Opera, Opera Ballet Vlaanderen, and Les Theatres De La Ville De Luxembourg.<ref>[https://festival-aix.com/en/event/rise-and-fall-city-mahagonny Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny, 2019 performance details], Aix-en-Provence Festival</ref> Roles {\| class="wikitable" \|+{{sronly\|Roles, voice types, premiere cast}} !Role !Voice type !Premiere cast, 9 March 1930<br />Conductor: Gustav Brecher \|- \|Leokadja Begbick, a fugitive \|mezzo-soprano \|Marga Dannenberg<ref>{{cite book\|last1Schebera\|first1Jürgen\|author-link:de:Jürgen Schebera\|titleKurt Weill: An Illustrated Life\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/kurtweillillustr00sche\|url-accessregistration\|date1995\|publisherYale University Press\|locationNew Haven\|page[https://archive.org/details/kurtweillillustr00sche/page/151 151]}}</ref> \|- \|Dreieinigkeitsmoses (Trinity Moses), another fugitive \|baritone \|Walther Zimmer \|- \|Fatty der Prokurist (Fatty the Bookkeeper), a third fugitive \|tenor \|Hanns Fleischer \|- \|Jimmy Mahoney (Jimmy MacIntyre), an Alaskan lumberjack \|tenor \|Paul Beinert \|- \|Sparbüchsenbilly (Bank-Account Billy), ''Jimmy's friend'' \|baritone \|Theodor Horand \|- \|Jacob Schmidt (Jack O'Brien), ''Jimmy's friend \|tenor \|Hanns Hauschild \|- \|Joe, called Alaskawolfjoe, Jimmy's friend \|bass \|Ernst Osterkamp \|- \|Jenny Smith, a whore \|soprano \|Mali Trummer \|- \|Toby Higgins \|tenor \|Alfred Holländer \|- \|An announcer \| \| \|} Synopsis Act 1 Scene 1: A desolate no-man's land A truck breaks down. Three fugitives from justice get out and find themselves in the city of Mahagonny: Fatty the Bookkeeper, Trinity Moses, and Leocadia Begbick. Because the federal agents pursuing them will not search this far north, and they are in a good location to attract ships coming south from the Alaskan gold fields, Begbick decides that they can profit by staying where they are and founding a pleasure city, where men can have fun, because there is nothing else in the world to rely on. {{listen\|typemusic\|filenameMahagonny Alabama Song.ogg\|titleAlabama Song\|descriptionExcerpt from the "Alabama Song" as sung in act 1, scene 2}} Scene 2 The news of Mahagonny spreads quickly, and sharks from all over flock to the bait, including the whore Jenny Smith, who is seen, with six other girls, singing the "Alabama Song", in which she waves goodbye to her home and sets out in pursuit of whiskey, dollars and pretty boys. Scene 3 In the big cities, where men lead boring, purposeless lives, Fatty and Moses spread the gospel of Mahagonny, city of gold, among the disillusioned. Scene 4 Four Alaskan Lumberjacks who have shared hard times together in the timberlands and made their fortunes set off together for Mahagonny. Jimmy Mahoney and his three friends&nbsp;– Jacob Schmidt, Bank Account Billy, and Alaska Wolf Joe&nbsp;– sing of the pleasures awaiting them in "Off to Mahagonny", and look forward to the peace and pleasure they will find there. Scene 5'' The four friends arrive in Mahagonny, only to find other disappointed travelers already leaving. Begbick, well-informed about their personal tastes, marks down her prices, but for the penurious Billy, they still seem too high. Jimmy impatiently calls for the girls of Mahagonny to show themselves, so he can make a choice. Begbick suggests Jenny as the right girl for Jack, who finds her rates too high. She pleads with Jack to reconsider ("Havana Song"), which arouses Jim's interest, and he chooses her. Jenny and the girls sing a tribute to "the Jimmys from Alaska." Scene 6 Jimmy and Jenny get to know one another as she asks him to define the terms of their contact: Does he wish her to wear her hair up or down, to wear fancy underwear or none at all? "What is your wish?" asks Jim, but Jenny evades answering. Scene 7 Begbick, Fatty, and Moses meet to discuss the pleasure city's financial crisis: People are leaving in droves, and the price of whiskey is sinking rapidly. Begbick suggests going back to civilization, but Fatty reminds her that the federal agents have been inquiring for her in nearby Pensacola. Money would solve everything, declares Begbick, and she decides to soak the four new arrivals for all they've got. Scene 8 Jimmy, restless, attempts to leave Mahagonny because he misses the wife he left in Alaska. Scene 9 In front of the Rich Man's Hotel, Jimmy and the others sit lazily as a pianist plays Tekla Bądarzewska's "A Maiden's Prayer". With growing anger, Jimmy sings of how his hard work and suffering in Alaska have led only to this. Drawing a knife, he shouts for Begbick, while his friends try to disarm him and the other men call to have him thrown out. Calm again, he tells Begbick that Mahagonny can never make people happy: it has too much peace and quiet. Scene 10 As if in answer to Jimmy's complaint, the city is threatened by a hurricane. Everyone sings in horror of the destruction awaiting them. Scene 11 Tensely, people watch for the hurricane's arrival. The men sing a hymn-like admonition not to be afraid. Jim meditatively compares Nature's savagery to the far greater destructiveness of Man. Why do we build, he asks, if not for the pleasure of destroying? Since Man can outdo any hurricane, fear makes no sense. For the sake of human satisfaction, nothing should be forbidden: If you want another man's money, his house or his wife, knock him down and take it; do what you please. As Begbick and the men ponder Jimmy's philosophy, Fatty and Moses rush in with news: The hurricane has unexpectedly struck Pensacola, destroying Begbick's enemies, the federal agents. Begbick and her cohorts take it as a sign that Jimmy is right; they join him, Jenny, and his three friends in singing a new, defiant song: If someone walks over someone else, then it's me, and if someone gets walked on, then it's you. In the background, the men continue to chant their hymn as the hurricane draws nearer. Act 2 Scene 12 Magically, the hurricane bypasses Mahagonny, and the people sing in awe of their miraculous rescue. This confirms Begbick's belief in the philosophy of "Do what you want," and she proceeds to put it into effect. {{listen\|typemusic\|filenameMahagonny Act2scene13.ogg\|titleJacob Schmidt's departure\|descriptionJacob Schmidt is gorging himself on food and is about to die in act 2, scene 13}} Scene 13 at the renovated "Do It" tavern. The men sing of the four pleasures of life: Eating, Lovemaking, Fighting, and Drinking. First comes eating: To kitschy cafe music, Jimmy's friend Jacob gorges until he keels over and dies. The men sing a chorale over his body, saluting "a man without fear". Scene 14: Loving. While Begbick collects money and issues tips on behavior, Moses placates the impatient men queuing to make love to Jenny and the other whores. The men sing the "Mandalay Song", warning that love does not last forever, and urging those ahead of them to make it snappy. Scene 15: Fighting. The men flock to see a boxing match between Trinity Moses and Jim's friend Alaska Wolf Joe. While most of the men, including the ever-cautious Billy, bet on the burly Moses, Jim, out of friendship, bets heavily on Joe. The match is manifestly unfair; Moses not only wins but kills Joe in knocking him out. Scene 16: Drinking. In an effort to shake off the gloom of Joe's death, Jimmy invites everyone to have a drink on him. The men sing "Life in Mahagonny", describing how one could live in the city for only five dollars a day, but those who wanted to have fun always needed more. Jim, increasingly drunk, dreams of sailing back to Alaska. He takes down a curtain rod for a mast and climbs on the pool table, pretending it is a ship; Jenny and Billy play along. Jimmy is abruptly sobered up when Begbick demands payment for the whiskey as well as for the damage to her property. Totally broke, he turns in a panic to Jenny, who explains her refusal to help him out in the song "Make your own bed"&nbsp;– an adaptation of the ideas he proclaimed at the end of act 1. Jim is led off in chains as the chorus, singing another stanza of "Life in Mahagonny", returns to its pastimes. Trinity Moses assures the crowd that Jimmy will pay for his crimes with his life. Scene 17 At night, Jim alone and chained to a lamppost sings a plea for the sun not to rise on the day of his impending trial. Act 3 Scene 18: In the courtroom Moses, like a carnival barker, sells tickets to the trials. He serves as prosecutor, Fatty as defense attorney, Begbick as judge. First comes the case of Toby Higgins, accused of premeditated murder for the purpose of testing an old revolver. Fatty invites the injured party to rise, but no one does so, since the dead do not speak. Toby bribes all three, and as a result, Begbick dismisses the case. Next Jimmy's case is called. Chained, he is led in by Billy, from whom he tries to borrow money; Billy of course refuses, despite Jim's plea to remember their time together in Alaska. In virtually the same speech he used to attack Higgins, Moses excoriates him for not paying his bills, for seducing Jenny (who presents herself as a plaintiff) to commit a "carnal act" with him for money, and for inciting the crowd with "an illegal joyous song" on the night of the typhoon. Billy, with the chorus's support, counters that, in committing the latter act, Jimmy discovered the laws by which Mahagonny lives. Moses argues that Jim hastened his friend Joe's death in a prizefight by betting on him, and Billy counters by asking who actually killed Joe. Moses does not reply. But there is no answer for the main count against him. Jim gets short sentences for his lesser crimes, but for having no money, he is sentenced to death. Begbick, Fatty, and Moses, rising to identify themselves as the injured parties, proclaim "in the whole human race / there is no greater criminal / than a man without money". As Jim is led off to await execution, everyone sings the "Benares Song", in which they long for that exotic city "where the sun is shining." But Benares has been destroyed by an earthquake. "Where shall we go?" they ask. Scene 19: At the gallows Jim says a tender goodbye to Jenny, who, dressed in white, declares herself his widow. He surrenders her to Billy, his last remaining companion from Alaska. When he tries to delay the execution by reminding the people of Mahagonny that God exists, they play out for him, under Moses' direction, the story of "God in Mahagonny", in which the Almighty condemns the town and is overthrown by its citizens, who declare that they can not be sent to Hell because they are already in Hell. Jim, chastened, asks only for a glass of water, but is refused even this as Moses gives the signal for the trap to be sprung. Scene 20 A caption advises that, after Jim's death, increasing hostility among the city's various factions has caused the destruction of Mahagonny. To a potpourri of themes from earlier in the opera, groups of protesters are seen on the march, in conflict with one another, while the city burns in the background. Jenny and the whores carry Jim's clothing and accessories like sacred relics; Billy and several men carry his coffin. In a new theme, they and the others declare, "Nothing you can do will help a dead man". Begbick, Fatty, and Moses appear with placards of their own, joining the entire company in its march and declaring "Nothing will help him or us or you now," as the opera ends in chaos. Musical numbers Act 1 * Scene 1: Gesucht werden Leokadja Begbick ("The Desired Progress of Leocadia Begbick") * Scene 1: Sie soll sein wie ein Netz ("It Should Be Made Like a Net") * Scene 2: Rasch wuchs ("Growing Up Quickly" ) / Moon of Alabama ("Oh, Show Us The Way...") * Scene 3: Die Nachricht ("The News") * Scene 4: In den nächsten Tagen ("In the Next Few Days") * Scene 5: Damals kam unter Anderen ("Among the Crowd There Came") * Scene 5: Heraus, ihr Schönen von Mahagonny ("Come Out, You Beauties of Mahagonny") * Scene 5: Ach, bedenken Sie ("Oh Worries") * Scene 6: Ich habe gelernt ("I Have Learned") * Scene 7: Alle großen Unternehmungen ("All Great Things") * Scene 7: Auch ich bin einmal ("Also I Was Once") * Scene 8: Alle wahrhaft Suchenden ("All Seekers of the Truth") * Scene 8: Aber etwas fehlt ("But Something is Missing") * Scene 9: Das ist die ewige Kunst ("That is the Eternal Art") * Scene 9: Sieben Jahre ("Seven Years!") * Scene 10: Ein Taifun! ("A Typhoon!") * Scene 11: In dieser Nacht des Entsetzens ("In This Night of Terror") * Scene 11: Nein, jetzt sage ich ("No, I Say Do It Now") * Scene 11: So tuet nur, was euch beliebt ("So, Just Do What You Like") Act 2 * Scene 12: Hurrikan bewegt ("The Eventful Hurricane") * Scene 12: O wunderbare Lösung! ("O Wonderful Result!") * Scene 13: Von nun an war der Leitspruch ("From Then On The Motto Was...") * Scene 13: Jetzt hab ich gegessen zwei Kälber ("Now I Have Eaten Two Calves") * Scene 14: Zweitens kommt die Liebe dran! ("Secondly Comes Being in Love") * Scene 14: Sieh jene Kraniche ("Look at Those Cranes") / The Duet of the Cranes * Scene 14: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating") * Scene 15: Wir, meine Herren ("We, My Dear Sirs...") * Scene 15: Dreimal hoch, Dreieinigkeitsmoses! ("Three Cheers for Trinity Moses!") * Scene 16: Freunde, kommt, ich lade euch ein ("Friends, Come, I Summon You") * Scene 16: Meine Herren, meine Mutter prägte ("My Dear Sirs, My Mother Impressed [Upon Me]") * Scene 17: Wenn der Himmel hell wird ("When the Sky is Bright") Act 3 * Scene 18: Haben all Zuschauer Billete? ("Do All The Gawkers Have Tickets?") * Scene 18: Zweitens der Fall des Jimmy Mahoney ("Secondly, the Case of Jimmy Mahoney") * Scene 19: In dieser Zeit gab es in Mahagonny ("In This Time It Was In Mahagonny") * Scene 20: Hinrichtung und Tod des Jimmy Mahoney ("The Execution and Death of Jimmy Mahoney") * Scene 20: Erstens, vergesst nicht, kommt das Fressen ("Firstly, Don't Forget, Comes the Eating") * Scene 21: Wollt ihr mich denn wirklich hinrichten? ("Do You Really Want Me to Be Executed After All?") * Scene 21: In diesen Tagen fanden in Mahagonny ("To This Day Found In Mahagonny") In other media The opera influenced Harry Everett Smith in his 1970-1980 film Mahagonny, which features Allen Ginsberg and Patti Smith. The 2005 movie Manderlay, directed by Lars von Trier, contains several references to the plot of Mahagonny. The most notable of these is the threat of a hurricane approaching the city during the first act. Von Trier's earlier movie Dogville, to which Manderlay is a sequel, was in large part based on a song from Brecht's Threepenny Opera ("Pirate Jenny"). In the brothel scene in act 2 of Mahagonny, the choir sings a "Song von Mandelay". The play Happy End (1929) by Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht and Weill, also contains a song called "Der Song von Mandelay", which uses the same refrain as in the brothel scene of Mahagonny. Brecht's use of the name Mandelay/Mandalay was inspired by Rudyard Kipling's poem "Mandalay".{{Says who\|dateJuly 2021}}Recordings 1956: Lotte Lenya, Wilhelm Brückner-Rüggeberg (Sony 1990; originally recorded 1956) 1979: DVD, James Levine; John Dexter, stage director; Teresa Stratas, Astrid Varnay, Richard Cassilly; Metropolitan Opera 1985: Anja Silja, Jan Latham-Koenig (Capriccio 1988; recorded in 1985) 1997: DVD 1997, Salzburg Festival 2007: DVD Los Angeles Opera, starring Audra McDonald, Patti LuPone, and Anthony Dean Griffey. This recording won two 2009 Grammy Awards for Best Opera Recording and Best Classical Album. It was screened on TV as part of PBS' Great Performances 2010: Teatro Real (Madrid), starring Measha Brueggergosman, Jane Henschel, Michael König and Willard White, conducted by Pablo Heras-Casado and staged by La Fura dels Baus. (DVD and Blu-ray Bel Air Classiques 2011; filmed in 2010) Cover versions of songs "Alabama Song" has been covered by many artists, notably Ute Lemper, The Doors and David Bowie. References Informational notes {{notelist}} Citations {{Reflist}} External links {{IMSLP\|work=Aufstieg_und_Fall_der_Stadt_Mahagonny_(Weill,_Kurt)}} [https://www.kwf.org/works/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny/ Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny)], Kurt Weill Foundation for Music [http://www.dicoseunpo.it/W_files/Mahagonny.pdf Libretto (Italian/German], dicoseunpo.it [https://www.opera-arias.com/weill/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny/ "Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny"], work details, opera-arias.com * [https://www.universaledition.com/aufstieg-und-fall-der-stadt-mahagonny-weill-kurt-ue35318 Work details (incl. instrumentation)], Universal Edition *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hp4lwTMiN78 Introduction to the Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny (The Royal Opera)] {{Brecht plays}} {{Kurt Weill}} {{Portal bar\|Opera}} {{Authority control}} Category:Operas by Kurt Weill Category:German-language operas Category:Operas Category:Satirical operas Category:Plays by Bertolt Brecht Category:1930 operas	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_and_Fall_of_the_City_of_Mahagonny	2025-04-05T18:26:01.153622
2339	Avery Hopwood	{{Short description\|American playwright}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=December 2018}} {{Infobox writer \| name = Avery Hopwood \| image = Avery Hopwood.png \| alt = Black and white portrait photo of a white man wearing a hat and coat \| caption = Hopwood in 1922 \| birth_name \| birth_date {{Birth date\|1882\|05\|28}} \| birth_place = Cleveland, Ohio, United States \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|1928\|07\|01\|1882\|05\|28}} \| death_place = Juan-les-Pins, Antibes, France \| pseudonym \| occupation Playwright \| nationality = American \| genre = Theatre \| years_active \| known_for \| notable_works \| education University of Michigan }} James Avery Hopwood (May 28, 1882&nbsp;– July 1, 1928) was an American playwright of the Jazz Age. He had four plays running simultaneously on Broadway in 1920, namely "The Gold Diggers," "The Bat" and "Spanish Love" and "Ladies' Night (In a Turkish Bath)". Early life Hopwood was born to James and Jule Pendergast Hopwood on May 28, 1882, in Cleveland, Ohio.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sharrar\|1998\|pp8–9}}</ref> He graduated from Cleveland's West High School in 1900.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sharrar\|1998\|p1}}</ref> In 1901, he began attending the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, his family experienced financial difficulties, so for his second year he transferred to Adelbert College. He returned to the University of Michigan in the fall of 1903, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1905.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sharrar\|1998\|pp12–17}}</ref>CareerHopwood started out as a journalist for the Cleveland Leader as its New York correspondent, but within a year had his first play, Clothes (1906), produced on Broadway, with the aid of playwright Channing Pollock. Hopwood eventually became known as "The Playboy Playwright"<ref nameimdbbio>Jim Beaver [http://imdb.com/name/nm0394479/bio Biography for Avery Hopwood] at Internet Movie Database</ref> and specialized in comedies and farces, some of them with material considered risqué at the time. One play, The Demi-Virgin in 1921, prompted a court case because of its suggestive subject matter, including a risque game of cards, "Stripping Cupid". The case was dismissed. His many plays included ''Nobody's Widow (1910), starring Blanche Bates; Fair and Warmer (1915), starring Madge Kennedy (filmed in 1919); The Gold Diggers (1919), starring Ina Claire in New York and Tallulah Bankhead in London; (filmed in 1923 as The Gold Diggers, in 1928 as Gold Diggers of Broadway and also as Gold Diggers of 1933); Ladies' Night, 1920, starring Charlie Ruggles (filmed in 1928); the famous mystery play The Bat (with Mary Roberts Rinehart), 1920 (filmed in 1926 as The Bat, in 1930 as The Bat Whispers, and in 1959 as The Bat); Getting Gertie's Garter (with Wilson Collison), 1921, starring Hazel Dawn (filmed in 1927 and 1945); The Demi-Virgin, 1921, also starring Dawn; The Alarm Clock, 1923, translated from the French; The Best People (with David Gray), 1924 (filmed in 1925 and as Fast and Loose in 1930 with Clara Bow); the song-farce Naughty Cinderella, 1925, starring Irène Bordoni and The Garden of Eden in 1927, with Tallulah Bankhead in London and Miriam Hopkins in New York; (filmed in 1928 as The Garden of Eden). Personal life , 1924]] In 1906, Hopwood was introduced to writer and photographer Carl Van Vechten. The two became close friends and were sometimes sexual partners.<ref>{{harvnb\|White\|2014\|pp71–73}}</ref> In the 1920s Hopwood had a tumultuous and abusive romantic relationship with fellow Cleveland-born playwright John Floyd.<ref>{{harvnb\|Sharrar\|2005\|p201}}</ref> Although Hopwood announced to the press in 1924 that he was engaged to vaudeville dancer and choreographer Rosa Rolanda, Van Vechten confirmed in later years that it was a publicity stunt. Rolanda would later marry caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias. On the evening of July 1, 1928, at Juan-les-Pins on the French Riviera, Hopwood suffered a fatal heart attack while swimming. He was buried in Riverside Cemetery, Cleveland.<ref>Wilson, Scott. Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.: 2 (Kindle Location 22102). McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. Kindle Edition</ref> His mother, Jule Hopwood, inherited a large trust from him, but he had not made arrangements for the disposition of other items, including literary rights. While she was working through the legal issues with his estate, Jule Hopwood fell ill and died on March 1, 1929. She was buried next to her son.<ref>Vigil, Vicki Blum (2007). Cemeteries of Northeast Ohio: Stones, Symbols & Stories''. Cleveland, OH: Gray & Company. {{ISBN\|978-1-59851-025-6}}</ref> Legacy Hopwood's plays were very successful commercially, but they did not have the lasting literary significance he hoped to achieve.<ref>{{harvnb\|Bader\|1959\|p68}}</ref>Hopwood AwardThe terms of Hopwood's will left a substantial portion of his estate to his alma mater, the University of Michigan, for the establishment of the Avery Hopwood and Jule Hopwood Creative Writing Awards. The bequest stipulated: "It is especially desired that students competing for prizes shall be allowed the widest possible latitude, and that the new, the unusual, and the radical shall be especially encouraged." Famous Hopwood award winners include Robert Hayden, Marge Piercy, Arthur Miller, Betty Smith, Lawrence Kasdan, John Ciardi, Mary Gaitskill, Edmund White, Nancy Willard, Frank O'Hara, and Steve Hamilton.The Great BordelloThroughout his life, Hopwood worked on a novel that he hoped would "expose" the strictures the commercial theater machine imposed on playwrights, but the manuscript was never published. Jack Sharrar recovered the manuscript for this novel in 1982 during his research for Avery Hopwood, His Life and Plays. The novel was published in July 2011 by Mondial Books (New York) as The Great Bordello, a Story of the Theatre, edited and with an Afterword by Sharrar.Works poster for Hopwood's 1922 play Why Men Leave Home]] * Clothes (1906) with Channing Pollock * This Woman and This Man (1909) * Seven Days (1909) with Mary Roberts Rinehart * Judy Forgot (1910) * ''Nobody's Widow (1910) * Somewhere Else (1913) * Fair and Warmer (1915) Remains popular in Germany (Der Mustergatte) and Scandinavia (Gröna hissen ) * Sadie Love (1915) * Our Little Wife (1916) * Double Exposure (1918) * Tumble In (1919, musical version of Seven Days) * The Gold Diggers (1919) * The Girl in the Limousine (1919) with Wilson Collison * Ladies' Night (1920) with Charlton Andrews * Spanish Love (1920, Adaptation of María del Carmen by Josep Feliu i Codina) with Mary Roberts Rinehart * The Bat (1920) with Mary Roberts Rinehart * Getting Gertie's Garter (1921) with Wilson Collison * The Demi-Virgin (1921) * Why Men Leave Home (1922) * Little Miss Bluebeard (1923, Adaptation of Kisasszony férje by Gábor Drégely) * The Alarm Clock (1923, Adaptation of La Sonnette d'alarme'' by Maurice Hennequin and Romain Coolus)<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article232298761 \|titleComedy at His Majesty's \|newspaperGeelong Advertiser \|issue24855 \|locationVictoria, Australia \|date10 February 1927 \|access-date21 May 2022 \|page9 \|via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> * The Best People (1924) with David Gray * The Harem (1924) with Ernest Vajda * Naughty Cinderella (1925, Adaptation of Pouche by René Peter and Henri Falk) * The Garden of Eden (1927, Adaptation of Der Garten Eden by Rudolf Bernauer and Rudolf Österreicher) Filmography * Clothes (1914, based on Clothes) <!--March 10, 1914--> * Judy Forgot (1915, based on Judy Forgot) <!--August 9, 1915--> * Our Little Wife (1918, based on Our Little Wife) <!--February 10, 1918--> * Sadie Love (1919, based on Sadie Love) <!--October 19, 1919--> * Fair and Warmer (1919, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--November 1, 1919--> * Guilty of Love (1920, based on This Woman and This Man) <!--August 22, 1920--> * Clothes (1920, based on Clothes) <!--September 19, 1920--> * The Little Clown (1921, based on The Little Clown) <!--March 1921--> * The Gold Diggers (1923, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--September 22, 1923--> * Why Men Leave Home (1924, based on Why Men Leave Home) <!--March 3, 1924--> * The Girl in the Limousine (1924, based on The Girl in the Limousine) <!--July 20, 1924--> * Miss Bluebeard (1925, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--January 26, 1925--> * The Best People (1925, based on The Best People) <!--December 28, 1925--> * The Bat (1926, based on The Bat) <!--March 14, 1926--> * Good and Naughty (1926, based on Naughty Cinderella) <!--June 7, 1926--> * ''Nobody's Widow (1927, based on Nobody's Widow) <!--January 12, 1927--> * Getting Gertie's Garter (1927, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--February 28, 1927--> * The Garden of Eden (1928, based on The Garden of Eden) <!--February 4, 1928--> * Ladies' Night in a Turkish Bath (1928, based on Ladies' Night) <!--April 1, 1928--> * Gold Diggers of Broadway (1929, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--August 29, 1929 (NYC) - October 5, 1929 (US)--> * Her Wedding Night (1930, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--September 18, 1930--> Let's Get Married (France, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--March 6, 1931--> Su noche de bodas (Spain, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--April 4, 1931--> Ich heirate meinen Mann (Germany, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--April 18, 1931--> A Minha Noite de Núpcias (Portugal, 1931, based on Little Miss Bluebeard) <!--May 4, 1931--> * Fast and Loose (1930, based on The Best People) <!--November 8, 1930--> * The Bat Whispers (1930, based on The Bat) <!--November 13, 1930--> * This Is the Night (1932, based on Naughty Cinderella) <!--April 8, 1932--> * Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--May 27, 1933--> * Night of the Garter (UK, 1933, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--1933--> * The Model Husband (Germany, 1937, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--October 13, 1937--> * Unsere kleine Frau (Germany, 1938, based on Our Little Wife) <!--November 23, 1938--> ** Mia moglie si diverte (Italy, 1938, based on Our Little Wife) <!--December 22, 1938--> * Gröna hissen (Sweden, 1944, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--July 31, 1944--> * Getting Gertie's Garter (1945, based on Getting Gertie's Garter) <!--November 30, 1945--> * Painting the Clouds with Sunshine (1951, based on The Gold Diggers) <!--October 10, 1951--> * The Green Lift (1952 film) (Sweden, 1952, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--December 26, 1952--> * The Model Husband (West Germany, 1956, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--September 18, 1956--> * The Bat (1959, based on The Bat) <!--August 9, 1959--> * The Model Husband (Switzerland, 1959, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--August 27, 1959--> * {{Interlanguage link multi\|Den grønne elevator\|da}} (Denmark, 1961, based on Fair and Warmer) <!-- August 21, 1961--> * Den grønne heisen (Norway, 1981, based on Fair and Warmer) <!--23.10.1981--> References {{Reflist}} Works cited * {{Cite journal \|lastBader \|firstArno L. \|titleAvery Hopwood, dramatist \|journalQuarterly Review: A Journal of University Perspectives \|dateDecember 5, 1959 \|volume66 \|issue10 \|pages60–68}} * {{Cite book \|lastSharrar \|firstJack F. \|year1998 \|orig-year1989 \|titleAvery Hopwood: His Life and Plays \|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press \|locationAnn Arbor, Michigan \|isbn0-472-10963-4 \|oclc=924828273}} * {{Cite book \|lastSharrar \|firstJack F. \|chapterHopwood, Avery \|titleThe Gay & Lesbian Theatrical Legacy: A Biographical Dictionary of Major Figures in American Stage History in the Pre-Stonewall Era \|editor-first1Billy J. \|editor-last1Harbin \|editor-first2Kim \|editor-last2Marra \|editor-first3Robert A. \|editor-last3Schanke \|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press \|year2005 \|locationAnn Arbor, Michigan \|isbn0-472-09858-6 \|oclc56481825 \|pages199–203 \|name-list-style=amp}} * {{Cite book \|titleThe Tastemaker: Carl Van Vechten and the Birth of Modern America \|firstEdward \|lastWhite \|publisherFarrar, Straus and Giroux \|locationNew York \|year2014 \|isbn978-0-374-70881-8 \|oclc846545238}} Further reading Broadway, by Brooks Atkinson. NY: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1974. Matinee Tomorrow, by Ward Morehouse. NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1948. Posing a Threat: Flappers, Chorus Girls, and Other Brazen Performers of the American 1920s, by Angela Latham. Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 2000. The Splendid Drunken Twenties: Carl Van Vechten Selections from the Daybooks, 1922–1930''. Edited by Bruce Kellner. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003. External links {{Commons category\|Avery Hopwood}} * {{Gutenberg author \|id788\| nameAvery Hopwood}} * {{Internet Archive author \|sname=Avery Hopwood}} * {{Librivox author \|id=14613}} * {{IBDB name\|4388}} * {{IMDb name\|id=0394479}} * [http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/f/findaid/findaid-idx?cascead;typesimple;q11958.03;rgnEntire%20Finding%20Aid;size25;viewreslist;subviewstandard;ccascead;sortoccur;start1;didno=US-PPiU-sc195803 Mary Roberts Rinehart at University of Pittsburgh digital library] – includes material on her collaboration with Hopwood {{Avery Hopwood}} {{The Gold Diggers}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hopwood, Avery}} Category:1882 births Category:1928 deaths Category:American gay writers Category:American LGBTQ dramatists and playwrights Category:LGBTQ people from Ohio Category:University of Michigan alumni Category:American male dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:Writers from Cleveland Category:20th-century American male writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery_Hopwood	2025-04-05T18:26:01.189481
2340	Antipope Felix II	{{Short description\|Antipope from 355 to 365}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2023}} {{Infobox Christian leader \| type = Antipope \| name = Felix \| image = Antipope Felix II.svg \| enthroned = 355 \| ended = 358 \| predecessor = Novatian \| successor = Ursicinus \| opposed = Pope Liberius \| birth_date \| birth_place \| death_date = 22 November 365 \| death_place = Porto, Rome, Italy \| religion = Roman Catholic }} Antipope Felix II, an archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.<ref nameCoulombe>Charles A. Coulombe, [https://books.google.com/books?id4tbYF51StSQC Vicars of Christ] ({{ISBN\|0-8065-2370-0}}), p. 73</ref> Biography In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/203964/Felix-II Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix (II)]</ref><ref>[http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/avellana-1-english The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix], 1–4</ref> This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2012 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2012 {{ISBN\|978-88-209-8722-0}}), p. 9</ref> The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a "distortion of the true facts" and suggested that it arose because the "Liber Pontificalis", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06030a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II]</ref> However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.<ref>Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 132</ref> The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that "the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July." At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: {{quote\|At Rome, on the Aurelian Way, St. Felix II, pope and martyr. Being expelled from his See by the Arian emperor Constantius for defending the Catholic faith, and being put to the sword privately at Cera in Tuscany, he died gloriously. His body was taken away from that place by clerics, and buried on the Aurelian Way. It was afterwards brought to the Church of the Saints Cosmas and Damian, where, under the Sovereign Pontiff Gregory XIII, it was found beneath the altar with the relics of the holy martyrs Mark, Marcellian, and Tranquillinus, and with the latter was put back in the same place on 31 July. In the same altar were also found the bodies of the holy martyrs Abundius, a priest, and Abundantius, a deacon, which were shortly after solemnly transferred to the church of the Society of Jesus, on the eve of their feast.}} This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology<ref name=Martyrology>Martyrologium Romanum (Additiones et variationes 1960; then Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2001 {{ISBN\|88-209-7210-7}})</ref> have instead: {{quote\|At Rome, at the third milestone on the Via Portuensis, in the cemetery dedicated to his name, Saint Felix, martyr.}} The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July.<ref name=Martyrology/> The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr's,<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Felix_II 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix II]</ref> occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century. As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.sanctamissa.org/EN/resources/missale-romanum-pdf.html \|title1920 typical edition of the Roman Missal, with feasts updated to the late 1920s \|access-date1 August 2008 \|archive-date1 March 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200301085135/http://www.sanctamissa.org/EN/resources/missale-romanum-pdf.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> does not appear in the 1962 typical edition.<ref>[http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/missale62.pdf 1962 typical edition of the Roman Missal]</ref> To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral "II" and the word "Papae", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope "himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on [29 July]".<ref nameCoulombe/>See also Papal selection before 1059References{{reflist}}External links [http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/avellana-1-english The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix] (a primary source) [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06030a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/203964/Felix-II Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix (II)] [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Felix_II 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: Felix II] {{Antipopes\|state=collapsed}} {{Navboxes \|list= {{Catholicism}} {{History of the Roman Catholic Church}} }} {{Subject bar \|portal1Biography \|portal2 Christianity}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Felix, Antipope, 02}} Felix II Felix II Category:4th-century antipopes Category:4th-century Christian clergy Felix II Category:Ancient Christians involved in controversies Felix II Category:Date of birth unknown Category:Date of death unknown Category:Place of birth unknown Category:Place of death unknown	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipope_Felix_II	2025-04-05T18:26:01.222806
2341	Alkaloid	thumb\|250px\|The first individual alkaloid, morphine, was isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Alkaloids are a broad class of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction, or solvent extractions followed by silica-gel column chromatography. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine), cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine), antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. berberine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste. The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. Most alkaloids are basic, although some have neutral and even weakly acidic properties. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen or sulfur. Rarer still, they may contain elements such as phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids. Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline, serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines. Naming thumb\|160px\|The article that introduced the concept of "alkaloid". The name "alkaloids" () was introduced in 1819 by German chemist Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meissner, and is derived from late Latin root and the Greek-language suffix -('like'). However, the term came into wide use only after the publication of a review article, by Oscar Jacobsen in the chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s. There is no unique method for naming alkaloids. Many individual names are formed by adding the suffix "ine" to the species or genus name. For example, atropine is isolated from the plant Atropa belladonna; strychnine is obtained from the seed of the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.). these are called vinca alkaloids. History thumb\|left\|Friedrich Sertürner, the German chemist who first isolated morphine from opium. Alkaloid-containing plants have been used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in Mesopotamia from about 2000 BC. The Odyssey of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug. A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st–3rd centuries BC mentioned a medical use of ephedra and opium poppies. Also, coca leaves have been used by Indigenous South Americans since ancient times. Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since antiquity for poisoning arrows. The development of the chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods in the 20th century, so that by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids had been identified. The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886 by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniine by reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium. class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|160px\|Bufotenin, an alkaloid from some toads, contains an indole core, and is produced in living organisms from the amino acid tryptophan. Classifications class=skin-invert-image\|thumb\|160px\|The nicotine molecule contains both pyridine (left) and pyrrolidine rings (right). Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids are characterized by a great structural diversity. There is no uniform classification. Initially, when knowledge of chemical structures was lacking, botanical classification of the source plants was relied on. This classification is now considered obsolete. More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (e.g., indole-, isoquinoline-, and pyridine-like) or biochemical precursor (ornithine, lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.). and therefore can be assigned to both classes. Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups: "True alkaloids" contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate from amino acids. Their characteristic examples are atropine, nicotine, and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids that besides the nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (e.g., evonine) or peptide fragments (e.g. ergotamine). The piperidine alkaloids coniine and coniceine may be regarded as true alkaloids (rather than pseudoalkaloids: see below) although they do not originate from amino acids. "Protoalkaloids", which contain nitrogen (but not the nitrogen heterocycle) and also originate from amino acids. Pseudoalkaloids – alkaloid-like compounds that do not originate from amino acids. This group includes terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids, as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine, theobromine, theacrine and theophylline. Some authors classify ephedrine and cathinone as pseudoalkaloids. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination. Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galanthamine and homoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are, in general, attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids. Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below: ClassMajor groupsMain synthesis stepsExamplesAlkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids) Pyrrolidine derivatives 50px\|center Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline Cuscohygrine, hygrine, hygroline, stachydrineTropane derivatives 100px\|center Atropine groupSubstitution in positions 3, 6 or 7 Ornithine or arginine → putrescine → N-methylputrescine → N-methyl-Δ1-pyrroline Cocaine group Substitution in positions 2 and 3 Cocaine, ecgoninePyrrolizidine derivatives 80px\|center Non-estersIn plants: ornithine or arginine → putrescine → homospermidine → retronecine Complex esters of monocarboxylic acids Indicine, lindelophin, sarracineLoline, N-formylloline, N-acetyllolinePiperidine derivatives 50px\|center Lysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine Sedamine, lobeline, anaferine, piperine Octanoic acid → coniceine → coniine 80px\|center Lupinine groupLysine → cadaverine → Δ1-piperideine Lupinine, nupharidin Ormosanine group Ormosanine, piptantine Indolizidine derivatives 80px\|center Lysine → δ-semialdehyde of α-aminoadipic acid → pipecolic acid → 1 indolizidinone Swainsonine, castanosperminePyridine derivatives 50px\|center Simple derivatives of pyridineNicotinic acid → dihydronicotinic acid → 1,2-dihydropyridine Trigonelline, ricinine, arecoline Polycyclic noncondensing pyridine derivatives Nicotine, nornicotine, anabasine, anatabine Sesquiterpene pyridine derivatives Nicotinic acid, isoleucine 90px\|center Simple derivatives of isoquinolineTyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine or tyramine (for alkaloids Amarillis) Salsoline, lophocerine N-methylcoridaldine, noroxyhydrastinine Derivatives of 5-naftil-isoquinoline Ancistrocladine Papaverine, laudanosine, sendaverine Cularine group Cularine, yagonine Argemonine, amurensine Cryptaustoline Phthalidisoquinolines Spirobenzylisoquinolines Emetine, protoemetine, ipecoside Aporphines Proaporphines Kreysiginine, multifloramine Morphine, codeine, thebaine, sinomenine, heroin Homomorphines Kreysiginine, androcymbine Amaryllis alkaloids Lycorine, ambelline, tazettine, galantamine, montanine Erythrina alkaloids 80px\|center Tyrosine → tyramine Annuloline, halfordinol, texaline, texamine Isoxazole derivatives 80px\|centerIbotenic acid → MuscimolIbotenic acid, Muscimol Thiazole derivatives 80px\|center 1-Deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DOXP), tyrosine, cysteine Nostocyclamide, thiostreptoneQuinazoline derivatives 90px\|center 3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivativesAnthranilic acid or phenylalanine or ornithine Febrifugine 1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolone derivatives Glycorine, arborine, glycosminine Rutacridone, acronicineQuinoline derivatives 90px\|center Simple derivatives of quinoline derivatives of 2–quinolones and 4-quinoloneAnthranilic acid → 3-carboxyquinoline Cusparine, echinopsine, evocarpine Tricyclic terpenoids Flindersine Furanoquinoline derivatives Dictamnine, fagarine, skimmianine Quinines Tryptophan → tryptamine → strictosidine (with secologanin) → korinanteal → cinhoninonTryptophan → tryptamine or 5-Hydroxytryptophan Serotonin, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine (DMT), bufotenin Simple derivatives of β-carboline Harman, harmine, harmaline, eleagnine Physostigmine (eserine), etheramine, physovenine, eptastigmineMonoterpenoid indole alkaloids Corynanthe type alkaloids group strychnine and (Strychnine brucine, aquamicine, vomicine) Iboga-type alkaloids Imidazole derivatives Histamine, pilocarpine, pilosine, stevensine 90px\|center Xanthosine (formed in purine biosynthesis) → 7 methylxantosine → 7-methylxanthine → theobromine → caffeineAlkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids) β-Phenylethylamine derivatives Tyramine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, mescaline, cathinone, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine) Colchicine alkaloids 120px\|center Tyrosine or phenylalanine → dopamine → autumnaline → colchicine Colchicine, colchamine 100px\|center Glutamic acid → 3-ketoglutamic acid → muscarine (with pyruvic acid) Muscarine, allomuscarine, epimuscarine, epiallomuscarine 90px\|center Phenylalanine with valine, leucine or isoleucine Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, vanillylaminePolyamines alkaloids Putrescine derivatives 90px\|centerornithine → putrescine → spermidine → spermine Paucine Nummularine C typeFrom different amino acids Aconitine, delphinine Steroidal alkaloids 100px\|center Cholesterol, arginine Solanidine, cyclopamine, batrachotoxin Properties Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such as nicotine or coniine, Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and sanguinarine (orange). Many alkaloids dissolve poorly in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such as diethyl ether, chloroform or 1,2-dichloroethane. Caffeine, cocaine, codeine and nicotine are slightly soluble in water (with a solubility of ≥1g/L), whereas others, including morphine and yohimbine are very slightly water-soluble (0.1–1 g/L). Alkaloids and acids form salts of various strengths. These salts are usually freely soluble in water and ethanol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptions include scopolamine hydrobromide, which is soluble in organic solvents, and the water-soluble quinine sulfate. Some alkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring of animals that consume but cannot detoxify the alkaloids. One example is the alkaloid cyclopamine, produced in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% of lambs born by sheep that had grazed on corn lily had serious facial deformations. These ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia. After decades of research, in the 1980s, the compound responsible for these deformities was identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, later renamed to cyclopamine. Distribution in nature thumb\|Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich in strychnine and brucine. Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by higher plants – about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids. Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with plants. The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and is inhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type of plants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (for example, black henbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauvolfia serpentina) or bark (cinchona). Furthermore, different tissues of the same plants may contain different alkaloids. Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungus, such as psilocybin in the fruiting bodies of the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such as bufotenin in the skin of some toads Many marine organisms also contain alkaloids. Some amines, such as adrenaline and serotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similar to alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes called alkaloids. Extraction thumb\|Crystals of piperine extracted from black pepper. Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single method of their extraction from natural raw materials. Most methods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble in organic solvents Plants are thoroughly ground before extraction. Most alkaloids are present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids. Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation. A number of alkaloids are identified from insects, among which the fire ant venom alkaloids known as solenopsins have received greater attention from researchers. These insect alkaloids can be efficiently extracted by solvent immersion of live fire ants followed by silica-gel chromatography purification. Tracking and dosing the extracted solenopsin ant alkaloids has been described as possible based on their absorbance peak around 232 nanometers. Biosynthesis Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid, and anthranilic acid. Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and cannot be easily classified. These reactions are a common method of producing C=N bonds. class=skin-invert-image\|center In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule, class=skin-invert-image\|center Dimer alkaloids In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric and tetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three, and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms: Mannich reaction, resulting in, e.g., voacamine Michael reaction (villalstonine) Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine) Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine) Lactonization (carpaine). File:Voacamine chemical structure.png\|Voacamine File:Villalstonine.svg\|Villalstonine File:Toxiferine I.png\|Toxiferine File:Dauricine.svg\|Dauricine File:Tubocurarine.svg\|Tubocurarine File:Carpaine.png\|Carpaine There are also dimeric alkaloids formed from two distinct monomers, such as the vinca alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine, which are formed from the coupling of catharanthine and vindoline. The newer semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic agent vinorelbine is used in the treatment of non-small-cell lung cancer. It is another derivative dimer of vindoline and catharanthine and is synthesised from anhydrovinblastine, starting either from leurosine or the monomers themselves. An early hypothesis, that alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, as urea and uric acid are in mammals, was refuted by the finding that their concentration fluctuates rather than steadily increasing. Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin, dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate plant growth. One example of an organism that uses alkaloids for protection is the Utetheisa ornatrix, more commonly known as the ornate moth. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids render these larvae and adult moths unpalatable to many of their natural enemies like coccinelid beetles, green lacewings, insectivorous hemiptera and insectivorous bats. Another example of alkaloids being utilized occurs in the poison hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemeriana). This moth feeds on its highly toxic and alkaloid-rich host plant poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) during its larval stage. A. alstroemeriana may benefit twofold from the toxicity of the naturally-occurring alkaloids, both through the unpalatability of the species to predators and through the ability of A. alstroemeriana to recognize Conium maculatum as the correct location for oviposition. A fire ant venom alkaloid known as solenopsin has been demonstrated to protect queens of invasive fire ants during the foundation of new nests, thus playing a central role in the spread of this pest ant species around the world. Applications In medicine Medical use of alkaloid-containing plants has a long history, and, thus, when the first alkaloids were isolated in the 19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice. Many alkaloids are still used in medicine, usually in the form of salts widely used including the following: Alkaloid Action Ajmaline Antiarrhythmic Emetine Antiprotozoal agent, emesis Ergot alkaloids Vasoconstriction, hallucinogenic, Uterotonic Glaucine Antitussive Morphine Analgesic Nicotine Stimulant, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist Physostigmine Inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase Quinidine Antiarrhythmic Quinine Antipyretic, antimalarial Reserpine Antihypertensive Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant Vinblastine, vincristine Antitumor Vincamine Vasodilating, antihypertensive Yohimbine Stimulant, aphrodisiacBerberineAntihyperglycaemic For example, naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine that is present in opium. File:Thebaine skeletal.svg\|Thebaine File:Naloxone.svg\|Naloxone In agriculture Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such as salts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to humans. Use as psychoactive drugs Preparations of plants and fungi containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids, have long been used as psychoactive substances. Cocaine, caffeine, and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system. Mescaline and many indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have hallucinogenic effect. Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers. There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors for semi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce methcathinone and methamphetamine. Thebaine is used in the synthesis of many painkillers such as oxycodone. See also Amine Base (chemistry) List of poisonous plants Mayer's reagent Natural products Palau'amine Secondary metabolite Explanatory notes Citations General and cited references External links	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloid	2025-04-05T18:26:01.482385
2343	Adventism	{{Short description\|Religious Movement}} {{For\|the largest church in the Adventist tradition\|Seventh-day Adventist Church}} {{Adventism}} Adventism is a branch of Protestant Christianity<ref name"Handbook">{{cite book \|chapterAdventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches \|pages256–276 \|givenFrank S. \|surnameMead \|given2Samuel S. \|surname2Hill \|given3Craig D. \|surname3Atwood \|titleHandbook of Denominations in the United States \|edition12th \|year2006 \|placeNashville, Tn \|publisherAbingdon Press}}</ref><ref name"Bergman">{{cite book \|surnameBergman \|givenJerry \|year1995 \|chapterThe Adventist and Jehovah's Witness Branch of Protestantism \|editor-surnameMiller \|editor-givenTimothy \|editor-linkTimothy Miller \|titleAmerica's Alternative Religions \|publisherSUNY Press \|placeAlbany, NY \|pages33–46 \|isbn978-0-7914-2397-4 \|chapter-url{{Google books\|idog_u0Re1uwUC\|plainurly\|page33\|keywords\|text}} \|url{{Google books\|idog_u0Re1uwUC\|plainurly}} \|url-statuslive \|archive-date2020-07-24 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?idog_u0Re1uwUC}}</ref> that believes in the imminent Second Coming (or the "Second Advent") of Jesus Christ. It originated in the 1830s in the United States during the Second Great Awakening when Baptist preacher William Miller first publicly shared his belief that the Second Coming would occur at some point between 1843 and 1844. His followers became known as Millerites. After Miller's prophecies failed, the Millerite movement split up and was continued by a number of groups that held different doctrines from one another. These groups, stemming from a common Millerite ancestor, collectively became known as the Adventist movement. Although the Adventist churches hold much in common with mainline Christianity, their theologies differ on whether the intermediate state of the dead is unconscious sleep or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is annihilation or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of Daniel 8 refers to the one in heaven or one on earth.<ref name="Handbook"/> Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups observe the seventh day Sabbath. The General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists has compiled that church's core beliefs in the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (1980 and 2005). In 2010, Adventism claimed to have some 22 million believers who were scattered in various independent churches.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf \|titleChristianity report \|access-date2014-12-30 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130805020311/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf \|archive-date2013-08-05 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The largest church within the movement—the Seventh-day Adventist Church—had more than 21 million members in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.adventist.org/statistics/seventh-day-adventist-world-church-statistics-2020/\|title Seventh-day Adventist World Church Statistics 2020\|date 13 January 2021}}</ref>History {{See also\|Millerites\|Great Disappointment}} Adventism began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller. Between 50,000 and 100,000 people in the United States supported Miller's predictions of Christ's return. After the "Great Disappointment" of October 22, 1844, many people in the movement gave up on Adventism. Of those remaining Adventist, the majority gave up believing in any prophetic (biblical) significance for the October 22 date, yet they remained expectant of the near Advent (second coming of Jesus).<ref name"Handbook" /><ref name"ReferenceA">George Knight, A Brief History of Seventh-day Adventists.</ref> Of those who retained the October 22 date, many maintained that Jesus had come not literally but "spiritually", and consequently were known as "spiritualizers". A small minority held that something concrete had indeed happened on October 22, but that this event had been misinterpreted. This belief later emerged and crystallized with the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the largest remaining body today.<ref name"Handbook" /><ref name"ReferenceA" /><!-- Did any continue setting dates? A small minority only? --> Albany Conference (1845) The Albany Conference in 1845, attended by 61 delegates, was called to attempt to determine the future course and meaning of the Millerite movement. Following this meeting, the "Millerites" then became known as "Adventists" or "Second Adventists". However, the delegates disagreed on several theological points. Four groups emerged from the conference: The Evangelical Adventists, The Life and Advent Union, the Advent Christian Church, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The largest group was organized as the American Millennial Association, a portion of which was later known as the Evangelical Adventist Church.<ref name"Handbook"/> Unique among the Adventists, they believed in an eternal hell and consciousness in death. They declined in numbers, and by 1916 their name did not appear in the United States Census of Religious Bodies. It has diminished to almost non-existence today. Their main publication was the Advent Herald,<ref>{{cite web \|titlePartial archives \|urlhttp://www.adventistarchives.org/documents.asp?CatID146&SortBy1&ShowDateOrderTrue \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090905011146/http://www.adventistarchives.org/documents.asp?CatID146&SortBy1&ShowDateOrderTrue \|archive-date2009-09-05 \|access-date2013-06-26 \|publisherAdventistarchives.org}}</ref> of which Sylvester Bliss was the editor until his death in 1863. It was later called the ''Messiah's Herald. The Life and Advent Union was founded by George Storrs in 1863. He had established The Bible Examiner in 1842. It merged with the Adventist Christian Church in 1964. The Advent Christian Church officially formed in 1861 and grew rapidly at first. It declined a little during the 20th century. The Advent Christians publish the four magazines The Advent Christian Witness, Advent Christian News, Advent Christian Missions and Maranatha. They also operate a liberal arts college at Aurora, Illinois; and a one-year Bible College in Lenox, Massachusetts, called Berkshire Institute for Christian Studies.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.berkshireinstitute.org/\|titleBerkshire Institute for Christian Studies}}</ref> The Primitive Advent Christian Church later separated from a few congregations in West Virginia. The Seventh-day Adventist Church officially formed in 1863. It believes in the sanctity of the seventh-day Sabbath as a holy day for worship. It publishes the Adventist Review, which evolved from several early church publications. Youth publications include KidsView, Guide and Insight. It has grown to a large worldwide denomination and has a significant network of medical and educational institutions. Miller did not join any of the movements, and he spent the last few years of his life working for unity, before dying in 1849. Denominations , Oulu, Finland]] {{See also\|List of Christian denominations#Millerism and comparable groups}} The Handbook of Denominations in the United States'', 12th ed., describes the following churches as "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches": Christadelphians {{Main\|Christadelphians}} The Christadelphians were founded in 1844 by John Thomas and had an estimated 25,000 members in 170 ecclesias, or churches, in 2000 in America. Advent Christian Church {{Main\|Advent Christian Church}} The Advent Christian Church was founded in 1860 and had 25,277 members in 302 churches in 2002 in America. It is a "first-day" body of Adventist Christians founded on the teachings of William Miller. It adopted the "conditional immortality" doctrine of Charles F. Hudson and George Storrs, who formed the "Advent Christian Association" in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1860. Primitive Advent Christian Church {{Main\|Primitive Advent Christian Church}} The Primitive Advent Christian Church is a small group which separated from the Advent Christian Church. It differs from the parent body mainly on two points. Its members observe foot washing as a rite of the church, and they teach that reclaimed backsliders should be baptized (even though they had formerly been baptized). This is sometimes referred to as rebaptism. Seventh-day Adventist Church {{Main\|Seventh-day Adventist Church}} The Seventh-day Adventist Church, founded in 1863, had over 19,500,000 baptized members (not counting children of members) worldwide as of June 2016.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.adventistreview.org/church-news/story4262-adventist-church-membership-reaches-195-million\|titleAdventist Church Membership Reaches 19.5 Million\|date5 August 2016\|access-date15 October 2016\|archive-date9 December 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209201035/http://www.adventistreview.org/church-news/story4262-adventist-church-membership-reaches-195-million\|url-statusdead}}</ref> It is best known for its teaching that Saturday, the seventh day of the week, is the Sabbath and is the appropriate day for worship. However, the second coming of Jesus Christ, along with Judgment Day based on the three angels' message in Revelation 14:6–13, remain core beliefs of Seventh-day Adventists.Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement {{Main\|Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement}} The Seventh Day Adventist Reform Movement is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members from the Seventh-day Adventist Church caused by disagreement over military service on the Sabbath day during World War I. Davidian Seventh-day Adventist Association {{Main\|Shepherd's Rod}} The Davidians (originally named '''Shepherd's Rod''') is a small offshoot with an unknown number of members made up primarily of voluntarily disfellowshipped members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. They were originally known as the Shepherd's Rod and are still sometimes referred to as such. The group derives its name from two books on Bible doctrine written by its founder, Victor Houteff, in 1929. ;Branch Davidians The Branch Davidians were a split ("branch") from the Davidians. A group that gathered around David Koresh (the so-called Koreshians) abandoned Davidian teachings and turned into a religious cult. Many of them were killed during the infamous Waco Siege of April 1993. Church of God (Seventh Day) {{Main\|General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day)}} The Church of God (Seventh-Day) was founded in 1863 and it had an estimated 11,000 members in 185 churches in 1999 in America. Its founding members separated in 1858 from those Adventists associated with Ellen G. White who later organized themselves as Seventh-day Adventists in 1863. The Church of God (Seventh Day) split in 1933, creating two bodies: one headquartered in Salem, West Virginia, and known as the Church of God (7th day) – Salem Conference and the other one headquartered in Denver, Colorado and known as the General Conference of the Church of God (Seventh-Day). <!-- However, I think some CoG church members claim otherwise. Need to check --> The Worldwide Church of God splintered from this.<!-- Also need to check this one for variant POVs --><ref>{{cite book \|lastTarling \|firstLowell R. \|titleThe Edges of Seventh-day Adventism: A Study of Separatist Groups Emerging from the Seventh-day Adventist Church (1844–1980) \|publisherGalilee Publications \|year1981 \|locationBarragga Bay, Bermagui South, NSW \|isbn0-9593457-0-1 \|chapterThe Churches of God \|pages24–41}}</ref>Church of God General Conference Many denominations known as "Church of God" have Adventist origins. {{Main\|Church of God General Conference}} The Church of God General Conference was founded in 1921 and had 7,634 members in 162 churches in 2004 in America. It is a nontrinitarian first-day Adventist Christian body which is also known as the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith and the Church of God General Conference (Morrow, GA). Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church {{Main\|Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church}} The Creation Seventh-Day Adventist Church is a small group that broke off from the Seventh-Day Adventists in 1988, and organized itself as a church in 1991. United Seventh-Day Brethren {{Main\|United Seventh-Day Brethren}} The United Seventh-Day Brethren is a small Sabbatarian Adventist body. In 1947, several individuals and two independent congregations within the Church of God Adventist movement formed the United Seventh-Day Brethren, seeking to increase fellowship and to combine their efforts in evangelism, publications, and other . Other minor Adventist groups * True and Free Adventists, a Soviet Union offshoot * At least two denominations and numerous individual churches with a charismatic or Pentecostal-type bent have been influenced by or were offshoots – see charismatic Adventism generally * Church of the Blessed Hope, a first-day Adventist church * United Sabbath-Day Adventist Church, an African-American offshoot of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in New York City * Celestia, a Christian communal town near Laporte in Sullivan County, Pennsylvania, founded by Millerite Peter E. Armstrong. It disintegrated before the end of the 19th century<ref>"[http://h0bbes.wordpress.com/2006/10/13/celestia/ Celestia]" blog by Jeff Crocombe, October 13, 2006</ref> Other relationships Early in its development, the Bible Student movement founded by Charles Taze Russell had close connections with the Millerite movement and stalwarts of the Adventist faith, including George Storrs and Joseph Seiss. Although both Jehovah's Witnesses and the Bible Students do not identify as part of the Millerite Adventist movement (or other denominations, in general), some theologians categorize these groups and related sects as Millerite Adventist because of their teachings regarding an imminent Second Coming and their use of specific dates. The various independent Bible Student groups currently have a cumulative membership of about 20,000 worldwide.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2020}} According to the Watch Tower Society, there were about {{JWStatistics\|publishers\|approx}} Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide as of {{JWStatistics\|year}}.<ref>{{cite web\|title{{JWStatistics\|year}} Grand Totals\|publisherWatchtower Bible and Tract Society\|year{{JWStatistics\|year}}\|urlhttps://www.jw.org/en/library/books/{{JWStatistics\|year}}-Service-Year-Report-of-Jehovahs-Witnesses-Worldwide/{{JWStatistics\|year}}-Grand-Totals/}}</ref>See also * Advent Christian Church * Adventist and related churches * List of Christian denominations#Millerites and comparable groups * Seventh-day Adventist Church * Other movements in Adventism Great Disappointment William Miller (preacher) Millennialism Millerites ** Second Great Awakening General: * Christian revival * Christianity in the 19th century References {{Reflist}} Bibliography * {{cite book \|surnameBergman \|givenJerry \|year1995 \|chapterThe Adventist and Jehovah's Witness Branch of Protestantism \|editor-surnameMiller \|editor-givenTimothy \|editor-linkTimothy Miller \|titleAmerica's Alternative Religions \|publisherSUNY Press \|placeAlbany, NY \|pages33–46 \|isbn978-0-7914-2397-4 \|chapter-url{{Google books\|idog_u0Re1uwUC\|plainurly\|page33\|keywords\|text}} \|url{{Google books\|idog_u0Re1uwUC\|plainurly}} \|url-statuslive \|archive-date2020-07-24 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724210513/https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC}} * Butler, Jonathan. "From Millerism to Seventh-Day Adventism: Boundlessness to Consolidation", Church History, Vol. 55, 1986 * Jordan, Anne Devereaux. The Seventh-Day Adventists: A History (1988) * Land, Gary. Adventism in America: A History (1998) * Land, Gary. Historical Dictionary of the Seventh-Day Adventists (2005). * {{cite book \|chapterAdventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches \|pages256–276 \|givenFrank S. \|surnameMead \|given2Samuel S. \|surname2Hill \|given3Craig D. \|surname3Atwood \|titleHandbook of Denominations in the United States \|edition12th \|year2006 \|placeNashville, Tn \|publisher=Abingdon Press}} * Morgan, Douglas. Adventism and the American Republic: The Public Involvement of a Major Apocalyptic Movement (University of Tennessee Press, 2001) {{ISBN\|1-57233-111-9}} * {{cite book \|lastTarling \|firstLowell R. \|titleThe Edges of Seventh-day Adventism: A Study of Separatist Groups Emerging from the Seventh-day Adventist Church (1844–1980) \|publisherGalilee Publications \|year1981 \|locationBarragga Bay, New South Wales \|page81 \|isbn0-9593457-0-1}} External links {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141019224444/http://washington.netadvent.org/history.html History of the Millerite Movement], a reprint from the Seventh-day Adventist Encyclopedia 10:892–898, 1976. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130617184112/http://www.wcg.org/lit/aboutus/roots.htm Graphical timeline of major Millerite groups] from the Worldwide Church of God official website {{Christian History\|collapsed}} {{Christianity footer}} {{New Religious Movements in the United States}} {{Evangelical Protestantism in the United States}} {{Authority control}} Category:History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church Category:Christian eschatology Category:Christian terminology Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States Category:Christian denominations established in the 19th century	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventism	2025-04-05T18:26:01.516452
2345	Archbishop of Canterbury	{{Short description\|Senior bishop of the Church of England}} {{Redirect\|Primate of All England\|the Primate of England\|Archbishop of York}} {{For\|a list of archbishops\|List of archbishops of Canterbury}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2023}} {{Use British English\|date=January 2023}} {{Infobox diocese \| jurisdiction \| name \| archbishopric = Canterbury \| border = Anglican \| image \| coat File:Arms ArchbishopOfCanterbury.svg \| coat_size = 200px \| coat_caption = Arms of the diocese of Canterbury: Azure, an episcopal staff in pale or surmounted by a pall proper edged and fringed of the second charged with four crosses pattée fitchée sable \| incumbent = Vacant \| incumbent_note = since 7 January 2025 \| style = The Most Reverend and Right Honourable (otherwise His Grace) <!-- -- Locations -- --> \| province = Canterbury \| residence = {{Unbulleted list\|Lambeth Palace\|Old Palace}} <!-- -- Information -- --> \| established = {{Start date\|597}} \| cathedral = Canterbury Cathedral \| first_incumbent = Augustine of Canterbury \| diocese = Canterbury <!-- -- Website -- --> \| website = {{official URL}} \| latin \| local \| flag \| country \| territory \| metropolitan \| headquarters \| denomination Anglican \| parishes \| churches \| rite \| sui_iuris_church \| founded \| dissolved \| patron \| language \| bishop = }} {{AnglicanCommunion}} The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the bishop of the diocese of Canterbury. The first archbishop was Augustine of Canterbury, the "Apostle to the English", who was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great and arrived in 597.<ref>{{cite web \|date9 November 2012 \|titleAnnouncement of the 105th Archbishop of Canterbury \|urlhttp://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/2692/announcement-of-the-105th-archbishop-of-canterbury \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121112052627/http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/2692/announcement-of-the-105th-archbishop-of-canterbury \|archive-date12 November 2012 \|access-date14 November 2012 \|workArchbishop of Canterbury Website}}</ref> The position is currently vacant following the resignation of Justin Welby, the 105th archbishop, effective 7 January 2025.<ref name"res-order">Orders in Council, 18 December 2024, page 42. [https://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-18-List-of-Business.pdf] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241222132816/https://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/2024-12-18-List-of-Business.pdf Archived, 22 December 2024]</ref> During the vacancy the official functions of the office have been delegated primarily to the archbishop of York, Stephen Cottrell, with some also undertaken by the bishop of London, Sarah Mullally, and the bishop of Dover, Rose Hudson-Wilkin.<ref>{{cite news\|date6 January 2025 \|titleJustin Welby lays down archbishop's staff as Church of England urged to undergo 'complete reform' \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/justin-welby-archbishop-canterbury-resigns-bishop-staff-b2674734.html \|firstJabel \|lastAhmed \|workThe Independent \|accessdate6 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastWilliams \|firstHattie \|date6 Jan 2025 \|titleArchbishop Welby spends final day at Lambeth Palace in private \|urlhttps://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2025/10-january/news/uk/archbishop-welby-spends-final-day-at-lambeth-palace-in-private \|access-date2025-01-07 \|website=Church Times}}</ref> From Augustine until William Warham, the archbishops of Canterbury were in full communion with the Catholic Church and usually received the pallium from the pope. During the English Reformation, King Henry VIII broke communion with Rome and proclaimed himself the head of the Church of England. Thomas Cranmer, appointed in 1533, was the first Protestant archbishop of Canterbury and would become one of the most important figures in the development of Anglicanism. The archbishop is appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the prime minister of the United Kingdom and formally elected by the college of canons of Canterbury Cathedral. In practice, however, candidates are chosen by the Crown Nominations Commission, a Church of England body which advises the prime minister.<ref nameBailey>{{cite news\|lastBailey\|firstPippa\|date12 November 2024 \|titleThe race for Lambeth Palace\|urlhttps://www.newstatesman.com/politics/religion/2024/11/race-lambeth-palace-archbishop-of-canterbury-justin-welby\|workThe New Statesman\|access-date12 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastCabinet Office \|date15 Nov 2024 \|titleArchbishop of Canterbury appointment process \|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/archbishop-of-canterbury-appointment-process \|access-date2025-01-07 \|websitegov.uk \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| titleAppointing a new Archbishop of Canterbury \|publisherThe Church of England \| urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/about/governance/archbishops/canterbury-crown-nominations-commission/appointing-new-archbishop-canterbury \| access-date30 March 2025}}</ref> The Archbishops' Secretary for Appointments wrote to General Synod members regarding appointment of a successor to Justin Welby in January 2025; meetings up to September 2025 were expected, to shortlist candidates.<ref>{{cite web \| lastKnott \| firstStephen \| titleNominating the next Archbishop of Canterbury \|publisherAnglican Ink\| date22 January 2025 \| urlhttps://anglican.ink/2025/01/21/nominating-the-next-archbishop-of-canterbury/}}</ref> Present roles and status Currently the archbishop fills four main roles:<ref>[http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/104 Archbishop's Roles and Responsibilities] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080214105116/http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/104 \|date=14 February 2008 }}, Archbishop of Canterbury website. Retrieved 8 February 2008.</ref> # bishop of the diocese of Canterbury, which covers the eastern parts of the County of Kent. Founded in 597, it is the oldest see in the English church. # metropolitan archbishop of the province of Canterbury, which covers the southern two-thirds of England. # the senior primate and chief religious figure of the Church of England (the British sovereign is the supreme governor of the church). Along with their colleague the archbishop of York they chair the General Synod and sits on or chairs many of the church's important boards and committees; power in the church is not highly centralised, however, so the two archbishops can often lead only through persuasion. The archbishop of Canterbury plays a central part in national ceremonies such as coronations; due to their high public profile, their opinions are often in demand by the news media. # spiritual leader of the Anglican Communion. The archbishop, although without legal authority outside England, is recognised by convention as {{lang\|la\|primus inter pares}} ("first among equals") of all Anglican primates worldwide. Since 1867 the archbishop has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the Lambeth Conferences. In the last two of these functions, they have an important ecumenical and interfaith role, speaking on behalf of Anglicans in England and worldwide. The archbishop's main residence is Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth. They also have lodgings in the Old Palace, Canterbury, located beside Canterbury Cathedral, where the Chair of St Augustine sits. As holder of one of the "five great sees" (the others being York, London, Durham and Winchester), the archbishop of Canterbury is ex officio one of the Lords Spiritual of the House of Lords. They are one of the highest-ranking people in England and the highest ranking non-royal in the United Kingdom's order of precedence. Since Henry VIII broke with Rome, the archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (British since the Act of Union in 1707) monarch. Since the 20th century, the appointment of archbishops of Canterbury conventionally alternates between Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals.<ref>[http://www.archbishopofyork.org/154?qarchbishops The Archbishop of Canterbury] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722105024/http://www.archbishopofyork.org/154?qarchbishops \|date22 July 2011 }}, website of the Archbishop of York. Retrieved 31 March 2009.</ref> The most recent archbishop, Justin Welby was the 105th holder of the office; he was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 4 February 2013. As archbishop he signed himself as + Justin Cantuar. On 12 November 2024, he announced his decision to resign;<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSinmaz \|firstEmine \|date2024-11-12 \|titleJustin Welby says he will step down as archbishop of Canterbury \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/nov/12/justin-welby-step-down-archbishop-canterbury \|access-date2024-11-12 \|workThe Guardian \|languageen-GB \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> he did so effective 7 January 2025.<ref name"res-order" /> Two other former archbishops were living {{As of\|2025\|lcy}}: George Carey (born 1935), the 103rd archbishop; and Rowan Williams (born 1950), the 104th archbishop. Additional roles In addition to their office, the archbishop holds a number of other positions; for example, they are joint president of the Council of Christians and Jews in the United Kingdom. Some positions they formally hold ex officio and others virtually so (the incumbent of the day, although appointed personally, is appointed because of their office). Amongst these are:<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldreg/reg06.htm\|titleRegister of Lords' interests\|access-date15 August 2007\|publisherHouse of Lords\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070807023334/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld/ldreg/reg06.htm\|archive-date7 August 2007\|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Chancellor of Canterbury Christ Church University<ref name"arch">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.canterbury.ac.uk/News/newsRelease.asp?newspk597 \|titleArchbishop installed as first Chancellor \|publisherCanterbury Christ Church University \|date12 December 2005 \|access-date7 August 2008 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070928021041/http://www.canterbury.ac.uk/News/newsRelease.asp?newspk597 \|archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> * Visitor for the following academic institutions: All Souls College, Oxford Selwyn College, Cambridge Merton College, Oxford Keble College, Oxford Ridley Hall, Cambridge The University of Kent (main campus located in Canterbury) King's College London University of King's College Sutton Valence School Benenden School Cranbrook School Haileybury and Imperial Service College Harrow School King's College School, Wimbledon The King's School, Canterbury St John's School, Leatherhead Marlborough College Dauntsey's School ** Wycliffe Hall, Oxford (also Patron) * Governor of Charterhouse School * Governor of Wellington College * Visitor, The Dulwich Charities * Visitor, Whitgift Foundation * Visitor, Hospital of the Blessed Trinity, Guildford<!-- DO NOT LINK, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance --> (Abbot's Fund) * Trustee, Bromley College * Trustee, Allchurches Trust * President, Corporation of Church House, Westminster * Director, Canterbury Diocesan Board of Finance * Patron, St Edmund's School Canterbury * Patron, The Worshipful Company of Parish Clerks * Patron, Prisoners Abroad * Patron, The Kent Savers Credit Union * Patron, Sanctuary Mental Health Ministries<ref>{{Cite web \|date14 September 2021 \|titleJustin Welby becomes patron of mental health charity \|urlhttps://premierchristian.news/us/news/article/justin-welby-becomes-patron-of-mental-health-charity \|url-statuslive \|access-date15 October 2021 \|websitePremier. Christian News \|archive-date22 September 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210922180903/https://premierchristian.news/us/news/article/justin-welby-becomes-patron-of-mental-health-charity }}</ref> Ecumenical and interfaith The archbishop is also a president of Churches Together in England (an ecumenical organisation).<ref>{{cite web\|titleThe Presidents of Churches Together in England\|urlhttp://www.churches-together.net/Articles/61446/Churches_Together_in/About_Us/The_Presidents_of.aspx\|publisherChurches Together in England\|access-date23 February 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140226205837/http://www.churches-together.net/Articles/61446/Churches_Together_in/About_Us/The_Presidents_of.aspx\|archive-date26 February 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Geoffrey Fisher, 99th archbishop of Canterbury, was the first since 1397 to visit Rome, where he held private talks with Pope John XXIII in 1960. In 2005, Rowan Williams became the first archbishop of Canterbury to attend a papal funeral since the Reformation. He also attended the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI. The 101st archbishop, Donald Coggan, was the first to attend a papal inauguration, that of Pope John Paul II in 1978.<ref>{{cite news\|lastHickman\|firstBaden\|titleLord Coggan of Canterbury\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/19/guardianobituaries.religion\|access-date23 February 2014\|newspaperThe Guardian\|date19 May 2000}}</ref> Since 2002, the archbishop has co-sponsored the Alexandria Middle East Peace process with the Grand Mufti of Egypt. In July 2008, the archbishop attended a conference of Christians, Jews and Muslims convened by the king of Saudi Arabia at which the notion of the "clash of civilizations" was rejected. Delegates agreed "on international guidelines for dialogue among the followers of religions and cultures."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.saudi-us-relations.org/articles/2008/special-reports/080719-madrid-conference.html \|titleMadrid Interfaith Dialogue Conference: Beginning of a Process\|publisherSaudi-US Relations Information Service \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100515085122/http://www.saudi-us-relations.org/articles/2008/special-reports/080719-madrid-conference.html\|archive-date15 May 2010 \|url-statusdead \|access-date6 May 2014}}</ref> Delegates said that "the deepening of moral values and ethical principles, which are common denominators among such followers, would help strengthen stability and achieve prosperity for all humans."<ref>{{cite book\|lastNiles\|firstD. Preman\|titleResisting the threats to life: covenanting for justice, peace, and the integrity of creation\|date1989\|publisherWCC Publications\|locationGeneva\|isbn9782825409640}}</ref> Origins of Canterbury. Nearly 500 years after the Reformation, the arms still depict the pallium, a symbol of the authority of the Pope and metropolitan archbishops.]] It has been suggested that the Roman province of Britannia had four archbishops, seated at Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) and Corinium Dobunnorum (Cirencester).<ref>Wacher, J., The Towns of Roman Britain, Batsford, 1974, especially pp. 84–86.</ref> However, in the 5th and 6th centuries Britannia began to be overrun by pagan, Germanic peoples who came to be known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Of the kingdoms they created, Kent arguably had the closest links with European politics, trade and culture, because it was conveniently situated for communication with continental Europe. In the late 6th century, King Æthelberht of Kent married a Christian Frankish princess named Bertha, possibly before becoming king, and certainly a number of years before the arrival of the first Christian mission to England.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02519a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Bertha<!-- Bot generated title -->].</ref> He permitted the preaching of Christianity.<ref>Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 25.</ref> The first archbishop of Canterbury was Saint Augustine of Canterbury (not to be confused with Saint Augustine of Hippo), who arrived in Kent in 597 AD, having been sent by Pope Gregory I on a mission to the English. He was accepted by King Æthelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about the year 598. It seems that Pope Gregory, ignorant of recent developments in the former Roman province, including the spread of the Pelagian heresy, had intended the new archiepiscopal sees for England to be established in London and York.<ref>Bede, Ecclesiastical History, i, 29.</ref> In the event, Canterbury was chosen instead of London, owing to political circumstances.<ref>Brooks, N., The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, Leicester University Press, 1984, pp. 3–14.</ref> Since then the archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St. Augustine. A gospel book believed to be directly associated with St Augustine's mission survives in the Parker Library, Corpus Christi College, University of Cambridge<!-- DO NOT LINK, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance -->, England. Catalogued as Cambridge Manuscript 286, it has been positively dated to 6th-century Italy and this bound book, the St Augustine Gospels, is still used during the swearing-in ceremony of new archbishops of Canterbury. Before the break with papal authority in the 16th century, the Church of England was an integral part of the Western European church. Since the break the Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition (although this is not accepted by the Roman Catholic Church which regards Anglicanism as schismatic<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5JBSw4m9azYC&q+Roman+Catholic+Church++Anglicanism++schismatic&pgPP1\|titleAnglicans and the Roman Catholic Church: Reflections on Recent Developments\|lastCavanaugh\|firstStephen E.\|date 2011\|publisherIgnatius Press\|isbn978-1-58617-499-6\|language=en}}</ref> and does not accept Anglican holy orders as valid) as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The Report of the Commissioners appointed by his Majesty to inquire into the Ecclesiastical Revenues of England and Wales (1835) noted the net annual revenue for the Canterbury see was £19,182.<ref>The National Enclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol.III, Charles Knight, London, 1847, p. 362</ref> Province and Diocese of Canterbury from the north west {{circa\|1890–1900}}]] The archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the Province of Canterbury, which encompasses thirty of the forty-two dioceses of the Church of England, with the rest falling within the Province of York. The four Welsh dioceses were also under the province of Canterbury until 1920 when they were transferred from the established church of England to the disestablished Church in Wales. The archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial curia, or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of their province.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/events/EnthronementofRW2003.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070202170108/http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/events/EnthronementofRW2003.pdf\|url-statusdead\|titleOrder of Service from the Enthronement of the 104th Archbishop in 2003\|archive-date=2 February 2007}}</ref> The bishop of London&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;the most senior cleric of the church with the exception of the two archbishops&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;serves as Canterbury's provincial dean, the bishop of Winchester as chancellor, the bishop of Lincoln as vice-chancellor, the bishop of Salisbury as precentor, the bishop of Worcester as chaplain and the bishop of Rochester as cross-bearer. Along with primacy over the archbishop of York, the archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other bishops of the Anglican Communion. They are recognised as primus inter pares, or first amongst equals. They do not, however, exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England, except in certain minor roles dictated by Canon in those provinces (for example, they are the judge in the event of an ecclesiastical prosecution against the archbishop of Wales). They do hold metropolitical authority over several extra-provincial Anglican churches, and they serve as ex officio bishop of the Falkland Islands. {{As of\|2024}} the archbishop has four suffragan bishops: * The bishop of Dover is given the additional title of "bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if the bishop of Dover were the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury, since the archbishop is so frequently away fulfilling national and international duties. * Two further suffragans, the bishop of Ebbsfleet and the bishop of Richborough, are provincial episcopal visitors for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the archbishop as "flying bishops" to provide oversight throughout the province to parishes which for conscience' sake cannot accept that women can be ordained in the Sacrament of Ordination in the Church of England. * The bishop of Maidstone provides alternative episcopal oversight for the province of Canterbury for particular members who take a conservative evangelical view of male headship. On 23 September 2015, Rod Thomas was consecrated bishop of Maidstone.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/5545/suffragan-bishop-of-maidstone-announced\|title Articles}}</ref> Previously the bishop of Maidstone was an actual suffragan bishop working in the diocese, until it was decided at the diocesan synod of November 2010 that a new bishop would not be appointed.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.canterburydiocese.org/diocesansynodnews/index.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110615003605/http://www.canterburydiocese.org/diocesansynodnews/index.htm\|url-statusdead\|titleCanterbury Diocese – Synod News\|archive-date15 June 2011}}</ref> Styles and privileges {{Hatnote\|"Primate of All England" redirects here.}} The archbishops of Canterbury and York are both styled as "The Most Reverend"; retired archbishops are styled as "The Right Reverend". The archbishop is, by convention, appointed to the Privy Council and may, therefore, also use the style of "The Right Honourable" for life, unless later removed from the council. In formal documents, the archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend <!-- Father in God, is now omitted -->Forenames, by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. They may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" or, more informally, as "Archbishop". The surname of the archbishop of Canterbury is not always used in formal documents; often only the first name and see are mentioned. The archbishop is legally entitled to sign their name as "Cantuar" (the Latin for Canterbury). The right to use a title as a legal signature is only permitted to bishops, peers of the Realm and peers by courtesy.{{citation needed\|date=February 2021}} Justin Welby as archbishop of Canterbury usually signed as "+Justin Cantuar:". In the English and Welsh order of precedence, the archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the sovereign and members of the royal family.<ref>''Whitaker's Almanack'', 2008, p. 43 – Precedence, England and Wales</ref> Immediately below them is the lord chancellor and then the archbishop of York. The archbishop of Canterbury awards academic degrees, commonly called "Lambeth degrees". Residences , photographed looking east across the River Thames]] The archbishop of Canterbury's official residence and office in London is Lambeth Palace. They also have an apartment within the Old Palace, next to Canterbury Cathedral which incorporates some 13th-century fabric of the medieval Archbishop's Palace. Former seats of the archbishops include: * Croydon Palace: the summer residence of the archbishops from the 15th to the 18th centuries. * Addington Palace: purchased as a replacement for Croydon Palace in 1807; sold in 1897. * Archbishop's Palace, Maidstone: constructed in the 1390s, the palace was seized by the Crown at the time of the Reformation. * Otford Palace: a medieval palace, rebuilt by Archbishop Warham {{circa\|1515}} and forfeited to the Crown by Thomas Cranmer in 1537. * Archbishop's Palace, Charing: a palace existed from at least the 13th century; seized by the Crown after the Dissolution. Remnants survive as a farmhouse. * Knole House: built by Archbishop Bourchier in the second half of the 15th century, it was forfeited to the Crown by Archbishop Cranmer in 1538. List of recent archbishops {{main\|List of archbishops of Canterbury}} {{see also\|Assistant Bishop of Canterbury}} Since 1900, the following have served as archbishop of Canterbury:<ref>{{cite web\|lastJohnson\|firstBen\|titleArchbishops of Canturbury\|urlhttps://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Archbishops-of-Canterbury/\|access-date31 January 2020\|websiteHistoric UK}}</ref> * 1896–1902: Frederick Temple * 1903–1928: Randall Davidson * 1928–1942: Cosmo Gordon Lang * 1942–1944: William Temple * 1945–1961: Geoffrey Fisher * 1961–1974: Michael Ramsey * 1974–1980: Donald Coggan * 1980–1991: Robert Runcie * 1991–2002: George Carey * 2002–2012: Rowan Williams * 2013–2025: Justin Welby Archbishops who became peers From 1660 to 1902, all the archbishops of Canterbury died in office. In 1928, two years before his death, Randall Davidson became the first <!-- at least since 1640, probably ever --> to voluntarily resign his office. All his successors except William Temple (who died in office in 1944) have also resigned their office before death. All those who retired have been given peerages: initially hereditary baronies (although both recipients of such titles died without male heirs and so their titles became extinct on their deaths), and life peerages after the enactment of the Life Peerages Act 1958. Such titles have allowed retired archbishops to retain the seats in the House of Lords which they held ex officio before their retirement. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Archbishop !! Title !! Notes \|- \| Randall Davidson \| Baron Davidson of Lambeth in 1928 \| Extinct in 1930 \|- \| Cosmo Gordon Lang \| Baron Lang of Lambeth in 1942 \| Extinct in 1945 \|- \| Geoffrey Fisher \| Baron Fisher of Lambeth for life in 1961 \| Extinct in 1972 \|- \| Michael Ramsey \| Baron Ramsey of Canterbury for life in 1974 \| Extinct in 1988 \|- \| Donald Coggan \| Baron Coggan for life in 1980 \| Extinct in 2000 \|- \| Robert Runcie \| Baron Runcie for life in 1991 \| Extinct in 2000 \|- \| George Carey \| Baron Carey of Clifton for life in 2002 \| Extant \|- \| Rowan Williams \| Baron Williams of Oystermouth for life in 2013 \| Extant (retired from the House in 2020<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2020-09-02/debates/44EDE44D-7BFD-4FE3-B916-5ABE37EEB123/RetirementsOfMembers\|titleRetirements of Members – Hansard – UK Parliament}}</ref>) \|- \|} See also * Accord of Winchester * Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople * Religion in the United Kingdom References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} * {{Official website}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=uOsAAAAAMAAJ The Archbishopric of Canterbury, from Its Foundation to the Norman Conquest], by John William Lamb, published 1971, Faith Press, from Google Book Search {{Archbishop of Canterbury}} {{Archbishops of Canterbury}} {{Anglican Bishops & Archbishops - Great Britain}} {{Anglican Communion footer}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Archbishop of Canterbury}} Category:597 establishments Category:6th-century establishments in England Category:Anglican Communion Category:Anglican episcopal offices Category:Christianity in Kent Category:Church of England Category:Culture in Canterbury Category:Ecclesiastical titles Category:People associated with Canterbury Christ Church University Category:People associated with King's College London Category:People associated with the Royal National College for the Blind Category:People associated with the University of Kent Canterbury Category:Religious leadership roles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury	2025-04-05T18:26:01.555017
2346	Albion, Michigan	{{Use mdy dates\|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox settlement \|official_name = Albion \|settlement_type = City \|nickname \|motto <!-- Images --> \|image_skyline \|imagesize \|image_caption \|image_flag \|image_seal = <!-- Maps --> \|image_map = Calhoun_County_Michigan_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Albion_Highlighted.svg \|mapsize = 250px \|map_caption = Location of Albion, Michigan \|image_map1 \|mapsize1 \|map_caption1 \|pushpin_map Michigan#USA#North America <!-- Location --> \|subdivision_type = Country \|subdivision_name = United States \|subdivision_type1 = State \|subdivision_name1 = Michigan \|subdivision_type2 = County \|subdivision_name2 = Calhoun <!-- Government --> \|government_footnotes \|government_type \|leader_title \|leader_name \|leader_title1 \|leader_name1 \|established_title \|established_date <!-- Area --> \|unit_pref = Imperial \|area_footnotes <ref name"CenPopGazetteer2020">{{cite web\|title2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files\|urlhttps://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_26.txt\|publisherUnited States Census Bureau\|accessdateMay 21, 2022}}</ref> \|area_magnitude \|area_total_km2 11.66 \|area_land_km2 = 11.42 \|area_water_km2 = 0.24 \|area_total_sq_mi = 4.50 \|area_land_sq_mi = 4.41 \|area_water_sq_mi = 0.09 <!-- Population --> \|population_as_of = 2020 \|population_est \|pop_est_as_of \|population_footnotes \|population_total 7700 \|population_density_km2 = 674.14 \|population_density_sq_mi = 1746.03 <!-- General information --> \|timezone = Eastern (EST) \|utc_offset = -5 \|timezone_DST = EDT \|utc_offset_DST = -4 \|elevation_footnotes \|elevation_m 290 \|elevation_ft = 951 \|coordinates {{coord\|42\|14\|48\|N\|84\|45\|12\|W\|region:US-MI\|displayinline,title}} \|postal_code_type = ZIP code \|postal_code = 49224 \|area_code = 517 \|blank_name = FIPS code \|blank_info 26-00980<ref name"GR2">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.census.gov \|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-date2008-01-31 \|titleU.S. Census website }}</ref> \|blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \|blank1_info 0619906<ref name"GR3">{{cite web\|urlhttp://geonames.usgs.gov\|access-date2008-01-31\|titleUS Board on Geographic Names\|publisherUnited States Geological Survey\|date=2007-10-25}}</ref> \|website \|footnotes \|pop_est_footnotes = }} Albion is a city in Calhoun County in the south central region of the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 7,700 at the 2020 census. Albion is part of the Battle Creek Metropolitan Statistical Area. The earliest English-speaking settlers also called this area The Forks, because it is at the confluence of the north and south branches of the Kalamazoo River. In the early 20th century, immigrants came to Albion from various eastern European nations, including the current Lithuania and Russia. More recently, Latino immigrants have come from Mexico and Central America. The Festival of the Forks has been held annually since 1967 to celebrate Albion's diverse ethnic heritage. Since the 19th century, several major manufacturers were established in Albion, which became known as a factory town. This changed after several manufacturers closed. In the 21st century, Albion's culture is changing to that of a college town whose residents have a strong interest in technology and sustainability. Albion College is a private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,250. Albion is a sister city with Noisy-le-Roi, France. History The first European-American settler, Tenney Peabody, arrived in 1833 along with his brother-in-law, Charles Blanchard, and another young man, Clark Dowling. Peabody's family followed soon after. In 1835, the Albion Company, a land development company formed by Jesse Crowell, platted a village. Peabody's wife was asked to name the settlement. She considered the name "Peabodyville", but selected "Albion" instead, after the former residence of Jesse Crowell. Crowell was appointed in 1838 as the first US postmaster there. Many early settlers migrated to Albion from western New York and New England, part of a movement after the construction of the Erie Canal and the opening of new lands in Michigan and other Great Lakes territories. They first developed agriculture and it became a rural trading village. Settlers were strong supporters of education and in 1835, Methodists established Albion College affiliated with their church. Its first classes were held in 1843. The college was known by a few other names before 1861. At that time it was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women. Albion incorporated as a village in 1855, following construction of the railroad here in 1852, which stimulated development. It became a city in 1885.<ref>[http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/000910.shtml#TOP "Festival of the Forks"], Frank Passic, Morning Star, September 10, 2000, pg. 9</ref><ref>[http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/960909.shtml "The Passing Scene"], Frank Passic, Morning Star, September 9, 2001, pg. 3</ref> Mills were constructed to operate on the water power of the forks of the Kalamazoo River. They were the first industry in the town, used to process lumber, grain, and other products to build the village. Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. The river that powered industry also flooded the town. In the Great Flood of 1908, there was severe property damage. In February, several feet of snow fell across the region. Heavy rains and warmer conditions in early March created water saturation in the ground and risk of flooding because of the rivers' high flow. After the Homer Dam broke around 3 p.m. on March 7, the Kalamazoo River flooded Albion. By midnight, the bridges surrounding town were underwater. Six buildings in Albion collapsed, resulting in more than $125,000 in damage (1908 dollars).<ref name"WIL">Willard Library. [http://www2.willard.lib.mi.us/bcphotos/floods/index.htm Photographs from Battle Creek History.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070810045759/http://www2.willard.lib.mi.us/bcphotos/floods/index.htm \|date=2007-08-10 }} Retrieved on 2007-05-06.</ref><ref>Frank Passic. [http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/R990301.shtml "The Great Flood of 1908".] Retrieved on 2007-05-06.</ref> The town struggled to recover. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous Lithuanian and other Eastern European immigrants settled there, most working for the Albion Malleable Iron Company, and some in the coal mine north of town. The iron company initially made agricultural implements, but around World War I shifted to making automotive parts. The Malleable merged in 1969 with the Hayes Corporation, becoming the Hayes-Albion Corporation. Now known as a division of Harvard Industries, the company continues to produce automotive castings in Albion. Molder Statue Park downtown is dedicated to the many molders who dealt with molten iron.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/MM0202.shtml\|titleTOKENS OF THE ALBION MALLEABLE IRON COMPANY\|publisherThe Mich-Matist\| date Spring 2002 \|issue#140\|access-date6 May 2022}}</ref> There were soon enough Lithuanians in town to establish Holy Ascension Orthodox Church, which they built in 1916. It is part of the Orthodox Church in America. Today its services are in English.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleParishes - Holy Ascension Church \|urlhttps://www.oca.org/parishes/oca-mw-malbhac \|access-date2025-01-24 \|websitewww.oca.org}}</ref> Albion's population peaked in 1960.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbion, Michigan Population 2024 \|urlhttps://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/michigan/albion \|access-date2025-03-08 \|websiteworldpopulationreview.com}}</ref> In 1973 Albion was named an All-America City by the National Civic League. It celebrated the award on May 15, 1974, when Michigan Governor William Milliken and many other dignitaries came to town. In 1975 the closure of a major factory began a difficult period of industrial restructuring and decline in jobs and population. Since that time citizens have mobilized, founding the Albion Community Foundation in 1968. They formed the Albion Volunteer Service Organization in the 1980s, with support from Albion College, to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity. Key to the City Honor Bestowed: 1964: Aunt Jemima visited Albion on January 25.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/070107.shtml \|titleThe Key To The City \|publisherAlbionmich.com \|access-date=2012-09-14}}</ref> 1960s: Columnist Ann Landers was presented with a key upon her visit to Starr Commonwealth for Boys.<ref name"autogenerated1" /> Law and government Albion has a council-manager government. City residents elect a mayor at-large and City Council members from each of six single-member districts. The council in turn selects a city manager to handle the city's day-to-day affairs. The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.cityofalbionmi.gov/government/mayor_and_city_council/mayor.php\|titleMayor\|dateMay 25, 2019\|websiteCity of Albion\|access-dateMay 25, 2019\|archive-dateMay 25, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190525131748/http://www.cityofalbionmi.gov/government/mayor_and_city_council/mayor.php\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The city levies an income tax of 1% on residents and 0.5% on nonresidents.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Gibbons\|first1Lauren\|titleMichigan State University, city of East Lansing at odds over proposed income tax\|urlhttp://www.mlive.com/news/index.ssf/2017/08/michigan_state_university_city.html#incart_river_home\|access-dateAugust 16, 2017\|workMLive Lansing\|publisherMlive Media Group\|dateAugust 16, 2017}}</ref>GeographyAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of {{convert\|4.51\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}}, of which {{convert\|4.41\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is land and {{convert\|0.10\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is water.<ref name"Gazetteer files">{{cite web\|titleUS Gazetteer files 2010 \|urlhttps://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt \|publisherUnited States Census Bureau \|access-date2012-11-25 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt \|archive-date2012-01-25 }}</ref> Albion is 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian. Climate <div style"width:75%"> {{Weather box \|location = Albion \|single line = Y \|precipitation colour = green \|Jan precipitation inch = 2.62 \|Feb precipitation inch = 1.91 \|Mar precipitation inch = 2.08 \|Apr precipitation inch = 3.25 \|May precipitation inch = 4.12 \|Jun precipitation inch = 4.06 \|Jul precipitation inch = 4.20 \|Aug precipitation inch = 4.15 \|Sep precipitation inch = 3.27 \|Oct precipitation inch = 3.49 \|Nov precipitation inch = 2.72 \|Dec precipitation inch = 2.42 \|year precipitation inch \|Jan snow inch 15.2 \|Feb snow inch = 6.9 \|Mar snow inch = 5.2 \|Apr snow inch = 1.0 \|May snow inch = 0.0 \|Jun snow inch = 0.0 \|Jul snow inch = 0.0 \|Aug snow inch = 0.0 \|Sep snow inch = 0.0 \|Oct snow inch = 0.1 \|Nov snow inch = 1.5 \|Dec snow inch = 10.5 \|year snow inch \|Jan snow depth inch 8.4 \|Feb snow depth inch = 6.5 \|Mar snow depth inch = 3.4 \|Apr snow depth inch = 1.1 \|May snow depth inch = 0.0 \|Jun snow depth inch = 0.0 \|Jul snow depth inch = 0.0 \|Aug snow depth inch = 0.0 \|Sep snow depth inch = 0.0 \|Oct snow depth inch = 0.1 \|Nov snow depth inch = 1.2 \|Dec snow depth inch = 5.3 \|year snow depth inch = 10.1 \|unit precipitation days = 0.01 in \|Jan precipitation days = 12.5 \|Feb precipitation days = 9.0 \|Mar precipitation days = 8.8 \|Apr precipitation days = 11.6 \|May precipitation days = 12.3 \|Jun precipitation days = 10.6 \|Jul precipitation days = 9.9 \|Aug precipitation days = 10.4 \|Sep precipitation days = 9.5 \|Oct precipitation days = 11.4 \|Nov precipitation days = 10.5 \|Dec precipitation days = 11.7 \|unit snow days = 0.1 in \|Jan snow days = 6.1 \|Feb snow days = 4.0 \|Mar snow days = 2.3 \|Apr snow days = 0.4 \|May snow days = 0.0 \|Jun snow days = 0.0 \|Jul snow days = 0.0 \|Aug snow days = 0.0 \|Sep snow days = 0.0 \|Oct snow days = 0.0 \|Nov snow days = 1.0 \|Dec snow days = 4.3 \|source 1 NOAA<ref name NOAA> {{cite web \|url https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?datasetnormals-monthly-1991-2020&stationsUSC00200094&formatpdf&dataTypes=MLY-TMAX-NORMAL,MLY-TMIN-NORMAL,MLY-TAVG-NORMAL,MLY-PRCP-NORMAL,MLY-SNOW-NORMAL \|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title = U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access – Station: Albion, MI \|access-date = June 12, 2024 }} </ref> \|source 2 National Weather Service<ref name NOWData> {{cite web \|url https://www.weather.gov/wrh/climate?wfogrr \|publisher = National Weather Service \|title = NOAA Online Weather Data – NWS Grand Rapids \|access-date = June 12, 2024 }} </ref> }} </div> Demographics {{US Census population \|1850= 881 \|1880= 2716 \|1890= 3763 \|1900= 4519 \|1910= 5833 \|1920= 8354 \|1930= 8324 \|1940= 8345 \|1950= 10406 \|1960= 12749 \|1970= 12112 \|1980= 11059 \|1990= 10066 \|2000= 9144 \|2010= 8616 \|2020= 7700 \|footnote=Source: Census Bureau. Census [http://www.michigan.gov/documents/MCD1960-1990C_33608_7.pdf 1960-] 2000, 2010. }} 2010 population by gender/age {\| class="wikitable" \|- \| Male \|\| 4,013 \|\| 46.6% \|- \| Female \|\| 4,603 \|\| 53.4% \|- \| Under 18 \|\| 1,872 \|\| 21.7% \|- \| 18 and over \|\| 6,744 \|\| 78.3% \|- \| 20-24 \|\| 1,364 \|\| 15.8% \|- \| 25-34 \|\| 842 \|\| 9.8% \|- \| 35-49 \|\| 1,251 \|\| 14.5% \|- \| 50-64 \|\| 1,368 \|\| 15.9% \|- \| 65+ \|\| 1,124 \|\| 13.0% \|} 2010 population by ethnicity {\| class="wikitable" \|- \| Hispanic or Latino \|\| 500 \|\| 5.8% \|- \| Non Hispanic or Latino \|\| 8,116 \|\| 94.2% \|} 2010 population by race {\| class="wikitable" \|- \| White \|\| 5,477 \|\| 63.6% \|- \| African American \|\| 2,579 \|\| 29.9% \|- \| Asian \|\| 91 \|\| 1.1% \|- \| American Indian and Alaska Native \|\| 29 \|\| 0.3% \|- \| Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander \|\| 17 \|\| 0.2% \|- \| Other \|\| 90 \|\| 1.0% \|- \| Identified by two or more \|\| 333 \|\| 3.9% \|} Transportation Major highways {{jct\|state=MI\|I\|94}} {{jct\|stateMI\|BL\|94\|dab1Albion}} {{jct\|state=MI\|M\|99}} {{jct\|stateMI\|M\|199}}RailAmtrak provides daily service to Albion, operating its Wolverine both directions between Chicago, Illinois and Pontiac, Michigan, via Detroit.BusGreyhound Lines provides daily intercity city bus service to Albion between Chicago and Detroit. Notable people <!-- Note: · Only people who already have a Wikipedia article may appear here. This establishes notability. · The article must mention how they are associated with Albion, whether born, raised, or residing. · The fact of their association should have a reliable source cited. · Alphabetical by last name please. · All others will be deleted. --> * Kim Cascone, musician, composer, owner of Silent Records; born in Albion * M. F. K. Fisher, food writer, born in Albion * Ada Iddings Gale, author, lived and buried in Albion * Helen Rose Hull, author and university professor, was born in Albion. Her 1932 book Heat Lightning concerns a family that owns agricultural implement and automotive parts factories in a small town during the 1930s. * Frank Joranko, football player and coach for Albion College * LaVall Jordan, head men's basketball coach for Butler University, born in Albion * Martin Wells Knapp, American Methodist evangelist who founded the Pilgrim Holiness Church and God's Bible School and College, born in Albion. * Bill Laswell, jazz bassist, record producer and record label owner; raised in Albion * Jerome D. Mack, banker, director of Las Vegas hotels Riviera and Dunes, founder of University of Nevada, Las Vegas; born in Albion * Deacon McGuire, professional baseball player for 26 seasons, lived in Albion * Gary Lee Nelson, composer, pioneer in electronic and computer music; grew up in Albion<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100630080628/http://www.timara.oberlin.edu/%7Egnelson/gnelson.htm Gary Lee Nelson's home page]</ref> * John Sinclair, poet and political activist, attended Albion College * Jon Scieszka, children's author, attended Albion College * Brian Tyler, racing driver, born in Albion<ref>{{Cite web \|date2010-07-10 \|titleBrian Tyler \|urlhttp://www.mmshof.org/inductees/Tyler_Brian.html \|access-date2023-06-19 \|archive-date2010-07-10 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100710020800/http://www.mmshof.org/inductees/Tyler_Brian.html \|url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> * Jack Vaughn, Assistant Secretary of State, Ambassador to Panama and Colombia, and Director of the Peace Corps (1966–1969); grew up in Albion * The War and Treaty, musical duo See also * Holy Ascension Orthodox Church References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Albion, Michigan}} {{Collier's poster\|Albion (Michigan)\|Albion, Michigan}} * [https://cityofalbionmi.gov/ City of Albion official website] * [http://ci.albion.mi.us/ Albion City Information Page] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130129212147/http://www.ci.albion.mi.us/ \|date2013-01-29 }} * [http://www.albionlibrary.org/ Albion District Library] * [http://www.albionmich.com/ Albion Michigan Home Page] * [http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/TOCsubj.htm Historical Albion Michigan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928074424/http://www.festivaloftheforks.com/ Festival of the Forks – Albion's annual music and food festival by the forks of the Kalamazoo River] * [http://www.greateralbionchamber.org/ The Greater Albion Chamber of Commerce] * [http://www.albionfoundation.org/ Albion Michigan Community Foundation – For Good. For Ever.] {{Calhoun County, Michigan}} {{Authority control}} Category:Cities in Calhoun County, Michigan Category:Populated places established in 1835 Category:1835 establishments in Michigan Territory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albion,_Michigan	2025-04-05T18:26:01.590405
2348	Anointing of the sick	{{Short description\|Religious anointing/sacrament}} (1445) by Rogier van der Weyden showing the sacrament of Extreme Unction or Anointing of the Sick]] Anointing of the sick, known also by other names such as unction, is a form of religious anointing or "unction" (an older term with the same meaning) for the benefit of a sick person. It is practiced by many Christian churches and denominations. Anointing of the sick was a customary practice in many civilizations, including among the ancient Greeks and early Jewish communities. The use of oil for healing purposes is referred to in the writings of Hippocrates.<ref>P. J. Hartin, Daniel J. Harrington James -- 2003 Page 267 "Anointing of the sick was a customary practice in both the Hellenistic and Jewish worlds. The use of oil for healing purposes is referred to in the writings of Hippocrates: "Exercises in dust differ from those in oil thus. Dust is cold, oil is warm."</ref><ref>John Lightfoot Horæ hebraicæ et talmudicæ: Hebrew and Talmudical exercitations Volume 2 - Page 155 "On the ninth day of the month Ab, and in the public fasts, anointing for dress is forbid; anointing not for dress is allowed." [Hebrew text] They anointed themselves often, not for excess, or bravery, or delight, but for the healing of some disease, "</ref> Anointing of the sick should be distinguished from other religious anointings that occur in relation to other sacraments, in particular baptism, confirmation and ordination, and also in the coronation of a monarch.<ref nameODCC>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN\|978-0-19-280290-3}}), article "unction"</ref>NamesSince 1972, the Roman Catholic Church has used the name "Anointing of the Sick" both in the English translations issued by the Holy See of its official documents in Latin<ref>[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_p-vi_apc_19721130_sacram-unctionem_en.html Apostolic Constitution Sacram Unctionem Infirmorum], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p2s2c2a5.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P3J.HTM Code of Canon Law], [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/general-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19930325_directory_en.html Directory for the Application of Principles and Norms on Ecumenism], [http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/summorum-pontificum.html motu proprio Summorum Pontificum'', etc.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121010043928/http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/summorum-pontificum.html \|date2012-10-10 }}</ref> and in the English official documents of Episcopal conferences.<ref>For example, [http://www.usccbpublishing.org/client/client_pages/USCCAAFF.cfm#Sacraments United States Catholic Catechism for Adults] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080430123525/http://www.usccbpublishing.org/client/client_pages/USCCAAFF.cfm#Sacraments \|date2008-04-30 }}</ref> It does not, of course, forbid the use of other names, for example the more archaic term "Unction of the Sick" or the term "Extreme Unction". Cardinal Walter Kasper used the latter term in his intervention at the 2005 Assembly of the Synod of Bishops.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/sinodo/documents/bollettino_21_xi-ordinaria-2005/02_inglese/b13_02.html#-_H._Em._Card._Walter_KASPER,_President_of_the_Pontifical_Council_for_the_Promotion_of_Christian_Unity_(VATICAN_CITY)_\| title Holy See Press Office bulletin}}</ref> However, the Church declared that "'Extreme unction' ... may also and more fittingly be called 'anointing of the sick'",<ref>[http://www.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html Constitution on the Liturgy], 73 {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071118191051/http://www.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19631204_sacrosanctum-concilium_en.html \|date=2007-11-18 }}</ref> and has itself adopted the latter term, while not outlawing the former. This is to emphasize that the sacrament is available, and recommended, to all those suffering from any serious illness, and to dispel the common misconception that it is exclusively for those at or very near the point of death. Extreme Unction was the usual name for the sacrament in the West from the late twelfth century until 1972, and was thus used at the Council of Trent<ref>{{cite web\| url http://history.hanover.edu/early/Trent/CT14UNCT.html\| title Fourteenth Session}}</ref> and in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.<ref nameCE>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05716a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)]: article "Extreme Unction"</ref> Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term,<ref nameODCC/> which did not become the usual name in the West till towards the end of the twelfth century, and never became current in the East.<ref nameCE/> The word "extreme" (final) indicated either that it was the last of the sacramental unctions (after the anointings at Baptism, Confirmation and, if received, Holy Orders) or because at that time it was normally administered only when a patient was in extremis.<ref nameODCC/> Other names used in the West include the unction or blessing of consecrated oil, the unction of God, and the office of the unction.<ref name=CE/> Among some Protestant bodies, who do not consider it a sacrament, but instead as a practice suggested rather than commanded by Scripture, it is called anointing with oil. In the Greek Church, the sacrament is called Euchelaion (Greek Εὐχέλαιον, from εὐχή, "prayer", and ἔλαιον, "oil").<ref nameODCC/><ref nameCE/> Other names are also used, such as ἅγιον ἔλαιον (holy oil), ἡγιασμένον ἔλαιον (consecrated oil), and χρῖσις or χρῖσμα (anointing).<ref name=CE/> The Community of Christ uses the term administration to the sick.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.cofchrist.org/sacraments/default.asp \|titleCommunity of Christ: The Sacraments \|access-date2007-03-02 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120724195534/http://www.cofchrist.org/sacraments/default.asp \|archive-date2012-07-24 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The term "last rites" refers to administration to a dying person not only of this sacrament but also of Penance and Holy Communion, the last of which, when administered in such circumstances, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for the journey". The normal order of administration is: first Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given); next, Anointing; finally, Viaticum (if the person can receive it). Biblical texts The chief biblical text concerning the rite is the Epistle of James ({{bibleverse\|James\|5:14–15}}): "Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven" (RSV). {{bibleverse\|Matthew\|10:8}}, {{bibleverse\|Luke\|10:8–9}} and {{bibleverse\|Mark\|6:13}} are also quoted in this context. Sacramental beliefs The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Coptic<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/thecopticchurch/sacraments/5_unction_sick.html\| title Sacrament of Unction of the Sick}}</ref> and Old Catholic<ref>[http://anglicanhistory.org/liturgy/old_catholic_ritual/unction.html Unction of the Sick]; etc.</ref> Churches consider this anointing to be a sacrament. Other Christians too, in particular, Lutherans, Anglicans and some Protestant and other Christian communities use a rite of anointing the sick, without necessarily classifying it as a sacrament. In the Churches mentioned here by name, the oil used (called "oil of the sick" in both West and East)<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/easternorthodox_4.shtml\| title Sacred Mysteries (sacraments)}}</ref> is blessed specifically for this purpose. Roman Catholic Church {{main\|Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church}} An extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in Catechism of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2art5.shtml\| title Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1499&ndash;1532.}}</ref> Anointing of the Sick is one of the seven Sacraments recognized by the Catholic Church, and is associated with not only bodily healing but also forgiveness of sins. Only ordained priests can administer it,<ref>"Every priest, but only a priest, can validly administer the anointing of the sick"[http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3K.HTM Code of Canon Law, canon 1003 §1])</ref> and "any priest may carry the holy oil with him, so that in a case of necessity he can administer the sacrament of anointing of the sick."<ref>[http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3K.HTM Code of Canon Law, canon 1003 §3])</ref> Sacramental graces <!--Will move to Catholic Specific Article--> The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament a gift of the Holy Spirit is given, that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation. The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects: the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church; the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure, in a Christian manner, the sufferings of illness or old age; the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance; the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul; the preparation for passing over to eternal life."<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4N.HTM\| title Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1532}}</ref> Sacramental oil The duly blessed oil used in the sacrament is, as laid down in the Apostolic Constitution, Sacram unctionem infirmorum,<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_p-vi_apc_19721130_sacram-unctionem_en.html\| title Sacram unctionem infirmorum}}</ref> pressed from olives or from other plants.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4K.HTM\| title Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1513}}</ref> It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. If oil blessed by the bishop is not available, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil, but only within the framework of the celebration.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3J.HTM\| title Code of Canon Law, canon 999}}</ref> Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite (1972) The Roman Rite Anointing of the Sick, as revised in 1972, puts greater stress than in the immediately preceding centuries on the sacrament's aspect of healing, primarily spiritual but also physical, and points to the place sickness holds in the normal life of Christians and its part in the redemptive work of the Church.<ref name=ODCC/> Canon law permits its administration to a Catholic who has reached the age of reason and is beginning to be put in danger by illness or old age,<ref>"The anointing of the sick can be administered to any member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger by reason of illness or old age" ([http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3L.HTM Code of Canon Law, canon 1004 §1]).</ref> unless the person in question obstinately persists in a manifestly grave sin.<ref>Thus, it is a "sacrament of the living" meaning that one, unless unconscious, must be in the state of grace to receive it fruitfully. If a Catholic were to receive it in the state of mortal sin, it would be a sacrilege. However, the graces of the sacrament would revive once said person received absolution in the sacrament of penance. [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3L.HTM Code of Canon Law, canon 1007]</ref> "If there is any doubt as to whether the sick person has reached the use of reason, or is dangerously ill, or is dead, this sacrament is to be administered".<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3L.HTM\| title Code of Canon Law, canon 1005}}</ref> There is an obligation to administer it to the sick who, when they were in possession of their faculties, at least implicitly asked for it.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3L.HTM\| title Code of Canon Law, canon 1006}}</ref> A new illness or a renewal or worsening of the first illness enables a person to receive the sacrament a further time.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0017/_P3L.HTM\| title Code of Canon Law, canon 1004 §2}}</ref> The ritual book on pastoral care of the sick provides three rites:<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 97</ref>{{Full citation needed\|date=September 2015}} anointing outside Mass,<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 111-130</ref> anointing within Mass,<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 131-148</ref> and anointing in a hospital or institution.<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 149-160</ref> The rite of anointing outside Mass begins with a greeting by the priest, followed by sprinkling of all present with holy water, if deemed desirable, and a short instruction.<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 115-117</ref> There follows a penitential act, as at the beginning of Mass.<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 118</ref> If the sick person wishes to receive the sacrament of penance, it is preferable that the priest make himself available for this during a previous visit; but if the sick person must confess during the celebration of the sacrament of anointing, this confession replaces the penitential rite<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 113</ref> A passage of Scripture is read, and the priest may give a brief explanation of the reading, a short litany is said, and the priest lays his hands on the head of the sick person and then says a prayer of thanksgiving over the already blessed oil or, if necessary, blesses the oil himself.<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 119-123</ref> The actual anointing of the sick person is done on the forehead, with the prayer: "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit", and on the hands, with the prayer "May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up". To each prayer the sick person, if able, responds: "Amen."<ref name="Pastoral Care of the Sick, 124">Pastoral Care of the Sick, 124</ref> It is permitted, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the condition of the sick person, to anoint other parts of the body in addition, such as the area of pain or injury, but without repeating the sacramental form.<ref name"Pastoral Care of the Sick, 124"/> In case of emergency, a single anointing, if possible but not absolutely necessary if not possible on the forehead, is sufficient.<ref>Pastoral Care of the Sick, 23</ref>Extraordinary Form of the Roman RiteFrom the early Middle Ages until after the Second Vatican Council the sacrament was administered, within the Latin Church, only when death was approaching and, in practice, bodily recovery was not ordinarily looked for,<ref nameODCC/> giving rise, as mentioned above to the name "Extreme Unction" (i.e. final anointing). The extraordinary form of the Roman Rite includes anointing of seven parts of the body while saying in Latin: {{quote\|{{verse translation\|lang1=la\|Per istam sanctam Unctiónem et suam piisimam misericórdiam, indúlgeat tibi Dóminus quidquid per (visum, auditorum, odorátum, gustum et locutiónem, tactum, gressum, lumborum delectationem) deliquisti. \|Through this holy unction and His own most tender mercy may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins thou hast committed by (sight, hearing, smell, taste and speech, touch, walking, carnal pleasure).}}}} The last phrase was chosen to correspond to the part of the body that was touched. The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia explains that "the unction of the loins is generally, if not universally, omitted in English-speaking countries, and it is of course everywhere forbidden in case of women".<ref name=CE/> Anointing in the extraordinary form is still permitted under the conditions mentioned in article 9 of the 2007 {{lang\|la\|italicunset\|motu proprio Summorum Pontificum}}.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/summorum-pontificum.html\| title Summorum Pontificum, art. 9\| access-date 2008-06-15\| archive-date 2012-10-10\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121010043928/http://www.sanctamissa.org/en/resources/summorum-pontificum.html\| url-status = dead}}</ref> In the case of necessity when only a single anointing on the forehead is possible, it suffices for valid administration of the sacrament to use the shortened form: {{quote\|{{verse translation\|lang1=la\|Per istam sanctam unctionem indulgeat tibi Dominus, quidquid deliquisti. Amen. \|Through this holy anointing, may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins thou hast committed. Amen.}}}} When it becomes opportune, all the anointings are to be supplied together with their respective forms for the integrity of the sacrament. If the sacrament is conferred conditionally, for example, if a person is unconscious, {{lang\|la\|Si es capax}} ("if you are capable") is added to the beginning of the form, not {{lang\|la\|Si dispositus es}} ("if you are disposed"). In doubt if the soul has left the body through death, the priest adds, {{lang\|la\|Si vivis}} ("if you are alive"). Other Western historical forms Liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, both Western and Eastern, other than the Roman, have a variety of other forms for celebrating the sacrament. For example, according to Giovanni Diclich who cites De Rubeis, {{lang\|la\|De Ritibus vestutis}} &c. cap. 28 p.&nbsp;381, the Aquileian Rite, also called {{lang\|la\|Rito Patriarchino}}, had twelve anointings, namely, of the head, forehead, eyes, ears, nose, lips, throat, chest, heart, shoulders, hands, and feet. The form used to anoint is the first person plural indicative, except for the anointing on the head which could be either in the first person singular or plural.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDiclich \|firstGiovanni \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxzxXAAAAcAAJ&qRito+veneto+antico+detto+Patriarchino \|titleRito Veneto Antico detto Patriarchino illustrato \|date1823 \|publisherVincenzo Rizzi \|language=it}}</ref> For example, the form is given as: {{quote\|{{verse translation\|lang1=la\|Ungo caput tuum Oleo benedicto + in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti. Vel Ungimus caput tuum Oleo divinitus sanctificato + in nomine Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis ut more militis praeparatus ad luctamen, possis aereas superare catervas: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. \|I anoint your head with blessed Oil + in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Or We anoint your head with divinely sanctified Oil + in the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity so that prepared for the conflict in the way of a soldier, you might be able to overcome the aereal throng: through Christ our Lord. Amen.}}}} The other anointings all mention an anointing with oil and are all made "through Christ our Lord", and "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit", except the anointing of the heart which, as in the second option for anointing of the head, is "in the name of the Holy and Undivided Trinity". The Latin forms are as follows: {{quote\|{{lang\|la\|(Ad frontem) Ungimus frontem tuam Oleo sancto in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, in remissionem omnium peccatorum; ut sit tibi haec unction sanctificationis ad purificationem mentis et corporis; ut non lateat in te spiritus immundus neque in membris, neque in medullis, neque in ulla compagine membrorum: sed habitet in te virtus Christi Altissimi et Spiritus Sancti: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad oculos) Ungimus oculos tuos Oleo sanctificato, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti: ut quidquid illicito visu deliquisti, hac unctione expietur per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad aures) Ungimus has aures sacri Olei liquore in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti: ut quidquid peccati delectatione nocivi auditus admissum est, medicina hac spirituali evacuetur: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad nares) Ungimus has nares Olei hujus liquore in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti: ut quidquid noxio vapore contractum est, vel odore superfluo, ista evacuet unctio vel medicatio: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad labia) Ungimus labia ista consecrati Olei medicamento, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti: ut quidquid otiose, vel etiam crimnosa peccasti locutione, divina clementia miserante expurgetur: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad guttur) Ungimus te in gutture Oleo sancto in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, ut non lateat in te spiritus immundus, neque in membris, neque in medullis, neque in ulla compagine membrorum: sed habitet in te virtus Christi Altissimi et Spiritus Sancti:quatenus per hujus operationem mysterii, et per hanc sacrati Olei unctionem, atque nostrum deprecationem virtute Sanctae Trinitatis medicates, sive fotus; pristinam, et meliorem percipere merearis sanitatem: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad pectus) Ungimus pectus tuum Oleo divinitus sanctificato in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, ut hac unctione pectoris fortiter certare valeas adversus aereas potestates: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad cor) Ungimus locum cordis Oleo divinitus sanctificato, coelesti munere nobis attributo, in nomine Sanctae et Individuae Trinitatis, ut ipsa interius exteriusque te sanando vivificet, quae universum ne pereat continent: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad scapulas) Ungimus has scapulas, sive in medio scapularum Oleo sacrato, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, ut ex omni parte spirituali protectione munitus, jacula diabolici impetus viriliter contemnere, ac procul possis cum robore superni juvaminis repellere: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad manus) Ungimus has manus Oleo sacro, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, ut quidquid illicito opera, vel noxio peregerunt, per hanc sanctam unctionem evacuetur: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen. (Ad pedes) Ungimus hos pedes Oleo benedicto, in nomine Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti, ut quidquid superfluo, vel nocivo incessu commiserunt, ista aboleat perunctio: per Christum Dominum nostrum. Amen.}}}} Eastern Orthodox Church .]] The teaching of the Eastern Orthodox Church on the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of Unction is similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church. However, the reception of the Mystery is not limited to those who are enduring physical illness. The Mystery is given for healing (both physical and spiritual) and for the forgiveness of sin. For this reason, it is normally required that one go to confession before receiving Unction. Because it is a Sacred Mystery of the Church, only Orthodox Christians may receive it. The solemn form of Eastern Christian anointing requires the ministry of seven priests. A table is prepared, upon which is set a vessel containing wheat. Into the wheat has been placed an empty shrine-lamp, seven candles, and seven anointing brushes. Candles are distributed for all to hold during the service. The rite begins with reading Psalm 50 (the great penitential psalm), followed by the chanting of a special canon. After this, the senior priest (or bishop) pours pure olive oil and a small amount of wine into the shrine lamp, and says the "Prayer of the Oil", which calls upon God to "...sanctify this Oil, that it may be effectual for those who shall be anointed therewith, unto healing, and unto relief from every passion, every malady of the flesh and of the spirit, and every ill..." Then follow seven series of epistles, gospels, long prayers, Ektenias (litanies) and anointings. Each series is served by one of the seven priests in turn. The afflicted one is anointed with the sign of the cross on seven places: the forehead, the nostrils, the cheeks, the lips, the breast, the palms of both hands, and the back of the hands. After the last anointing, the Gospel Book is opened and placed with the writing down upon the head of the one who was anointed, and the senior priest reads the "Prayer of the Gospel". At the end, the anointed kisses the Gospel, the Cross and the right hands of the priests, receiving their blessing. Anointing is considered to be a public rather than a private sacrament, and so as many of the faithful who are able are encouraged to attend. It should be celebrated in the church when possible, but if this is impossible, it may be served in the home or hospital room of the afflicted. Unction in the Greek Orthodox Church and Churches of Hellenic custom (Antiochian Eastern Orthodox, Melkite, etc.) is usually given with a minimum of ceremony. Anointing may also be given during Forgiveness Vespers and Great Week, on Great and Holy Wednesday, to all who are prepared. Those who receive Unction on Holy Wednesday should go to Holy Communion on Great Thursday. The significance of receiving Unction on Holy Wednesday is shored up by the hymns in the Triodion for that day, which speak of the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Christ.<ref>{{bibleverse\|\|Matthew\|26:6-16\|KJV}}</ref> Just as her sins were forgiven because of her penitence, so the faithful are exhorted to repent of their sins. In the same narrative, Jesus says, "in that she hath poured this ointment on my body, she did it for my burial" (Id., v. 12), linking the unction with Christ's death and resurrection. In some dioceses of the Russian Orthodox Church it is customary for the bishop to visit each parish or region of the diocese some time during Great Lent and give Anointing for the faithful, together with the local clergy. Oriental Orthodox Church The Oriental Orthodox Church regards anointing of the sick as one of the seven sacraments.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastArzoumanian \|firstFr. Zaven \|titleTheology of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church: Introduction \|publisherThe Western Diocese Of the Armenian Church \|year2007 \|pages66}}</ref> Armenian Orthodox Church From the 4th to the 15th centuries, the Armenian Church administered the sacrament of the unction of the sick. This is recorded in the Church Canons and commentary works. However, beginning in the 15th century, the Armenian Church did not refuse, but abstained from conducting the sacrament in order to resist the influence of the Catholic Church, over time, being left out of liturgical life, deeming sufficient the laying on of hands and the administration of the Sacraments of Penance and Holy Communion.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleUnction of the Sick \|urlhttps://stjameswatertown.org/worship/sacraments/unction-of-the-sick/ \|access-dateOctober 11, 2024 \|websiteSaint James Armenian Apostolic Church}}</ref><ref name":0" /> Instead of the sacrament being used for anointing of the sick, in the Armenian Church unction is administered at the time of Baptism, particularly at Chrismation. In addition, the Armenian Church has the tradition of anointing the sick with blessed oil or water into which Holy Chrism has been poured during the Blessing of Water service in memory of the Lord’s Baptism at Theophany. But this Chrism and the anointment of the body of a deceased clergyman with Holy Chrism has nothing to do with extreme unction or the sacrament of anointing the sick, although some Armenians may conflate the two. This tradition is still in force, and there is no objection if the sick are anointed, believing that the Holy Myron will always transfer the gifts of the Holy Spirit as long as they are alive and conscious of their Christian faith.<ref name":0" /><ref>{{Cite web \|titleSacraments of the Armenian Apostolic Church \|urlhttps://stsvartanantzchurch.org/parish/sacraments/ \|access-dateOctober 11, 2024 \|websiteSts. Vartanantz Armenian Apostolic Church}}</ref> Archbishop Malachia explains:<blockquote>That which is called extreme unction is not in use; the various attempts that have been made to introduce it into the Church have hardly been successful. The wish expressed, to substitute for the unction the prayers used for the dying, cannot sufficiently satisfy the essential conditions which are required for sacraments. It is seen, therefore, that the doctrine of the seven sacraments cannot be accepted by the Armenians. Excepting extreme unction, all the others are administered in the Armenian Church.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastOrmanian \|firstArchbishop Malachia \|titleThe Church of Armenia: Her History, Doctrine, Rule, Discipline, Liturgy, Literature, and Existing Condition \|year1955 \|edition2nd \|pages114–115}}</ref> </blockquote>Hussite ChurchThe Hussite Church regards anointing of the sick as one of the seven sacraments.<ref name"Roytová2016">{{cite web \|last1Roytová \|first1Libuše \|titleSpiritual service \|urlhttps://www.svmikulas.cz/en/spiritual-service.html \|publisherSaint Nicolas Church \|languageen \|date15 June 2016}}</ref>Anabaptist ChurchesAnabaptists observe the ordinance of anointing of the sick in obedience to {{Bibleverse\|James\|5:14-15\|KJV}}, with it being counted among the seven ordinances by Conservative Mennonite Anabaptists.<ref name"Kauffman1898">{{cite book\|titleManual of Bible Doctrines\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/manualofbibledoc00kauf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://archive.org/details/manualofbibledoc00kauf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|firstDaniel\|lastKauffman\|date1898\|publisherMennonite Publishing Co.\|locationElkhart}}</ref> In a compendium of Anabaptist doctrine, theologian Daniel Kauffman stated:<ref name="Kauffman1898"/> {{blockquote\|We incline to the belief, however, that the apostle intended that the oil should be applied as a religious rite, because: 1. The sick were commanded to send for the elders of the church. Had this been strictly a sanitary affair, he would have commanded them to send for a physician. 2. The apostle says: "The prayer of faith shall save the sick." This leads us to the belief that he intended the oil (the natural use of which is to heal) to be used as a symbol of the grace of God, which, in answer to the prayer of the righteous, He applies as a soothing balm to the natural and the spiritual infirmities of suffering man.<ref name="Kauffman1898"/>}} The 2021 Church Polity of the Dunkard Brethren Church, a Conservative Anabaptist denomination in the Schwarzenau Brethren tradition, teaches:<ref name="DBC2021"/> {{blockquote\|We believe the anointing of the sick is an appointment of the Lord, and that it was intended to be perpetuated in His Church. At the request of an ill member, the Elders of the Church are contacted to do this work. "Is any sick among you? Let him call for the elders of the church and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord." (James 5:14) The scriptural specification is for the anointing to be performed by two Elders. In practice, the Church has permitted a Minister, or a Deacon to assist an Elder, when a second Elder is not available. (James 5:14; Matt. 10:8)<ref name"DBC2021">{{cite book \|titleDunkard Brethren Church Polity \|date1 November 2021 \|publisherDunkard Brethren Church \|pages6–8, 12}}</ref>}}Lutheran churchesAnointing of the sick has been retained in Lutheran churches since the Reformation.<ref>Fink, Peter E., S.J., ed. Anointing of the Sick. Alternative Futures for Worship, vol. 7. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1987</ref> Although it is not considered a sacrament like baptism, confession and the Eucharist, it is known as a ritual in the same respect as confirmation, holy orders, and matrimony.LiturgyAfter the penitent has received absolution following confession, the presiding minister recites James 5:14-16. He goes on to recite the following:<ref name"pcc">{{cite book\|titleLutheran Service Book: Pastoral Care Companion\|urlhttp://www.cph.org/pdf/031178.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cph.org/pdf/031178.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|year2007\|publisherConcordia Publishing House\|isbn978-0-7586-1225-0}}</ref> <blockquote> [Name], you have confessed your sins and received Holy Absolution. In remembrance of the grace of God given by the Holy Spirit in the waters of Holy Baptism, I will anoint you with oil. Confident in our Lord and in love for you, we also pray for you that you will not lose faith. Knowing that in Godly patience the Church endures with you and supports you during this affliction. We firmly believe that this illness is for the glory of God and that the Lord will both hear our prayer and work according to His good and gracious will. </blockquote> He anoints the person on the forehead and says this blessing: <blockquote> Almighty God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has given you the new birth of water and the Spirit and has forgiven you all your sins, strengthen you with His grace to life everlasting. Amen. </blockquote> Anglican churches The 1552 and later editions of the Book of Common Prayer omitted the form of anointing given in the original (1549) version in its Order for the Visitation of the Sick, but most twentieth-century Anglican prayer books do have anointing of the sick.<ref name=ODCC/> The Book of Common Prayer (1662) and the proposed revision of 1928 include the "visitation of the sick" and "communion of the sick" (which consist of various prayers, exhortations and psalms). Some Anglicans accept that anointing of the sick has a sacramental character and is therefore a channel of God's grace, seeing it as an "outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace" which is the definition of a sacrament. The Catechism of the Episcopal Church of the United States of America includes Unction of the Sick as among the "other sacramental rites" and it states that unction can be done with oil or simply with laying on of hands.<ref>Episcopal Church, 1979 Book of Common Prayer, p.860</ref> The rite of anointing is included in the Episcopal Church's "Ministration to the Sick".<ref>Episcopal Church, 1979 Book of Common Prayer, p.456</ref> Article 25 of the Thirty-Nine Articles, which are one of the historical formularies of the Church of England (and as such, the Anglican Communion), speaking of the sacraments, says: "Those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures; but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God."<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/articles/articles.html#25\| title Thirty-Nine Articles}}</ref> In 1915 members of the Anglican Communion founded the Guild of St Raphael, an organisation dedicated to promoting, supporting and practising Christ's ministry of healing.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGuild of St Raphael \|urlhttps://www.stbreladeschurch.com/guild-of-st-raphael.html \|access-date2022-04-12 \|websiteSt Brelade's Parish Church \|languageen}}</ref>Other Protestant communitiesProtestants provide anointing in a wide variety of formats.<ref>Laurie F. Maffly-Kipp, Leigh E. Schmidt, and Mark Valeri, eds., Practicing Protestants: Histories of Christian Life in America, 1630–1965 (Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 138-49. {{ISBN\|9780801883620}}; and {{Cite web \|titleThe Protestant Heritage \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359 \|access-date2019-06-10 \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|languageen}}</ref> Protestant communities generally vary widely on the sacramental character of anointing. Most Mainline Protestants recognize only two sacraments, the eucharist and baptism, deeming anointing only a humanly-instituted rite. Non-traditional Protestant communities generally use the term ordinance rather than sacrament. Mainline beliefs Liturgical or Mainline Protestant communities (e.g. Presbyterian, Congregationalist/United Church of Christ, Methodist, etc.) all have official yet often optional liturgical rites for the anointing of the sick partly on the model of Western pre-Reformation rites. Anointing need not be associated with grave illness or imminent danger of death. Charismatic and Pentecostal beliefs In Charismatic and Pentecostal communities, anointing of the sick is a frequent practice and has been an important ritual in these communities since the respective movements were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These communities use extemporaneous forms of administration at the discretion of the minister, who need not be a pastor. There is minimal ceremony attached to its administration. Usually, several people physically touch (laying on of hands) the recipient during the anointing. It may be part of a worship service with the full assembly of the congregation present, but may also be done in more private settings, such as homes or hospital rooms. Some Pentecostals believe that physical healing is within the anointing and so there is often great expectation or at least great hope that a miraculous cure or improvement will occur when someone is being prayed over for healing. Evangelical and fundamentalist beliefs anointing oil]] In Evangelical and Fundamentalist communities, anointing of the sick is performed with varying degrees of frequency, although laying on of hands may be more common than anointing. The rite would be similar to that of Pentecostals in its simplicity, but would usually not have the same emotionalism attached to it. Unlike some Pentecostals, Evangelicals and Fundamentalists generally do not believe that physical healing is within the anointing. Therefore, God may or may not grant physical healing to the sick. The healing conferred by anointing is thus a spiritual event that may not result in physical recovery. The Church of the Brethren practices Anointing with Oil as an ordinance along with Baptism, Communion, Laying on of Hands, and the Love Feast. Evangelical Protestants who use anointing differ about whether the person doing the anointing must be an ordained member of the clergy, whether the oil must necessarily be olive oil and have been previously specially consecrated, and about other details. Several Evangelical groups reject the practice so as not to be identified with charismatic and Pentecostal groups, which practice it widely. Latter Day Saint movement Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints {{Main\|Priesthood blessing}} {{anchor\|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}} Latter-day Saints, who consider themselves restorationists, also practice ritual anointing of the sick, as well as other forms of anointing. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) consider anointing to be an ordinance.<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings/administering-to-the-sick?lang=eng "Administering to the Sick"], churchofjesuschrist.org, 2020. Retrieved on 25 March 2020.</ref> Members of the LDS Church who hold the Melchizedek priesthood may use consecrated olive oil in performing the ordinance of blessing of the "sick or afflicted", though oil is not required if it is unavailable. The priesthood holder anoints the recipient's head with a drop of oil, then lays hands upon that head and declare their act of anointing. Then another priesthood holder joins in, if available, and pronounces a "sealing" of the anointing and other words of blessing, as he feels inspired. Melchizedek priesthood holders are also authorized to consecrate any pure olive oil and often carry a personal supply in case they have need to perform an anointing. Oil is not used in other blessings, such as for people seeking comfort or counsel.<ref>[https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/family-guidebook/priesthood-ordinances-and-blessings?lang=eng "Priesthood Ordinances and Blessings"], churchofjesuschrist.org, 2020. Retrieved on 25 March 2020.</ref> In addition to the James 5:14-15 reference, the Doctrine and Covenants contains numerous references to the anointing and healing of the sick by those with authority to do so. Community of Christ Administration to the sick is one of the eight sacraments of the Community of Christ, in which it has also been used for people seeking spiritual, emotional or mental healing. See also Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church * Faith healing References {{Reflist\|30em}} External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101005034327/http://www.churchfathers.org/category/sacraments/anointing-of-the-sick/ Church Fathers on the Anointing of the Sick] Western * [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2art5.shtml The Anointing of the Sick] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050403012404/http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Anointing.asp Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05716a.htm "Extreme Unction" in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)] * [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_p-vi_apc_19721130_sacram-unctionem_en.html Apostolic Constitution "Sacram unctionem infirmorum"] Eastern * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120321195446/http://orthodoxy.org.au/eng/index.php?p=78 Holy Anointing of the Sick] article from the Moscow Patriarchate * [http://www.rocor.org.au/?p=155 Unction of the Sick] article from the Sydney, Australia diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927123949/http://stjohndc.org/Russian/what/e_Unction.htm The Mystery of Unction] Russian Orthodox Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Washington, DC * [http://ukmidcopts.org/images/gallery/2006/bhm_bright_saturday/Apocalypse%20&%20easter%20liturgey%20064_resize_jpg.jpg Coptic Unction on Holy Saturday] (Photo) {{Christianity footer}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Anointing Of The Sick}} Category:Christian terminology Category:New Testament words and phrases Category:Supernatural healing Category:Sacramentals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick	2025-04-05T18:26:01.630624
2349	Abstract data type	{{short description\|Mathematical model for data types}} {{Distinguish\|Abstract type\|Algebraic data type}} {{multiple issues\| {{original research\|date=March 2015}} {{More citations needed\|date=May 2009}} }} In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types, defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This mathematical model contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data, and are the point of view of an implementer, not a user. For example, a stack has push/pop operations that follow a Last-In-First-Out rule, and can be concretely implemented using either a list or an array. Another example is a set which stores values, without any particular order, and no repeated values. Values themselves are not retrieved from sets; rather, one tests a value for membership to obtain a Boolean "in" or "not in". ADTs are a theoretical concept, used in formal semantics and program verification and, less strictly, in the design and analysis of algorithms, data structures, and software systems. Most mainstream computer languages do not directly support formally specifying ADTs. However, various language features correspond to certain aspects of implementing ADTs, and are easily confused with ADTs proper; these include abstract types, opaque data types, protocols, and design by contract. For example, in modular programming, the module declares procedures that correspond to the ADT operations, often with comments that describe the constraints. This information hiding strategy allows the implementation of the module to be changed without disturbing the client programs, but the module only informally defines an ADT. The notion of abstract data types is related to the concept of data abstraction, important in object-oriented programming and design by contract methodologies for software engineering.<ref>{{cite web \|titleReading 10: Abstract Data Types \|urlhttps://web.mit.edu/6.031/www/sp21/classes/10-abstract-data-types/ \|publisherMIT}}</ref> History ADTs were first proposed by Barbara Liskov and Stephen N. Zilles in 1974, as part of the development of the CLU language.{{sfn\|Liskov\|Zilles\|1974}} Algebraic specification was an important subject of research in CS around 1980 and almost a synonym for abstract data types at that time.<ref>{{cite book\|titleFundamentals of Algebraic Specification 1 - Equations and Initial Semantics\|firstH.\|last Ehrig\|publisherSpringer-Verlag\|year1985\|isbn0-387-13718-1}}</ref> It has a mathematical foundation in universal algebra.<ref>{{cite book\|titleUniversal Algebra for Computer Scientists\|firstWolfgang\|last Wechler\|publisherSpringer-Verlag\|year1992\|isbn0-387-54280-9}}</ref> Definition Formally, an ADT is analogous to an algebraic structure in mathematics,<ref>{{cite book \| authorRudolf Lidl \| titleAbstract Algebra\| publisherSpringer \| year2004 \| isbn978-81-8128-149-4}}, Chapter 7, section 40.</ref> consisting of a domain, a collection of operations, and a set of constraints the operations must satisfy.{{sfn\|Dale\|Walker\|1996\|p3}} The domain is often defined implicitly, for example the free object over the set of ADT operations. The interface of the ADT typically refers only to the domain and operations, and perhaps some of the constraints on the operations, such as pre-conditions and post-conditions; but not to other constraints, such as relations between the operations, which are considered behavior. There are two main styles of formal specifications for behavior, axiomatic semantics and operational semantics.{{sfn\|Dale\|Walker\|1996\|p4}} Despite not being part of the interface, the constraints are still important to the definition of the ADT; for example a stack and a queue have similar add element/remove element interfaces, but it is the constraints that distinguish last-in-first-out from first-in-first-out behavior. The constraints do not consist only of equations such as {{code\|1fetch(store(S,v))v}} but also logical formulas. Axiomatic semantics In the spirit of functional programming, each state of an abstract data structure is a separate entity or value. In this view, each operation is modelled as a mathematical function with no side effects. Operations that modify the ADT are modeled as functions that take the old state as an argument and returns the new state as part of the result. The order in which operations are evaluated is immaterial, and the same operation applied to the same arguments (including the same input states) will always return the same results (and output states). The constraints are specified as axioms or algebraic laws that the operations must satisfy. Operational semantics In the spirit of imperative programming, an abstract data structure is conceived as an entity that is mutable&mdash;meaning that there is a notion of time and the ADT may be in different states at different times. Operations then change the state of the ADT over time; therefore, the order in which operations are evaluated is important, and the same operation on the same entities may have different effects if executed at different times. This is analogous to the instructions of a computer or the commands and procedures of an imperative language. To underscore this view, it is customary to say that the operations are executed or applied, rather than evaluated, similar to the imperative style often used when describing abstract algorithms. The constraints are typically specified in prose. Auxiliary operations Presentations of ADTs are often limited in scope to only key operations. More thorough presentations often specify auxiliary operations on ADTs, such as: * {{code\|create}}(), that yields a new instance of the ADT; * {{code\|compare}}(s, t), that tests whether two instances' states are equivalent in some sense; * {{code\|hash}}(s), that computes some standard hash function from the instance's state; * {{code\|print}}(s) or {{code\|show}}(s), that produces a human-readable representation of the instance's state. These names are illustrative and may vary between authors. In imperative-style ADT definitions, one often finds also: * {{code\|initialize}}(s), that prepares a newly created instance s for further operations, or resets it to some "initial state"; * {{code\|copy}}(s, t), that puts instance s in a state equivalent to that of t; * {{code\|clone}}(t), that performs s ← {{code\|create}}(), {{code\|copy}}(s, t), and returns s; * {{code\|free}}(s) or {{code\|destroy}}(s), that reclaims the memory and other resources used by s. The {{code\|free}} operation is not normally relevant or meaningful, since ADTs are theoretical entities that do not "use memory". However, it may be necessary when one needs to analyze the storage used by an algorithm that uses the ADT. In that case, one needs additional axioms that specify how much memory each ADT instance uses, as a function of its state, and how much of it is returned to the pool by {{code\|free}}. Restricted types The definition of an ADT often restricts the stored value(s) for its instances, to members of a specific set X called the range of those variables. For example, an abstract variable may be constrained to only store integers. As in programming languages, such restrictions may simplify the description and analysis of algorithms, and improve its readability. Aliasing In the operational style, it is often unclear how multiple instances are handled and if modifying one instance may affect others. A common style of defining ADTs writes the operations as if only one instance exists during the execution of the algorithm, and all operations are applied to that instance. For example, a stack may have operations {{code\|push}}(x) and {{code\|pop}}(), that operate on the only existing stack. ADT definitions in this style can be easily rewritten to admit multiple coexisting instances of the ADT, by adding an explicit instance parameter (like S in the stack example below) to every operation that uses or modifies the implicit instance. Some ADTs cannot be meaningfully defined without allowing multiple instances, for example when a single operation takes two distinct instances of the ADT as parameters, such as a {{code\|union}} operation on sets or a {{code\|compare}} operation on lists. The multiple instance style is sometimes combined with an aliasing axiom, namely that the result of {{code\|create}}() is distinct from any instance already in use by the algorithm. Implementations of ADTs may still reuse memory and allow implementations of {{code\|create}}() to yield a previously created instance; however, defining that such an instance even is "reused" is difficult in the ADT formalism. More generally, this axiom may be strengthened to exclude also partial aliasing with other instances, so that composite ADTs (such as trees or records) and reference-style ADTs (such as pointers) may be assumed to be completely disjoint. For example, when extending the definition of an abstract variable to include abstract records, operations upon a field F of a record variable R, clearly involve F, which is distinct from, but also a part of, R. A partial aliasing axiom would state that changing a field of one record variable does not affect any other records. Complexity analysis Some authors also include the computational complexity ("cost") of each operation, both in terms of time (for computing operations) and space (for representing values), to aid in analysis of algorithms. For example, one may specify that each operation takes the same time and each value takes the same space regardless of the state of the ADT, or that there is a "size" of the ADT and the operations are linear, quadratic, etc. in the size of the ADT. Alexander Stepanov, designer of the C++ Standard Template Library, included complexity guarantees in the STL specification, arguing: {{Blockquote\|The reason for introducing the notion of abstract data types was to allow interchangeable software modules. You cannot have interchangeable modules unless these modules share similar complexity behavior. If I replace one module with another module with the same functional behavior but with different complexity tradeoffs, the user of this code will be unpleasantly surprised. I could tell him anything I like about data abstraction, and he still would not want to use the code. Complexity assertions have to be part of the interface.\|Alexander Stepanov<ref>{{Cite journal \|firstAl \|lastStevens \|titleAl Stevens Interviews Alex Stepanov \|dateMarch 1995 \|journalDr. Dobb's Journal \|urlhttp://www.sgi.com/tech/stl/drdobbs-interview.html \|access-date=31 January 2015}}</ref>}} Other authors disagree, arguing that a stack ADT is the same whether it is implemented with a linked list or an array, despite the difference in operation costs, and that an ADT specification should be independent of implementation. Examples Abstract variable An abstract variable may be regarded as the simplest non-trivial ADT, with the semantics of an imperative variable. It admits two operations, {{code\|fetch}} and {{code\|store}}. Operational definitions are often written in terms of abstract variables. In the axiomatic semantics, letting <math>V</math> be the type of the abstract variable and <math>X</math> be the type of its contents, {{code\|fetch}} is a function <math>V \to X</math> and {{code\|store}} is a function of type <math>V \to X \to V</math>. The main constraint is that {{code\|fetch}} always returns the value x used in the most recent {{code\|store}} operation on the same variable V, i.e. {{code\|1fetch(store(V,x)) x}}. We may also require that {{code\|store}} overwrites the value fully, {{code\|1store(store(V,x1),x2) store(V,x2)}}. In the operational semantics, {{code\|fetch}}(V) is a procedure that returns the current value in the location V, and {{code\|store}}(V, x) is a procedure with {{code\|void}} return type that stores the value x in the location V. The constraints are described informally as that reads are consistent with writes. As in many programming languages, the operation {{code\|store}}(V, x) is often written V ← x (or some similar notation), and {{code\|fetch}}(V) is implied whenever a variable V is used in a context where a value is required. Thus, for example, V ← V + 1 is commonly understood to be a shorthand for {{code\|store}}(V,{{code\|fetch}}(V) + 1). In this definition, it is implicitly assumed that names are always distinct: storing a value into a variable U has no effect on the state of a distinct variable V. To make this assumption explicit, one could add the constraint that: * if U and V are distinct variables, the sequence { {{code\|store}}(U, x); {{code\|store}}(V, y) } is equivalent to { {{code\|store}}(V, y); {{code\|store}}(U, x) }. This definition does not say anything about the result of evaluating {{code\|fetch}}(V) when V is un-initialized, that is, before performing any {{code\|store}} operation on V. Fetching before storing can be disallowed, defined to have a certain result, or left unspecified. There are some algorithms whose efficiency depends on the assumption that such a {{code\|fetch}} is legal, and returns some arbitrary value in the variable's range. Abstract stack An abstract stack is a last-in-first-out structure, It is generally defined by three key operations: {{code\|push}}, that inserts a data item onto the stack; {{code\|pop}}, that removes a data item from it; and {{code\|peek}} or {{code\|top}}, that accesses a data item on top of the stack without removal. A complete abstract stack definition includes also a Boolean-valued function {{code\|empty}}(S) and a {{code\|create}}() operation that returns an initial stack instance. In the axiomatic semantics, letting <math>S</math> be the type of stack states and <math>X</math> be the type of values contained in the stack, these could have the types <math>push : S \to X \to S</math>, <math>pop : S \to (S,X)</math>, <math>top : S \to X</math>, <math>create : S</math>, and <math>empty : S \to \mathbb{B}</math>. In the axiomatic semantics, creating the initial stack is a "trivial" operation, and always returns the same distinguished state. Therefore, it is often designated by a special symbol like Λ or "()". The {{code\|empty}} operation predicate can then be written simply as <math>s = \Lambda</math> or <math>s \neq \Lambda</math>. The constraints are then {{code\|1pop(push(S,v))(S,v)}}, {{code\|1top(push(S,v))v}},<ref>{{cite web \|last1Black \|first1Paul E. \|titleaxiomatic semantics \|urlhttps://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/axiomaticSemantics.html \|websiteDictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures \|access-date25 November 2023 \|date24 August 2005}}</ref> {{code\|empty}}({{code\|create}}) T (a newly created stack is empty), {{code\|empty}}({{code\|push}}(S, x)) F (pushing something into a stack makes it non-empty). These axioms do not define the effect of {{code\|top}}(s) or {{code\|pop}}(s), unless s is a stack state returned by a {{code\|push}}. Since {{code\|push}} leaves the stack non-empty, those two operations can be defined to be invalid when s Λ. From these axioms (and the lack of side effects), it can be deduced that {{code\|push}}(Λ, x) ≠ Λ. Also, {{code\|push}}(s, x) {{code\|push}}(t, y) if and only if x y and s = t. As in some other branches of mathematics, it is customary to assume also that the stack states are only those whose existence can be proved from the axioms in a finite number of steps. In this case, it means that every stack is a finite sequence of values, that becomes the empty stack (Λ) after a finite number of {{code\|pop}}s. By themselves, the axioms above do not exclude the existence of infinite stacks (that can be {{code\|pop}}ped forever, each time yielding a different state) or circular stacks (that return to the same state after a finite number of {{code\|pop}}s). In particular, they do not exclude states s such that {{code\|pop}}(s) s or {{code\|push}}(s, x) s for some x. However, since one cannot obtain such stack states from the initial stack state with the given operations, they are assumed "not to exist". In the operational definition of an abstract stack, {{code\|push}}(S, x) returns nothing and {{code\|pop}}(S) yields the value as the result but not the new state of the stack. There is then the constraint that, for any value x and any abstract variable V, the sequence of operations { {{code\|push}}(S, x); V ← {{code\|pop}}(S) } is equivalent to V ← x. Since the assignment V ← x, by definition, cannot change the state of S, this condition implies that V ← {{code\|pop}}(S) restores S to the state it had before the {{code\|push}}(S, x). From this condition and from the properties of abstract variables, it follows, for example, that the sequence: : { {{code\|push}}(S, x); {{code\|push}}(S, y); U ← {{code\|pop}}(S); {{code\|push}}(S, z); V ← {{code\|pop}}(S); W ← {{code\|pop}}(S) } where x, y, and z are any values, and U, V, W are pairwise distinct variables, is equivalent to: : { U ← y; V ← z; W ← x } Unlike the axiomatic semantics, the operational semantics can suffer from aliasing. Here it is implicitly assumed that operations on a stack instance do not modify the state of any other ADT instance, including other stacks; that is: * For any values x, y, and any distinct stacks S and T, the sequence { {{code\|push}}(S, x); {{code\|push}}(T, y) } is equivalent to { {{code\|push}}(T, y); {{code\|push}}(S, x) }. Boom hierarchy A more involved example is the Boom hierarchy of the binary tree, list, bag and set abstract data types.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Bunkenburg \|first1Alexander \|titleThe Boom Hierarchy \|journalFunctional Programming, Glasgow 1993 \|seriesWorkshops in Computing \|date1994 \|pages1–8 \|doi10.1007/978-1-4471-3236-3_1\|isbn978-3-540-19879-6 \|citeseerx10.1.1.49.3252}}</ref> All these data types can be declared by three operations: null, which constructs the empty container, single, which constructs a container from a single element and append, which combines two containers of the same type. The complete specification for the four data types can then be given by successively adding the following rules over these operations: :{\| class="wikitable" \|- \| null is the left and right neutral for a tree\|\| append(null,A) A, append(A,null) A. \|- \| lists add that append is associative \|\| append(append(A,B),C) = append(A,append(B,C)). \|- \| bags add commutativit \|\| append(B,A) = append(A,B). \|- \| finally, sets are also idempotent \|\| append(A,A) = A. \|} Access to the data can be specified by pattern-matching over the three operations, e.g. a member function for these containers by: :{\| \|- \| member(X,single(Y)) = eq(X,Y) \|- \| member(X,null) = false \|- \| member(X,append(A,B)) = or(member(X,A), member(X,B)) \|} Care must be taken to ensure that the function is invariant under the relevant rules for the data type. Within each of the equivalence classes implied by the chosen subset of equations, it has to yield the same result for all of its members. Common ADTs Some common ADTs, which have proved useful in a great variety of applications, are {{div col\|colwidth=20em}} * Collection * Container * List * String * Set * Multiset * Map * Multimap * Graph * Tree * Stack * Queue * Priority queue * Double-ended queue * Double-ended priority queue {{div col end}} Each of these ADTs may be defined in many ways and variants, not necessarily equivalent. For example, an abstract stack may or may not have a {{code\|count}} operation that tells how many items have been pushed and not yet popped. This choice makes a difference not only for its clients but also for the implementation. ; Abstract graphical data type An extension of ADT for computer graphics was proposed in 1979:<ref>{{Cite conference \| authorD. Thalmann, N. Magnenat Thalmann \|title Design and Implementation of Abstract Graphical Data Types \|date1979 \|conferenceIEEE\|doi10.1109/CMPSAC.1979.762551 }}, Proc. 3rd International Computer Software and Applications Conference (COMPSAC'79), IEEE, Chicago, USA, pp.519-524</ref> an abstract graphical data type (AGDT). It was introduced by Nadia Magnenat Thalmann, and Daniel Thalmann. AGDTs provide the advantages of ADTs with facilities to build graphical objects in a structured way.Implementation Abstract data types are theoretical entities, used (among other things) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages. However, an ADT may be implemented. This means each ADT instance or state is represented by some concrete data type or data structure, and for each abstract operation there is a corresponding procedure or function, and these implemented procedures satisfy the ADT's specifications and axioms up to some standard. In practice, the implementation is not perfect, and users must be aware of issues due to limitations of the representation and implemented procedures. For example, integers may be specified as an ADT, defined by the distinguished values 0 and 1, the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division (with care for division by zero), comparison, etc., behaving according to the familiar mathematical axioms in abstract algebra such as associativity, commutativity, and so on. However, in a computer, integers are most commonly represented as fixed-width 32-bit or 64-bit binary numbers. Users must be aware of issues with this representation, such as arithmetic overflow, where the ADT specifies a valid result but the representation is unable to accommodate this value. Nonetheless, for many purposes, the user can ignore these infidelities and simply use the implementation as if it were the abstract data type. Usually, there are many ways to implement the same ADT, using several different concrete data structures. Thus, for example, an abstract stack can be implemented by a linked list or by an array. Different implementations of the ADT, having all the same properties and abilities, can be considered semantically equivalent and may be used somewhat interchangeably in code that uses the ADT. This provides a form of abstraction or encapsulation, and gives a great deal of flexibility when using ADT objects in different situations. For example, different implementations of the ADT may be more efficient in different situations; it is possible to use each in the situation where they are preferable, thus increasing overall efficiency. Code that uses an ADT implementation according to its interface will continue working even if the implementation of the ADT is changed. In order to prevent clients from depending on the implementation, an ADT is often packaged as an opaque data type or handle of some sort,<ref>{{cite book \| authorRobert Sedgewick \| titleAlgorithms in C \| publisherAddison/Wesley \| year1998 \| isbn978-0-201-31452-6 \| url-accessregistration \| url=https://archive.org/details/algorithmsinc00sedg }}, definition 4.4.</ref> in one or more modules, whose interface contains only the signature (number and types of the parameters and results) of the operations. The implementation of the module—namely, the bodies of the procedures and the concrete data structure used—can then be hidden from most clients of the module. This makes it possible to change the implementation without affecting the clients. If the implementation is exposed, it is known instead as a transparent data type. Modern object-oriented languages, such as C++ and Java, support a form of abstract data types. When a class is used as a type, it is an abstract type that refers to a hidden representation. In this model, an ADT is typically implemented as a class, and each instance of the ADT is usually an object of that class. The module's interface typically declares the constructors as ordinary procedures, and most of the other ADT operations as methods of that class. Many modern programming languages, such as C++ and Java, come with standard libraries that implement numerous ADTs in this style. However, such an approach does not easily encapsulate multiple representational variants found in an ADT. It also can undermine the extensibility of object-oriented programs. In a pure object-oriented program that uses interfaces as types, types refer to behaviours, not representations. The specification of some programming languages is intentionally vague about the representation of certain built-in data types, defining only the operations that can be done on them. Therefore, those types can be viewed as "built-in ADTs". Examples are the arrays in many scripting languages, such as Awk, Lua, and Perl, which can be regarded as an implementation of the abstract list. In a formal specification language, ADTs may be defined axiomatically, and the language then allows manipulating values of these ADTs, thus providing a straightforward and immediate implementation. The OBJ family of programming languages for instance allows defining equations for specification and rewriting to run them. Such automatic implementations are usually not as efficient as dedicated implementations, however. Example: implementation of the abstract stack As an example, here is an implementation of the abstract stack above in the C programming language. Imperative-style interface An imperative-style interface might be: <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> typedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack instance representation (opaque record) typedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack instance (opaque pointer) typedef void* stack_Item; // type: value stored in stack instance (arbitrary address) stack_T stack_create(void); // creates a new empty stack instance void stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack stack_Item stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack and returns it bool stack_empty(stack_T s); // checks whether stack is empty </syntaxhighlight> This interface could be used in the following manner: <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #include <stack.h> // includes the stack interface stack_T s = stack_create(); // creates a new empty stack instance int x = 17; stack_push(s, &x); // adds the address of x at the top of the stack void* y = stack_pop(s); // removes the address of x from the stack and returns it if (stack_empty(s)) { } // does something if stack is empty </syntaxhighlight> This interface can be implemented in many ways. The implementation may be arbitrarily inefficient, since the formal definition of the ADT, above, does not specify how much space the stack may use, nor how long each operation should take. It also does not specify whether the stack state s continues to exist after a call x ← {{code\|pop}}(s). In practice the formal definition should specify that the space is proportional to the number of items pushed and not yet popped; and that every one of the operations above must finish in a constant amount of time, independently of that number. To comply with these additional specifications, the implementation could use a linked list, or an array (with dynamic resizing) together with two integers (an item count and the array size). Functional-style interface Functional-style ADT definitions are more appropriate for functional programming languages, and vice versa. However, one can provide a functional-style interface even in an imperative language like C. For example: <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> typedef struct stack_Rep stack_Rep; // type: stack state representation (opaque record) typedef stack_Rep* stack_T; // type: handle to a stack state (opaque pointer) typedef void* stack_Item; // type: value of a stack state (arbitrary address) stack_T stack_empty(void); // returns the empty stack state stack_T stack_push(stack_T s, stack_Item x); // adds an item at the top of the stack state and returns the resulting stack state stack_T stack_pop(stack_T s); // removes the top item from the stack state and returns the resulting stack state stack_Item stack_top(stack_T s); // returns the top item of the stack state </syntaxhighlight> See also * Concept (generic programming) * Formal methods * Functional specification * Generalized algebraic data type * Initial algebra * Liskov substitution principle * Type theory * Walls and Mirrors Notes {{notelist}} Citations {{reflist}} References {{more footnotes needed\|date=April 2022}} {{refbegin}} * {{Cite conference \| doi = 10.1145/800233.807045 \| chapter = Programming with abstract data types \| title = Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Very High Level Languages \| series = SIGPLAN Notices \| volume = 9 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 50–59 \| year = 1974 \| last1 Liskov \| first1 Barbara \| author-link1 = Barbara Liskov \| last2 Zilles \| first2 Stephen \| citeseerx = 10.1.1.136.3043 }} * {{Cite book \| isbn 978-0-66940000-7 \| title Abstract Data Types: Specifications, Implementations, and Applications \| last1 Dale \| first1 Nell \| year 1996 \| publisher Jones & Bartlett Learning \| last2 Walker \| first2 Henry M. }} {{refend}} Further reading * {{cite journal\|first1John C.\|last1Mitchell\|author-link1John C. Mitchell\|first2Gordon\|last2Plotkin\|author-link2Gordon Plotkin\|titleAbstract Types Have Existential Type\|journalACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems\|volume10\|issue3\|pages470–502\|dateJuly 1988\|urlhttp://theory.stanford.edu/~jcm/papers/mitch-plotkin-88.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://theory.stanford.edu/~jcm/papers/mitch-plotkin-88.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|doi10.1145/44501.45065 \|s2cid1222153}} External links {{Commons category-inline}} [https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads/HTML/abstractDataType.html Abstract data type] in NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures {{Data structures}} {{Data types}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Abstract Data Type}} Category:Data types Category:Type theory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_data_type	2025-04-05T18:26:01.668957
2357	American Football League	{{Short description\|League that merged with the NFL in 1970}} {{About\|the league that preceded the current American Football Conference}} {{Infobox sports league \| logo = AmericanFootballLeague.png \| pixels = 150px \| sport = American football \| founded = {{Start date and age\|1959\|8\|14}} \| inaugural = 1960 \| last_season = 1969 American Football League season \| folded = {{Start date and age\|1970\|2\|1}}, merged with NFL as (AFC) \| country = United States \| champion = Kansas City Chiefs \| most_champs = Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs (3) \| teams = 8 (1960–1965),<br />9 (1966–1967),<br />10 (1968–1970) }} The American Football League (AFL) was a major professional American football league that operated for ten seasons from 1960 until 1970, when it merged with the older National Football League (NFL), and became the American Football Conference. The upstart AFL operated in direct competition with the more established NFL throughout its existence. It was more successful than earlier rivals to the NFL, including not only the organizations founded in 1926, 1936, and 1940, respectively, under the AFL name, but also the later All-America Football Conference, which existed between 1944 and 1950, but conducted operations only between 1946 and 1949. This fourth version of the AFL was the most successful, created by a number of owners who had been refused NFL expansion franchises or had minor shares of NFL franchises. The AFL's original lineup consisted of an Eastern division of the Titans of New York, Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, and the Houston Oilers, and a Western division of the Los Angeles Chargers, Denver Broncos, Oakland Raiders, and Dallas Texans. The league first gained attention by signing 75% of the NFL's first-round draft choices in 1960, including Houston's successful signing of college star and Heisman Trophy winner Billy Cannon. While the first years of the AFL saw uneven competition and low attendance, the league was buttressed by a generous television contract with the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), followed by a contract with the competing National Broadcasting Company (NBC) for games starting with the 1965 season, that broadcast the more offense-oriented football league nationwide. Continuing to attract top talent from colleges and the NFL by the mid-1960s, as well as successful franchise shifts of the Chargers from L.A. south to San Diego and the Texans north to Kansas City (becoming the Kansas City Chiefs), the AFL established a dedicated following. The transformation of the struggling Titans into the New York Jets under new ownership, including the signing of University of Alabama star quarterback Joe Namath, further solidified the league's reputation among the major media. As fierce competition made player salaries skyrocket in both leagues, especially after a series of "raids", the leagues agreed to a merger in 1966. Among the conditions were a common draft and a championship game played between the two league champions, first played in early 1967, which would eventually become known as the Super Bowl. The AFL and NFL operated as separate leagues until 1970, with separate regular season and playoff schedules except for the championship game. NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle also became chief executive of the AFL from July 26, 1966, through the completion of the merger.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1966/07/26/139971422.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1966/07/26/139971422.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleNew Pact to Last at Least 3 Years: Woodard's Position Unsure After 1970 Merger\|lastMilligan\|firstLloyd\|date26 July 1966\|workThe New York Times\|access-date25 April 2018}}</ref> During this time the AFL expanded, adding the Miami Dolphins and Cincinnati Bengals. After losses by the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders in the first two AFL-NFL World Championship Games to the Green Bay Packers (1966–67), the New York Jets and Chiefs won Super Bowls III and IV (1968–69) respectively, cementing the league's claim to being an equal to the NFL. In 1970, the AFL was absorbed into the NFL. The ten AFL franchises joined three existing NFL teams—the Baltimore Colts, the Cleveland Browns, and the Pittsburgh Steelers—to form the merged league's American Football Conference. History During the 1950s, the National Football League had grown to rival Major League Baseball as one of the most popular professional sports leagues in the United States. One franchise that did not share in this newfound success of the league was the Chicago Cardinals – owned by the Bidwill family – who had become overshadowed by the more popular Chicago Bears. The Bidwills hoped to move their franchise, preferably to St. Louis, but could not come to terms with the league, which demanded money before it would approve the move. Needing cash, the Bidwills began entertaining offers from would-be investors, and one of the men who approached the Bidwills was Lamar Hunt, son and heir of millionaire oilman H. L. Hunt.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, p. 9.</ref> Hunt offered to buy the Cardinals and move them to Dallas, where he had grown up. However, these negotiations came to nothing, since the Bidwills insisted on retaining a controlling interest in the franchise and were unwilling to move their team to a city where a previous NFL franchise had failed in {{nfly\|1952}}. While Hunt negotiated with the Bidwills, similar offers were made by Bud Adams, Bob Howsam, and Max Winter.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, p. 13.</ref> When Hunt, Adams, and Howsam were unable to secure a controlling interest in the Cardinals, they approached NFL commissioner Bert Bell and proposed the addition of expansion teams. Bell, wary of expanding the 12-team league and risking its newfound success, rejected the offer.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 13–14.</ref> On his return flight to Dallas, Hunt conceived the idea of an entirely new league and decided to contact the others who had shown interest in purchasing the Cardinals. In addition to Adams, Howsam, and Winter, Hunt reached out to Bill Boyer, Winter's business partner, to gauge their interest in starting a new league. Hunt's first meeting with Adams was held in March 1959.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, p. 14.</ref> Hunt, who felt a regional rivalry would be critical for the success of the new league, convinced Adams to join and found his team in Houston. Hunt next secured an agreement from Howsam to bring a team to Denver.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 15–16.</ref> After Winter and Boyer agreed to start a team in Minneapolis-Saint Paul, the new league had its first four teams. Hunt then approached Willard Rhodes, who hoped to bring pro football to Seattle. However, not wanting to undermine its own brand, the University of Washington was unwilling to let the fledgling league use Husky Stadium, and Rhodes' effort came to nothing (Seattle would later get a pro football team of its own in 1974 some time after the AFL-NFL merger during the construction of the Kingdome and began play in 1976).<ref>Miller, Going Long, pp. 3–4.</ref> Hunt also sought franchises in Los Angeles, Buffalo and New York City. During the summer of 1959, he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a potentially costly rivalry. Within weeks of the July 1959 announcement of the league's formation,<ref namenglbs>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idCJpjAAAAIBAJ&sjidN2wDAAAAIBAJ&pg7047%2C3861444 \|workPittsburgh Post-Gazette \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleNew grid league by 1960–Bell \|dateJuly 29, 1959 \|page17}}</ref><ref nameptpins>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id610bAAAAIBAJ&sjida04EAAAAIBAJ&pg6043%2C3611297 \|workPittsburgh Press \|agencyUPI \|titleNew pro grid league plans to play in 1960 \|dateJuly 29, 1959 \|page30}}</ref> Hunt received commitments from Barron Hilton and Harry Wismer to bring teams to Los Angeles and New York, respectively.<ref name"chiefsafl">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kcchiefs.com/history/ \|titleKansas City Chiefs History – AFL Origins \|access-date2007-02-07 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070205213037/http://www.kcchiefs.com/history/ \|archive-date2007-02-05 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> His initial efforts for Buffalo, however, were rebuffed, when Hunt's first choice of owner, Pat McGroder, declined to take part; McGroder had hoped that the threat of the AFL would be enough to prompt the NFL to expand to Buffalo.<ref>Warren, Matt. [http://www.buffalorumblings.com/2010/9/4/1658230/september-4-1985-mcgroder-joins?refyahoo September 4, 1985 – McGroder Joins The Wall Of Fame]. BuffaloRumblings.com. Retrieved March 26, 2014.</ref> On August 14, 1959, the first league meeting was held in Chicago, and charter memberships were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis-Saint Paul. On August 22, the league officially was named the American Football League at a meeting in Dallas.<ref namecmgrd>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idggBWAAAAIBAJ&sjid6uIDAAAAIBAJ&pg6809%2C4367002 \|workEugene Register-Guard \|location(Oregon) \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleNew pro loop to compete for gridders \|dateAugust 23, 1959 \|page1B}}</ref> The NFL's initial reaction was not as openly hostile as it had been with the earlier All-America Football Conference (AAFC), as Bell had even given his public approval;<ref namenglbs/><ref nameptpins/> but he died suddenly in October 1959,<ref nameppgbell>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idCclRAAAAIBAJ&pg6034%2C1707578\|workPittsburgh Post-Gazette \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleNFL head Bert Bell dies at 65 \|dateOctober 12, 1959 \|page1}}</ref> and individual NFL owners soon began a campaign to undermine the new league. AFL owners were approached with promises of new NFL franchises or ownership stakes in existing ones. Only the party from Minneapolis-Saint Paul accepted, and with the addition of Ole Haugsrud and Bernie Ridder the Minnesota group joined the NFL in 1961 as the Minnesota Vikings. The older league also announced on August 29 that it had conveniently reversed its position against expansion, and planned to bring new NFL teams to Houston and Dallas, to start play in 1961.<ref>Gruver, The American Football League, pp. 22–23.</ref> (The NFL did not expand to Houston at that time; the promised Dallas team – the Dallas Cowboys – actually started play in 1960, and the Vikings began play in 1961.) Finally, the NFL quickly came to terms with the Bidwills and allowed them to relocate the struggling Cardinals to St. Louis, eliminating that city as a potential AFL market. Ralph Wilson, who owned a minority interest in the NFL's Detroit Lions at the time, initially announced he was placing a team in Miami, but like the Seattle situation, was also rebuffed by local ownership (like Seattle, Miami would later get a pro football team of its own as well); given five other choices, Wilson negotiated with McGroder and brought the team that became the Bills to Buffalo. Buffalo was officially awarded its franchise on October 28. During a league meeting on November 22, a 10-man ownership group from Boston (led by Billy Sullivan) was awarded the AFL's eighth team.<ref>Maiorana, Relentless, p. 65.</ref> On November 30, 1959, Joe Foss, a World War II Marine fighter ace and former governor of South Dakota, was named the AFL's first commissioner. Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo. Hunt was elected President of the AFL on January 26, 1960. The AFL draft {{further\|American Football League draft}} The AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded its franchise, and lasted 33 rounds. The league held a second draft on December 2, which lasted for 20 rounds. Because the Oakland Raiders joined after the initial AFL drafts, they inherited Minnesota's selections.<ref>Dickey, Just Win, Baby, pp. 7–8.</ref><ref name"nflhistoryone">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1951-1960 \|titleNFL History, 1951–1960 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workNFL.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070209180120/http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1951-1960 \|archive-date9 February 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A special allocation draft was held in January 1960, to allow the Raiders to stock their team, as some of the other AFL teams had already signed some of Minneapolis' original draft choices. Crisis and success (1960–61) In November 1959, Minneapolis-Saint Paul owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL to accept a franchise offer from the NFL. In 1961, his team began play in the NFL as the Minnesota Vikings. Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton demanded that a replacement for Minnesota be placed in California, to reduce his team's operating costs and to create a rivalry. After a brief search, Oakland was chosen and an ownership group led by F. Wayne Valley and local real estate developer Chet Soda was formed. After initially being called the Oakland Señors,<ref>"Grid Team Named-- They're Senors", Oakland Tribune, April 5, 1960, p37. Soda said, "My own personal choice would have been Mavericks, but I believe we came up with a real fine name." The selection committee narrowed the choices down to Admirals, Lakers, Diablos, Seawolves, Gauchos, Nuggets, Señors Dons, Costers, Grandees, Sequoias, Missiles, Knights, Redwoods, Clippers, Jets and Dolphins.</ref> the rechristened Oakland Raiders officially joined the AFL on January 30, 1960. The AFL's first major success came when the Houston Oilers signed Billy Cannon, the All-American and 1959 Heisman Trophy winner from LSU. Cannon signed a $100,000 contract to play for the Oilers, despite having already signed a $50,000 contract with the NFL's Los Angeles Rams. The Oilers filed suit and claimed that Rams general manager Pete Rozelle had unduly manipulated Cannon. The court upheld the Houston contract, and with Cannon the Oilers appeared in the AFL's first three championship games (winning two).<ref name"loup">{{cite news \|firstRich \|lastLoup \|titleThe AFL: A Football Legacy (Part One) \|urlhttp://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_1/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010602195035/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_1/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateJune 2, 2001 \|publisherCNNSI.com \|date2001-01-22 \|access-date2007-02-08 }}</ref><ref name"cannon">{{cite news \|firstAl \|lastCarter \|titleOilers leave rich legacy of low-budget absurdity \|urlhttp://texnews.com/texsports97/oilers063097.html \|workThe Dallas Morning News \|date1997-06-30 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070106015329/http://texnews.com/texsports97/oilers063097.html \|archive-date6 January 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> On June 9, 1960, the league signed a five-year television contract with ABC, which brought in revenues of approximately $2.125 million per year for the entire league. On June 17, the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL, which was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial.<ref name"loup" /> The AFL began regular-season play (a night game on Friday, September 9, 1960) with eight teams in the league – the Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Texans, Denver Broncos, Houston Oilers, Los Angeles Chargers, Titans of New York, and Oakland Raiders. Raiders' co-owner Wayne Valley dubbed the AFL ownership "The Foolish Club", a term Lamar Hunt subsequently used on team photographs he sent as Christmas gifts.<ref name"herskowitz">{{cite news \|firstMickey \|lastHerskowitz \|titleThe Foolish Club \|urlhttp://www.kcchiefs.com/media/misc/5_the_foolish_club.pdf \|workPro Football Weekly \|year1974 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070605071618/http://www.kcchiefs.com/media/misc/5_the_foolish_club.pdf \|archive-date2007-06-05 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Oilers became the first-ever league champions by defeating the Chargers, 24–16, in the AFL Championship on January 1, 1961. Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL. In 1960, the NFL averaged attendance of more than 40,000 fans per game and more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures in excess of 50,000 per game,<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.profootballresearchers.org/archives/Website_Files/Coffin_Corner/13-04-430.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.profootballresearchers.org/archives/Website_Files/Coffin_Corner/13-04-430.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleThe American Football League Attendance, 1960–69 \|lastCarroll \|firstBob \|magazineThe Coffin Corner \|volume13 \|number4 \|date1991 \|access-dateMay 24, 2022}}</ref> while Canadian Football League (CFL) attendances averaged approximately 20,000 per game.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://stats.cfldb.ca/league/cfl/attendance/1960\|titleCanadian Football League 1960 Attendance on CFLdb Statistics}}</ref> By comparison, AFL attendance averaged about 16,500 per game and generally hovered between 10,000 and 20,000 per game. Professional football was still primarily a gate-driven business in 1960, so low attendance meant financial losses. The Raiders, with a league-worst average attendance of just 9,612, lost $500,000 in their first year and only survived after receiving a $400,000 loan from Bills owner Ralph Wilson.<ref name"dvd">{{cite video \|peopleSteve Sabol (Executive Producer) \|date2004 \|titleRaiders – The Complete History \|mediumDVD \|publisherNFL Productions LLC}}</ref> In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation. In fact, the only major change was the Chargers' move from Los Angeles to nearby San Diego (they would return to Los Angeles in 2017). On August 8, 1961, the AFL challenged the CFL to an exhibition game that would feature the Hamilton Tiger-Cats and the Buffalo Bills, which was attended by 24,376 spectators.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/touch-down-in-to/article18147971/?pageall\|titleTouch down in T.O.\|newspaperThe Globe and Mail\|languageen-ca\|access-date2017-01-19}}</ref> Playing at Civic Stadium in Hamilton, Ontario, the Tiger-Cats defeated the Bills 38–21 playing a mix of AFL and CFL rules. Movement and instability (1962–63) While the Oilers found instant success in the AFL, other teams did not fare as well. The Oakland Raiders and Titans of New York struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league. Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses in their first season.<ref name"nflhistorytwo">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1961-1970 \|titleNFL History, 1961–1970 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workNFL.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070205052436/http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1961-1970 \|archive-date5 February 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the team playing in the San Francisco Bay Area—which already had an established NFL team (the San Francisco 49ers)—but the product on the field was also to blame. After winning six games in their debut season, the Raiders won a total of three times in the 1961 and 1962 seasons. Oakland took part in a 1961 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good. They participated in another such draft in 1962.<ref name="loup" /> The Titans fared a little better on the field but had their own financial troubles. Attendance was so low for home games that team owner Harry Wismer had fans move to seats closer to the field to give the illusion of a fuller stadium on television.<ref name"jetsencyc">{{cite encyclopedia\|urlhttp://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/nyj/jets.html \|titleNew York Jets history \|access-date2007-02-08 \|encyclopediaSports Encyclopedia \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070210123412/http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/nyj/jets.html \|archive-date10 February 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Eventually Wismer could no longer afford to meet his payroll, and on November 8, 1962, the AFL took over operations of the team. The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership group headed by Sonny Werblin on March 28, 1963, and in April the new owners changed the team's name to the New York Jets.<ref name"jetsone">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.newyorkjets.com/team/history?year1962 \|titleJets history – 1962 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workNewYorkJets.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061114025135/http://www.newyorkjets.com/team/history?year1962 \|archive-date2006-11-14 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"jetstwo">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.newyorkjets.com/team/history?year1963 \|titleJets history – 1963 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workNewYorkJets.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061114025303/http://www.newyorkjets.com/team/history?year1963 \|archive-date2006-11-14 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Raiders and Titans both finished last in their divisions in the 1962 season.<ref name"sixtytwo">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/years/1962.htm \|title1962 standings \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workPro-Football-Reference.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070207123656/http://www.pro-football-reference.com/years/1962.htm \|archive-date7 February 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Texans and Oilers, winners of their divisions, faced each other for the 1962 AFL Championship on December 23. The Texans dethroned the two-time champion Oilers, 20–17, in a double-overtime contest that was, at the time, professional football's longest-ever game.<ref name="loup" /> In 1963, the Texans became the second AFL team to relocate. Lamar Hunt felt that despite winning the league championship in 1962, the Texans could not sufficiently profit in the same market as the Dallas Cowboys, which entered the NFL as an expansion franchise in 1960. After meetings with New Orleans, Atlanta, and Miami, Hunt announced on May 22 that the Texans' new home would be Kansas City, Missouri. Kansas City mayor Harold Roe Bartle (nicknamed "Chief") was instrumental in his city's success in attracting the team. Partly to honor Bartle, the franchise officially became the Kansas City Chiefs on May 26.<ref name"kcsixties">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kcchiefs.com/history/60s/ \|titleChiefs timeline – 1960s \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workKCChiefs.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070124191953/http://www.kcchiefs.com/history/60s/ \|archive-date2007-01-24 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The San Diego Chargers, under head coach Sid Gillman, won a decisive 51–10 victory over the Boston Patriots for the 1963 AFL Championship. Confident that his team was capable of beating that season's NFL champion Chicago Bears (he had the Chargers' rings inscribed with the phrase "World Champions"), Gillman approached NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle and proposed a final championship game between the two teams. Rozelle declined the offer; however, the game would be instituted three seasons later.<ref name"gillman">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nfl.com/news/story/6101341 \|titleGillman laid foundation for all who followed \|access-date2007-02-08 \|lastBarber \|firstPhil \|workNFL.com \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051108064658/http://www.nfl.com/news/story/6101341 \|archive-date8 November 2005 }}</ref> Watershed years (1964–65) A series of events throughout the next few years demonstrated the AFL's ability to achieve a greater level of equality with the NFL. On January 29, 1964, the AFL signed a lucrative $36&nbsp;million television contract with NBC (beginning in the 1965 season), which gave the league money it needed to compete with the NFL for players. Pittsburgh Steelers owner Art Rooney was quoted as saying to NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle after receiving the news of the AFL's new TV deal that, "They don't have to call us 'Mister' anymore". A single-game attendance record was set on November 8, 1964, when 61,929 fans packed Shea Stadium to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills. The bidding war for players between the AFL and NFL escalated in 1965. The Chiefs drafted University of Kansas star Gale Sayers in the first round of the 1965 AFL draft (held November 28, 1964), while the Chicago Bears did the same in the NFL draft. Sayers eventually signed with the Bears.<ref name"kcsixties" /> A similar situation occurred when the New York Jets and the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals both drafted University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath. In what was viewed as a key victory for the AFL, Namath signed a $427,000 contract with the Jets on January 2, 1965 (the deal included a new car). It was the highest amount of money ever paid to a collegiate football player, and is cited as the strongest contributing factor to the eventual merger between the two leagues.<ref name"silverman">{{cite news \|firstSteve \|lastSilverman \|titleThe 'Other' League \|urlhttp://www.kcchiefs.com/media/misc/11_the_other_league.pdf \|workPro Football Weekly \|date1994-11-07 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070605071617/http://www.kcchiefs.com/media/misc/11_the_other_league.pdf \|archive-date2007-06-05 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> After the 1963 season, the Newark Bears of the Atlantic Coast Football League expressed interest in joining the AFL;<ref>{{cite news\|titleBears Seek Data on AFL\|workAsbury Park Press\|agencyAssociated Press\|dateJanuary 12, 1964}}</ref> concerns over having to split the New York metro area with the still-uncertain Jets were a factor in the Bears' bid being rejected. In 1965, Milwaukee officials tried to lure an expansion team to play at Milwaukee County Stadium where the Green Bay Packers had played parts of their home schedule after an unsuccessful attempt to lure the Packers there full-time, but Packers head coach Vince Lombardi invoked the team's exclusive lease, and additionally, signed an extension to keep some home games in Milwaukee until 1976.<ref name"Milwaukee">{{cite web\| url http://www.jsonline.com/story/life/green-sheet/2017/10/24/when-lombardi-sacked-milwaukees-bid-land-pro-football-franchise/789376001/\| title = When Lombardi sacked Milwaukee's bid to land a pro football franchise}}</ref> In June 1965, the AFL awarded its first expansion team to Cox Broadcasting of Atlanta.<ref namestlonfa>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idGOpOAAAAIBAJ&sjidcgEEAAAAIBAJ&pg7329%2C4048321 \|workToledo Blade \|location(Ohio) \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleNFL-AFL battle still on for Atlanta \|dateJune 9, 1965 \|page60}}</ref><ref namealookc>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idqrBeAAAAIBAJ&sjidoS8MAAAAIBAJ&pg4145%2C1679350 \|workLewiston Morning Tribune \|location(Idaho) \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleAtlanta gets AFL franchise; NFL also looking at city \|dateJune 9, 1965 \|page13}}</ref> The NFL quickly counteroffered insurance executive Rankin Smith a franchise, which he accepted;<ref nameawbfff>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idzyZPAAAAIBAJ&sjidVQEEAAAAIBAJ&pg4404%2C1101572 \|workToledo Blade \|location(Ohio) \|agencyAssociated Press \|titleAtlanta will become 15th NFL franchise \|dateJune 22, 1965 \|page20}}</ref> the Atlanta Falcons began play as an NFL franchise for the 1966 season. In March 1965, Joe Robbie had met with Commissioner Foss to inquire about an expansion franchise for Miami. On May 6,<!--after Atlanta's exit,--> Robbie secured an agreement with Miami mayor Robert King High to bring a team to Miami. League expansion was approved at a meeting held on June 7, and on August 16 the AFL's ninth franchise was officially awarded to Robbie and entertainer Danny Thomas. The Miami Dolphins joined the league for a fee of $7.5&nbsp;million and started play in the AFL's Eastern Division in 1966.<ref name"dolphins">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.miamidolphins.com/newsite/history/historicalhighlights/historicalhighlights.asp \|titleMiami Dolphins Historical Highlights \|access-date2007-02-08 \|workMiamiDolphins.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070207055603/http://www.miamidolphins.com/newsite/history/historicalhighlights/historicalhighlights.asp \|archive-date7 February 2007 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The AFL also planned to add two more teams by 1967.<ref name"Milwaukee" /> Escalation and merger (1966–67) {{details\|AFL–NFL merger}} In 1966, the rivalry between the AFL and NFL reached an all-time peak. On April 7, Joe Foss resigned as AFL commissioner. His successor was Oakland Raiders head coach and general manager Al Davis, who had been instrumental in turning around the fortunes of that franchise. That following May, Wellington Mara, owner of the NFL's New York Giants, broke a "gentleman's agreement" against signing another league's players and lured kicker Pete Gogolak away from the AFL's Buffalo Bills.<ref namedhrimrgr>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.buffalorumblings.com/2011/5/17/2175149/pete-gogolak-afl-nfl-merger \|publisherBuffalo Rumblings \|lastWarren \|firstMatt \|titlePete Gogolak discusses his role in the AFL–NFL merger \|dateMay 17, 2011 \|access-dateSeptember 26, 2022}}</ref> In response to the Gogolak signing and no longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for college talent, the AFL under Davis began to also recruit players already on NFL squads.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.vice.com/en/article/wnm5xz/throwback-thursday-al-davis-leads-the-afls-guerrilla-war-against-the-nfl\|publisherVice.com\|lastWeinreb \|firstMichael \|titleThrowback Thursday: Al Davis Leads The AFL's Guerrilla War Against The NFL \|dateApril 7, 2016 \|access-dateSeptember 26, 2022}}</ref> Davis's strategy focused on quarterbacks in particular, and in two months he persuaded seven NFL quarterbacks to sign with the AFL.<ref>Dickey, pp. 38–39.</ref> Although Davis's intention was to help the AFL win the bidding war, some AFL and NFL owners saw the escalation as detrimental to both leagues. Alarmed with the rate of spending in the league, Hilton Hotels forced Barron Hilton to relinquish his stake in the Chargers as a condition of maintaining his leadership role with the hotel chain.<ref name"Los Angeles Times">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2009-nov-30-la-sp-dwyre30-2009nov30-story.html\|titleBarron Hilton's Chargers turned short stay into long-term success\|firstBill\|lastDwyre\|date30 November 2009\|newspaperLos Angeles Times}}</ref> The same month Davis was named commissioner, several NFL owners, headed by Dallas Cowboys general manager Tex Schramm, secretly approached Lamar Hunt and other AFL owners and started negotiations with the AFL to merge. A series of secret meetings commenced in Dallas to discuss the concerns of both leagues over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching. Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger of the two leagues by the end of May, and on June 8, 1966, the merger was officially announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft. The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues. The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle would remain as commissioner of the merged league, which would be named the NFL. Additional expansion teams would eventually be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring it to a 28-team league. (The additional expansion would not happen until 1976.) The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18&nbsp;million to the NFL over 20 years. In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on July 25 rather than remain until the completion of the merger, and Milt Woodard was named president of the AFL,<ref name"silverman" /><ref namewidoiafl>{{cite news \|urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idKHhQAAAAIBAJ&sjidVBEEAAAAIBAJ&pg4057%2C4872186 \|newspaperMilwaukee Sentinel \|agencyUPI \|titleWoodard in, Davis out in AFL \|dateJuly 26, 1966 \|page2, part 2 }}</ref><ref name"cross">{{cite news \|firstB. Duane \|lastCross \|titleThe AFL: A Football Legacy (Part Two) \|urlhttp://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_2/ \|publisherCNNSI.com \|date2001-01-22 \|access-date2007-02-08 \|archive-date2011-06-04 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604102002/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_2/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> with the "commissioner" title vacated because of Rozelle's expanded role. On January 15, 1967, the first-ever championship game between the two separate professional football leagues, the "AFL-NFL World Championship Game" (retroactively referred to as Super Bowl I), was played in Los Angeles. After a close first half, the NFL champion Green Bay Packers overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35–10. The loss reinforced for many the notion that the AFL was an inferior league. Packers head coach Vince Lombardi stated after the game, "I do not think they are as good as the top teams in the National Football League."<ref name="silverman" /> The second AFL-NFL Championship (Super Bowl II) yielded a similar result. The Oakland Raiders—who had easily beaten the Houston Oilers to win their first AFL championship—were overmatched by the Packers, 33–14. The more experienced Packers capitalized on a number of Raiders miscues and never trailed. Green Bay defensive tackle Henry Jordan offered a compliment to Oakland and the AFL, when he said, "...&nbsp;the AFL is becoming much more sophisticated on offense. I think the league has always had good personnel, but the blocks were subtler and better conceived in this game."<ref name"sbtwo">{{cite magazine \|firstTex \|lastMaule \|titleGreen Bay, Handily \|urlhttp://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/features/superbowl/archives/2/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030217044045/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/features/superbowl/archives/2/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateFebruary 17, 2003 \|magazineSports Illustrated \|date1968-01-22 \|access-date=2007-02-09 }}</ref> The AFL added its tenth and final team on May 24, 1967, when it awarded the league's second expansion franchise to an ownership group from Cincinnati, Ohio, headed by NFL legend Paul Brown.<ref name"nflhistorytwo" /> Although Brown had intended to join the NFL, he agreed to join the AFL when he learned that his team would be included in the NFL once the merger was completed.<ref>Brown, PB – The Paul Brown Story</ref> The league's last expansion team, the Cincinnati Bengals began play in the 1968 season, finishing last in the Western Division.Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968–1970)While many AFL players and observers believed their league was the equal of the NFL, their first two Super Bowl performances did nothing to prove it. However, on November 17, 1968, when NBC cut away from a game between the Jets and Raiders to air the children's movie Heidi, the ensuing uproar helped disprove the notion that fans still considered the AFL an inferior product. The perception of AFL inferiority forever changed on January 12, 1969, when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl III. The Colts, who entered the contest favored by as many as 18 points, had completed the 1968 NFL season with a 13–1 record, and won the NFL title with a convincing 34–0 win over the Cleveland Browns. Led by their stalwart defense—which allowed a record-low 144 points—the 1968 Colts were considered one of the best-ever NFL teams.<ref name"hof">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.profootballhof.com/history/release.jsp?release_id822 \|titleHe guaranteed it \|access-date2007-02-09 \|workPro Football Hall of Fame}}</ref><ref name"baltse">{{cite encyclopedia\|urlhttp://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/balticolts/baltcolts.html \|titleBaltimore Colts history \|access-date2007-02-09 \|encyclopediaSports Encyclopedia \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070210173055/http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/balticolts/baltcolts.html \|archive-date10 February 2007 \|url-status=live }}</ref> By contrast, the Jets had allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues. They had also only narrowly beaten the favored Oakland Raiders 27–23 in the AFL championship game. Jets quarterback Joe Namath recalled that in the days leading up to the game, he grew increasingly angry when told New York had no chance to beat Baltimore. Three days before the game, a frustrated Namath responded to a heckler at the Touchdown Club in Miami by declaring, "We're going to win Sunday, I guarantee it!"<ref name"silverman" /><ref name"cross" /><ref name"jackman">{{cite news\|firstPhil \|lastJackman \|titleLifetime guarantee; Jets-Colts \|urlhttp://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-mackey011299,0,4077047.story?collbal-sports-football \|workThe Baltimore Sun \|date1999-01-12 \|access-date2007-02-09 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930014536/http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-mackey011299%2C0%2C4077047.story?collbal-sports-football \|archive-date2007-09-30 \|url-status=live }}</ref> Namath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter. The Jets won, 16–7, in what is considered one of the greatest upsets in American sports history.<ref name"pagetwo">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.espn.com/page2/s/list/010523upset.html \|titlePage 2's List for top upset in sports history \|access-date2007-02-09 \|workPage2 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070221035618/http://espn.go.com/page2/s/list/010523upset.html \|archive-date21 February 2007 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"wankel">{{cite news \|firstBob \|lastWankel \|titleEagles can win with right strategy \|urlhttp://www.courierpostonline.com/columnists/cxww020105a.htm \|workThe Courier-Post \|date2005-02-01 \|access-date2007-02-09 }} {{Dead link\|dateSeptember 2010\|botH3llBot}}</ref><ref name"hornet">{{cite news\|firstKenneth \|lastGooden \|titleCan Hornets match greatest all-time upsets? \|urlhttp://media.www.statehornet.com/media/storage/paper1146/news/2003/11/19/Sports/Can-Hornets.Match.Greatest.AllTime.Upsets-2422553.shtml?sourcedomainwww.statehornet.com&MIIHostmedia.collegepublisher.com \|workThe State Hornet \|date2003-11-19 \|access-date2007-02-09 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927074841/http://media.www.statehornet.com/media/storage/paper1146/news/2003/11/19/Sports/Can-Hornets.Match.Greatest.AllTime.Upsets-2422553.shtml?sourcedomainwww.statehornet.com&MIIHostmedia.collegepublisher.com \|archive-date2007-09-27 }}</ref><ref>Shamsky, The Magnificent Seasons, p. 5.</ref> With the win, the AFL finally achieved parity with the NFL and legitimized the merger of the two leagues.<ref name"hof" /> That notion was reinforced one year later in Super Bowl IV, when the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs upset the NFL champion Minnesota Vikings, 23–7, in the last championship game to be played between the two leagues. The Vikings, favored by 12½ points, were held to just 67 rushing yards.<ref name"boxiv">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.superbowl.com/history/boxscores/game/sbiv \|titleSuper Bowl IV box score \|access-date2007-02-09 \|workSuperBowl.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070101112306/http://www.superbowl.com/history/boxscores/game/sbiv \|archive-date2007-01-01 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The last game in AFL history was the AFL All-Star Game, held in Houston's Astrodome on January 17, 1970. The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback John Hadl, defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26–3. Buffalo rookie running back O. J. Simpson carried the ball for the last play in AFL history. Hadl was named the game's Most Valuable Player.<ref name"allstarhadl">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/The_1970_AFL_All-Star_Game.htm \|title1970 AFL All-Star Game recap \|access-date2007-02-09 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070714033244/http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/The_1970_AFL_All-Star_Game.htm \|archive-date2007-07-14 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The AFL ceased to exist as an unincorporated organization on February 1, 1970, when the NFL granted 10 new franchises and issued a new constitution.<ref name"FZmerger">{{cite tweet \|authorFootball Zebras \|userfootballzebras \|number1223828075495993344 \|dateFebruary 1, 2020 \|title="On this date, 50 years ago and with little fanfare, the American Football League ceased to exist as an unincorporated association. The National Football League formally granted 10 new franchises, revised the league constitution. The merger was legally completed."}}</ref> Prior to the start of the 1970 NFL season, the merged league was organized into two conferences of three divisions each. All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new American Football Conference. To avoid having an inequitable number of teams in each conference, the leagues voted to move three NFL teams to the AFC. Motivated by the prospect of an intrastate rivalry with the Bengals as well as by personal animosity toward Paul Brown, Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell quickly offered to include his team in the AFC. He helped persuade the Pittsburgh Steelers (the Browns' archrivals) and Baltimore Colts (who shared the Baltimore-Washington market with the Washington Redskins) to follow suit, and each team received US$3&nbsp;million to make the switch.<ref name"switch">{{cite news \|firstGordon \|lastForbes \|titleThis time, realignment will be cool breeze \|urlhttp://lists.rollanet.org/pipermail/rampage/Week-of-Mon-20010319/001092.html \|workUSA Today \|date2001-03-22 \|access-date2007-02-09 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040829161949/http://lists.rollanet.org/pipermail/rampage/Week-of-Mon-20010319/001092.html \|archive-date2004-08-29 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"modell">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.clevelandbrowns.com/article.php?id6085 \|titleMoment 26: Enter Art \|access-date2007-02-09 \|workClevelandBrowns.com \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071010070953/http://www.clevelandbrowns.com/article.php?id6085 \|archive-date2007-10-10 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The remaining 13 NFL teams became part of the National Football Conference. Pro Football Hall of Fame receiver Charlie Joiner, who started his career with the Houston Oilers (1969), was the last AFL player active in professional football, retiring after the 1986 season, when he played for the San Diego Chargers. Legacy Overview The American Football League stands as the only professional traditional outdoor football league to successfully compete against the NFL. When the two leagues merged in 1970, all ten AFL franchises and their statistics became part of the new NFL. Every other professional league that had competed against the NFL before the AFL–NFL merger had folded completely: the three previous leagues named "American Football League" and the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). From an earlier AFL (1936–1937), only the Cleveland Rams (now the Los Angeles Rams) joined the NFL and are currently operating, as are the Cleveland Browns and the San Francisco 49ers from the AAFC. A third AAFC team, the Baltimore Colts (not related to the 1953–1983 Baltimore Colts or to the current Indianapolis Colts franchise), played only one year in the NFL, disbanding at the end of the 1950 season.<ref name="cross" /> The league resulting from the merger was a 26-team juggernaut (since expanded to 32) with television rights covering all of the Big Three television networks (and since the 1990s, the newer Fox network) and teams in close proximity to almost all of the top 40 metropolitan areas, a fact that has precluded any other competing league from gaining traction since the merger; failed attempts to mimic the AFL's success included the World Football League (1974–75), United States Football League (1983–85), the United Football League (2009–2012) and the AAF (2019), and two iterations of the XFL (2001 and 2020), in addition to the NFL-backed and created World League of American Football (1991–92). The AFL was also the most successful of numerous upstart leagues of the 1960s and 1970s that attempted to challenge a major professional league's dominance. All nine teams that were in the AFL at the time the merger was agreed upon were accepted into the league intact (as was the tenth team added between the time of the merger's agreement and finalization), and none of the AFL's teams have ever folded. For comparison, the World Hockey Association (1972–79) managed to have four of its six remaining teams merged into the National Hockey League, which actually caused the older league to contract a franchise, but WHA teams were forced to disperse the majority of their rosters and restart as expansion teams. The merged WHA teams were also not financially sound (in large part from the hefty expansion fees the NHL imposed on them), and three of the four were forced to relocate within 20 years. Like the WHA, The American Basketball Association (1967–76) also managed to have only four of its teams merged into the National Basketball Association, and the rest of the league was forced to fold following a troubled final season of existence. Both the WHA and ABA lost several teams to financial insolvency over the course of their existences. The Continental League, a proposed third league for Major League Baseball that was to begin play in 1961, never played a single game, largely because MLB responded to the proposal by expanding to four of that league's proposed cities. Historically, the only other professional sports league in the United States to exhibit a comparable level of franchise stability from its inception was the American League of Major League Baseball, which made its debut in the early 20th century and later prompted the National League to allow for competition with the American League to eventually result in the modern-day MLB that we know of to this day. Rule changes The NFL adopted some of the innovations introduced by the AFL immediately and a few others in the years following the merger. One was including the names on player jerseys. The older league also adopted the practice of using the stadium scoreboard clocks to keep track of the official game time, instead of just having a stopwatch used by the referee. The AFL played a 14-game schedule for its entire existence, starting in 1960. The NFL, which had played a 12-game schedule since 1947, changed to a 14-game schedule in 1961, a year after the American Football League instituted it. The AFL also introduced the two-point conversion to professional football 34 years before the NFL instituted it in 1994 (college football had adopted the two-point conversion in the late 1950s). All of these innovations pioneered by the AFL, including its more exciting style of play and colorful uniforms, have essentially made today's professional football more like the AFL than like the old-line NFL. The AFL's challenge to the NFL also laid the groundwork for the Super Bowl, which has become the standard for championship contests in the United States of America. Television The NFL also adapted how the AFL used the growing power of televised football games, which were bolstered with the help of major network contracts (first with ABC, later with NBC after the latter network lost NFL rights to CBS<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nbcsports.com/our-history#decade_4\|titleNBC gains broadcast rights to American Football League\|websiteNBC Sports History Page\|access-date2017-08-06\|archive-date2017-08-06\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170806140431/http://www.nbcsports.com/our-history#decade_4\|url-status=dead}}</ref>). With that first contract with ABC, the AFL adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the proceeds were divided equally among member clubs. It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the Dallas Texans and the defending champion Houston Oilers. At the time it was the longest professional football championship game ever played. The AFL also appealed to fans by offering a flashier style of play (just like the ABA in basketball), compared to the more conservative game of the NFL. Long passes ("bombs") were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as John Hadl, Daryle Lamonica and Len Dawson. Despite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks. For example, CBS, which broadcast NFL games, ignored and did not report scores from the innovative AFL. While it has been alleged this snub was on orders from the NFL, it is more likely the arrangement was mutual due to the equally bitter rivalry between CBS and NBC. After the merger agreement was announced, CBS agreed to report AFL scores. Expanding and reintroducing the sport to more cities {{Unreferenced section\|date=December 2018}} The AFL took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises. Hunt's vision not only brought a new professional football league to California and New York, but introduced the sport to Colorado, restored it to Texas and later to fast-growing Florida, as well as bringing it to Greater Boston for the first time in 12 years. Buffalo, having lost its original NFL franchise in 1929 and turned down by the NFL at least twice (1940 and 1950) for a replacement, returned to the NFL with the merger. The return of football to Kansas City was the first time that city had seen professional football since the NFL's Kansas City Blues of the 1920s; the arrival of the Chiefs, and the contemporary arrival of the St. Louis Football Cardinals, brought professional football back to Missouri for the first time since the temporary St. Louis Gunners of 1934. St. Louis would later regain an NFL franchise in 1995 with the relocation of the LA Rams to the city. The Rams moved back in 2016. In the case of the Dallas Cowboys, the NFL had long sought to return to the Dallas area after the Dallas Texans folded in 1952, but was originally met with strong opposition by Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall, who had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the American South. Marshall later changed his position after future-Cowboys owner Clint Murchison bought the rights to Washington's fight song "Hail to the Redskins" and threatened to prevent Marshall from playing it at games. By then, the NFL wanted to quickly award the new Dallas franchise to Murchison so the team could immediately begin play and compete with the AFL's Texans. As a result, the Cowboys played its inaugural season in 1960 without the benefit of the NFL draft. The Texans eventually ceded Dallas to the Cowboys and became the Kansas City Chiefs. As part of the merger agreement, additional expansion teams would be awarded by 1970 or soon thereafter to bring the league to 28 franchises; this requirement was fulfilled when the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers began play in 1976. In addition, had it not been for the existence of the Oilers from 1960 to 1996, the Houston Texans also would likely not exist today; the 2002 expansion team restored professional football in Houston after the original charter AFL member Oilers relocated to become the Tennessee Titans. Kevin Sherrington of The Dallas Morning News has argued that the presence of AFL and the subsequent merger radically altered the fortunes of the Pittsburgh Steelers, saving the team "from stinking".<ref name"DallasNews20110201"/> Before the merger, the Steelers had long been one of the NFL's worst teams. Constantly lacking the money to build a quality team, the Steelers had only posted eight winning seasons, and just one playoff appearance, since their first year of existence in 1933 until the end of the 1969 season. They also finished with a 1–13 record in 1969, tied with the Chicago Bears for the worst record in the NFL. The $3&nbsp;million indemnity that the Steelers received for joining the AFC with the rest of the former AFL teams after the merger helped them rebuild into a contender, drafting eventual-Pro Football Hall of Famers like Terry Bradshaw and Joe Greene, and ultimately winning four Super Bowls in the 1970s.<ref name"DallasNews20110201">{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.dallasnews.com/sports/super-bowl/the-game/20110201-sherrington-dallas-meeting-in-66-saved-steelers-from-stinking.ece \| titleDallas meeting in '66 saved Steelers from stinking \| firstKevin \| lastSherrington \| workThe Dallas Morning News \| date2011-02-01 \| access-date2011-02-06}}</ref> Since the 1970 merger, the Steelers have the NFL's highest winning percentage, the most total victories, the most trips to either conference championship game, are tied for the second most trips to the Super Bowl (tied with the Dallas Cowboys and Denver Broncos, trailing only the New England Patriots), and have won six Super Bowl championships, tied with the Patriots for the most in NFL history.Effects on playersPerhaps the greatest social legacy of the AFL was the domino effect of its policy of being more liberal than the entrenched NFL in offering opportunity for black players. While the NFL was still emerging from thirty years of segregation influenced by Washington Redskins' owner George Preston Marshall, the AFL actively recruited from small and predominantly black colleges. The AFL's color-blindness led not only to the explosion of black talent on the field, but to the eventual entry of blacks into scouting, coordinating, and ultimately head coaching positions, long after the league merged itself out of existence.<ref>{{cite book \| authorJim Acho \| titleThe "Foolish Club" \| publisherGridiron Press \| year1997 \| oclc38596883 }} Foreword by Miller Farr.</ref><ref>{{cite book \| authorCharles K. Ross \| titleOutside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/outsidelinesafri0000ross \| url-accessregistration \| publisherNew York University Press \| year1999 \| isbn=0-8147-7495-4 }}</ref> The AFL's free agents came from several sources. Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the then newly-formed Canadian Football League. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went north to try their luck with the CFL (which formed in 1958), and later returned to the states to play in the AFL. In the league's first years, players such as Oilers' George Blanda, Chargers/Bills' Jack Kemp, Texans' Len Dawson, the Titans' Don Maynard, Raiders/Patriots/Jets' Babe Parilli, Pats' Bob Dee proved to be AFL standouts. Other players such as the Broncos' Frank Tripucka, the Pats' Gino Cappelletti, the Bills' Cookie Gilchrist and the Chargers' Tobin Rote, Sam DeLuca and Dave Kocourek also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly needed credibility. Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true "free agents", the walk-ons and the "wanna-be's", who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional American football. After the AFL–NFL merger agreement in 1966, and after the AFL's Jets defeated an extremely strong Baltimore Colts team, a popular misconception fostered by the NFL and spread by media reports was that the AFL defeated the NFL because of the common draft instituted in 1967. This apparently was meant to assert that the AFL could not achieve parity as long as it had to compete with the NFL in the draft. But the 1968 Jets had less than a handful of "common draftees". Their stars were honed in the AFL, many of them since the Titans days. Players who chose the AFL to develop their talent included Lance Alworth and Ron Mix of the Chargers, who had also been drafted by the NFL's San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Colts respectively. Both eventually were elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions. Among specific teams, the 1964 Buffalo Bills stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a 14-game schedule. In 2009, a five-part series, Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League, on the Showtime Network, refuted many of the long-held misconceptions about the AFL. In it, Abner Haynes tells of how his father forbade him to accept being drafted by the NFL's Pittsburgh Steelers, after head coach Buddy Parker and quarterback Bobby Layne had visited the Haynes home drunk; the NFL Cowboys' Tex Schramm is quoted as saying that if his team had ever agreed to play the AFL's Dallas Texans, they would very likely have lost; George Blanda makes a case for more AFL players being inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame by pointing out that Hall of Famer Willie Brown was cut by the Houston Oilers because he couldn't cover Oilers flanker Charlie Hennigan in practice. Later, when Brown was with the Broncos, Hennigan needed nine catches in one game against the Broncos to break Lionel Taylor's professional football record of 100 catches in one season. Hennigan caught the nine passes and broke the record, even though he was covered by Brown. Influence on professional football coaching The AFL also spawned coaches whose style and techniques have profoundly affected the play of professional football to this day. In addition to AFL greats like Hank Stram, Lou Saban, Sid Gillman and Al Davis were eventual hall of fame coaches such as Bill Walsh, a protégé of Davis with the AFL Oakland Raiders for one season; and Chuck Noll, who worked for Gillman and the AFL LA/San Diego Chargers from 1960 through 1965. Others include Buddy Ryan (AFL's New York Jets), Chuck Knox (Jets), Walt Michaels (Jets), and John Madden (AFL's Oakland Raiders). Additionally, many prominent coaches began their pro football careers as players in the AFL, including Sam Wyche (Cincinnati Bengals), Marty Schottenheimer (Buffalo Bills), Wayne Fontes (Jets), and two-time Super Bowl winner Tom Flores (Oakland Raiders). Flores also has a Super Bowl ring as a player (1969 Kansas City Chiefs). AFL 50th anniversary celebration {{main\|2009 NFL season}} As the influence of the AFL continues through the present, the 50th anniversary of its launch was celebrated during 2009. The season-long celebration began in August with the 2009 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game in Canton, Ohio, between two AFC teams (as opposed to the AFC-vs-NFC format the game first adopted in 1971). The opponents were two of the original AFL franchises, the Buffalo Bills and Tennessee Titans (the former Houston Oilers). Bills' owner Ralph C. Wilson Jr. (a 2009 Hall of Fame inductee) and Titans' owner Bud Adams were the only surviving members of the Foolish Club at the time (both are now deceased; Wilson's estate sold the team in 2014), the eight original owners of AFL franchises. (As of the {{nfly\|2019}} season, the Titans and Chiefs are still owned by descendants of the original eight owners.) The Hall of Fame Game was the first of several "Legacy Weekends", during which each of the "original eight" AFL teams sported uniforms from their AFL era. Each of the 8 teams took part in at least two such "legacy" games. On-field officials also wore red-and-white-striped AFL uniforms during these games. In the fall of 2009, the Showtime pay-cable network premiered Full Color Football: The History of the American Football League, a 5-part documentary series produced by NFL Films that features vintage game film and interviews as well as more recent interviews with those associated with the AFL. The NFL sanctioned a variety of "Legacy" gear to celebrate the AFL anniversary, such as "throwback" jerseys, T-shirts, signs, pennants and banners, including items with the logos and colors of the Dallas Texans, Houston Oilers, and New York Titans, the three of the Original Eight AFL teams which have changed names or venues. A December 5, 2009, story by Ken Belson in The New York Times quotes league officials as stating that AFL "Legacy" gear made up twenty to thirty percent of the league's annual $3&nbsp;billion merchandise income. Fan favorites were the Denver Broncos' vertically striped socks, which could not be re-stocked quickly enough.<ref>{{cite news\|lastBelson\|firstKen\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/06/sports/football/06afl.html\|titleFor a League of the Past, the Uniforms Live On\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateDecember 5, 2009\|access-dateFebruary 24, 2025}}</ref>Teams{{Location map+ \|United States \|width600 \|floatcenter \|captionLocations of AFL teams. \|places{{Location map~ \|United States \|lat29.762778 \|long-95.383056 \|labelHouston\|positionbottom \|markBlue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat42.3601 \|long-71.0589 \|labelBoston\|positionright \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat32.7767 \|long-96.7970 \|labelDallas\|positionleft \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat42.8864 \|long-78.8784 \|labelBuffalo\|positionbottom \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat39.7392 \|long-104.9903 \|labelDenver\|positionbottom \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat37.8044 \|long-122.2711 \|labelOakland\|positionright \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat32.7157 \|long-117.1611 \|labelSan Diego\|positionleft \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat39.0997 \|long-94.5786 \|labelKansas City\|positionbottom \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat40.7128 \|long-74.0060 \|labelNew York\|positionright \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat34.05 \|long-118.35\|labelLos Angeles\|positiontop \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat25.7617 \|long-80.1918 \|labelMiami\|positiontop \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} {{Location map~ \|United States \|lat39.1031 \|long-84.5120 \|labelCincinnati\|positiontop \|mark=Blue pog.svg}} }} {\|class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left" !Division !Team !First Season !Home Stadium !AFL Record (W-L-T)<ref>Includes postseason games.</ref> !AFL Titles ! class="unsortable" \| Destiny after the merger \|- \|rowspan=5\|Eastern \|Boston Patriots \|align="center" \|1960 \|Nickerson Field (1960–1962), Fenway Park (1963–1968), Alumni Stadium (1969) \|align="center" \|64–69–9 \|align="center" \|0 \|Still active in the Greater Boston area. Moved to Foxborough, Massachusetts, as the New England Patriots in 1971. \|- \|Buffalo Bills \|align="center" \|1960 \|War Memorial Stadium (1960–1969) \|align="center" \|67–71–6 \|align="center" \|2 \|Still active in the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area. Moved to Orchard Park, New York, in 1973. \|- \|Houston Oilers \|align="center" \|1960 \|Jeppesen Stadium (1960–1964), Rice Stadium (1965–1967), Houston Astrodome (1968–1969) \|align="center" \|72–69–4 \|align="center" \|2 \|Moved to Nashville, Tennessee, as the Tennessee Oilers in 1997, but played in Memphis that year while waiting for a stadium to be constructed. They began play in Nashville in 1998, and were renamed the Tennessee Titans in 1999. Houston would have an NFL team again with the Houston Texans beginning play in 2002. \|- \|Miami Dolphins \|align="center" \|1966 \|Miami Orange Bowl (1966–1969) \|align="center" \|15–39–2 \|align="center" \|0 \|Still active in the Miami metropolitan area. In 2003, their home stadium, which previously had a Miami address, became part of Miami Gardens, Florida. \|- \|Titans of New York/New York Jets \|align="center" \|1960 \|Polo Grounds (1960–1963), Shea Stadium (1964–1969) \|align="center" \|71–66–6 \|align="center" \|1 \|Still active in the New York metropolitan area. Moved to East Rutherford, New Jersey, in 1984. \|- \|rowspan=5\|Western \|Cincinnati Bengals \|align="center" \|1968 \|Nippert Stadium (1968–1969) \|align="center" \|7–20–1 \|align="center" \|0 \|Still active in Cincinnati. \|- \|Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs \|align="center" \|1960 \|Cotton Bowl (1960–1962), Municipal Stadium (1963–1969) \|align="center" \|92–50–5 \|align="center" \|3 \|Still active in Kansas City. \|- \|Denver Broncos \|align="center" \|1960 \|Bears Stadium/Mile High Stadium (1960–1969) \|align="center" \|39–97–4 \|align="center" \|0 \|Still active in Denver. \|- \|Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers \|align="center" \|1960 \|Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (1960), Balboa Stadium (1961–1966), San Diego Stadium (1967–1969) \|align="center" \|87–52–6 \|align="center" \|1 \|Returned to Los Angeles in 2017. \|- \|Oakland Raiders \|align="center" \|1960 \|Kezar Stadium (1960), Candlestick Park (1961), Frank Youell Field (1962–1965), Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum (1966–1969) \|align="center" \|80–61–5 \|align="center" \|1 \|Moved to Los Angeles in 1982, returned to Oakland in 1995 then moved to Las Vegas, Nevada in 2020. \|} Today, two of the NFL's eight divisions are composed entirely of former AFL teams, the AFC West (Broncos, Chargers, Chiefs, and Raiders) and the AFC East (Bills, Dolphins, Jets, and Patriots). Additionally, the Bengals now play in the AFC North and the Tennessee Titans (formerly the Oilers) play in the AFC South. Former stadiums: Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, Fenway Park, Nickerson Field, Alumni Stadium, Nippert Stadium, the Cotton Bowl, Balboa Stadium and Kezar Stadium are still standing, but currently do not host a team, and the Houston Astrodome was partially demolished. Playoffs {{details\|American Football League playoffs}} From 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single-elimination playoff game between the winners of its two divisions. The home teams alternated each year by division, so in 1968 the Jets hosted the Raiders, even though Oakland had a better record (this was changed in 1969). In 1963, the Buffalo Bills and Boston Patriots finished tied with identical records of 7–6–1 in the AFL East Division. There was no tie-breaker protocol in place, so a one-game playoff was held in War Memorial Stadium in December. The visiting Patriots defeated the host Bills 26–8. The Patriots traveled to San Diego as the Chargers completed a three-game season sweep over the weary Patriots with a 51–10 victory. A similar situation occurred in the 1968 season, when the Oakland Raiders and the Kansas City Chiefs finished the regular season tied with identical records of 12–2 in the AFL West Division. The Raiders beat the Chiefs 41–6 in a division playoff to qualify for the AFL Championship Game. In 1969, the final year of the independent AFL, for the first time professional football featured a playoff team that had not won its division or conference during the regular season. A four-team playoff was held, with the second-place teams in each division playing the winner of the other division. The Chiefs upset the Raiders in Oakland 17–7 in the league's championship, the final AFL game played. The Kansas City Chiefs were the first Super Bowl champion to win two road playoff games and the first team to win the Super Bowl despite not having won its division or conference during the regular season. AFL Championship Games {{#section-h:American Football League playoffs\|Championship summary}} {{Location map+\|USA\|width600\|floatright\|captionLocation of AFL Champions # titles: 1-white 2-blue\|places {{Location map~\|United States\|lat29.762778\|long-95.383056\|labelOilers\|positionbottom\|markBlue pog.svg\|linkHouston Oilers}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat32.7767\|long-96.7970\|labelTexans\|positionleft\|markwhite pog.svg\|linkDallas Texans (AFL)}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat42.8864\|long-78.8784\|labelBills\|positionbottom\|markBlue pog.svg\|linkBuffalo Bills}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat37.8044\|long-122.2711\|labelRaiders\|positionright\|markwhite pog.svg\|linkOakland Raiders}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat32.7157\|long-117.1611\|labelChargers\|positionleft\|markwhite pog.svg\|linkSan Diego Chargers}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat39.0997\|long-94.5786\|labelChiefs\|positionbottom\|markBlue pog.svg\|linkKansas City Chiefs}} {{Location map~\|United States\|lat40.7128\|long-73.960\|labelJets\|positionright\|markwhite pog.svg\|linkNew York Jets}} }} All-Star games {{details\|American Football League All-Star game}} The AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960, but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion Buffalo Bills played all-stars from the other teams. After the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star game had been scheduled for early 1965 in New Orleans' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of area hotels and businesses, black and white players alike called for a boycott. Led by Bills players such as Cookie Gilchrist, the players successfully lobbied to have the game moved to Houston's Jeppesen Stadium.<ref name"boycott">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1950/Black_football_players_boycott_AFL_AllStar_game \|titleBlack football players boycott AFL All-Star game \|access-date2007-02-09 \|workThe African American Registry \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061225020026/http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1950/Black_football_players_boycott_AFL_AllStar_game \|archive-date2006-12-25 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> All-Time AFL Team {{details\|American Football League All-Time Team}} As chosen by 1969 AFL Hall of Fame Selection committee members:<ref>2001 National Football League Record and Fact Book, p. 405, Edited by Randal Liu and Matt Marini, Workman Publishing Company, New York, {{ISBN\|0-7611-2480-2}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|align"center" colspan"6"\|All-Time AFL Team \|- \|align"center" colspan"2" \| Offense \|\|align"center" colspan"2" \| Defense \|\|align"center" colspan"2" \| Special teams \|- !Position !Player !Position !Player !Position !Player \|- \|WR\|\|Lance Alworth \|rowspan=2\|End\|\|Jerry Mays \|rowspan6\|K\|\|rowspan6\|George Blanda \|- \|End\|\|Don Maynard \|Gerry Philbin \|- \|TE\|\|Fred Arbanas \|rowspan=2\|T\|\|Houston Antwine \|- \|rowspan=2\|T\|\|Ron Mix \|Tom Sestak \|- \|Jim Tyrer \|rowspan=3\|LB\|\|Bobby Bell \|- \|C\|\|Jim Otto \|George Webster \|- \|rowspan=2\|G\|\|Ed Budde \|Nick Buoniconti \|rowspan5\|P\|\|rowspan5\|Jerrel Wilson \|- \|Billy Shaw \|rowspan=2\|CB\|\|Willie Brown \|- \|QB\|\|Joe Namath \|Dave Grayson \|- \|rowspan=2\|RB\|\|Clem Daniels \|rowspan=2\|S\|\|Johnny Robinson \|- \|Paul Lowe \|George Saimes \|} Records The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league. The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own. * Yards passing, game – 464, George Blanda (Oilers, October 29, 1961) * Yards passing, season – 4,007, Joe Namath (Jets, 1967) * Yards passing, career – 21,130, Jack Kemp (Chargers, Bills) * Yards rushing, game – 243, Cookie Gilchrist (Bills, December 8, 1963) * Yards rushing, season – 1,458, Jim Nance (Patriots, 1966) * Yards rushing, career – 5,101, Clem Daniels (Texans, Raiders) * Receptions, season – 101, Charlie Hennigan (Oilers, 1964) * Receptions, career – 567, Lionel Taylor (Broncos) * Points scored, season – 155, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots, 1964) * Points scored, career – 1,100, Gino Cappelletti (Patriots) Players, coaches, and contributors * List of American Football League players * American Football League Most Valuable Players * American Football League Rookies of the Year * American Football League draft * American Football League officials Commissioners/presidents of the American Football League <!-- List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees contains a link to this section header --> * Joe Foss, commissioner (November 30, 1959 – April 7, 1966) * Al Davis, commissioner (April 8, 1966 – July 25, 1966) * Milt Woodard, president (July 25, 1966 – March 12, 1970) See also * American Football League win–loss records * American Football League seasons * American Football League playoffs * AFL–NFL merger * List of leagues of American football * American Basketball Association * World Hockey Association Footnotes {{reflist\|30em}} References * {{cite book \|lastBrown \|firstPaul \|author-linkPaul Brown \|author2Jack Clary \|titlePB, The Paul Brown Story \|year1979 \|publisherAtheneum \|locationNew York \|isbn=0-689-10985-7}} * {{cite book \| last Dickey \| firstGlenn \| title Just Win, Baby: Al Davis & His Raiders \| publisherHarcourt, Brace, Jovanovich \| year 1991 \| locationNew York \| isbn =0-15-146580-0 }} * {{cite book \|lastGruver \|firstEd \|titleThe American Football League: A Year-By-Year History, 1960–1969 \|year1997 \|publisherMcFarland & Company, Inc \|locationJefferson, North Carolina \|isbn=0-7864-0399-3}} * History: The AFL – Pro Football Hall of Fame ([http://www.profootballhof.com/history/decades/1960s/afl.jsp link]). * {{cite book \|lastMaiorana \|firstSal \|titleRelentless: The Hard-Hitting History of Buffalo Bills Football \|year1994 \|publisherQuality Sports Publications \|locationLenexa, Kansas \|isbn=1-885758-00-6}} * {{cite book \|lastMiller \|firstJeff \|titleGoing Long: The Wild Ten-Year Saga of the Renegade American Football League In the Words of Those Who Lived It \|year2003 \|publisherMcGraw-Hill \|isbn0-07-141849-0}} * {{cite book \|lastShamsky \|firstArt \|author2Barry Zeman \|titleThe Magnificent Seasons: How the Jets, Mets, and Knicks Made Sports History and Uplifted a City and the Country \|year2004 \|publisherThomas Dunne Books \|locationNew York \|isbn0-312-33358-7 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/magnificentseaso0000sham }} External links * [http://www.RemembertheAFL.com RemembertheAFL.com Website] * [http://afl-football.50webs.com afl-football.50webs.com] * [http://www.remembertheafl.com/AFL.htm#AFLBoxScores American Football League week-by-week box scores, 1960–1969] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090111040936/http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/Detroit_Lions_vs_Denver_Broncos_August_5,_1967.htm The Summer of the Little Super Bowls] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171018003302/http://footballresearch.com/articles/frpage.cfm?topic=00-1926 PFRA article about the 1926 seasons of both the NFL and AFL] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170525151521/http://www.footballresearch.com/articles/frpage.cfm?topic=afl35-41 PFRA article about the 1930s and 40s AFL] * [http://www.profootballhof.com/hall/story.jsp?story_id3097 Pro Football Hall of Fame American Football League Legacy Game] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090211025821/http://profootballhof.com/hall/story.jsp?story_id3097 \|date2009-02-11 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090307044602/http://www.titansonline.com/news/titans_news_detail.php?PRKey=6614 Official Titans website story on the AFL's 50th Anniversary Celebration] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090503152506/http://www.remembertheafl.com/CelebrateTheAFL.htm#LegacyGames Schedule of American Football League Legacy Games] * [https://www.espn.com/nfl/news/story?id=4141175 ESPN.com article on AFL Legacy Games] * [http://www.remembertheafl.com/AFLThrowbacks.htm#NYTimesThrowbackArticle The New York Times article on AFL "Legacy" gear] {{American Football League}} {{American Football League seasons}} {{AFL1960s}} {{American football in the United States}} {{Professional American football leagues}} {{NFL on ABC}} {{NFL on NBC}} {{NFL}} {{Authority control}} Category:Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States Category:Sports leagues established in 1960 Category:1970 disestablishments in the United States Category:1960 establishments in the United States Category:Defunct national American football leagues Category:Sports leagues disestablished in 1970 Category:1970 mergers and acquisitions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Football_League	2025-04-05T18:26:01.798222
2358	AS Roma	{{Short description\|Association football club in Italy}} {{About\|the men's football club\|the women's football club\|AS Roma (women)\|other uses\|Roma (disambiguation)#Sports}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use British English\|date=October 2017}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2021}} {{Infobox football club \| clubname = Roma \| image = AS Roma logo (2017).svg \| upright = 0.85 \| fullname = Associazione Sportiva Roma S.p.A. \| nickname = I Giallorossi (The Yellow and Reds)<br />I Lupi (The Wolves) \| founded {{Start date and age\|dfyes\|1927\|6\|7}} (as Italo Foschi) \| ground = Stadio Olimpico \| capacity 70,634<ref name"olimpico">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.osservatoriosport.interno.gov.it/allegati/stadi_serie_a.pdf\|titleStadi Serie A 2015–2016\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150901114629/http://www.osservatoriosport.interno.gov.it/allegati/stadi_serie_a.pdf\|archive-date=1 September 2015}}</ref> \| owner = The Friedkin Group (95.97%) \| chrtitle = President \| chairman = Dan Friedkin \| mgrtitle = Head coach \| manager = Claudio Ranieri \| league = {{Italian football updater\|Roma}} \| season = {{Italian football updater\|Roma2}} \| position = {{Italian football updater\|Roma3}} \| current = 2024–25 AS Roma season \| website = {{url\|https://www.asroma.com/en\|asroma.com}} <!--Kits with badges are copyright violation. DO NOT ADD THEM!--> \| pattern_la1 = _roma2425h \| pattern_b1 = _roma2425h \| pattern_ra1 = _roma2425h \| pattern_sh1 = _roma2425h \| pattern_so1 \| leftarm1 8E1111 \| body1 = 8E1111 \| rightarm1 = 8E1111 \| shorts1 = 8E1111 \| socks1 = 8E1111 \| pattern_la2 = _roma2425a \| pattern_b2 = _roma2425a \| pattern_ra2 = _roma2425a \| pattern_sh2 = _roma2425a \| pattern_so2 = _roma2425al \| leftarm2 = EAE9E7 \| body2 = EAE9E7 \| rightarm2 = EAE9E7 \| shorts2 = EAE9E7 \| socks2 = EAE9E7 \| pattern_la3 = _roma2425t \| pattern_b3 = _roma2425t \| pattern_ra3 = _roma2425t \| pattern_sh3 = _roma2425t \| pattern_so3 \| leftarm3 2b4375 \| body3 = 2b4375 \| rightarm3 = 2b4375 \| shorts3 = 2b4375 \| socks3 = 2b4375 }} Associazione Sportiva Roma (Rome Sport Association; Italian pronunciation: {{bracket\|ˈroːma}}) is a professional football club based in Rome, Italy. Founded by a merger in 1927, Roma has participated in the top tier of Italian football for all of its existence, except for the 1951–52 season. Roma has won Serie A three times, in 1941–42, 1982–83 and 2000–01, as well as nine {{lang\|it\|Coppa Italia\|italicno}} titles and two {{lang\|it\|Supercoppa Italiana\|italicno}} titles. In European competitions, Roma won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1960–61 and the UEFA Conference League in 2021–22, while they finished runners-up in the 1983–84 European Cup, the 1990–91 UEFA Cup and the 2022–23 UEFA Europa League. Sixteen players have won the FIFA World Cup while playing at Roma: Attilio Ferraris and Enrique Guaita (1934); Guido Masetti and Eraldo Monzeglio (1934 and 1938); Aldo Donati and Pietro Serantoni (1938); Bruno Conti (1982); Rudi Völler and Thomas Berthold (1990); Aldair (1994); Vincent Candela (1998); Cafu (2002); Daniele De Rossi, Simone Perrotta and Francesco Totti (2006); Paulo Dybala (2022). Since 1953, Roma has played home matches at the Stadio Olimpico, a venue the club shares with city rivals Lazio. With a capacity of over 72,000, the stadium is the second-largest of its kind in Italy, with only the San Siro able to seat more. The club plans to move to a new stadium, though it is yet to start construction. Having a strong local rivalry, Roma and Lazio contest the Derby della Capitale. The club's home colours are carmine red and golden yellow, which gives Roma its nickname "I Giallorossi" ("The Yellow and Reds"). These colours have often been combined with white shorts. The club badge features a she-wolf, an allusion to the founding myth of Rome. History {{Main\|History of AS Roma}} Foundation , Roma captain during their formative years]] AS Roma was founded in the spring of 1927 when Italo Foschi<ref name lastoria/> initiated the merger of three older Italian Football Championship clubs from the city of Rome: Roman FC, SS Alba-Audace and Fortitudo-Pro Roma SGS.<ref name lastoria/> Foschi was an important Roman representative of the ruling National Fascist Party.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Hall \|last2Hodges-Ramon \|first1Richard \|first2Luca \|date11 December 2014 \|titleRoma: Serie A alternative club guide \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2014/dec/11/roma-serie-a-alternative-club-guide \|newspaperThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|publisherGuardian News & Media Limited \|access-date18 May 2020 \|archive-date27 February 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227211737/https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2014/dec/11/roma-serie-a-alternative-club-guide \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Testa \|last2Armstrong \|first1Alberto \|first2Gary \|date2010 \|titleFootball, Fascism and Fandom: The UltraS of Italian Football \|locationLondon \|edition1st \|publisherA&C Black Publishers Limited \|page31 \|isbn=978-1-4081-2371-3 }}</ref> The purpose of the merger was to give the Italian capital a strong club to rival that of the more dominant Northern Italian clubs of the time.<ref name"lastoria">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/DocList.aspx?Categoria42\|websiteasroma.it\|titleLa Storia\|archive-date23 December 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071223014855/http://www.asroma.it/DocList.aspx?Categoria42 \|publisherAS Roma\|languageit}}</ref> The only major Roman club to resist the merger was Lazio because of the intervention of the army General Vaccaro, a member of the club and executive of Italian Football Federation (FIGC). All three founding clubs were relegated, but the fascist-aligned FIGC bet over the capacity of the new team to give a stronger representation to the capital of Italy, and they were awarded a wild card for the {{lang\|it\|Divisione Nazionale\|italicno}}, the Serie A forerunner. The club played its earliest seasons at the Motovelodromo Appio stadium,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://albionroad.com/club-profiles/roma.html \|publisherAlbionRoad.com \|titleA.S. Roma \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080414212915/http://albionroad.com/club-profiles/roma.html \|archive-date14 April 2008 }}</ref> before settling in the working-class streets of Testaccio, where it built an all-wooden ground Campo Testaccio; this was opened in November 1929.<ref name "Testaccio" /> An early season in which Roma made a large mark was the 1930–31 championship, where the club finished as runners-up behind {{lang\|it\|Juventus\|italicno}}.<ref name league/> Captain Attilio Ferraris, along with Guido Masetti, Fulvio Bernardini and Rodolfo Volk, were highly important players during this period.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?aferraris.htm\|publisherViva la Roma\|titleAttilio Ferraris\|date24 June 2007\|access-date23 September 2007\|archive-date14 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070914082245/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?aferraris.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref>First title victory and declineAfter a slump in league form and the departure of high key players, Roma eventually rebuilt their squad, adding goalscorers such as the Argentine Enrique Guaita.<ref name"stars">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acalciatoriG.htm\|publisherViva la Roma\|titleTutti i calciatori dell'A.S. Roma\|date24 June 2007\|access-date30 September 2007\|archive-date26 May 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070526030444/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acalciatoriG.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Under the management of Luigi Barbesino, the Roman club came close to their first title in 1935–36, finishing just one point behind champions Bologna.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asromaultras.it/35-36.html \|publisherASRomaUltras.it \|title1935–'36: Io Faccio I Gol Non La Guerra! \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071022183327/http://www.asromaultras.it/35-36.html \|archive-date=22 October 2007 }}</ref> Roma returned to form after being inconsistent for much of the late 1930s. Roma recorded an unexpected title triumph in the 1941–42 season by winning their first {{lang\|it\|scudetto}} title.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampionato4142.htm\|publisherASRTalenti\|titleCampionato 1941–42 – Roma campione d'Italia\|date24 June 2007\|access-date30 September 2007\|archive-date20 October 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020043050/http://asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampionato4142.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The 18 goals scored by local player Amedeo Amadei were essential to the Alfréd Schaffer-coached Roma side winning the title. At the time, Italy was involved in World War II and Roma were playing at the Stadio Nazionale PNF.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asromaultras.it/soprannomi.html \|publisherASRomaUltras.it \|titleI Campi da Gioco \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070807000057/http://www.asromaultras.it/soprannomi.html \|archive-date=7 August 2007 }}</ref> In the years just after the war, Roma were unable to recapture their league stature from the early 1940s. Roma finished in the lower half of Serie A for five seasons in a row, before eventually succumbing to their only ever relegation to Serie B at the end of the 1950–51 season,<ref name league/><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.rsssf.org/tablesi/ital52.html \|publisherRec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation \|titleItaly 1951–52 – Serie B \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070509181203/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesi/ital52.html \|archive-date9 May 2007 }}</ref> around a decade after their championship victory. Under future Italy national team manager Giuseppe Viani, promotion straight back up was achieved.<ref name = "managers" /> After returning to the Serie A, Roma managed to stabilise themselves as a top-half club again with players such as Egisto Pandolfini, Dino da Costa and Dane Helge Bronée.<ref name league/> Their best finish of this period was under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver, when in 1954–55, they finished as runners-up after Udinese, who originally finished second, were relegated for corruption.<ref name league/> Although Roma were unable to break into the top four during the following decade, they did achieve some measure of cup success. Their first honour outside of Italy was recorded in 1960–61 when Roma won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup by defeating Birmingham City 4–2 in the finals.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.rsssf.org/ec/ec196061.html\|publisherRec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation\|titleInter-Cities Fairs Cup 1960–61\|date24 June 2007\|access-date2 February 2023\|archive-date1 November 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121101123741/http://rsssf.com/ec/ec196061.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A few years later, Roma won their first Coppa Italia trophy in 1963–64 after defeating Torino 1–0.<ref name"coppaitalia">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.vilacom.net/football/coppa.php \|publisherVilacom Sports \|titleTIM Cup – Coppa Italia \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927161909/http://www.vilacom.net/football/coppa.php \|archive-date27 September 2011 }}</ref> Their lowest point came during the 1964–65 season, when manager Juan Carlos Lorenzo announced the club could not pay its players and was unlikely to be able to afford to travel to Vicenza to fulfil its next fixture. Supporters kept the club going with a fundraiser at the Sistine Theatre and bankruptcy was avoided with the election of a new club president Franco Evangelisti. Their second Coppa Italia trophy was won in 1968–69, when it competed in a small, league-like system.<ref name "coppaitalia" /> Giacomo Losi set a Roma appearance record in 1969 with 450 appearances in all competitions, a record that would last 38 years.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://asroma.hunsport.hu/?us23 \|publisherASRoma Hunsports \|titleRekordok, statisztikák \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011093920/http://asroma.hunsport.hu/?us23 \|archive-date11 October 2007 }}</ref> Time of mixed fortunes from the 1970s to the 1990s with the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1960–61]] Roma were able to add another cup to their collection in 1972, with a 3–1 victory over Blackpool in the Anglo-Italian Cup.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.rsssf.org/tablesa/angloit72.html \|publisherRec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation \|titleAnglo-Italian Cup 1972 \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140529192231/http://www.rsssf.com/tablesa/angloit72.html \|archive-date29 May 2014 }}</ref> During much of the 1970s, Roma's appearance in the top half of Serie A was sporadic. The best place the club were able to achieve during the decade was third in 1974–75.<ref name league/> Notable players who turned out for the club during this period included midfielders Giancarlo De Sisti and Francesco Rocca. The dawning of a newly successful era in Roma's footballing history was brought in with another Coppa Italia victory; they defeated Torino on penalties to win the 1979–80 edition.<ref name "coppaitalia" /> Roma would reach heights in the league which they had not touched since the 1940s by narrowly and controversially finishing as runners-up to {{lang\|it\|Juventus\|italicno}} in 1980–81.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId420526 \|publisherGoal.com \|titleRoma – Juventus: A Historical Look \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081201012742/http://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId420526 \|archive-date1 December 2008 }}</ref> Former Milan player Nils Liedholm was the manager at the time, with players such as Bruno Conti, Agostino Di Bartolomei, Roberto Pruzzo and Falcão.<ref name"legends">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.laroma-online.com/3.html \|publisherLaRoma-Online.com \|titleA.S. Roma Legends \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011105345/http://laroma-online.com/3.html \|archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref> The second scudetto did not elude Roma for much longer. In 1982–83, the Roman club won the title for the first time in 41 years, amidst celebrations in the capital.<ref name"officialtitles">{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.lega-calcio.it/ita/atim_albo.shtml\| titleCampionato Serie A – Albo D'oro\| workLega Calcio \| access-date12 September 2016 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070824141336/http://www.lega-calcio.it/ita/atim_albo.shtml\| archive-date24 August 2007\|url-status dead}}</ref> The following season, Roma finished as runners-up in Italy<ref name league/> and collected a Coppa Italia title;<ref name "coppaitalia" /> they also finished as runners-up in the European Cup final of 1984.<ref name "liverpoolfinal" /> The European Cup final with Liverpool ended in a 1–1 draw with a goal from Pruzzo, but Roma eventually lost in the penalty shoot-out.<ref name"liverpoolfinal">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.europeancuphistory.com/euro84.html\|publisherEuropean Cup History\|titleSeason 1983–84\|date24 June 2007\|access-date30 September 2007\|archive-date28 September 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110928223508/http://www.europeancuphistory.com/euro84.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Roma's successful run in the 1980s would finish with a runners-up spot in 1985–86<ref name league/> and a Coppa Italia victory, beating out Sampdoria 3–2.<ref name "coppaitalia" /> After, a comparative decline began in the league, one of the few league highs from the following period being a third-place finish in 1987–88.<ref name league/> At the start of the 1990s, the club was involved in an all-Italian UEFA Cup final, where they lost 2–1 to {{lang\|it\|Internazionale\|italicno}} in 1991.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId428273 \|publisherGoal.com \|titleRoma – Inter: A Historical Look \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081201012747/http://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId428273 \|archive-date1 December 2008 }}</ref> The same season, the club won its seventh Coppa Italia<ref name "coppaitalia" /> and ended runners-up to Sampdoria in the Supercoppa Italiana. Aside from finishing runners-up to Torino in a Coppa Italia final,<ref name "coppaitalia" /> the rest of the decade was largely sub-par in the history of Roma, particularly in the league, where the highest they could manage was fourth in 1997–98.<ref name league/> The early 1990s also saw the emergence of homegrown striker Francesco Totti, who would go on to be an important member of the team and the club's iconic captain. Third scudetto in the Sensi era Sud are overjoyed.]] Roma won their third Serie A title in 2000–01. The Scudetto was won on the last day of the season after defeating Parma 3–1, edging Juventus by two points.<ref name league/> The club's captain, Francesco Totti, was a large reason for the title victory and he would become one of the main heroes in the club's history,<ref name "legends" /> going on to break several club records.<ref name "legends" /> Other important players during this period included: Aldair, Cafu, Gabriel Batistuta and Vincenzo Montella.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.italica.rai.it/principali/argomenti/altro/calcio/roma/roma.htm \|publisherItalica RAI \|titleA.S. Roma 2000–2001 \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071114162620/http://www.italica.rai.it/principali/argomenti/altro/calcio/roma/roma.htm \|archive-date14 November 2007 }}</ref> In the 2001–02 Serie A, Roma ended as runners-up to Juventus by one point.<ref name league/> This would be the start of Roma finishing as runners-up several times in both Serie A and Coppa Italia during the 2000s – they lost out 4–2 to Milan in the Coppa Italia final of 2003<ref name "coppaitalia" /> and lost to Milan again by finishing second in Serie A for the 2003–04 season.<ref name"league">{{cite book\| first Panini Edizioni \| last Modena\| title Almanacco Illustrato del Calcio – La Storia 1898–2004\| year 2005}}</ref> The club also re-capitalized several time in 2003–04 season. In November 2003, €37.5&nbsp;million was injected by "Roma 2000" to cover the half-year loss and loss carried from previous year.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287661113.pdf \|titleINFORMATIVA ROMA 2000 S.R.L. \|date12 November 2003 \|access-date18 April 2011 \|workAS Roma \|languageit \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810132910/http://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287661113.pdf \|archive-date10 August 2011 }}</ref> and again on 30 June for €44.57&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287664872.pdf \|titleAPPROVAZIONE SITUAZIONE MENSILE AL 31 MAGGIO 2004<br />Roma 2000 sottoscrive l'aumento di capitale per 44,57 milioni di euro \|date30 June 2004 \|access-date18 April 2011 \|workAS Roma \|languageit \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810133120/http://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287664872.pdf \|archive-date10 August 2011 }}</ref> Through stock market, a further €19.850&nbsp;million of new shares issued, and at the year end, the share capital was €19.878&nbsp;million,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287640447.pdf \|titleAS ROMA Spa. RELAZIIONE SEMESTRALE AL 31 DIICEMBRE 2004 \|date23 April 2005 \|access-date18 April 2011 \|workAS Roma \|languageit \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810132537/http://109.75.174.100/~asroma/downloads/corporate_investor/1287640447.pdf \|archive-date10 August 2011 }}</ref> which was unchanged {{as of\|2011\|lc=y}}. The following season also saw the departure of Walter Samuel for €25&nbsp;million and Emerson for €28&nbsp;million, which decreased the strength of the squad. The Giallorossi finished in eighth place, one of the worst of recent seasons. , with the 2007–08 Coppa Italia]] On 9 July 2006, Roma's Francesco Totti, Daniele De Rossi and Simone Perrotta were part of the Italy national team which defeated France in the 2006 FIFA World Cup Final.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991652.stm\|titleFootball – World Cup 2006 – Zidane off as Italy win World Cup\|date9 July 2006\|access-date18 February 2017\|archive-date7 March 2012\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120307064326/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991652.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the Calciopoli scandal of 2006, Roma were not one of the teams involved. After punishments were issued, Roma was re-classified as runners-up for 2005–06,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/5215178.stm\|publisherBBC\|titlePunishments cut for Italian clubs\|date24 June 2007\|access-date5 January 2010\|locationLondon\|archive-date13 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070913104635/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/5215178.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the same season they finished second in the Coppa Italia losing to Internazionale.<ref name"coppaitalia" /> In the two following seasons, 2006–07 and 2007–08, Roma finished as Serie A runners-up, meaning that in the 2000s, Roma finished in the top two positions more than any other decade in their history.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.gazzetta.it/Speciali/serie_a_2007/index.shtml\|workLa Gazzetta dello Sport\|titleSerie A 2006–07\|date24 June 2007\|access-date30 September 2007\|archive-date5 October 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071005043303/http://www.gazzetta.it/Speciali/serie_a_2007/index.shtml\|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, in the UEFA Champions League during both of these seasons, they reached the quarter-finals before going out to Manchester United. In the 2008–09 Champions League, Roma reached the knockout stage ahead of Chelsea in their group, thus finishing for the first time in their history as winners of the group stage. However, they lost to Arsenal in the knockout stage on penalty kicks. After a disappointing start to the 2009–10 season, Claudio Ranieri replaced Luciano Spalletti as head coach. At the time of the switch, Roma lay bottom of the Serie A table after losses to Juventus and Genoa. Despite this setback, Roma went on unbeaten streak of 24 matches in the league – with the last of the 24 being a 2–1 win over rivals Lazio, whereby they came from 1–0 down at half-time to defeat their city rivals after Ranieri substituted both Totti and De Rossi at the interval.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://roma.theoffside.com/team-news/a-tribute-to-claudio-ranieris-coconuts.html \|titleA Tribute To Claudio Ranieri's Coconuts – The Offside – AS Roma blog \|publisherRoma.theoffside.com \|date19 April 2010 \|access-date19 February 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120220192623/http://roma.theoffside.com/team-news/a-tribute-to-claudio-ranieris-coconuts.html \|archive-date20 February 2012 }}</ref> The Giallorossi were on top of the table at one point, before a loss to Sampdoria later in the season. Roma would finish runners-up to Internazionale yet again in both Serie A and the Coppa Italia. During the 2000s, Roma had finally recaptured the Scudetto, two Coppa Italia trophies, and their first two Supercoppa Italiana titles. Other notable contributions to the club's history have included a return to the Champions League quarter-finals (in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 editions) since 1984, six runners up positions in the league, four Coppa Italia finals and three Supercoppa finals – marking Roma's greatest ever decade. American ownership and Pallotta era In the summer of 2010, the Sensi family agreed to relinquish their control of Roma as part of a debt-settlement agreement, ending their reign that had begun in 1993. Until a new owner was appointed, Rosella Sensi continued her directorial role of the club. Following a series of poor results that saw Roma engage in a winless streak of five consecutive matches, Claudio Ranieri resigned as head coach in February 2011, and former striker Vincenzo Montella was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. It was also during this season that Roma icon Francesco Totti scored his 200th Serie A goal against Fiorentina in March 2011, becoming only the sixth player to achieve such a feat. , the top goalscorer and the player with the most appearances player in Roma's history]] On 16 April 2011, the takeover contract was closed with an American investment group led by Thomas R. DiBenedetto, with James Pallotta, Michael Ruane and Richard D'Amore as partners. DiBenedetto became the 22nd president of the club, serving from 27 September 2011 to 27 August 2012 and was succeeded by Pallotta.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gazzettagiallorossa.it/2012/08/gazzetta-dello-sport-pallotta-e-tua-tra-basket-e-soccer-la-scalata-di-mister-james-per-fare-grande-la-roma/\|titleGAZZETTA DELLO SPORT Pallotta, è tua! Tra basket e soccer. La scalata di mister James per fare grande la Roma – Gazzetta Giallorossa\|date28 August 2012\|access-date20 October 2013\|archive-date1 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190401215158/http://www.gazzettagiallorossa.it/2012/08/gazzetta-dello-sport-pallotta-e-tua-tra-basket-e-soccer-la-scalata-di-mister-james-per-fare-grande-la-roma/\|url-status=live}}</ref> The new intermediate holding company, NEEP Roma Holding, was 60% owned by American's "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and the rest (40%) was retained by the creditor of Sensi, UniCredit. In turn, NEEP owned all shares held previously by Sensi (about 67%) with the rest free float in the stock market. UniCredit later disinvested NEEP Roma Holding to sell to "AS Roma SPV, LLC" and Pallotta. The new ownership hired Walter Sabatini as director of football and former Spanish international and Barcelona B coach Luis Enrique as manager. Signings included attacking midfielder Erik Lamela from River Plate and forward Bojan from Barcelona, as well as Dani Osvaldo and Miralem Pjanić.<ref>{{cite news \|titleRoma's summer signings have them back on track \|urlhttps://forzaitalianfootball.com/2011/10/romas-summer-signings-have-them-on-the-right-track/amp/ \|access-date13 October 2022 \|publisherForza Italian Football \|date26 October 2011 \|archive-date13 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221013121829/https://forzaitalianfootball.com/2011/10/romas-summer-signings-have-them-on-the-right-track/amp/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On the pitch, the team were eliminated from 2011–12 UEFA Europa League play-off round by Slovan Bratislava. In 2012, Pallotta became the new president. The 2012–13 pre-season started with the hiring of former manager Zdeněk Zeman. He was sacked on 2 February 2013,<ref>{{cite news \|last1Digby \|first1Adam \|titleRoma: Zeman sacked over poor form \|urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/football/news/story/_/id/1325653/zeman-sacked-over-%27confidence-and-consistency%27 \|access-date13 October 2022 \|publisherESPN \|date3 February 2013 \|archive-date13 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221013121829/https://www.espn.co.uk/football/news/story/_/id/1325653/zeman-sacked-over-%27confidence-and-consistency%27 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> while the team ended up in sixth place in Serie A, and lost 1–0 to rivals Lazio in the Coppa Italia final. It was the first time that Lazio and Roma clashed in the Coppa Italia final. As a result, Roma missed out on European competition for the second-straight season.<ref>{{cite news \|titleRoma Decade in Review: Coppa Italia Final 2013 \|urlhttps://www.chiesaditotti.com/2019/12/9/20999221/roma-decade-in-review-coppa-italia-final-2013 \|access-date13 October 2022 \|publisherSB Nation \|date9 December 2019 \|archive-date13 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221013121829/https://www.chiesaditotti.com/2019/12/9/20999221/roma-decade-in-review-coppa-italia-final-2013 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> coaching Roma in 2014]] On 12 June 2013, Rudi Garcia was appointed the new manager of Roma.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/en/news/06/12/2013_rudi_garcia/\|titleRUDI GARCIA\|publisherasroma.it\|date12 June 2013\|access-date2 November 2013\|archive-date23 September 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923175626/http://www.asroma.it/en/news/06/12/2013_rudi_garcia/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> He won his first ten matches (an all-time Serie A record) including a 2–0 derby win against Lazio, a 3–0 victory away to Internazionale and a 2–0 home win over title rivals Napoli.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24694928\|titleRoma set record for best start to Serie A season\|workBBC Sport\|date27 October 2013\|access-date28 October 2013\|archive-date28 October 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131028115726/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/24694928\|url-statuslive}}</ref> During this run, Roma scored 24 times while conceding just once, away to Parma. The club earned 85 points and finished second to Juventus, who won the league with a record-breaking 102 points. In 2014–15, Roma finished second behind Juventus for the second consecutive season after a poor run of form in 2015. At the end of season, the club was sanctioned for loss making and breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, being punished with a fine of up to €6 million and a limited squad for UEFA competitions.<ref>{{cite news \|titleInternazionale and Roma reach agreement with Uefa over FFP fines \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/may/08/uefa-agreement-ffp-roma-internazionale-fines \|access-date13 October 2022 \|workThe Guardian \|date8 May 2015 \|archive-date13 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221013121829/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2015/may/08/uefa-agreement-ffp-roma-internazionale-fines \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Roma acquired Bosnia international, Edin Džeko, from Manchester City on a €4&nbsp;million loan with an €11&nbsp;million option to buy clause,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/33894658 \|titleEdin Dzeko: Roma sign Man City striker on season-long loan \|workBBC Sport \|date12 August 2015 \|access-date12 August 2015 \|archive-date15 August 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150815022341/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/33894658 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/operazioni_di_mercato/2015_08_12_Dzeko.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/operazioni_di_mercato/2015_08_12_Dzeko.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleOperazioni di mercato Edin Džeko \|languageit \|websiteA.S. Roma \|date12 August 2015\|access-date12 August 2015 }}</ref> which was activated.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/73754/roma-dzeko-salah-falque-permanent \|titleRoma: Dzeko, Salah, Falque permanent \|websiteFootball Italia \|date1 October 2015 \|access-date4 October 2015 \|archive-date17 May 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190517113242/https://www.football-italia.net/73754/roma-dzeko-salah-falque-permanent \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On 13 January 2016, Garcia was sacked after a run of one win in seven Serie A matches.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/jan/13/roma-sack-coach-rudi-garcia-serie-a\|titleRoma sack coach Rudi García after run of one win in seven Serie A games\|firstGuardian\|lastsport\|date13 January 2016\|workThe Guardian\|access-date18 February 2017\|archive-date19 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170219005318/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/jan/13/roma-sack-coach-rudi-garcia-serie-a\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Luciano Spalletti was subsequently appointed manager of Roma for his second spell.<ref nameroma>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/78311/strootman-goodbye-garcia\|titleStrootman: 'Goodbye Garcia' – Football Italia\|date13 January 2016\|access-date18 February 2017\|archive-date2 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802091305/http://www.football-italia.net/78311/strootman-goodbye-garcia\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 21 February, Totti publicly criticised Spalletti due to his own lack of playing-time since returning from injury. Consequently, Totti was subsequently dropped by Spalletti for Roma's 5–0 win over Palermo, with the decision causing an uproar among the fans and in the media.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.espnfc.com/club/as-roma/104/blog/post/2812892/francesco-totti-faces-uncertain-roma-future\|titleFrancesco Totti faces uncertain Roma future after controversial comments\|publisherESPNFC.com\|access-date23 February 2016\|archive-date25 February 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160225070555/http://www.espnfc.com/club/as-roma/104/blog/post/2812892/francesco-totti-faces-uncertain-roma-future\|url-statuslive}}</ref> After their initial disagreements, Spalletti began to use Totti as an immediate impact substitute, and he contributed with four goals and one assist after coming off the bench in five consecutive Serie A matches.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/83762/serie-week-36-did-you-know\|titleSerie A Week 36: Did You Know?\|publisherFootball Italia\|author1Susy Campanale\|date3 May 2016\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date4 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160504185202/http://www.football-italia.net/83762/serie-week-36-did-you-know\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.espnfc.com/italian-serie-a/match/431915/genoa-as-roma/report\|titleFrancesco Totti helps Roma rally to victory at Genoa\|publisherESPN FC\|date2 May 2016\|access-date3 May 2016\|archive-date3 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160503110346/http://www.espnfc.com/italian-serie-a/match/431915/genoa-as-roma/report\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Spalletti was able to lead Roma from a mid-table spot to a third-place finish in Serie A, clinching the UEFA Champions League play-off spot.<ref>{{cite web\|author1Terry Daley\|titleHiguain heroics mean Roma come up short in fight for second in Serie A\|urlhttp://www.espnfc.com/club/as-roma/104/blog/post/2873087/higuain-heroics-mean-roma-come-up-short-in-fight-for-second\|publisherESPN FC\|access-date25 May 2016\|date15 May 2016\|archive-date18 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160518055140/http://www.espnfc.com/club/as-roma/104/blog/post/2873087/higuain-heroics-mean-roma-come-up-short-in-fight-for-second\|url-statuslive}}</ref> During the summer of 2016, Roma lost midfielder Miralem Pjanić to rivals Juventus to improve its financial position.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36522742\|titleMiralem Pjanic: Juventus sign Roma midfielder for £25.4m\|date13 June 2016\|publisherBBC\|access-date12 February 2018\|archive-date22 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181022013055/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36522742\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 27 April 2017, Roma appointed sporting director Monchi, formerly of Sevilla FC.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.beinsports.com/us/soccer/news/as-roma-appoint-sevilla-sporting-director-mon/521170\|titleAS Roma Appoint Sevilla Sporting Director Monchi\|access-date14 April 2018\|archive-date15 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180415070332/http://www.beinsports.com/us/soccer/news/as-roma-appoint-sevilla-sporting-director-mon/521170\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 28 May that year, on the last day of the 2016–17 season, Totti made his 786th and final appearance for Roma before retiring in a 3–2 home win against Genoa, coming on as a substitute for Mohamed Salah in the 54th minute and received a standing ovation from the fans.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/sport/football/40036023\|titleRoma 3–2 Genoa\|workBBC Sport\|date28 May 2017\|access-date28 May 2017\|archive-date18 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210518084645/https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/40036023\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The win saw Roma finish second in Serie A behind Juventus. Daniele De Rossi succeeded Totti as club captain and signed a new two-year contract.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40110742\|titleDaniele de Rossi: Roma captains signs new deal\|date31 May 2017\|workBBC\|access-date25 April 2018\|archive-date25 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180425212734/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40110742\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Roma side before a UEFA Champions League Round of 16 match against Shakhtar Donetsk]] On 13 June 2017, former Roma player Eusebio Di Francesco was appointed as the club's new manager, replacing Spalletti, who had left for Internazionale.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/104068/official-di-francesco-new-roma-coach\|titleOfficial: Di Francesco new Roma coach\|publisherFootball Italia\|date13 June 2017\|access-date13 June 2017\|archive-date15 June 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170615083725/http://www.football-italia.net/104068/official-di-francesco-new-roma-coach\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Roma again lost a key player during the summer transfer window, with Mohamed Salah joining Liverpool F.C. for a fee of €39 million (£34m).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40345138\|titleMohamed Salah: Liverpool sign Roma's former Chelsea winger for £34m\|date23 June 2017\|workBBC\|access-date25 April 2018\|archive-date29 March 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180329011334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/40345138\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Several new players joined the club, including a club-record deal of up to €40 million for Sampdoria striker Patrik Schick.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.espn.co.uk/football/soccer-transfers/story/3191679/roma-sign-patrik-schick-from-sampdoria-in-club-record-transfer\|titleRoma complete club-record deal for Schick\|date29 August 2017\|access-date14 April 2018\|archive-date14 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180414234710/http://www.espn.co.uk/football/soccer-transfers/story/3191679/roma-sign-patrik-schick-from-sampdoria-in-club-record-transfer\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League Roma were drawn against FC Barcelona in the quarter-finals, being defeated 4–1 away in the first leg<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.skysports.com/football/barcelona-vs-roma/388719\|titleBarcelona 4-1 Roma: Late Luis Suarez strike gives Ernesto Valverde's side advantage\|workSky Sports \|access-date14 April 2018\|archive-date14 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180414234410/http://www.skysports.com/football/barcelona-vs-roma/388719\|url-statuslive}}</ref> but winning 3–0 in the second to advance on away goals to the semi-finals for the first time since 1984.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/43632211\|titleRoma 3-0 Barcelona (agg: 4-4)\|date10 April 2018\|workBBC\|access-date25 April 2018\|archive-date13 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180413025714/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/43632211\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Roma then lost to Liverpool, the team that had defeated them in the 1984 European Cup Final 7–6 on aggregate.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastSteinberg\|firstJacob\|date2018-05-02\|titleRoma 4-2 Liverpool (agg: 6-7): Champions League semi-final – as it happened\|workThe Guardian\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2018/may/02/roma-v-liverpool-champions-league-semi-final-second-leg-live\|access-date2020-07-27\|issn0261-3077\|archive-date16 June 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200616144400/https://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2018/may/02/roma-v-liverpool-champions-league-semi-final-second-leg-live\|url-status=live}}</ref> Roma ended the 2017–18 season in 3rd place on 77 points, qualifying for the following season's Champions League. In the summer of 2018, Roma were busy in the transfer market, in large parts thanks to the €83 million they received from reaching the Champions League semi-finals, as well as selling goalkeeper Alisson for a world record €72 million including bonuses to Liverpool.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastSolano\|firstJohn\|date2018-12-12\|titleRoma Champions League earnings 2018/2019\|urlhttps://romapress.net/2018/12/12/roma-champions-league-earnings-2018-2019/\|access-date2020-07-27\|websiteRomaPress.net\|archive-date28 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728013341/https://romapress.net/2018/12/12/roma-champions-league-earnings-2018-2019/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Roma spent €150 million to sign the likes of Shick, Nzonzi, Pastore, Kluivert, Defrel and more, while selling their two starting midfielders from the previous season, Nainggolan and Strootman. The 2018–19 season saw the club eliminated against Porto 4–3 on aggregate in the Champions League round of 16; Di Francesco was sacked and replaced by Claudio Ranieri who served as caretaker manager.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastImages\|firstAFP/Getty\|titleRoma sack manager Di Francesco, Ranieri tipped as his replacement\|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/90minutes/ct-90mins-roma-sack-manager-di-francesco-ranieri-tipped-as-his-replacement-20190307-story.html\|access-date2020-07-27\|websiteChicago Tribune\|date7 March 2019 \|archive-date1 October 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221001102225/https://www.chicagotribune.com/90minutes/ct-90mins-roma-sack-manager-di-francesco-ranieri-tipped-as-his-replacement-20190307-story.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The following day, sporting director Monchi stepped down due to disagreements with Pallotta;<ref>{{Cite web\|titleMonchi: Different ideas to Roma {{!}} Football Italia\|urlhttps://www.football-italia.net/135948/monchi-different-ideas-roma\|access-date2020-07-28\|websitewww.football-italia.net\|archive-date28 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728010801/https://www.football-italia.net/135948/monchi-different-ideas-roma\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the club president disputed his account<ref>{{Cite web\|titlePallotta: Monchi had complete control! {{!}} Football Italia\|urlhttps://www.football-italia.net/135949/pallotta-monchi-had-complete-control\|access-date2020-07-28\|websitewww.football-italia.net\|date18 March 2019\|archive-date28 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728001951/https://www.football-italia.net/135949/pallotta-monchi-had-complete-control\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In Monchi's two years at the club, he spent £208 million on 21 signings, while when he left, 12 of his signings remained at the club.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleA Closer Look At Monchi's Disappointing Stint At AS Roma\|workEl Arte Del Futbol \|date15 June 2020\|urlhttps://www.elartedf.com/clsoer-look-disappointing-monchi-era-roma/\|access-date28 July 2020\|archive-date28 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728010823/https://www.elartedf.com/clsoer-look-disappointing-monchi-era-roma/\|url-statuslive \|author1Alexbarkerg }}</ref> Under Ranieri, Roma failed to qualify for the Champions League, finishing 6th. Friedkin era and European success In December 2019, AS Roma SPV LLC was in final negotiations to sell the team for $872 million, to American businessman Dan Friedkin, however negotiations stalled during the COVID-19 pandemic.<ref>{{cite news \| title = U.S. Billionaire Nears Purchase of AS Roma Soccer Club \| url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-12-29/u-s-billionaire-friedkin-nears-buying-as-roma-soccer-club \| date = 29 December 2019 \| work = Bloomberg L.P. \| access-date = 31 December 2019 \| archive-date = 31 December 2019 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191231083459/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-12-29/u-s-billionaire-friedkin-nears-buying-as-roma-soccer-club \| url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastbren\|date2020-03-09\|titleMonday News & Notes: Friedkin Updates, COVID Concerns, and Stadium Delays\|urlhttps://www.chiesaditotti.com/2020/3/9/21171566/monday-news-notes-friedkin-updates-covid-concerns-and-stadium-delays\|access-date2020-07-28\|websiteChiesa Di Totti\|archive-date28 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728001953/https://www.chiesaditotti.com/2020/3/9/21171566/monday-news-notes-friedkin-updates-covid-concerns-and-stadium-delays\|url-status=live}}</ref> On 6 August 2020, Friedkin signed the preliminary contract to agree to pay $591 million to Pallotta, the main shareholder of Roma.<ref>{{cite news \| title = Official statement regarding the ownership of AS Roma \| url = https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2020/8/official-statement-regarding-the-ownership-of-as-roma \| date = 6 August 2020 \| work = A.S. Roma \| access-date = 6 August 2020 \| archive-date = 6 August 2020 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200806061559/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2020/8/official-statement-regarding-the-ownership-of-as-roma \| url-status = live }}</ref> Paulo Fonseca, who was hired as manager in 2019, left two years later and was replaced by fellow Portuguese José Mourinho.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleJose Mourinho returning to Serie A as Roma manager\|urlhttps://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/jose-mourinho-named-new-head-coach-s-roma/\|access-date2021-05-04\|websiteSportsnet.ca\|archive-date4 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210504203210/https://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/jose-mourinho-named-new-head-coach-s-roma/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 25 May 2022, he led Roma to win the inaugural edition of UEFA Europa Conference League, defeating Feyenoord in the final.<ref>{{cite news \|titleRoma beat Feyenoord to win inaugural Europa Conference League \|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2022/5/26/roma-beat-feyenoord-to-win-inaugural-europa-conference-league \|access-date17 July 2022 \|workAl Jazeera \|date26 May 2022 \|archive-date17 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220717101853/https://www.aljazeera.com/sports/2022/5/26/roma-beat-feyenoord-to-win-inaugural-europa-conference-league \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In September 2024 it was reported that club owners are interested in purchesing the Premier League club of Everton. Club owners claim, it will not effect Roma.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Agini \|first1Samuel Agini and Josh Noble \|last2Noble \|first2Josh \|date2024 \|titleUS billionaire Dan Friedkin agrees to buy Everton FC \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/3f53837e-fe48-409d-a016-17e8111a02b7 \|access-date2024-09-24 \|websitewww.ft.com}}</ref> Club identity Roma's colours of carmine red with a golden yellow trim represents the traditional colours of Rome, the official seal of the Comune di Roma features the same colours.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.comuni-italiani.it/058/091/stemma.html\|publisherComuni-Italiani\|titleStemma Comune di Roma\|date24 June 2007\|access-date20 September 2007\|archive-date26 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070926225549/http://www.comuni-italiani.it/058/091/stemma.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The gold and the purple-red represent Roman imperial dignity.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.123football.com/clubs/italy/roma/index.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050421132130/http://www.123football.com/clubs/italy/roma/index.htm\|url-statusdead\|archive-date21 April 2005\|publisher123football.com\|titleA.S. Roma\|date24 June 2007}}</ref> White shorts and black socks are usually worn with the red shirt. However, in particularly high key matches, the shorts and socks are the same colour as the home shirt.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.viewimages.com/Search.aspx?mid56943226&epmid2&partnerGoogle\|publisherViewImages.com\|titleRoma – Lazio: February 2006\|date24 June 2007\|access-date2 October 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071217172707/http://www.viewimages.com/Search.aspx?mid56943226&epmid2&partnerGoogle\|archive-date17 December 2007\|url-status=dead}}</ref> The kit itself was originally worn by Roman Football Club; one of the three clubs who merged to form the current incarnation in 1927.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asromaultras.it/roman.html \|publisherASRomaUltras.it \|titleIl Roman – La storia (tratta da "La Roma") \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070822235350/http://www.asromaultras.it/roman.html \|archive-date22 August 2007 }}</ref> Because of the colours they wear, Roma are often nicknamed i giallorossi meaning the yellow-reds.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.footballinitaly.com/roma.html\|publisherFootball in Italy\|titleA.S. Roma\|date24 June 2007\|access-date20 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070915071252/http://www.footballinitaly.com/roma.html\|archive-date15 September 2007\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Roma's away kit is traditionally white, with a third kit changing colour from time to time.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory: Roma's blue kits down the years \|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/news/2019/9/history-roma-s-blue-kits-down-the-years \|access-date2022-10-28 \|websitewww.asroma.com \|languageen \|archive-date28 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221028030838/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2019/9/history-roma-s-blue-kits-down-the-years \|url-status=live }}</ref> A popular nickname for the club is "i lupi" ("the wolves") – the animal has always featured on the club's badge in different forms throughout their history. The emblem of the team is currently the one which was used when the club was first founded. It portrays the female wolf with the two infant brothers Romulus and Remus, illustrating the myth of the founding of Rome,<ref name"legend_rome"/> superimposed on a bipartite golden yellow over a maroon red shield.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.brandsoftheworld.com/search/?query_id21223833&page2&brand_id30492\|publisherBrandsoftheWorld.com\|titleRoma\|date24 June 2007\|access-date2 October 2007\|archive-date18 December 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071218003521/http://brandsoftheworld.com/search/?query_id21223833&page2&brand_id30492\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the myth from which the club takes their nickname and logo, the twins (sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia) are thrown into the river Tiber by their uncle Amulius. A she-wolf then saved the twins and looked after them.<ref name"legend_rome"/> Eventually, the two twins took revenge on Amulius before falling out themselves – Romulus killed Remus and was thus made king of a new city named in his honour, Rome.<ref name"legend_rome">{{cite news\|urlhttp://museums.ncl.ac.uk/Reticulum/NORTHERNFRONTIER/WeCameWeSawWeConq/WhereDidTheyComeFrom/Story.htm \|publisherNewcastle University \|titleThe Legend of Romulus and Remus \|date24 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071002172220/http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/Reticulum/NORTHERNFRONTIER/WeCameWeSawWeConq/WhereDidTheyComeFrom/Story.htm \|archive-date2 October 2007 }}</ref> Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- !Period !Kit manufacturer !Shirt sponsor (front) !Shirt sponsor (back) !Shirt sponsor (sleeve) \|- \|1970–71 \|\|Lacoste \|rowspan=5\|None \| rowspan="21" \|None \| rowspan="22" \|None \|- \|1972–76 \|\|None \|- \|1977–79 \|\|Adidas \|- \|1979–80 \|\|Pouchain \|- \|1980–81 \|rowspan=2\|Playground \|- \|1981–82 \|rowspan=5\|Barilla \|- \|1982–83 \|\|Patrick \|- \|1983–86 \|\|Kappa \|- \|1986–91 \|\|NR \|- \|1991–94 \|\|Adidas \|- \|1994–95 \|rowspan=2\|ASICS \|\|Nuova Tirrena \|- \|1995–97 \|rowspan=3\|INA Assitalia \|- \|1997–00 \|\|Diadora \|- \|2000–02 \|rowspan=2\|Kappa \|- \|2002–03 \|rowspan=2\|Mazda \|- \|2003–05 \|rowspan=3\|Diadora \|- \|2005–06 \|\|Banca Italease \|- \|2006–07 \|\|None \|- \|2007–13 \|\|Kappa \|\|Wind \|- \|2013–14 \|\|In-house production \|\|Roma Cares<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/en/news/unicacomete_eng/\|titleAS Roma – Official Website – Rome – Football – Soccer\|access-date19 July 2013\|archive-date15 July 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130715201619/http://www.asroma.it/en/news/unicacomete_eng\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \|- \|2014–18 \| rowspan"3" \|Nike<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/en/news/as_roma_and_nike_announce_new_partnership/\|titleAS ROMA AND NIKE ANNOUNCE NEW PARTNERSHIP\|date13 March 2013\|access-date14 March 2013\|publisherA.S. Roma Official Website\|archive-date16 March 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130316030431/http://www.asroma.it/en/news/as_roma_and_nike_announce_new_partnership\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|\|None \|- \|2018–20 \| rowspan"2"\|Qatar Airways<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asroma.com/en/news/2018/4/roma-announce-qatar-airways-as-main-global-partner\|titleRoma announce Qatar Airways as Main Global Partner\|date23 April 2018\|access-date24 April 2018\|publisherA.S. Roma Official Website\|archive-date23 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180423204000/http://www.asroma.com/en/news/2018/4/roma-announce-qatar-airways-as-main-global-partner\|url-status=live}}</ref> \| rowspan="3" \|Hyundai \|- \|2020–21 \|Iqoniq \|- \|2021–22 \| rowspan"2"\|New Balance<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/news/2021/2/new-balance-to-become-club-s-official-kit-supplier/\|titleNEW BALANCE TO BECOME CLUB'S OFFICIAL KIT SUPPLIER\|date16 February 2021\|access-date7 May 2021\|publisherA.S. Roma Official Website\|archive-date7 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210507122149/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2021/2/new-balance-to-become-club-s-official-kit-supplier/\|url-status=live}}</ref> \| rowspan"2"\|DigitalBits<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://romapress.net/roma-pen-three-year-agreement-with-digitalbits-as-main-sponsor/\|titleRoma pen three-year agreement with DigitalBits as main sponsor\|date13 July 2021\|access-date15 July 2021\|publisherRomaPress\|archive-date14 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210714220816/https://romapress.net/roma-pen-three-year-agreement-with-digitalbits-as-main-sponsor/\|url-status=live}}</ref> \| rowspan="3" \|None \|- \|2022–23 \| rowspan="2" \|Auberge Resorts \|- \|2023– \|\|Adidas<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/it/notizie/68539/adidas-is-back-inizia-una-lunga-partnership-con-las-roma/\|titleAdidas is back\|publisherA.S. Roma Official Website\|date3 July 2023\|access-date3 July 2023\|archive-date3 July 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230703143251/https://www.asroma.com/it/notizie/68539/adidas-is-back-inizia-una-lunga-partnership-con-las-roma/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \|\|Riyadh Season<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/news/69561/as-roma-and-riyadh-season-announce-new-front-of-shirt-partnership\|titleAS Roma and Riyadh Season Announce New Front of Shirt Partnership\|publisherA.S. Roma Official Website\|date4 October 2023\|access-date5 October 2023\|archive-date14 October 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231014050636/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/69561/as-roma-and-riyadh-season-announce-new-front-of-shirt-partnership\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \|} Facilities Stadiums {{Infobox venue \| stadium_name = Stadio Olimpico \| nickname = Olimpico \| image = Panoramica dello Stadio Olimpico (Roma).jpg \| location = Viale dello Stadio Olimpico, Foro Italico, Rome, Italy \| broke_ground = 1927 \| opened = 1953 \| renovated = 1990 \| owner = Italian National Olympic Committee \| operator = A.S. Roma and S.S. Lazio \| cost \| architect Annibale Vitellozzi \| tenants = A.S. Roma (1953–present),<br />S.S. Lazio (1953–present) \| seating_capacity = 70,643 seated }} {{Main\|Stadio Olimpico\|Campo Testaccio\|Stadio Nazionale PNF\|Stadio Flaminio}} The first sport facility Roma used was the Motovelodromo Appio, previously used by Alba-Audace. Roma only played the 1927–28 season there until they moved to Campo Testaccio the very next season. Campo Testaccio was used through 1929 to 1940. The team moved later to the Stadio Nazionale del PNF, where they spent 13 years before moving once again. In the 1953–54 season, Roma moved to the Olympic arena, Stadio Olimpico, which it shares with Lazio. The arena has undergone several changes over the years. The most significant change took place in the nineties when Stadio Olimpico was demolished and then reconstructed for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy. Roma have played almost every season since 1953–54, with exception of the 1989–90 seasons due to the reconstruction of Stadio Olimpico. That year, Roma played its home matches at Stadio Flaminio. On 30 December 2012, Roma club president James Pallotta announced the construction of a new stadium in the Tor di Valle area of Rome. The new stadium, Stadio della Roma, will have a capacity of 52,500 spectators.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ilmessaggero.it/sport/asroma/roma_nuovo_stadio_tor_di_valle_totti_tifosi_sognavano/notizie/241248.shtml\|titleHOME Il Messaggero\|access-date9 June 2013\|archive-date20 October 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020164947/http://www.ilmessaggero.it/sport/asroma/roma_nuovo_stadio_tor_di_valle_totti_tifosi_sognavano/notizie/241248.shtml\|url-statusdead}}</ref> On 2 February 2017, the Region of Lazio and the mayor of Rome rejected the proposal to build a new stadium.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/97831/official-stadio-della-roma-rejected\|titleOfficial: Stadio della Roma rejected\|publisherFootball Italia\|date2 February 2017\|access-date2 February 2017\|archive-date3 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170203064816/http://www.football-italia.net/97831/official-stadio-della-roma-rejected\|url-statuslive}}</ref> However, it was later approved on 24 February after final review of the stadium's design adjustments.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/98837/mayor-historic-day-roma\|titleMayor: Historic day for Roma\|publisherFootball Italia\|date24 February 2017\|access-date24 February 2017\|archive-date25 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225134516/http://www.football-italia.net/98837/mayor-historic-day-roma\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In August 2017, the stadium suffered another delay,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/107441/official-stadio-della-roma-delayed-again\|titleOfficial: Stadio della Roma delayed again\|publisherFootball Italia\|date9 August 2017\|access-date12 August 2017\|archive-date12 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170812173621/http://www.football-italia.net/107441/official-stadio-della-roma-delayed-again\|url-statuslive}}</ref> forcing Roma to renew their lease with the Stadio Olimpico until 2020.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/108041/roma-stadio-olimpico-until-2020\|titleRoma at Stadio Olimpico until 2020\|publisherFootball Italia\|date12 August 2017\|access-date12 August 2017\|archive-date12 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170812173040/http://www.football-italia.net/108041/roma-stadio-olimpico-until-2020\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is presently uncertain when the stadium will open.<ref nameuncertain>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/98855/stadio-della-roma-still-faces-hurdles\|titleStadio della Roma still faces hurdles\|publisherFootball Italia\|date25 February 2017\|access-date25 February 2017\|archive-date26 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170226050231/http://www.football-italia.net/98855/stadio-della-roma-still-faces-hurdles\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 5 December 2017 the Stadio della Roma project, after experiencing five years worth of delays due to conflicting interests from various parties in the Roman city government, was given the go-ahead to begin construction, with the stadium expected to be ready to open for the 2020–21 season.<ref name"auto">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.football-italia.net/113829/official-stadio-della-roma-all-clear\|titleOfficial: Stadio della Roma all-clear\|publisherFootball Italia\|date5 December 2017\|access-date5 December 2017\|archive-date5 September 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190905173414/https://www.football-italia.net/113829/official-stadio-della-roma-all-clear\|url-statuslive}}</ref> On 26 February 2021, it was announced that the stadium project was halted.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.football-italia.net/166935/roma-stop-new-stadium-project-tor-di-valle\|titleRoma stop new stadium project in Tor Di Valle\|publisherFootball Italia\|date26 February 2021\|access-date28 February 2021\|archive-date26 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226220928/https://www.football-italia.net/166935/roma-stop-new-stadium-project-tor-di-valle\|url-statuslive}}</ref> List of stadiums used by the club 1927–1928 Motovelodromo Appio 1929–1940 Campo Testaccio 1940–1953 Stadio Nazionale del PNF 1953– Stadio Olimpico (1989–1990 Stadio Flaminio due to renovations on Olimpico) Trigoria A sports centre located in Trigoria at kilometre 3600 in south-east of Rome was purchased on 22 July 1977 by then club president Gaetano Anzalone. It was opened on 23 July 1979 as Anzalone's final act as president.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://archiviostorico.unita.it/cgi-bin/highlightPdf.cgi?tebook&file/archivio/uni_1979_07/19790724_0010.pdf \|url-statusdead \|titleAdesso "Trigoria" è diventata realtà \|workl'Unità \|languageit \|date24 July 1979 \|page10 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140517132649/http://archiviostorico.unita.it/cgi-bin/highlightPdf.cgi?tebook&file%2Farchivio%2Funi_1979_07%2F19790724_0010.pdf \|archive-date17 May 2014}}</ref> The complex had its first expansion in 1984 when the club was handled by Dino Viola and another in 1998 under the chairmanship of Franco Sensi.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ilsussidiario.net/News/roma/2011/11/4/TRIGORIA-Il-Trapezio-tra-i-Campi-della-Roma-e-il-Campus-Universitario/219070/\|titleTRIGORIA/ Il 'Trapezio', tra i Campi della Roma e il Campus Universitario\|date4 November 2011\|access-date9 June 2013\|archive-date13 November 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113050532/http://www.ilsussidiario.net/News/roma/2011/11/4/TRIGORIA-Il-Trapezio-tra-i-Campi-della-Roma-e-il-Campus-Universitario/219070/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The centre's official name is the Fulvio Bernardini di Trigoria, named after club icon Fulvio Bernardini. On 4 September 2019, the Trigoria training ground began to serve also as a private school named 'Liceo Scientifico Sportivo A.S. Roma' exclusively educating only the team's youth players in a renovated building on the training ground premises.<ref>{{cite web \|last1A.S. Roma \|titleSchool For Young Trainees Unveiled At Trigoria \|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/news/2019/9/school-for-young-trainees-unveiled-at-trigoria \|websiteasroma.com \|publisherOfficial AS Roma Website \|access-date3 February 2021 \|archive-date7 February 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210207105217/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2019/9/school-for-young-trainees-unveiled-at-trigoria \|url-status=live }}</ref> 80 students are currently enrolled in the school which features its own cafeteria and gym. The centre is also known for hosting the Argentina national team during the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy. Supporters Roma is the fifth-most supported football club in Italy – behind Juventus, Internazionale, A.C. Milan and Napoli – with approximately 7% of Italian football fans supporting the club, according to the Doxa Institute-L'Espresso's research of April 2006.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio-archivio/163496 \|publisherL'Expresso \|title''L'altra metà del pallone: Supporters of football clubs in Italy \|dateApril 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090406030436/http://espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio-archivio/163496 \|archive-date6 April 2009 }}</ref> Historically, the largest section of Roma supporters in the city of Rome have come from the inner-city, especially Testaccio.<ref name"Testaccio">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampo_testaccio.htm\|publisherViva la Roma\|titleCampo Testaccio\|date24 June 2007\|access-date23 September 2007\|archive-date29 May 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070529051112/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampo_testaccio.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The traditional ultras group of the club was Commando Ultrà Curva Sud<ref name "fans" /> commonly abbreviated as CUCS. This group was founded by the merger of many smaller groups and was considered one of the most historic in the history of European football.<ref name "fans" /> However, by the mid-1990s, CUCS had been usurped by rival factions and ultimately broke up. Since that time, the Curva Sud of the Stadio Olimpico has been controlled by more right-wing groups,<ref name "fans" /> including A.S. Roma Ultras, Boys and Giovinezza, among others. However, the oldest group, Fedayn'', is apolitical, and politics is not the main identity of Roma, just a part of their overall identity. Besides ultras groups, it is believed Roma fans support the left as opposed to Lazio supporters, which are notoriously proud of their right-wing affiliation.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://m.bleacherreport.com/articles/1730264-why-roma-lazio-is-one-of-world-footballs-fiercest-rivalries\|titleWhy Roma-Lazio Is One of World Football's Fiercest Rivalries\|firstChristopher\|lastImpiglia\|websiteBleacher Report\|access-date26 June 2015\|archive-date18 October 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201018095735/http://m.bleacherreport.com/articles/1730264-why-roma-lazio-is-one-of-world-footballs-fiercest-rivalries\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In November 2015, Roma's ultras and their Lazio counterparts boycotted Roma's 1–0 victory in the Derby della Capitale in protest at new safety measures imposed at the Stadio Olimpico. The measures – imposed by Rome's prefect, Franco Gabrielli – had involved plastic glass dividing walls being installed in both the Curva Sud and Curva Nord, splitting the sections behind each goal in two.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2015/nov/09/roma-deserted-derby-lazio-ultras-make-point\|titleRoma win a deserted derby over Lazio as Ultras on both sides make point\|firstNicky\|lastBandini\|date9 November 2015\|workThe Guardian\|access-date18 February 2017\|archive-date19 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170219012223/https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2015/nov/09/roma-deserted-derby-lazio-ultras-make-point\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both sets of ultras continued their protests for the rest of the season, including during Roma's 4–1 victory in the return fixture. Lazio's ultras returned to the Curva Nord for Roma's 1–4 victory in December 2016, but the Roma ultras continue to boycott matches.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2016/dec/05/lazio-roma-derby-serie-a\|titleNot such a beautiful game: Lazio v Roma derby descends into disrepute\|firstNicky\|lastBandini\|date5 December 2016\|workThe Guardian\|access-date18 February 2017\|archive-date18 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170218234124/https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2016/dec/05/lazio-roma-derby-serie-a\|url-statuslive}}</ref> during a Roma match]] The most known club anthem is "Roma (non-si discute, si ama)", also known as "Roma Roma",<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sonoromanista.it/wiki/Inno_As_Roma \|titleInno AS Roma \|websiteSonoromanista.it (AS Roma fans' social network) \|access-date26 October 2013 \|languageit \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029200229/http://www.sonoromanista.it/wiki/Inno_As_Roma \|archive-date29 October 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.goal.com/en-US/Squadra.aspx?IdSquadra7&SEOTeamNameAS+Roma \|publisherGoal.com \|titleRoma Profile \|dateApril 2006 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080926103919/http://www.goal.com/en-us/Squadra.aspx?IdSquadra7 \|archive-date26 September 2008 }}</ref> by singer Antonello Venditti. The title roughly means, "Roma is not to be questioned, it is to be loved," and it is sung before each match. The song "Grazie Roma", by the same singer, is played at the end of victorious home matches. Recently, the main riff of The White Stripes' song "Seven Nation Army" has also become widely popular at matches.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.indie-rock.it/news_look.php?id408\|publisherIndie-Rock.it\|title'Seven Nation Army' coro dei tifosi romanisti\|date29 June 2007\|access-date20 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070917074256/http://www.indie-rock.it/news_look.php?id408\|archive-date17 September 2007\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Rivalries In Italian football, Roma is a club with many rivalries; first and foremost is their rivalry with Lazio, the club with whom they share the Stadio Olimpico. The derby between the two is called the Derby della Capitale, it is amongst the most heated and emotional footballing rivalries in the world. The fixture has seen some occasional instances of violence in the past, including the death of Lazio fan Vincenzo Paparelli in 1979–80 as a result of an emergency flare fired from the Curva Sud,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.ultraslazio.it/ukstory.htm \|publisherUltrasLazio.it \|titleUltras History \|date29 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130616011746/http://www.ultraslazio.it/ukstory.htm \|archive-date16 June 2013 }}</ref> and the abandonment of a match in March 2004 following unfounded rumours of a fatality which led to violence outside the stadium.<ref name"derby">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.footballinrome.co.uk/news.html \|publisherFootballInRome.co.uk \|title22 March: Derby confusion \|date29 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070921161253/http://www.footballinrome.co.uk/news.html \|archive-date=21 September 2007 }}</ref> Against Napoli, Roma also compete in the Derby del Sole, meaning the "Derby of the Sun".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.footballderbies.com/index.php?country2\|publisherFootballDerbies.com\|titleFootball Derby matches in Italy\|date29 June 2007\|access-date20 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140327170654/http://footballderbies.com/index.php?country2\|archive-date27 March 2014\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Nowadays, fans also consider other Juventus (a rivalry born especially in the 1980s), Milan, Atalanta (since 1984, when friendly relations between the two clubs' ultras deteriorated),<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.ilromanista.eu/news/as-roma/27111/roma-e-atalanta-da-gemellate-a-rivali-la-storia-del-rapporto-tra-le-due-tifoserie \|titleRoma e Atalanta, da gemellate a rivali: la storia del rapporto tra le due tifoserie \|date12 February 2020 \|lastPastore \|firstFabrizio \|websiteilromanista.eu \|languageit \|accessdate3 August 2021 \|archive-date3 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210803212115/https://www.ilromanista.eu/news/as-roma/27111/roma-e-atalanta-da-gemellate-a-rivali-la-storia-del-rapporto-tra-le-due-tifoserie \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and Internazionale (increased in recent years) among their rivals, as they are often competitors for the top four spots in the league table and qualification for the UEFA Champions League.<ref name"fans">{{cite news\|urlhttp://website.lineone.net/~view_from_the_terrace/italsce.html \|publisherView from the Terrace \|titleItalian Ultras Scene \|date29 June 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090508122124/http://website.lineone.net/~view_from_the_terrace/italsce.html \|archive-date8 May 2009 }}</ref>HooliganismRivalries with other teams have escalated into serious violence. A group of ultras who label themselves the Fedayn — 'the devotees' — after a group of long-forgotten Iranian guerrilla fighters are regarded to be responsible for the organised hooliganism.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.independent.ie/sport/soccer/champions-league/they-were-throwing-rocks-wielding-iron-bars-the-sordid-history-of-romas-ultras-as-liverpool-fans-head-to-rome-36863134.html\|title'They were throwing rocks, wielding iron bars' - The sordid history of Roma's Ultras as Liverpool fans head to Rome\|workIrish Independent\|dateMay 2018 \|access-date2 May 2018\|archive-date2 May 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180502214101/https://www.independent.ie/sport/soccer/champions-league/they-were-throwing-rocks-wielding-iron-bars-the-sordid-history-of-romas-ultras-as-liverpool-fans-head-to-rome-36863134.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/european/liverpool-fans-roma-travel-advice-tickets-champions-league-semifinal-a8329076.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180501183503/http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/european/liverpool-fans-roma-travel-advice-tickets-champions-league-semifinal-a8329076.html \|archive-date2018-05-01 \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive\|titleInstead of 'why always Liverpool?' we should be asking 'why always Rome?'\|websiteIndependent.co.uk\|date30 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/43910787\|titleRoma v Liverpool: Roma's passionate support blighted by a violent minority\|date1 May 2018\|workBBC\|access-date2 May 2018\|archive-date2 May 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180502101958/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/43910787\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2014 Daniele De Santis, a Roma ultra, was convicted of shooting Ciro Esposito and two others during clashes with Napoli fans who were in Rome for their club's Coppa Italia final against Fiorentina. Esposito died of his wounds. De Santis was sentenced to 26 years in prison, later reduced to 16 years on appeal. Roma ultras have displayed banners celebrating De Santis.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.thejournal.ie/football-hooligan-jailed-italy-2786699-May2016/\|titleNotorious football hooligan given 26 years in prison for shooting rival fan\|lastAFP\|date24 May 2016 \|access-date26 April 2018\|archive-date27 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180427120045/http://www.thejournal.ie/football-hooligan-jailed-italy-2786699-May2016/\|url-status=live}}</ref> There have been multiple instances of Roma ultras attacking supporters of foreign clubs when playing in Rome. These attacks have regularly featured the Roma ultras using knives, poles, flares, bottles and stones on unarmed foreign supporters, resulting in multiple hospitalisations. Home games against Liverpool in 1984 and 2001,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/football/disgrace-of-rome-708305\|titleDISGRACE OF ROME\|workDaily Mirror\|date5 April 2007\|access-date28 April 2018\|archive-date29 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180429091944/https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/football/disgrace-of-rome-708305\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Times call for final move">{{cite news\|urlhttp://timesonline.typepad.com/thegame/2009/03/ahead-of-the-14.html\|titleTimes call for final move\|date19 March 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100915024920/http://timesonline.typepad.com/thegame/2009/03/ahead-of-the-14.html\|archive-date15 September 2010\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Middlesbrough in 2006,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.gazettelive.co.uk/news/teesside-news/boro-fans-roma-flashback-disgusting-9804329\|titleBoro fans in Roma: Flashback to disgusting treatment on European trip\|lastBarley\|firstSophie\|date7 August 2015\|access-date27 April 2018\|archive-date28 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180428094853/https://www.gazettelive.co.uk/news/teesside-news/boro-fans-roma-flashback-disgusting-9804329\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Manchester United in 2007,<ref name"inews.co.uk">{{cite web\|urlhttps://inews.co.uk/sport/football/roma-vs-liverpool-2001-rome-travel-advice-warning-stabbings-ultras-carabinieri/\|titleA warning to Liverpool fans travelling to Rome – from one who was there in 2001\|date27 April 2018\|access-date27 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180428093734/https://inews.co.uk/sport/football/roma-vs-liverpool-2001-rome-travel-advice-warning-stabbings-ultras-carabinieri/\|archive-date28 April 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/apr/05/world.championsleague20062007\|titleInquiry launched after violent clashes see English fans stabbed and beaten\|lastWalker\|firstMichael\|date5 April 2007\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date19 June 2018\|archive-date24 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180624204641/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/apr/05/world.championsleague20062007\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Arsenal in 2009,<ref name"Times call for final move"/><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/7938851.stm\|titleArsenal fan attacked in Rome\|date12 March 2009\|access-date5 January 2010\|workBBC News\|locationLondon\|archive-date21 March 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090321025401/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/7938851.stm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Tottenham Hotspur in 2012,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/tottenham-hotspur/10411146/Italian-football-hooligans-jailed-for-unprovoked-attack-on-Tottenham-Hotspur-fans-in-Rome.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/tottenham-hotspur/10411146/Italian-football-hooligans-jailed-for-unprovoked-attack-on-Tottenham-Hotspur-fans-in-Rome.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleItalian football hooligans jailed for unprovoked attack on Tottenham Hotspur fans in Rome\|lastSquires\|firstNick\|date29 October 2013\|workThe Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name"bbc.co.uk">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20442906\|titleTottenham fans injured in Rome\|date22 November 2012\|workBBC\|access-date21 July 2018\|archive-date22 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181022013043/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20442906\|url-statuslive}}</ref> and Chelsea in 2017<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.calciomercato.com/en/news/roma-fans-attack-chelsea-supporters-in-pub-brawl-in-rome-70895\|titleRoma fans attack Chelsea supporters in pub brawl in Rome\|access-date28 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180429024721/http://www.calciomercato.com/en/news/roma-fans-attack-chelsea-supporters-in-pub-brawl-in-rome-70895\|archive-date29 April 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref> have all resulted in multiple stabbings and other injuries to foreign supporters. In 2018 Roma ultras travelling to an away game at Liverpool attacked home supporters, resulting in a home supporter being critically injured.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/italians-court-after-being-charged-14578322\|titleItalians in court after being charged over brutal attack on Liverpool fan\|lastTurner-LE\|firstBen\|date26 April 2018\|access-date26 April 2018\|archive-date26 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180426112800/https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/italians-court-after-being-charged-14578322\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/apr/25/roma-condemn-fans-behaviour-attack-liverpool-supporter\|titleRoma condemn fans' behaviour after attack on Liverpool supporter\|lastPerraudin\|firstFrances\|date25 April 2018\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date19 June 2018\|archive-date23 June 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180623004835/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/apr/25/roma-condemn-fans-behaviour-attack-liverpool-supporter\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Players Current squad <!-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Do not add new players until their signing is officially announced by the club. - Look for an official statement at the AS Roma website (www.asroma.it) prior to editing. – Any unconfirmed signing will be removed. Thanks. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> {{updated\|10 March 2025.\|<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/men/players-and-staff \|titleMen's team players and staff \|publisherAS Roma \|access-date1 October 2024 }}</ref>}} {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no2\|natNED\|posDF\|nameDevyne Rensch}} {{Fs player\|no3\|natESP\|posDF\|nameAngeliño}} {{Fs player\|no4\|natITA\|posMF\|nameBryan Cristante\|other=3rd captain}} {{Fs player\|no5\|natCIV\|posDF\|nameEvan Ndicka}} {{Fs player\|no7\|natITA\|posMF\|nameLorenzo Pellegrini\|other=captain}} {{Fs player\|no11\|natUKR\|posFW\|nameArtem Dovbyk}} {{Fs player\|no12\|natKSA\|posDF\|nameSaud Abdulhamid}} {{Fs player\|no14\|natUZB\|posFW\|nameEldor Shomurodov}} {{Fs player\|no15\|natGER\|posDF\|nameMats Hummels}} {{Fs player\|no16\|natARG\|posMF\|nameLeandro Paredes}} {{Fs player\|no17\|natFRA\|posMF\|nameManu Koné\|other=on loan from Mönchengladbach}} {{Fs player\|no18\|natARG\|posFW\|nameMatías Soulé}} {{Fs player\|no19\|natTUR\|posDF\|nameZeki Çelik}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no21\|natARG\|posFW\|namePaulo Dybala}} {{Fs player\|no23\|natITA\|posDF\|nameGianluca Mancini\|other=vice-captain}} {{Fs player\|no25\|natDEN\|posDF\|nameVictor Nelsson\|other=on loan from Galatasaray}} {{Fs player\|no27\|natFRA\|posMF\|nameLucas Gourna-Douath\|other=on loan from RB Salzburg}} {{Fs player\|no34\|natNED\|posDF\|nameAnass Salah-Eddine}} {{Fs player\|no35\|natITA\|posFW\|nameTommaso Baldanzi}} {{Fs player\|no56\|natBEL\|posMF\|nameAlexis Saelemaekers\|other=on loan from Milan}} {{Fs player\|no61\|natITA\|posMF\|nameNiccolò Pisilli}} {{Fs player\|no66\|natESP\|posDF\|nameBuba Sangaré}} {{Fs player\|no92\|natITA\|posFW\|nameStephan El Shaarawy}} {{Fs player\|no95\|natITA\|posGK\|namePierluigi Gollini}} {{Fs player\|no99\|natSRB\|posGK\|nameMile Svilar}} {{Fs end}} Primavera squad {{Main\|AS Roma Primavera}} {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no60\|natSUI\|posMF\|nameAlessandro Romano}} {{Fs player\|no70\|natUSA\|posGK\|nameGiorgio De Marzi}} {{Fs player\|no72\|natITA\|posDF\|nameFederico Nardin}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no73\|natITA\|posGK\|nameAlessio Marcaccini}} {{Fs player\|no76\|natSVN\|posDF\|nameLovro Golič}} {{Fs end}} Other players under contract {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no89\|natITA\|posGK\|nameRenato Marin}} {{Fs end}} Out on loan {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no8\|natITA\|posMF\|nameEdoardo Bove\|other=at Fiorentina until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no9\|natENG\|posFW\|nameTammy Abraham\|other=at Milan until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no20\|natNOR\|posFW\|nameOla Solbakken\|other=at Empoli until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no22\|natESP\|posDF\|nameMario Hermoso\|other=at Bayer Leverkusen until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no24\|natALB\|posDF\|nameMarash Kumbulla\|other=at Espanyol until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no26\|natSWE\|posDF\|nameSamuel Dahl\|other=at Benfica until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no28\|natFRA\|posMF\|nameEnzo Le Fée\|other=at Sunderland until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no44\|natITA\|posFW\|nameLuigi Cherubini\|other=at Carrarese until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no55\|natGAM\|posMF\|nameEbrima Darboe\|other=at Frosinone until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs mid}} {{Fs player\|no59\|natPOL\|posMF\|nameNicola Zalewski\|other=at Inter Milan until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natITA\|posGK\|nameDavide Mastrantonio\|other=at Triestina until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natESP\|posDF\|nameJan Oliveras\|other=at Dinamo Zagreb until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natITA\|posDF\|nameMatteo Plaia\|other=at Perugia until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natITA\|posDF\|nameWilliam Feola\|other=at Como until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natITA\|posMF\|nameRiccardo Pagano\|other=at Catanzaro until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natITA\|posFW\|nameManuel Nardozi\|other=at Parma until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs player\|no\|natARG\|posFW\|nameRicardo Solbes\|other=at Empoli until 30 June 2025}} {{Fs end}} Women team {{Main\|AS Roma (women)}} Notable players {{For\|a list of every Roma player with 100 or more appearances\|List of AS Roma players}} Retired numbers {{see also\|List of retired numbers in association football}} Since 2017, Roma has not issued the squad number 10 to commemorate Francesco Totti, who was retired from football since 2017. It was going to be issued to Paulo Dybala in 2022, but Dybala chose the number 21 instead of number 10. {{Fs start}} {{Fs player\|no10\|posFW\|natITA\|nameFrancesco Totti}} (1993–2017) {{Fs end}} Management staff <!-- Instructions how to use these templates are in the bottom --> {{Fb cs header}} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pChairman \|s={{flagicon\|United States}} Dan Friedkin }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pVice Chairman \|s={{flagicon\|United States}} Ryan Friedkin }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pChief Executive Officer \|s=Vacant }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pSporting Director \|s={{flagicon\|France}} Florent Ghisolfi }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pDirector of Development \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Alberto De Rossi }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pTeam Manager \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Simone Ricchio }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pAcademy Manager \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Bruno Conti }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pHead Coach \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Claudio Ranieri }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pAssistant Coach \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Paolo Benetti }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pGoalkeeping Coach \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Simone Farelli }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pTechnical Coach \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Sergio Spalla }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pAthletic Coach \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Manrico Ferrari <br/> {{flagicon\|Italy}} Carlo Spignoli <br/> {{flagicon\|Italy}} Massimo Catalano }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pMatch Analyst \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Simone Beccaccioli <br/> {{flagicon\|Italy}} Leonardo Marasciulo}} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pPerformance Manager \|s={{flagicon\|England}} Mark Sertori }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pHead of Scouting \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Simone Lo Schiavo }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pScout \|s={{flagicon\|Portugal}} José Fontes <br/> {{flagicon\|Spain}} Peyo Doménech}} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pChief Analyst \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Michele Salzarulo }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pChief Medical Officer \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Andrea Causarano }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pHead of Medicine \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Federico Manara }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pPhysiotherapist \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Marco Esposito <br/> {{flagicon\|Italy}} Alessandro Cardini }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pSports Scientist \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Maurizio Fanchini }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pPodiatrist \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Raniero Russo }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pOsteopath \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Walter Martinelli }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pNutrionist \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Guido Rillo }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pSecretary \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Marco Robino Rizzet }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pReferee Caretaker \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Vito Scala }} {{Fb cs staff \|bg\|pLoan player manager \|s={{flagicon\|Italy}} Federico Balzaretti}} {{Fb cs footer\|u13 November 2024.\|s\|date=November 2024}} <!-- Template:Fb cs staff (Football - coach staff - staff) Parameters bg : background colour. y yes; blank no p : staff position s : staff Template:Fb cs footer (Football - coach staff - footer) Parameters u : 5 October 2023 s : https://www.transfermarkt.com/as-rom/mitarbeiter/verein/12 --> Chairmen history :{{main\|List of AS Roma chairmen}} Roma have had numerous chairmen ({{langx\|it\|presidenti\|litpresidents}} or {{langx\|it\|presidenti del consiglio di amministrazione\|litchairmen of the board of directors}}) over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners and co-owners of the club, some of them were nominated by the owners.<ref nameCappelli>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/SerieA/Roma/04-07-2011/roma-cappelli-presidente-801870837114.shtml\|titleRoma, Cappelli presidente "Sì, ma solo per un mese"\|date4 July 2011\|access-date21 August 2017\|workLa Gazzetta dello Sport\|publisherRCS MediaGroup\|languageit\|archive-date21 August 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170821125508/http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/SerieA/Roma/04-07-2011/roma-cappelli-presidente-801870837114.shtml\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Franco Sensi was the chairman until his death in 2008, with his daughter, Roma CEO Rosella Sensi taking his place as chairman.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/Primo_Piano/2008/08/28/RosellaSensipresidente.shtml\|titleRoma, Rosella è presidente\|date28 August 2008\|access-date21 August 2017\|workLa Gazzetta dello Sport\|publisherRCS MediaGroup\|languageit\|archive-date15 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180715181312/https://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/Primo_Piano/2008/08/28/RosellaSensipresidente.shtml\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name president/> Here is a complete list of Roma chairmen from 1927 until the present day.<ref name"president">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?apresidenti.htm\|publisherViva la Roma\|titleI presidenti dell'A.S. Roma dall 1927 ad oggi\|date8 June 2007\|access-date21 September 2007\|archive-date24 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190424011820/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?apresidenti.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> <div style="font-size:100%"> {\| \|- \|width="10"\|&nbsp; \|valign="top"\| {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- !\|Name !\|Years \|- \|align=left\|Italo Foschi \|align=left\|1927–1928 \|- \|align=left\|Renato Sacerdoti \|align=left\|1928–1935 \|- \|align=left\|Vittorio Scialoja \|align=left\|1935–1936 \|- \|align=left\|Igino Betti \|align=left\|1936–1941 \|- \|align=left\|Edgardo Bazzini \|align=left\|1941–1944 \|- \|align=left\|Pietro Baldassarre \|align=left\|1944–1949 \|- \|align=left\|Pier Carlo Restagno \|align=left\|1949–1952 \|- \|align=left\|Romolo Vaselli \|align=left\|1952 \|- \|align=left\|Renato Sacerdoti \|align=left\|1952–1958 \|- \|align=left\|Anacleto Gianni \|align=left\|1958–1962 \|- \|align=left\|Francesco Marini-Dettina \|align=left\|1962–1965 \|- \|align=left\|Franco Evangelisti \|align=left\|1965–1968 \|- \|align=left\|Francesco Ranucci \|align=left\|1968–1969 \|} \|width="30"\|&nbsp; \|valign="top"\| {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- !\|Name !\|Years \|- \|align=left\|Alvaro Marchini \|align=left\|1969–1971 \|- \|align=left\|Gaetano Anzalone \|align=left\|1971–1979 \|- \|align=left\|Dino Viola \|align=left\|1979–1991 \|- \|align=left\|Flora Viola \|align=left\|1991 \|- \|align=left\|Giuseppe Ciarrapico \|align=left\|1991–1993 \|-\|- \|align=left\|Ciro Di Martino \|align=left\|1993 \|- \|align=left\|Franco Sensi \|align=left\|1993–2008 \|- \|align=left\|Rosella Sensi \|align=left\|2008–2011 \|- \|alignleft\|Roberto Cappelli<ref nameCappelli/> \|align=left\|2011 \|- \|align=left\|Thomas R. DiBenedetto \|align=left\|2011–2012 \|- \|align=left\|James Pallotta \|align=left\|2012–2020 \|- \|align=left\|Dan Friedkin \|align=left\|2020–present \|} \|} </div> Managerial history {{main\|List of AS Roma managers}} Roma have had many managers and trainers running the team during their history, here is a chronological list of them from 1927 onwards.<ref name"managers">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?aallenatori.htm\|publisherViva la Roma\|titleGli Allenatori dell'A.S. Roma dal 1927 al Oggi\|date24 June 2007\|access-date21 September 2007\|archive-date15 December 2004\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20041215022706/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?aallenatori.htm\|url-status=live}}</ref> <div style="font-size:100%"> {\| \|- \|width="10"\|&nbsp; \|valign="top"\| {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align" \|- !\|Manager !\|Years \|- \|{{flagicon\|England}} William Garbutt \|align=left\|1927–29 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861}} Guido Baccani \|align=left\|1929–30 \|- \|{{flagicon\|England}} Herbert Burgess \|align=left\|1930–32 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1920}} Lászlo Barr \|align=left\|1932–33 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1920}} Lajos Kovács \|align=left\|1933–34 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861}} Luigi Barbesino \|align=left\|1934–38 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861}} Guido Ara \|align=left\|1938–39 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1920}} Alfréd Schaffer \|align=left\|1939–42 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1920}} Géza Kertész \|align=left\|1942–43 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|1861}} Guido Masetti \|align=left\|1943–45 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Giovanni Degni \|align=left\|1945–47 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1946}} Imre Senkey \|align=left\|1947–48 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Luigi Brunella \|align=left\|1948–49 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Fulvio Bernardini \|align=left\|1949–50 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Adolfo Baloncieri \|align=left\|1950 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Pietro Serantoni \|align=left\|1950 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Guido Masetti \|align=left\|1950–51 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Giuseppe Viani \|align=left\|1951–53 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Mario Varglien \|align=left\|1953–54 \|- \|{{flagicon\|England}} Jesse Carver \|align=left\|1954–56 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Hungary\|1949}} György Sárosi \|align=left\|1956 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Guido Masetti \|align=left\|1956–57 \|- \|{{flagicon\|England}} Alec Stock \|align=left\|1957–58 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl \|align=left\|1958–59 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} György Sarosi \|align=left\|1959–60 \|} \|width="30"\|&nbsp; \|valign="top"\| {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align" \|- !\|Manager !\|Years \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Alfredo Foni \|align=left\|1960–61 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Argentina}} Luis Carniglia \|align=left\|1961–63 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Albania\|1946}} Naim Kryeziu \|align=left\|1963 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Alfredo Foni \|align=left\|1963–64 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Spain\|1945}} Luis Miró \|align=left\|1964–65 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Argentina}} Juan Carlos Lorenzo \|align=left\|1965–66 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Oronzo Pugliese \|align=left\|1966–68 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Argentina}} Helenio Herrera \|align=left\|1968–70 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Luciano Tessari \|align=left\|1970 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Argentina}} Helenio Herrera \|align=left\|1971–72 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Tonino Trebiciani \|align=left\|1972–73 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Nils Liedholm \|align=left\|1974–77 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Gustavo Giagnoni \|align=left\|1978–79 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Ferruccio Valcareggi \|align=left\|1979–80 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Nils Liedholm \|align=left\|1980–84 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Sven-Göran Eriksson \|align=left\|1984–87 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Angelo Sormani \|align=left\|1987 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Nils Liedholm \|align=left\|1987–89 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Luciano Spinosi \|align=left\|1989 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Gigi Radice \|align=left\|1989–90 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Ottavio Bianchi \|align=left\|1990–92 \|- \|{{flagicon\|FR Yugoslavia}} Vujadin Boškov \|align=left\|1992–93 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Carlo Mazzone \|align=left\|1993–96 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Argentina}} Carlos Bianchi \|align=left\|1996 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Nils Liedholm \|align=left\|1996 \|} \|width="30"\|&nbsp; \|valign="top"\| {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align" \|- !\|Manager !\|Years \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Ezio Sella \|align=left\|1996 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Zdeněk Zeman \|align=left\|1997–99 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Fabio Capello \|align=left\|1999–04 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|2003}} Cesare Prandelli \|align=left\|2004 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Germany}} Rudi Völler \|align=left\|2004 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|2003}} Luigi Delneri \|align=left\|2004–05 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy\|2003}} Bruno Conti \|align=left\|2005 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Luciano Spalletti \|align=left\|2005–09 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Claudio Ranieri \|align=left\|2009–11 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Vincenzo Montella \|align=left\|2011 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Spain}} Luis Enrique \|align=left\|2011–12 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Zdeněk Zeman \|align=left\|2012–13 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Aurelio Andreazzoli \|align=left\|2013 \|- \|{{flagicon\|France}} Rudi Garcia \|align=left\|2013–16 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Luciano Spalletti \|align=left\|2016–17 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Eusebio Di Francesco \|align=left\|2017–19 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Claudio Ranieri \|align=left\|2019 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Portugal}} Paulo Fonseca \|align=left\|2019–21 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Portugal}} José Mourinho \|align=left\|2021–24 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Daniele De Rossi \|align=left\|2024 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Croatia}} Ivan Jurić \|align=left\|2024 \|- \|{{flagicon\|Italy}} Claudio Ranieri \|align=left\|2024– \|} \|} </div> Honours in 2001 at the Circus Maximus]] National titles Serie A: * Winners (3): 1941–42, 1982–83, 2000–01 *Runners-up: (14): 1930–31, 1935–36, 1980–81, 1983–84, 1985–86, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2009–10, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2016–17 Coppa Italia: Winners (9): 1963–64, 1968–69, 1979–80, 1980–81, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1990–91, 2006–07, 2007–08 Runners-up: (8): 1936–37, 1940–41, 1992–93, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2012–13 Supercoppa Italiana: * Winners (2): 2001, 2007 European titles {{See also\|AS Roma in European football}} European Cup: * Runners-up (1): 1983–84 UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League: * Runners-up (2): 1990–91, 2022–23 UEFA Conference League: * Winners (1): 2021–22<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRoma-Feyenoord match report \|urlhttps://www.uefa.com/uefaconferenceleague/match/2033451--roma-vs-feyenoord/ \|access-date25 May 2022 \|archive-date25 May 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220525230929/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuropaconferenceleague/match/2033451--roma-vs-feyenoord/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: * Winners (1): 1960–61 Other titles Serie B: * Winners (1): 1951–52 Anglo-Italian Cup: * Winners (1): 1972<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk/matchday-memories/Bologna-1-Blackpool-2-.1777280.jp \|titleBologna 1, Blackpool 2 - Anglo-Italian Cup Final, June 12, 1971 - Blackpool Today \|websitewww.blackpoolgazette.co.uk \|access-date19 April 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100605074031/http://www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk/matchday-memories/Bologna-1-Blackpool-2-.1777280.jp \|archive-date5 June 2010 \|url-statusdead}}</ref>Hall of FameOn 7 October 2012, the AS Roma Hall of Fame was announced.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/it/notizie/notizie.html?id6675\|titleAS Roma – Official Website – Rome – Football – Soccer\|access-date18 June 2013\|archive-date4 December 2012\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121204150542/http://www.asroma.it/it/notizie/notizie.html?id6675\|url-status=live}}</ref> The Hall of Fame players were voted via the club's official website and a special Hall of Fame panel. In 2013 four players were voted in. In 2014, the third year of AS Roma Hall of Fame four more players were voted in.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/HOF_CS20140722_EN_C.PDF \|titleAS Roma Hall of Fame press release \|publisherA.S. Roma \|access-date10 January 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150110035734/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/HOF_CS20140722_EN_C.PDF \|archive-date10 January 2015 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.com/en/club/hall-of-fame\|titleHall of Fame\|publisherA.S. Roma\|access-date14 April 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180721014240/http://www.asroma.com/en/club/hall-of-fame\|archive-date21 July 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.com/en/news/2017/5/as-roma-induct-totti-into-hall-of-fame\|titleAS Roma induct Totti into Hall of Fame\|publisherAS Roma\|date29 May 2017\|access-date31 July 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170731230723/http://www.asroma.com/en/news/2017/5/as-roma-induct-totti-into-hall-of-fame\|archive-date31 July 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> {{Col-begin}} {{Col-4}} Added in 2012: * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Franco Tancredi <small>(1977–90)</small> * {{flagicon\|BRA}} Cafu <small>(1997–03)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Giacomo Losi <small>(1954–69)</small> * {{flagicon\|BRA}} Aldair <small>(1990–03)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Francesco Rocca <small>(1972–81)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Fulvio Bernardini <small>(1928–39)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Agostino Di Bartolomei <small>(1972–75; 1976–84)</small> * {{flagicon\|BRA}} Falcão <small>(1980–85)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Bruno Conti <small>(1973–75; 1976–78; 1979–91)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Roberto Pruzzo <small>(1978–88)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Amedeo Amadei <small>(1936–38; 1939–48)</small> {{col-4}} Added in 2013: * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Attilio Ferraris <small>(1927–34; 1938–39)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Sebino Nela <small>(1981–92)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Giuseppe Giannini <small>(1981–96)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Vincenzo Montella <small>(1999–2009)</small> {{Col-4}} Added in 2014: * {{flagicon\|URU}} Alcides Ghiggia <small>(1953–61)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Carlo Ancelotti <small>(1979–87)</small> * {{flagicon\|GER}} Rudi Völler <small>(1987–92)</small> * {{flagicon\|FRA}} Vincent Candela <small>(1997–2005)</small> {{Col-4}} Added in 2015: * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Guido Masetti <small>(1930–43)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Sergio Santarini <small>(1968–81)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Damiano Tommasi <small>(1996–2006)</small> * {{flagicon\|ARG}} Gabriel Batistuta <small>(2000–03)</small> {{col-end}} {{Col-begin}} {{Col-4}} Added in 2016: * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Giorgio Carpi <small>(1927–37)</small> * {{flagicon\|BRA}} Toninho Cerezo <small>(1983–86)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Giancarlo De Sisti <small>(1960–65; 1974–79)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Arcadio Venturi <small>(1948–57)</small> {{Col-4}} Added in 2017: * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Francesco Totti <small>(1992–2017)</small> {{Col-4}} Added in 2018: * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Mario De Micheli <small>(1927–1932)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA}} Giuliano Taccola <small>(1967–1969)</small> * {{flagicon\|ITA\|1861}} Rodolfo Volk <small>(1928–1933)</small> {{col-end}} Club records and statistics {{Main\|List of AS Roma records and statistics}} Francesco Totti currently holds Roma's official appearance record, having made 786 appearances in all competitions, over the course of 25 seasons from 1993 until 2017.<ref name uefa/> He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 619, as he passed Giacomo Losi on 1 March 2008 during a home match against Parma.<ref name"totti_record">{{cite news\|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080301/sp_soccer_afp/fblita \|workYahoo! Sports \|titleComedy of errors helps Roma keep title hopes alive \|date1 March 2008 }}{{dead link\|dateJune 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> Including all competitions, Totti is the all-time leading goalscorer for Roma with 307 goals since joining the club, 250 of which were scored in Serie A (another Roma record).<ref name = uefa/> Roberto Pruzzo, who was the all-time topscorer since 1988, comes in second in all competitions with 138. In 1930–31, Rodolfo Volk scored 29 goals in Serie A over the course of a single season. Not only was Volk the league's top scorer that year, he also set a Roma record for most goals scored in a season, which would later be matched by Edin Džeko in 2016–17. Its major founders Fortitudo and Alba having been relegated at the end of 1926–27 campaign, new-founded Roma had to take part to Southern First Division championship (Serie B) for its inaugural season. Nevertheless, the FIGC decided on a special enlargement of first level division re-admitting AS Roma and SSC Napoli. The first ever official matches participated in by Roma was in the National Division, the predecessor of Serie A, of 1927–28, against Livorno, a 2–0 Roma win.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampionato2829.htm\|publisherASRTalenti\|titleCampionato 1928–29 A.S. Roma\|date24 June 2007\|access-date1 October 2007\|archive-date13 September 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070913060755/http://www.asrtalenti.altervista.org/index.php?acampionato2829.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The biggest ever victory recorded by Roma was 9–0 against Cremonese during the 1929–30 Serie A season.<ref name uefa/> The heaviest defeat Roma have ever suffered is 1–7, which has occurred five times; against Juventus in 1931–32, Torino in 1947–48, Manchester United in 2006–07, Bayern Munich in 2014–15 and Fiorentina in 2018–19.<ref name"uefa">{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.uefa.com/printoutfiles/competitions/ucl/2006/e/e_1116385_pk.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.uefa.com/printoutfiles/competitions/ucl/2006/e/e_1116385_pk.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statusdead\|publisherUEFA\|titleFC Shakhtar Donetsk v A.S. Roma\|date24 June 2007}}</ref>Divisional movements{\| class"wikitable sortable" style="font-size:90%; text-align: center;" \|- !Series!!Years!!Last!!Promotions!!Relegations \|- \|align=center\|A \|92\|\|2024–25\|\|45 times to Europe\|\|{{decrease}} 1 (1951) \|- \|align=center\|B \|1\|\|1951–52\|\|{{increase}} 1 (1952)\|\|never \|- !colspan=5\|93 years of professional football in Italy since 1929 \|- !colspan=5\|AS Roma created in National Division in 1927 \|} UEFA club coefficient ranking {{main\|UEFA coefficient#Men's club coefficient}} {{updated\|29 August 2024\|<ref name"uefa.com">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/#/yr/2025\|titleMember associations – UEFA Coefficients – Club coefficients\|dateJuly 2018\|publisherUEFA\|access-date13 July 2024\|archive-date9 November 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211109131431/https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/uefarankings/club/#/yr/2024\|url-status=live}}</ref>}} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! Rank !! Club !! Points \|- \|3\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|GER}} Bayern Munich\|\|114.000 \|- \|4\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|ENG}} Liverpool \|\|102.000 \|-bgcolor="#ddffdd" \|5\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|ITA}} Roma\|\|93.000 \|- \|6\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|FRA}} Paris Saint-Germain\|\|91.000 \|- \|7\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|GER}} Borussia Dortmund \|\|85.000 \|} UEFA rankings since 2004 {{updated\|1 June 2024\|<ref name="uefa.com"/>}} {\| class"wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! Season !! Ranking !! Movement !! Points !! Change \|- \|2023–24\|\|bgcolorGold\|6\|\|{{increase}} +4\|\|bgcolorGold\|101.000\|\|{{increase}} +4.000 \|- \|2022–23\|\|10\|\|{{increase}} +1\|\|97.000\|\|{{decrease}} –3.000 \|- \|2021–22\|\|11\|\|{{increase}} +2\|\|100.000\|\|{{increase}} +10.000 \|- \|2020–21\|\|13\|\|{{increase}} +4\|\|90.000\|\|{{increase}} +10.000 \|- \|2019–20\|\|17\|\|{{decrease}} –3\|\|80.000\|\|{{decrease}} –1.000 \|- \|2018–19\|\|14\|\|{{increase}} +7\|\|81.000\|\|{{increase}} +17.000 \|- \|2017–18\|\|21\|\|{{increase}} +16\|\|64.000\|\|{{increase}} +25.000 \|- \|2016–17\|\|37\|\|{{increase}} +14\|\|39.000\|\|{{increase}} +11.500 \|- \|2015–16\|\|51\|\|{{decrease}} –5\|\|27.500\|\|{{nowrap\|{{decrease}} –22.000}} \|- \|2014–15\|\|46\|\|{{increase}} +9\|\|49.500\|\|{{increase}} +13.000 \|- \|2013–14\|\|55\|\|{{decrease}} –12\|\|26.500\|\|{{decrease}} –14.000 \|- \|2012–13\|\|43\|\|{{decrease}} –17\|\|40.500\|\|{{decrease}} –17.000 \|- \|2011–12\|\|26\|\|{{decrease}} –10\|\|57.500\|\|{{decrease}} –15.500 \|- \|2010–11\|\|16\|\|{{decrease}} –2\|\|73.000\|\|{{increase}} +2.000 \|- \|2009–10\|\|14\|\|0\|\|71.000\|\|{{increase}} +5.000 \|- \|2008–09\|\|14\|\|{{increase}} +2\|\|66.000\|\|{{increase}} +4.000 \|- \|2007–08\|\|16\|\|0\|\|62.000\|\|{{increase}} +5.000 \|- \|2006–07\|\|16\|\|{{increase}} +1\|\|57.000\|\|{{increase}} +3.000 \|- \|2005–06\|\|17\|\|{{decrease}} –1\|\|54.000\|\|{{increase}} +1.000 \|- \|2004–05\|\|16\|\|0\|\|53.000\|\| 0.000 \|} Football Club Elo Rating {{updated\|6 September 2024\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://clubelo.com/Ranking\|titleFootball Club Elo Ratings\|publisherClubElo\|access-date6 September 2024}}</ref>}} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! Rank !! Club !! Points \|- \|19\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|ESP}} Girona\|\|1801 \|- \|20\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|NED}} PSV Eindhoven\|\|1797 \|-bgcolor="#ddffdd" \|21\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|ITA}} Roma\|\|1793 \|- \|22\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|GER}} VfB Stuttgart\|\|1791 \|- \|23\|\|align=left\|{{fbaicon\|ENG}} Tottenham Hotspur \|\|1791 \|} As a company {{clear}} {{Infobox company \| name = NEEP Roma Holding (Group) \| revenue {{increase}} €128.520 million (2013–14)<ref>Gruppo NEEP Roma Holding bilancio (consolidated financial statements) on 30 June 2014 {{in lang\|it}}, [http://www.registroimprese.it PDF purchased from Italian CCIAA] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140430040135/http://www.registroimprese.it/ \|date=30 April 2014 }}</ref> \| operating_income = {{increase}} {{fontcolor\|red\|(€26.950&nbsp;million)}} (2013–14) \| net_income {{increase}} {{fontcolor\|red\|(€40.107&nbsp;million)}} (2013–14)<ref groupnb name=minority>Included minority interests</ref> \| assets = {{increase}} €386.31&nbsp;million (2013–14) \| equity {{increase}} €43.398&nbsp;million (2013–14)<ref groupnb name=minority/> \| subsid = AS&nbsp;Roma&nbsp;SpA&nbsp;(79.044%)<br />AS&nbsp;Roma&nbsp;Real&nbsp;Estate&nbsp;(100%)<br />Stadio&nbsp;TdV \| owner = AS Roma SPV LLC (91%)<br /><small>James Pallotta</small><br /><small>Thomas R. DiBenedetto</small><br /><small>Michael Ruane</small><br /><small>Richard D'Amore</small><br /><small>Starwood Capital</small><br />Raptor Holdco LLC (9%)<br /><small>James Pallotta</small> \| website= {{URL\|http://www.asroma.com}} }} {{Infobox company \| name = AS Roma \| traded_as = {{ISE\|IT0001008876\|ASR}} \| revenue = {{decrease}} €175&nbsp;million \| revenue_year = 2016–17 \| operating_income = {{decrease}} {{fontcolor\|red\|(€14&nbsp;million)}} \| income_year = 2016–17 \| net_income = {{decrease}} {{fontcolor\|red\|(€42&nbsp;million)}} \| net_income_year = 2016–17 \| assets = {{increase}} €436&nbsp;million \| assets_year = 2016–17 \| equity = {{increase}} {{fontcolor\|red\|(€89&nbsp;million)}} \| equity_year = 2016–17 \| subsid = {{Unbulleted list\|Soccer&nbsp;S.a.s.&nbsp;di&nbsp;Brand&nbsp;Management\|ASR&nbsp;Media&nbsp;and&nbsp;Sponsorship}} \| owner = {{Unbulleted list\|NEEP&nbsp;Roma&nbsp;Holding&nbsp;(79.044%)\|other (20.956%)}} \| website = {{URL\|http://www.asroma.com}} \| footnotes in a consolidated basis<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://res.cloudinary.com/as-roma-turbine-production/image/upload/v1507243227/asroma-uat/zxqr8gtzcahqfx0rlcr2.pdf\|titleRelazione Finanziaria Annuale per l'esercizio chiuso al 30-6-2017\|date5 October 2017\|access-date10 January 2018\|websitecloudinary.com\|publisherA.S. Roma\|languageit\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171107055455/http://res.cloudinary.com/as-roma-turbine-production/image/upload/v1507243227/asroma-uat/zxqr8gtzcahqfx0rlcr2.pdf\|archive-date7 November 2017\|url-status=dead}}</ref> }} Since 1999, during Franco Sensi's period in charge, Associazione Sportiva Roma has been a listed {{Lang\|it\|Società per azioni}} on Borsa Italiana. From 2004 to 2011, Roma's shares are distributed between; 67.1% to Compagnia Italpetroli SpA (the Sensi family holding; Banca di Roma later acquired 49% stake on Italpetroli due to debt restructuring) and 32.9% to other public shareholders. Along with Lazio and Juventus, Roma is one of only three quotated Italian clubs. According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the 2010–11 season, Roma was the 15th highest-earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €143.5&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedKingdom/Local%20Assets/Documents/Industries/Sports%20Business%20Group/uk-sbg-dfml-2012-final.pdf \|publisherDeloitte \|titleFootball Money League \|dateFebruary 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130202185629/http://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedKingdom/Local%20Assets/Documents/Industries/Sports%20Business%20Group/uk-sbg-dfml-2012-final.pdf \|archive-date=2 February 2013 }}</ref> In April 2008, after months of speculation, George Soros was confirmed by Rosella Sensi, CEO of Serie A club A.S. Roma, to be bidding for a takeover.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/SerieA/Squadre/Roma/Primo_Piano/2008/04_Aprile/18/puntoroma.shtml \|languageit \|newspaperLa Gazzetta dello Sport \|access-date26 April 2008\|date18 April 2008\| titleLa stretta finale di Soros distrae lo sprint della Roma\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080421190310/http://www.gazzetta.it/Calcio/SerieA/Squadre/Roma/Primo_Piano/2008/04_Aprile/18/puntoroma.shtml\| archive-date 21 April 2008\|url-status = live}}</ref> The takeover bid was successively rejected by the Sensi family, who instead preferred to maintain the club's ownership. On 17 August 2008 club chairman and owner Franco Sensi died after a long illness; his place at the chairmanship of the club was successively taken by his daughter Rosella. Since the takeover in 2011, NEEP Roma Holding S.p.A. has owned all shares Sensi previously hold. NEEP, itself a joint venture, was held by DiBenedetto AS Roma LLC (later renamed to AS Roma SPV, LLC) and Unicredit in 60–40 ratio from 2011 to 2013, which the former had four real person shareholders in equal ratio, led by future Roma president Thomas R. DiBenedetto (2011–12). The takeover also activated a mandatory bid of shares from the general public, however not all minority shareholders were willing to sell their shares. The mandatory bid meant NEEP held 78.038% of shares of AS Roma (increased from 67.1% of the Sensi).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.consob.it/mainen/issuers/listed_companies/index.html?codconsob117470\|publisherConsob\|titleA.S. Roma SpA Ownership\|date20 September 2012\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011214551/http://consob.it/mainen/issuers/listed_companies/index.html?codconsob117470\|archive-date11 October 2007}}</ref> On 1 August 2013, the president of Roma as well as one of the four American shareholders of AS Roma SPV, LLC, James Pallotta, bought an additional 9% shares of NEEP Roma Holding from Unicredit (through Raptor Holdco LLC), as the bank was not willing to fully participate in the capital increase of NEEP from €120,000 to €160,008,905 (excluding share premium).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2013_08_01_press_release.pdf\|titleAS Roma – Official Website – Rome – Football – Soccer\|access-date14 July 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130810224618/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2013_08_01_press_release.pdf\|archive-date10 August 2013\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2013_06_08_estratto_patti_parasociali.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2013_06_08_estratto_patti_parasociali.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleAS Roma – Official Website – Rome – Football – Soccer}}</ref> On 4 April 2014 Starwood Capital Group also became the fifth shareholder of AS Roma SPV, as well as forming a strategic partnership with AS Roma SpA to develop real estate around the new stadium.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://starwoodcapital.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/04-02-14-AS_Roma_3-26-14.pdf\|titleSTARWOOD CAPITAL GROUP ENTERS STRATEGIC PARTNERSHIP TO HELP DEVELOP AS ROMA'S NEW STADIUM CAMPUS\|date26 March 2014\|access-date14 July 2014\|publisherStarwood Capital\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150424033543/http://starwoodcapital.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/04-02-14-AS_Roma_3-26-14.pdf\|archive-date24 April 2015\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The private investment firm was represented by Zsolt Kohalmi in AS Roma SPV, who was appointed on 4 April as a partner and head of European acquisitions of the firm.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.starwoodcapital.com/UploadedImages/Zsolt_Kohalmi_Appointment_FINAL.pdf \|titleZsolt Kohalmi Named to Oversee European Acquisition Efforts \|date4 April 2014 \|access-date14 July 2014 \|publisherStarwood Capital \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715042259/http://www.starwoodcapital.com/UploadedImages/Zsolt_Kohalmi_Appointment_FINAL.pdf \|archive-date15 July 2014 }}</ref> On 11 August 2014, UniCredit sold the remain shares on NEEP (of 31%) for €33&nbsp;million which meant AS Roma SPV LLC (91%) and Raptor Holdco LLC (9%) were the sole intermediate holding company of AS Roma SpA.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2014_8_11_ASR_SPV_LLC_RAPTOR_HOLDCO_LLC-_UNICREDIT_SPA.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2014_8_11_ASR_SPV_LLC_RAPTOR_HOLDCO_LLC-_UNICREDIT_SPA.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titlePRESS RELEASE\|date11 August 2014\|access-date21 April 2015\|publisherAS Roma}}</ref> Since re-capitalization in 2003–04, Roma had a short-lived financial self-sustainability, until the takeover in 2011. The club had set up a special amortisation fund using Articolo 18-bis Legge 91/1981 mainly for the abnormal signings prior 2002–03 season, (such as Davide Bombardini for €11&nbsp;million account value in June 2002, when the flopped player exchange boosted 2001–02 season result) and the tax payment of 2002–03 was rescheduled. In 2004–05, Roma made a net profit of €10,091,689 and followed by €804,285 in 2005–06.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2006-11-06_bilancio_di_esercizio_al_30_giugno_2006.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2006-11-06_bilancio_di_esercizio_al_30_giugno_2006.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleBilancio di esercizio al 30 giugno 2006\|date6 November 2006\|access-date24 September 2011\|workAS Roma\|languageit}}</ref> In 2006–07 season the accounting method changed to IFRS, which meant that the 2005–06 result was reclassified as net loss of €4,051,905 and 2006–07 season was net income of €10,135,539 (€14.011&nbsp;million as a group).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2007-12-07_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2007.pdf \|titleBilancio di esercizio e consolidato al 30 giugno 2007 \|date7 December 2007 \|access-date24 September 2011 \|workAS Roma \|languageit \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120608041017/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2007-12-07_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2007.pdf \|archive-date8 June 2012 }}</ref> Moreover, the special fund (€80,189,123) was removed from the asset and co-currently for the equity as scheduled, meant Roma group had a negative equity of €8.795&nbsp;million on 30 June 2007. Nevertheless, the club had sold the brand to a subsidiary which boost the profit in a separate financial statement, which La Repubblica described as "doping".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.repubblica.it/2006/11/sezioni/sport/calcio/doping-bilanci/doping-bilanci/doping-bilanci.html\|titleIl "doping" nei conti dei big del pallone perdite complessive oltre i 68 milioni\|date9 November 2006\|access-date8 April 2018\|workLa Repubblica\|publisherGruppo Editoriale L'Espresso\|languageit\|archive-date30 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180830041606/http://www.repubblica.it/2006/11/sezioni/sport/calcio/doping-bilanci/doping-bilanci/doping-bilanci.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2007–08, Roma made a net income of €18,699,219. (€19&nbsp;million as a group)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2008-11-17_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2008.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/bilanci_e_relazioni/2008-11-17_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2008.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleBilancio di esercizio e consolidato al 30 giugno 2008\|date17 November 2008\|access-date24 September 2011\|workAS Roma\|languageit}}</ref> However, 2008–09 saw the decrease of gate and TV income, co-currently with finishing sixth in Serie A, which saw Roma make a net loss of €1,894,330. (€1.56&nbsp;million as a group)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/2009_-11-16_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2009.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/2009_-11-16_bilancio_di_esercizio_e_consolidato_al_30_giugno_2009.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleBilancio di esercizio e consolidato al 30 giugno 2009\|date16 November 2009\|access-date24 September 2011\|publisherA.S. Roma\|languageit}}</ref> The gate and TV income further slipped in 2009–10 with a net loss of €21,917,292 (already boosted by the sale of Alberto Aquilani; €22&nbsp;million as a group) despite sporting success (finishing in second place in 2009–10).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/2010_-10-13_relazione_finanziaria_annuale_al_30_giugno_2010.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/2010_-10-13_relazione_finanziaria_annuale_al_30_giugno_2010.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleRelazione finanziaria annuale al 30 giugno 2010\|date13 October 2010\|access-date24 September 2011\|workAS Roma\|languageit}}</ref> Moreover, despite a positive equity as a separate company (€105,142,589), the AS Roma Group had a negative equity on the consolidated balance sheet, and fell from +€8.8&nbsp;million to −€13.2&nbsp;million. In the 2010–11 season, Roma was administered by UniCredit as the Sensi family failed to repay the bank and the club was put on the market,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/c089b228-8786-11df-9f37-00144feabdc0 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/c089b228-8786-11df-9f37-00144feabdc0 \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleRoma football club on brink of UniCredit takeover \|date5 July 2010\|access-date8 April 2018\|workFinancial Times}}</ref> and were expected to have a quiet transfer window.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/soccer-italy-roma/update-1-soccer-as-roma-set-for-sale-in-proposed-bank-deal-idUSLDE66726F20100708\|titleAS Roma set for sale in proposed bank deal\|date9 July 2010\|access-date8 April 2018\|workReuters\|archive-date9 April 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180409043910/https://www.reuters.com/article/soccer-italy-roma/update-1-soccer-as-roma-set-for-sale-in-proposed-bank-deal-idUSLDE66726F20100708\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Concurrently with no selling profit on the players, Roma's net loss rose to €30,589,137 (€30.778&nbsp;million as a group) and the new owner already planned a re-capitalization after the mandatory bid on the shares. On the positive side, TV income was increased from €75,150,744 to €78,041,642, and gate income increased from €23,821,218 to €31,017,179. This was because Roma entered 2010–11 Champions League, which counter-weighed the effect of the new collective agreement of Serie A. In 2011–12, the renewal of squad and participation in 2011–12 UEFA Europa League had worsened the financial result, which the €50&nbsp;million capital increase (in advance) was counter-weighted totally by the net loss. In the 2012–13 season, the participation in domestic league only, was not only not harmful to the revenue but increase in gate income as well as decrease in wage bill, however Roma still did not yet break even (€40.130&nbsp;million net loss in consolidated accounts). NEEP Roma also re-capitalized AS Roma in advance for another €26,550,000 during 2012–13. A proposed capital increase by €100&nbsp;million for Roma was announced on 25 June 2014; however, until 22 May 2014, NEEP already injected €108&nbsp;million into the club, which depends on public subscription; more than €8&nbsp;million would convert to medium-long-term loan from shareholder instead of becoming share capital.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2014-06-28-Prospetto-informativo.PDF\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715192735/http://www.asroma.it/pdf/corporate/comunicati_finanziari/2014-06-28-Prospetto-informativo.PDF\|url-statusdead\|archive-date15 July 2014\|titleProspetto informativo\|date28 June 2014}}</ref> Another capital increase was carried in 2018. A joint venture of Roma, which was owned by Roma (37.5%), S.S. Lazio (37.5%) and Parma F.C.(25%), Società Diritti Sportivi S.r.l., was in the process of liquidation since 2005. The company was a joint-venture of four football clubs, including Fiorentina. After the bankruptcy of Fiorentina however, both Roma and Lazio had increased their shares ratio from 25% to 37.5%. Another subsidiary, "Soccer S.A.S. di Brand Management S.r.l.", was a special-purpose entity (SPV) that Roma sold their brand to the subsidiary in 2007. In February 2015, another SPV, "ASR Media and Sponsorship S.r.l",<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/3093848/research-update-asr-media-and-sponsorship-eur175 \|titleResearch Update Media Sponsorship \|access-date22 January 2016 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128142532/http://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/3093848/research-update-asr-media-and-sponsorship-eur175 \|archive-date28 January 2016 }}</ref> was set up to secure a five-year bank loan of €175&nbsp;million from Goldman Sachs, for three-month Euribor (min. 0.75%) + 6.25% spread (i.e. min. 7% interests rate p.a.).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://res.cloudinary.com/as-roma-turbine-sandbox/image/upload/v1448029235/asroma-uat/jqmg68jnjusnwbtdxezw.pdf\|titlePerfezionata l'operazione di rifinanziamento mediante la sottoscrizione di un contratto di finanziamento per un ammontare pari ad Euro 175 milioni con Goldman Sachs, in qualità di "Mandated Lead Arranger and Bookrunner"\|date12 February 2015\|access-date22 January 2016\|publisherA.S. Roma\|languageit\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160129074803/http://res.cloudinary.com/as-roma-turbine-sandbox/image/upload/v1448029235/asroma-uat/jqmg68jnjusnwbtdxezw.pdf\|archive-date29 January 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.italy24.ilsole24ore.com/art/panorama/2015-06-25/goldman-sachs-sets-sights-on-italian-soccer-113156.php?uuidACsMYdG\|titleGoldman Sachs sets sights on Italian soccer\|date26 June 2015\|access-date22 January 2016\|newspaperil sole 24 ore\|archive-date11 October 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161011034432/http://www.italy24.ilsole24ore.com/art/panorama/2015-06-25/goldman-sachs-sets-sights-on-italian-soccer-113156.php?uuidACsMYdG\|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2015, Inter and Roma were the only two Italian clubs that were sanctioned by UEFA for breaking UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations, which they signed settlement agreements with UEFA.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.uefa.org/protecting-the-game/club-licensing-and-financial-fair-play/news/newsid2244685.html\|titleSettlement agreements: details\|date8 May 2015\|access-date16 January 2016\|publisherUEFA\|archive-date3 February 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160203023442/http://www.uefa.org/protecting-the-game/club-licensing-and-financial-fair-play/news/newsid2244685.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> It was followed by Milan in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news \|agencyReuters \|dateJune 28, 2019 \|titleMilan banned from 2019-20 Europa League for FFP breach-CAS \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN1TT1F3/ \|work=Reuters}}</ref> Roma had compliance with the requirements and overall objective of the settlement agreement in 2018, which the club exited from settlement regime.<ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttps://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/0246-0f8e613d67e1-b50cdc46c1bc-1000--uefa-club-financial-control-body-update-on-monitoring-for-20/\|titleUEFA Club Financial Control Body update on monitoring for 2017/18\|date13 June 2018\|access-date17 October 2018\|publisherUEFA\|archive-date18 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181018004450/https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/protecting-the-game/club-licensing-and-financial-fair-play/news/newsid2563057.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttps://www.asroma.com/en/news/2018/6/roma-comply-with-uefa-agreement\|titleRoma released from FFP agreement by UEFA\|date13 June 2018\|access-date17 October 2018\|publisherA.S. Roma\|archive-date18 October 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181018003112/https://www.asroma.com/en/news/2018/6/roma-comply-with-uefa-agreement\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Superleague Formula {{Main\|AS Roma (Superleague Formula team)}} AS Roma had a team in the Superleague Formula race car series where teams were sponsored by football clubs. Roma's driver was ex-IndyCar Series driver Franck Perera. The team had posted three podiums and was operated by Alan Docking Racing.{{citation needed\|dateOctober 2023}}See also {{Portal\|Association football\|Italy}} * Football in Italy * European Club Association Footnotes {{Reflist\|groupnb}}References{{Reflist}}External links {{Commons category}} * {{Official website\|https://www.asroma.com/en}} {{in lang\|en\|it}} * [https://www.legaseriea.it/en/team/roma AS Roma] at Serie A {{in lang\|en\|it}} * [https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/50137--roma/ AS Roma] at UEFA * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160506030422/http://www.fifa.com/live-scores/clubs/club=italy-as-roma-31083/index.html AS Roma] at FIFA (archived 6 May 2016) {{A.S. Roma}} {{Navboxes\|titlestyle = background:#990a2c; border:1px solid gold;color:#fbb900; \|list1= {{A.S. Roma squad}} {{A.S. Roma matches}} {{A.S. Roma seasons}} {{A.S. Roma managers}} {{UEFA Europa Conference League winners}} {{Inter-Cities Fairs Cup winners}} {{Coppa Italia winners}} {{Serie A}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Roma}} Category:Football clubs in Italy Category:Football clubs in Rome Category:Association football clubs established in 1927 Category:Italian football First Division clubs Category:Publicly traded sports companies Category:Coppa Italia winning clubs Category:Serie A–winning clubs Category:Serie A clubs Category:Serie B clubs Category:1927 establishments in Italy Category:Multi-sport clubs in Italy Category:Inter-Cities Fairs Cup winning clubs Category:UEFA Conference League winning clubs Category:Companies listed on the Borsa Italiana	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS_Roma	2025-04-05T18:26:01.918862
2360	Abu Nidal Organization	{{Short description\|1974–1997 Palestinian nationalist militant group}} {{Distinguish\|text=Fatah's Revolutionary Council within the Palestine Liberation Organization}} {{pp-extended\|small=yes}} {{Expand Spanish\|Fatah-RC\|date=May 2016}} {{Infobox war faction \| name = Abu Nidal Organization \| native_name {{lang\|ar\|منظمة أبو نضال\|rtlyes}} \| war \| designated_as_terror_group_by {{unbulletedlist \| {{flag\|Israel}} \| {{flag\|United States}} \| {{flag\|United Kingdom}} \| {{flag\|Canada}} \| {{flag\|European Union\|name=EU}} \| {{flag\|Japan}}}} \| image = Abu Nidal Organization flag.jpg \| native_name_lang = ar \| caption \| active 1974–2002 \| other_name = Fatah – Revolutionary Council \| founding_leader = Abu Nidal \| ideology Palestinian nationalism<br />Anti-Zionism<br />Pan-Arabism<ref name":0" /><br />Secularism<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/modern.html \|titleThe Evolution of Islamic Terrorism - an Overview &#124; Target America &#124; FRONTLINE &#124; PBS \|websitePBS \|access-date2018-07-07 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170912020220/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/modern.html \|archive-date2017-09-12 \|url-status=live }}</ref> \| position Left-wing<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSharma \|firstD. P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9rBpDinDjI8C&pgPA414 \|titleThe New Terrorism: Islamist International \|date2005 \|publisherAPH Publishing \|isbn978-81-7648-799-3 \|pages414 \|languageen \|access-date2023-11-15 \|archive-date2023-11-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231115210747/https://books.google.com/books?id9rBpDinDjI8C&pgPA414 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> \| clans \| headquarters \| area \| attacks List of attacks attributed to Abu Nidal \| status = Defunct \| size \| split_from Fatah \| allies = {{unbulletedlist \| {{flagicon\|Iraq\|1963}} Iraq \| {{flagicon\|Syria\|1980}} Syria \| {{flagicon\|Libya\|1977}} Libya \| {{flag\|Egypt}}}} \| opponents = {{unbulletedlist \| {{flag\|Israel}} \| {{flagicon image\|Flag of Palestine - short triangle.svg}} PLO}} \| url = }} The Abu Nidal Organization (ANO; {{Langx\|ar\|منظمة أبو نضال}} {{Transliteration\|ar\|Munaẓẓamat Abu Nidal}}), officially Fatah – Revolutionary Council ({{Lang\|ar\|فتح – المجلس الثوري\|rtlyes}} {{Transliteration\|ar\|Fatah al-Majles al-Thawry}}), was a Palestinian militant group founded by Abu Nidal in 1974. It broke away from Fatah, a faction within the Palestine Liberation Organization, following the emergence of a rift between Abu Nidal and Yasser Arafat. The ANO was designated as a terrorist organization by Israel, the United States,<ref name"StateDepartment2014">{{cite web \|urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2013/224829.htm \|titleChapter 6. Foreign Terrorist Organizations // Country Reports on Terrorism 2013 \|year2014 \|publisherU.S. Department of State \|access-date13 December 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191210001226/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/rls/crt/2013/224829.htm \|archive-date10 December 2019 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref name":0">{{cite act \|titleTerrorism Act 2000 \|title-linkTerrorism Act 2000 \|date2000-07-20 \|reporterUK Public General Acts \|volume2000 c. 11 \|chapterSchedule 2: Proscribed Organisations \|chapter-urlhttp://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2 \|access-date2018-04-28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130121085241/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2 \|archive-date2013-01-21 \|url-statuslive }} {{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2 \|titleArchived copy \|access-date2018-04-28 \|archive-date2013-01-21 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130121085241/http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11/schedule/2 \|url-statusbot: unknown }}</ref> Canada,<ref>{{Cite web \|date21 December 2018 \|titleCurrently listed entities \|urlhttps://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cntr-trrrsm/lstd-ntts/crrnt-lstd-ntts-en.aspx#2 \|access-date13 September 2021 \|archive-date5 October 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161005193024/https://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/cnt/ntnl-scrt/cntr-trrrsm/lstd-ntts/crrnt-lstd-ntts-en.aspx#2 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> the European Union<ref name"eu2011">{{cite web \|year2011 \|titleNotice for the attention of Abu Nidal Organisation 'ANO' — (a.k.a. 'Fatah Revolutionary Council', a.k.a. 'Arab Revolutionary Brigades', a.k.a. 'Black September', a.k.a. Revolutionary Organisation of Socialist Muslims included on the list provided for in Article 2(3) of Council Regulation (EC) No 2580/2001 on specific restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism \|urlhttp://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uriCELEX:52011XG0624(01)&rid1 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191214042931/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uriCELEX:52011XG0624(01)&rid1 \|archive-date14 December 2019 \|access-date13 December 2014 \|publisherOfficial Journal of the European Union}}</ref> and Japan.<ref name"Japan_ban">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2002/7/0705.html \|titleMOFA: Implementation of the Measures including the Freezing of Assets against Terrorists and the Like \|access-date2013-11-21 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130406134416/http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2002/7/0705.html \|archive-date2013-04-06 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> However, a number of Arab countries supported the group's activities; it was backed by Iraq from 1974 to 1983, by Syria from 1983 to 1987, and by Libya from 1987 to 1997. It briefly cooperated with Egypt from 1997 to 1998, but ultimately returned to Iraq in December 1998, where it continued to have the state's backing until Abu Nidal's death in August 2002.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Sloan \|first1Stephen \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaVcG7EkuPgAC&pgPA186 \|titleHistorical Dictionary of Terrorism \|last2Anderson \|first2Sean K. \|date2009-08-03 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn978-0-8108-6311-8 \|pages186 \|languageen \|access-date2023-11-15 \|archive-date2023-11-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231115212233/https://books.google.com/books?idaVcG7EkuPgAC&pgPA186 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In practice, the ANO was leftist and secularist, as well as anti-Zionist and anti-Western.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSharma \|firstD. P. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9rBpDinDjI8C&pgPA414 \|titleThe New Terrorism: Islamist International \|date2005 \|publisherAPH Publishing \|isbn978-81-7648-799-3 \|pages414 \|languageen \|access-date2023-11-15 \|archive-date2023-11-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231115210747/https://books.google.com/books?id9rBpDinDjI8C&pgPA414 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In theory, it was not particularly associated with any specific ideology—or at least no such foundation was declared.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/modern.html \|titleThe Evolution of Islamic Terrorism - an Overview &#124; Target America &#124; FRONTLINE &#124; PBS \|websitePBS \|access-date2018-07-07 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170912020220/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/modern.html \|archive-date2017-09-12 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://mackenzieinstitute.com/abu-nidal-organization-ano-k-fatah-revolutionary-council-arab-revolutionary-brigades-revolutionary-organization-socialist-muslims-2/ \|titleAbu Nidal Organization (ANO) - Mackenzie Institute \|access-date2018-07-12 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180713072337/http://mackenzieinstitute.com/abu-nidal-organization-ano-k-fatah-revolutionary-council-arab-revolutionary-brigades-revolutionary-organization-socialist-muslims-2/ \|archive-date2018-07-13 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> It was mostly linked with the pursuit of Abu Nidal's personal agendas.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://mackenzieinstitute.com/terrorism-profile-abu-nidal-organization-ano/\|titleAbu Nidal Organization (ANO)\|websiteThe Mackenzie Institute\|access-date2020-11-03\|archive-date2021-03-01\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210301093959/https://mackenzieinstitute.com/terrorism-profile-abu-nidal-organization-ano/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The ANO was established to carry on an armed struggle in pursuit of pan-Arabism and the destruction of Israel.<ref name":0" /> Like other Palestinian militant groups, the ANO carried out worldwide hijackings, assassinations, kidnappings of diplomats, and attacks on synagogues. It was responsible for 90 terrorist attacks between 1974 and 1992. In 2002, Abu Nidal died under disputed circumstances in Baghdad, with Palestinian sources claiming that he was assassinated on the orders of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/20/israel\|titleMystery death of Abu Nidal, once the world's most wanted terrorist\|dateAugust 20, 2002\|websitethe Guardian\|access-dateFebruary 22, 2021\|archive-dateFebruary 11, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211082118/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/aug/20/israel\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Formation and background {{Main\|Abu Nidal}} The Abu Nidal Organization was established by Sabri Khalil al-Bannah (Abu Nidal), known by his nom de guerre Abu Nidal, a Palestinian Arab nationalist and a former Ba'ath party member. Abu Nidal long argued that PLO membership should be open to all Arabs, not just Palestinians. He also argued that Palestine must be established as an Arab state, stretching from the Jordan River in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west.<ref name":0" /> Abu Nidal established his faction within the PLO, just prior to Black September in Jordan, and following internal disagreements within the PLO. During Fatah's Third Congress in Damascus in 1971, he emerged as the leader of a leftist alliance against Yasser Arafat. After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, many members of the mainstream Fatah movement argued that a political solution with Israel should be an option. Consequently, Abu Nidal split from Fatah in 1974 and formed his "rejectionist" front to carry on a Pan-Arabist armed struggle.<ref name":0" /> Abu Nidal's first independent operation took place on September 5, 1973, when five gunmen using the name Al-Iqab ("The Punishment") seized the Saudi embassy in Paris, taking 11 hostages and threatening to blow up the building if Abu Dawud was not released from jail in Jordan, where he had been arrested in February 1973 for an attempt on King Hussein's life.<ref nameMelman69>Melman 1986, p. 69.</ref> Following the incident, Mahmoud Abbas of the PLO took flight to Iraq to meet Abu Nidal. In the meeting Abbas became so angry, that he stormed out of the meeting, followed by the other PLO delegates, and from that point on, the PLO regarded Abu Nidal as a mercenary.<ref nameSeale92>Seale 1992, p. 92.</ref> Two months later, just after the October 1973 Yom Kippur War, during discussions about convening a peace conference in Geneva, the Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) hijacked a KLM airliner, using the name of the Arab Nationalist Youth Organization. The operation was intended to send a signal to Fatah not to send representatives to any peace conference. In response, Arafat officially expelled Abu Nidal from Fatah in March 1974, and the rift between the two groups, and the two men, was complete.<ref name=Melman70>Melman 1986, p. 70.</ref> In June the same year, ANO formed the Rejectionist Front, a political coalition that opposed the Ten Point Program adopted by the Palestine Liberation Organization in its 12th Palestinian National Congress session.<ref>Chakhtoura, Maria, La guerre des graffiti, Beyrouth, Éditions Dar an-Nahar, 2005, page 136.</ref> Abu Nidal then moved to Ba'athist Iraq where he set up the ANO, which soon began a string of terrorist attacks aimed at Israel and Western countries. Setting himself up as a freelance contractor, Abu Nidal is believed by the United States Department of State to have ordered attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring over 900 people.<ref nameStateDeptprofile>[http://library.nps.navy.mil/home/tgp/abu.htm "Abu Nidal Organization"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050207025513/http://library.nps.navy.mil/home/tgp/abu.htm \|dateFebruary 7, 2005 }}, Country Reports on Terrorism, 2004. United States Department of State, 2005.</ref> The ANO group's most notorious attacks were on the El Al ticket counters at Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985, when Arab gunmen high on amphetamines opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings, killing 18 and wounding 120. Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal's biographer, wrote of the attacks that their "random cruelty marked them as typical Abu Nidal operations."<ref nameSeale243>Seale 1992, pp. 243–244.</ref> Attacks {{Main\|List of attacks attributed to Abu Nidal}} The ANO carried out attacks in 20 countries worldwide, killing or injuring about 1,650 people.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPlügge \|firstMatthias \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrEW8EAAAQBAJ \|titleTraces of Terrorism: A Chronicle: Contexts, Attacks, Terrorists \|date2023-04-28 \|publisherBoD – Books on Demand \|isbn978-3-7568-5364-9 \|pages55 \|languageen \|access-date2023-12-01 \|archive-date2023-12-12 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231212195948/https://books.google.com/books?idrEW8EAAAQBAJ \|url-status=live }}</ref> Targets include the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, and various Arab and European countries. The group has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s. Major attacks included the Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks in December 1985, the Neve Shalom synagogue in Istanbul and the Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking in Karachi in September 1986, and the City of Poros day-excursion ship attack in Greece in July 1988.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Suro \|first1Roberto \|last2Times \|first2Special To the New York \|date1988-02-13 \|titlePalestinian Gets 30 Years for Rome Airport Attack \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/13/world/palestinian-gets-30-years-for-rome-airport-attack.html \|access-date2023-12-01 \|issn0362-4331 \|archive-date2023-11-01 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231101131800/https://www.nytimes.com/1988/02/13/world/palestinian-gets-30-years-for-rome-airport-attack.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The ANO has been especially noted for its uncompromising stance on negotiation with Israel, treating anything less than all-out military struggle against Israel as treachery. This led the group to perform numerous attacks against the PLO, which had made clear it accepted a negotiated solution to the conflict. Fatah-RC is believed to have assassinated PLO deputy chief Abu Iyad and PLO security chief Abul Hul in Tunis in January 1991.<ref name"FM">{{Cite book \|last1Quandt \|first1William B. \|titleScripting Middle East Leaders: The Impact of Leadership Perceptions on U.S. and UK Foreign Policy \|last2Freedman \|first2Sir Lawrence \|last3Michaels \|first3Jeffrey \|date2012-12-20 \|publisherA & C Black \|isbn978-1-4411-8572-3 \|pages101–116 \|languageen \|chapter7. 'Skewed perceptions: Yasir Arafat in the eyes of American officials,1969-2004,' \|author-link1William B. Quandt \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5x5z3CRTPFgC&pgRA1-PT78}}</ref> It assassinated a Jordanian diplomat in Lebanon in January 1994 and has been linked to the killing of the PLO representative there. Noted PLO moderate Issam Sartawi was killed by the Fatah-RC in 1983. In October 1974, the group also made a failed assassination attempt on the present Palestinian president and PLO chairman, Mahmoud Abbas. These attacks, and numerous others, led to the PLO issuing a death sentence in absentia against Abu Nidal. In the early 1990s, it made an attempt to gain control of a refugee camp in Lebanon, but this was thwarted by PLO organizations.<ref name"Abu Nidal - Telegraph">{{cite news \|lastArcher \|firstGraeme \|titleAbu Nidal \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml/news/2002/08/20/db2001.xml \|url-statusdead \|access-dateMay 8, 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020921212428/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml/news/2002/08/20/db2001.xml \|archive-dateSeptember 21, 2002}}</ref>Internal executions and torture {{Main\|\|Abu Nidal Organization internal executions}} The ANO's official newspaper Filastin al-Thawra regularly carried stories announcing the execution of traitors within the movement.<ref nameAbuKhalil>Abu Khalil, 2000.</ref> Each new recruit of the ANO was given several days to write down his life story and sign a paper agreeing to his execution if anything was found to be untrue. Every so often, the recruit would be asked to rewrite the whole story. Any discrepancies were taken as evidence that he was a spy and he would be made to write it out again, often after days of being beaten and nights spent forced to sleep standing up.<ref nameSeale6>Seale 1992, pp. 6&ndash;7.</ref> British journalist Alec Collett was killed by the ANO in Aita al-Foukhar (village in Lebanon) in 1986. He was hanged on a rope and was shot in retaliation to US air raids on Libya.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLebanon remains may be those of British journalist Alec Collett {{!}} Media {{!}} The Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/2009/nov/19/journalist-body-lebanon-alec-collett \|access-date2024-06-22 \|websiteamp.theguardian.com\|date=19 November 2009 }}</ref> By 1987, Abu Nidal used extreme torture tactics on members of the ANO who were suspected of betrayal and disloyalty.<ref nameSeale1992p287/> The tactics included hanging prisoners naked, whipping them until unconsciousness, using salt or chili powder to revive them, forcing them into a car tire for whipping and salt application, melting plastic on their skin, frying their genitals, and confining them in tiny cells bound hand and foot. If cells were full, prisoners could be buried alive with a steel pipe for breathing. Execution was carried out by firing a bullet down the pipe.<ref nameLedeen>Clarridge 1997, cited in Ledeen 2002. Also see Seale 1992, pp. 286&ndash;287.</ref> From 1987 to 1988, hundreds of members of Abu Nidal's organization were killed due to internal paranoia and terror tactics. The elderly wife of a veteran member was also killed on false charges. The killings were mostly carried out by four individuals: Mustafa Ibrahim Sanduqa, Isam Maraqa, Sulaiman Samrin, and Mustafa Awad. Decisions to kill were mostly made by Abu Nidal after he had consumed a whole bottle of whiskey at night.<ref nameSeale1992p287>Seale 1992, pp. 287&ndash;289.</ref> According to ANO dissidents, the attacks made by the group were unconnected to the Palestinian cause and led to their defection. In addition, they claimed the guerrilla was the "living example of paranoia".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/terror/abunidal/abunidal061090.htm\|titleAbu Nidal Battles Dissidents\|newspaperWashington Post\|accessdate2023-02-10\|archive-date2014-10-18\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141018005502/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/terror/abunidal/abunidal061090.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref> See also Abu Nidal Arab People's Movement Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Olivia Frank List of military units named after people References Citations {{Reflist}} Sources {{cite book \|titleThe Master Terrorist: The True Story of Abu-Nidal \|firstYossi \|lastMelman \|date1986 \|publisherUniversity of Michigan \|isbn9780915361526 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOqmWvwEACAAJ}} {{cite book \|titleAbu Nidal: A Gun for Hire \|firstPatrick \|lastSeale \|publisherHutchinson \|date1992 \|isbn9780091753276 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjwPmAAAAIAAJ}} Further reading *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2203099.stm Abu Nidal: Ruthless maverick] {{Authority control}} Category:Abu Nidal Category:Arab nationalist militant groups Category:Palestinian terrorism in Europe Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by Japan Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by the European Union Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by the United Kingdom Category:Organizations designated as terrorist by the United States Category:Organizations based in Asia designated as terrorist Category:Palestinian militant groups Category:Organizations designated as terrorist by Canada	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Nidal_Organization	2025-04-05T18:26:01.972693
2362	Antibody	{{Short description\|Protein(s) forming a major part of an organism's immune system}} {{cs1 config\|name-list-stylevanc\|display-authors6}} {{About\|the class of proteins}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2020}} in a highly specific interaction analogous to a lock and key.]] An antibody (Ab) or immunoglobulin (Ig) is a large, Y-shaped protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily which is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize antigens such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease. Antibodies can recognize virtually any size antigen, able to perceive diverse chemical compositions.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Wilson \|first1Ian A. \|last2Stanfield \|first2Robyn L. \|title50 Years of structural immunology \|journalThe Journal of Biological Chemistry \|date3 May 2021 \|volume296 \|pages100745 \|doi10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100745 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid33957119 \|pmc8163984 \|issn0021-9258 \|quoteAntibodies (A–D) can recognize virtually any antigen whether large or small, and which can have diverse chemical compositions from small molecules (A) to carbohydrates to lipids to peptides (B) to proteins (C and D) and combinations thereof.}}</ref> Each antibody recognizes one or more specific antigens.<ref name"Janeway5">{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/immunobiology00char\|titleImmunobiology\| vauthors Janeway C \|publisherGarland Publishing\|year2001\|isbn978-0-8153-3642-6\|edition5th\|url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"pmid8450761">{{cite journal \| vauthors Litman GW, Rast JP, Shamblott MJ, Haire RN, Hulst M, Roess W, Litman RT, Hinds-Frey KR, Zilch A, Amemiya CT \| title Phylogenetic diversification of immunoglobulin genes and the antibody repertoire \| journal Molecular Biology and Evolution \| volume 10 \| issue 1 \| pages 60–72 \| date January 1993 \| pmid 8450761 \| doi 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040000 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Antigen literally means "antibody generator", as it is the presence of an antigen that drives the formation of an antigen-specific antibody. Each tip of the "Y" of an antibody contains a paratope that specifically binds to one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing the two molecules to bind together with precision. Using this mechanism, antibodies can effectively "tag" a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system, or can neutralize it directly (for example, by blocking a part of a virus that is essential for its invasion). More narrowly, an antibody (Ab) can refer to the free (secreted) form of these proteins, as opposed to the membrane-bound form found in a B cell receptor. The term immunoglobulin can then refer to both forms. Since they are, broadly speaking, the same protein, the terms are often treated as synonymous.<ref name"Rhoades">{{cite book\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/humanphysiologyw00rodn/page/584\|titleHuman Physiology\|vauthorsRhoades RA, Pflanzer RG\|publisherThomson Learning\|year2002\|isbn978-0-534-42174-8\|edition5th\|page[https://archive.org/details/humanphysiologyw00rodn/page/584 584]\|url-accessregistration}}</ref> To allow the immune system to recognize millions of different antigens, the antigen-binding sites at both tips of the antibody come in an equally wide variety. The rest of the antibody structure is much less variable; in humans, antibodies occur in five classes, sometimes called isotypes: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Human IgG and IgA antibodies are also divided into discrete subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4; IgA1 and IgA2). The class refers to the functions triggered by the antibody (also known as effector functions), in addition to some other structural features. Antibodies from different classes also differ in where they are released in the body and at what stage of an immune response. Between species, while classes and subclasses of antibodies may be shared (at least in name), their functions and distribution throughout the body may be different. For example, mouse IgG1 is closer to human IgG2 than human IgG1 in terms of its function. The term humoral immunity is often treated as synonymous with the antibody response, describing the function of the immune system that exists in the body's humors (fluids) in the form of soluble proteins, as distinct from cell-mediated immunity, which generally describes the responses of T cells (especially cytotoxic T cells). In general, antibodies are considered part of the adaptive immune system, though this classification can become complicated. For example, natural IgM,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Ehrenstein \|first1Michael R. \|last2Notley \|first2Clare A. \|date2010-10-15 \|titleThe importance of natural IgM: scavenger, protector and regulator \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri2849 \|journalNature Reviews Immunology \|volume10 \|issue11 \|pages778–786 \|doi10.1038/nri2849 \|pmid20948548 \|s2cid35784099 \|issn=1474-1733}}</ref> which are made by B-1 lineage cells that have properties more similar to innate immune cells than adaptive, refers to IgM antibodies made independently of an immune response that demonstrate polyreactivity- they recognize multiple distinct (unrelated) antigens. These can work with the complement system in the earliest phases of an immune response to help facilitate clearance of the offending antigen and delivery of the resulting immune complexes to the lymph nodes or spleen for initiation of an immune response. Hence in this capacity, the function of antibodies is more akin to that of innate immunity than adaptive. Nonetheless, in general, antibodies are regarded as part of the adaptive immune system because they demonstrate exceptional specificity (with some exceptions), are produced through genetic rearrangements (rather than being encoded directly in the germline), and are a manifestation of immunological memory. In the course of an immune response, B cells can progressively differentiate into antibody-secreting cells or into memory B cells.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Akkaya \|first1Munir \|last2Kwak \|first2Kihyuck \|last3Pierce \|first3Susan K. \|dateApril 2020 \|titleB cell memory: building two walls of protection against pathogens \|journalNature Reviews Immunology \|languageen \|volume20 \|issue4 \|pages229–238 \|doi10.1038/s41577-019-0244-2 \|pmid31836872 \|pmc7223087 \|issn1474-1741}}</ref> Antibody-secreting cells comprise plasmablasts and plasma cells, which differ mainly in the degree to which they secrete antibody, their lifespan, metabolic adaptations, and surface markers.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Tellier \|first1Julie \|last2Nutt \|first2Stephen L \|date2018-10-15 \|titlePlasma cells: The programming of an antibody-secreting machine \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eji.201847517 \|journalEuropean Journal of Immunology \|volume49 \|issue1 \|pages30–37 \|doi10.1002/eji.201847517 \|pmid30273443 \|issn0014-2980\|hdl11343/284565 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Plasmablasts are rapidly proliferating, short-lived cells produced in the early phases of the immune response (classically described as arising extrafollicularly rather than from a germinal center) which have the potential to differentiate further into plasma cells.<ref>{{Citation \|titleB Cell Memory and Plasma Cell Development \|date2015 \|workMolecular Biology of B Cells \|pages227–249 \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978012397933900014X \|access-date2024-01-24 \|publisherElsevier \|languageen \|doi10.1016/b978-0-12-397933-9.00014-x \|isbn978-0-12-397933-9}}</ref> Occasionally plasmablasts are mis-described as short-lived plasma cells; formally this is incorrect. Plasma cells, in contrast, do not divide (they are terminally differentiated), and rely on survival niches comprising specific cell types and cytokines to persist.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chu \|first1Van T. \|last2Berek \|first2Claudia \|date2012-12-19 \|titleThe establishment of the plasma cell survival niche in the bone marrow \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111/imr.12011 \|journalImmunological Reviews \|volume251 \|issue1 \|pages177–188 \|doi10.1111/imr.12011 \|pmid23278749 \|s2cid205212187 \|issn0105-2896}}</ref> Plasma cells will secrete huge quantities of antibody regardless of whether or not their cognate antigen is present, ensuring that antibody levels to the antigen in question do not fall to 0, provided the plasma cell stays alive. The rate of antibody secretion, however, can be regulated, for example, by the presence of adjuvant molecules that stimulate the immune response such as TLR ligands.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Dorner \|first1Marcus \|last2Brandt \|first2Simone \|last3Tinguely \|first3Marianne \|last4Zucol \|first4Franziska \|last5Bourquin \|first5Jean-Pierre \|last6Zauner \|first6Ludwig \|last7Berger \|first7Christoph \|last8Bernasconi \|first8Michele \|last9Speck \|first9Roberto F. \|last10Nadal \|first10David \|date2009-11-06 \|titlePlasma cell toll-like receptor (TLR) expression differs from that of B cells, and plasma cell TLR triggering enhances immunoglobulin production \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2009.03143.x \|journalImmunology \|volume128 \|issue4 \|pages573–579 \|doi10.1111/j.1365-2567.2009.03143.x \|pmid19950420 \|pmc2792141 \|issn0019-2805}}</ref> Long-lived plasma cells can live for potentially the entire lifetime of the organism.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Joyner \|first1Chester J. \|last2Ley \|first2Ariel M. \|last3Nguyen \|first3Doan C. \|last4Ali \|first4Mohammad \|last5Corrado \|first5Alessia \|last6Tipton \|first6Christopher \|last7Scharer \|first7Christopher D. \|last8Mi \|first8Tian \|last9Woodruff \|first9Matthew C. \|last10Hom \|first10Jennifer \|last11Boss \|first11Jeremy M. \|last12Duan \|first12Meixue \|last13Gibson \|first13Greg \|last14Roberts \|first14Danielle \|last15Andrews \|first15Joel \|dateMarch 2022 \|titleGeneration of human long-lived plasma cells by developmentally regulated epigenetic imprinting \|journalLife Science Alliance \|volume5 \|issue3 \|pagese202101285 \|doi10.26508/lsa.202101285 \|issn2575-1077 \|pmc8739272 \|pmid34952892}}</ref> Classically, the survival niches that house long-lived plasma cells reside in the bone marrow,<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Halliley \|first1Jessica L. \|last2Tipton \|first2Christopher M. \|last3Liesveld \|first3Jane \|last4Rosenberg \|first4Alexander F. \|last5Darce \|first5Jaime \|last6Gregoretti \|first6Ivan V. \|last7Popova \|first7Lana \|last8Kaminiski \|first8Denise \|last9Fucile \|first9Christopher F. \|last10Albizua \|first10Igor \|last11Kyu \|first11Shuya \|last12Chiang \|first12Kuang-Yueh \|last13Bradley \|first13Kyle T. \|last14Burack \|first14Richard \|last15Slifka \|first15Mark \|dateJuly 2015 \|titleLong-Lived Plasma Cells Are Contained within the CD19−CD38hiCD138+ Subset in Human Bone Marrow \|journalImmunity \|languageen \|volume43 \|issue1 \|pages132–145 \|doi10.1016/j.immuni.2015.06.016 \|pmc4680845 \|pmid26187412}}</ref> though it cannot be assumed that any given plasma cell in the bone marrow will be long-lived. However, other work indicates that survival niches can readily be established within the mucosal tissues- though the classes of antibodies involved show a different hierarchy from those in the bone marrow.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Tellier \|first1Julie \|last2Tarasova \|first2Ilariya \|last3Nie \|first3Junli \|last4Smillie \|first4Christopher S. \|last5Fedele \|first5Pasquale L. \|last6Cao \|first6Wang H. J. \|last7Groom \|first7Joanna R. \|last8Belz \|first8Gabrielle T. \|last9Bhattacharya \|first9Deepta \|last10Smyth \|first10Gordon K. \|last11Nutt \|first11Stephen L. \|date2024-01-03 \|titleUnraveling the diversity and functions of tissue-resident plasma cells \|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41590-023-01712-w \|journalNature Immunology \|volume25 \|issue2 \|pages330–342 \|doi10.1038/s41590-023-01712-w \|pmid38172260 \|s2cid266752931 \|issn1529-2908}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Landsverk \|first1Ole J. B. \|last2Snir \|first2Omri \|last3Casado \|first3Raquel Bartolomé \|last4Richter \|first4Lisa \|last5Mold \|first5Jeff E. \|last6Réu \|first6Pedro \|last7Horneland \|first7Rune \|last8Paulsen \|first8Vemund \|last9Yaqub \|first9Sheraz \|last10Aandahl \|first10Einar Martin \|last11Øyen \|first11Ole M. \|last12Thorarensen \|first12Hildur Sif \|last13Salehpour \|first13Mehran \|last14Possnert \|first14Göran \|last15Frisén \|first15Jonas \|dateFebruary 2017 \|titleAntibody-secreting plasma cells persist for decades in human intestine \|journalThe Journal of Experimental Medicine \|volume214 \|issue2 \|pages309–317 \|doi10.1084/jem.20161590 \|issn1540-9538 \|pmc5294861 \|pmid28104812}}</ref> B cells can also differentiate into memory B cells which can persist for decades similarly to long-lived plasma cells. These cells can be rapidly recalled in a secondary immune response, undergoing class switching, affinity maturation, and differentiating into antibody-secreting cells. Antibodies are central to the immune protection elicited by most vaccines and infections (although other components of the immune system certainly participate and for some diseases are considerably more important than antibodies in generating an immune response, e.g. in the case of herpes zoster).<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastPlotkin \|firstStanley A. \|date2022 \|titleRecent updates on correlates of vaccine-induced protection \|journalFrontiers in Immunology \|volume13 \|pages1081107 \|doi10.3389/fimmu.2022.1081107 \|doi-accessfree \|issn1664-3224 \|pmc9912984 \|pmid36776392}}</ref> Durable protection from infections caused by a given microbe – that is, the ability of the microbe to enter the body and begin to replicate (not necessarily to cause disease) – depends on sustained production of large quantities of antibodies, meaning that effective vaccines ideally elicit persistent high levels of antibody, which relies on long-lived plasma cells. At the same time, many microbes of medical importance have the ability to mutate to escape antibodies elicited by prior infections, and long-lived plasma cells cannot undergo affinity maturation or class switching. This is compensated for through memory B cells: novel variants of a microbe that still retain structural features of previously encountered antigens can elicit memory B cell responses that adapt to those changes. It has been suggested that long-lived plasma cells secrete B cell receptors with higher affinity than those on the surfaces of memory B cells, but findings are not entirely consistent on this point.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Sutton \|first1Henry J. \|last2Gao \|first2Xin \|last3Kelly \|first3Hannah G. \|last4Parker \|first4Brian J. \|last5Lofgren \|first5Mariah \|last6Dacon \|first6Cherrelle \|last7Chatterjee \|first7Deepyan \|last8Seder \|first8Robert A. \|last9Tan \|first9Joshua \|last10Idris \|first10Azza H. \|last11Neeman \|first11Teresa \|last12Cockburn \|first12Ian A. \|date2024-01-12 \|titleLack of affinity signature for germinal center cells that have initiated plasma cell differentiation \|journalImmunity \|volume57 \|issue2 \|pagesS1074–7613(23)00541–1 \|doi10.1016/j.immuni.2023.12.010 \|issn1097-4180 \|pmid38228150\|pmc10922795 }}</ref> Structure {{anchor\|CDRs, Fv, Fab and Fc Regions}} {{multiple image \| direction = vertical \| footer = A more accurate depiction of an antibody (3D structure at [https://www.rcsb.org/3d-view/1IGY/1 RCSB PDB]). Glycans in the Fc region are shown in black. \| image1 = Antibody IgG1 structure.png \| alt1 = Model of an antibody showing beta strands \| image2 = Antibody IgG1 surface.png \| alt2 = Surface model of an antibody at the molecular level }} Antibodies are heavy (~150&nbsp;kDa) proteins of about 10 nm in size,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Reth M \| title Matching cellular dimensions with molecular sizes \| journal Nature Immunology \| volume 14 \| issue 8 \| pages 765–7 \| date August 2013 \| pmid 23867923 \| doi 10.1038/ni.2621 \| s2cid 24333875 \| url http://www.slas.ac.cn/upload/20130815-4.pdf \| access-date 1 May 2018 \| archive-date 2 May 2018 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180502064449/http://www.slas.ac.cn/upload/20130815-4.pdf \| url-status = dead }}</ref> arranged in three globular regions that roughly form a Y shape. In humans and most other mammals, an antibody unit consists of four polypeptide chains; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds.<ref name = woof/> Each chain is a series of domains: somewhat similar sequences of about 110 amino acids each. These domains are usually represented in simplified schematics as rectangles. Light chains consist of one variable domain V<sub>L</sub> and one constant domain C<sub>L</sub>, while heavy chains contain one variable domain V<sub>H</sub> and three to four constant domains C<sub>H</sub>1, C<sub>H</sub>2, ...<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Barclay AN \| title Membrane proteins with immunoglobulin-like domains—a master superfamily of interaction molecules \| journal Seminars in Immunology \| volume 15 \| issue 4 \| pages 215–23 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 14690046 \| doi = 10.1016/S1044-5323(03)00047-2 }}</ref> Structurally an antibody is also partitioned into two antigen-binding fragments (Fab), containing one V<sub>L</sub>, V<sub>H</sub>, C<sub>L</sub>, and C<sub>H</sub>1 domain each, as well as the crystallisable fragment (Fc), forming the trunk of the Y shape.<ref nameputnam79>{{cite journal \| vauthors Putnam FW, Liu YS, Low TL \| title Primary structure of a human IgA1 immunoglobulin. IV. Streptococcal IgA1 protease, digestion, Fab and Fc fragments, and the complete amino acid sequence of the alpha 1 heavy chain \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 254 \| issue 8 \| pages 2865–74 \| date April 1979 \| doi 10.1016/S0021-9258(17)30153-9 \| pmid 107164 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 1979JBiCh.254.2865P }}</ref> In between them is a hinge region of the heavy chains, whose flexibility allows antibodies to bind to pairs of epitopes at various distances, to form complexes (dimers, trimers, etc.), and to bind effector molecules more easily.<ref name"Roitt">{{Cite book \| vauthors Delves PJ, Martin SJ, Burton DR, Roitt IM \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/949912256 \|titleRoitt's essential immunology \|date2017 \|isbn978-1-118-41577-1 \|edition13th \|locationChichester, West Sussex \|languageen \|oclc949912256}}</ref> In an electrophoresis test of blood proteins, antibodies mostly migrate to the last, gamma globulin fraction. Conversely, most gamma-globulins are antibodies, which is why the two terms were historically used as synonyms, as were the symbols Ig and γ. This variant terminology fell out of use due to the correspondence being inexact and due to confusion with γ (gamma) heavy chains which characterize the IgG class of antibodies.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMeSH Browser – gamma-Globulins \|urlhttps://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?uiD005719 \|access-date2020-10-18 \|websitemeshb.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| title Recommendations for the nomenclature of human immunoglobulins \| journal Journal of Immunology \| volume 108 \| issue 6 \| pages 1733–4 \| date June 1972 \| doi 10.4049/jimmunol.108.6.1733 \| pmid 5031329 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Antigen-binding site The variable domains can also be referred to as the F<sub>V</sub> region. It is the subregion of Fab that binds to an antigen. More specifically, each variable domain contains three hypervariable regions – the amino acids seen there vary the most from antibody to antibody. When the protein folds, these regions give rise to three loops of β-strands, localized near one another on the surface of the antibody. These loops are referred to as the complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), since their shape complements that of an antigen. Three CDRs from each of the heavy and light chains together form an antibody-binding site whose shape can be anything from a pocket to which a smaller antigen binds, to a larger surface, to a protrusion that sticks out into a groove in an antigen. Typically though, only a few residues contribute to most of the binding energy.<ref name="Janeway5"/> The existence of two identical antibody-binding sites allows antibody molecules to bind strongly to multivalent antigen (repeating sites such as polysaccharides in bacterial cell walls, or other sites at some distance apart), as well as to form antibody complexes and larger antigen-antibody complexes.<ref name="Janeway5"/> The structures of CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al.<ref name= Chothia1997> {{cite journal \| vauthors Al-Lazikani B, Lesk AM, Chothia C \| title Standard conformations for the canonical structures of immunoglobulins \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 273 \| issue 4 \| pages 927–48 \| date November 1997 \| pmid 9367782 \| doi = 10.1006/jmbi.1997.1354 }}</ref> and more recently by North et al.<ref nameNorth2010>{{cite journal \| vauthors North B, Lehmann A, Dunbrack RL \| title A new clustering of antibody CDR loop conformations \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 406 \| issue 2 \| pages 228–56 \| date February 2011 \| pmid 21035459 \| pmc 3065967 \| doi = 10.1016/j.jmb.2010.10.030 }}</ref> and Nikoloudis et al.<ref nameNikoloudis2014>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nikoloudis D, Pitts JE, Saldanha JW \| title A complete, multi-level conformational clustering of antibody complementarity-determining regions \| journal PeerJ \| volume 2 \| issue e456 \| pages e456 \| year 2014 \| pmid 25071986 \| pmc 4103072 \| doi 10.7717/peerj.456 \| doi-access free }}</ref> However, describing an antibody's binding site using only one single static structure limits the understanding and characterization of the antibody's function and properties. To improve antibody structure prediction and to take the strongly correlated CDR loop and interface movements into account, antibody paratopes should be described as interconverting states in solution with varying probabilities.<ref name"Fernandez-Quintero2021">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fernández-Quintero ML, Georges G, Varga JM, Liedl KR \| title Ensembles in solution as a new paradigm for antibody structure prediction and design \| journal mAbs \| volume 13 \| issue 1 \| pages 1923122 \| year 2021 \| pmid 34030577 \| pmc 8158028 \| doi = 10.1080/19420862.2021.1923122 }}</ref> In the framework of the immune network theory, CDRs are also called idiotypes. According to immune network theory, the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAntibody Structure \|urlhttps://www.bioatla.com/appendix/antibody-structure/#:~:textThese%20loops%20are%20referred%20to,regulated%20by%20interactions%20between%20idiotypes. \|websiteBioAtla \| date8 January 2016 \|access-date18 December 2024}}</ref> Fc region {{main\|Fragment crystallizable region}} The Fc region (the trunk of the Y shape) is composed of constant domains from the heavy chains. Its role is in modulating immune cell activity: it is where effector molecules bind to, triggering various effects after the antibody Fab region binds to an antigen.<ref nameJaneway5/><ref nameRoitt/> Effector cells (such as macrophages or natural killer cells) bind via their Fc receptors (FcR) to the Fc region of an antibody, while the complement system is activated by binding the C1q protein complex. IgG or IgM can bind to C1q, but IgA cannot, therefore IgA does not activate the classical complement pathway.<ref name"pmid21937984">{{cite journal \| vauthors Woof JM, Russell RW \| title Structure and function relationships in IgA \| journal Mucosal Immunology \| volume 4 \| issue6 \| pages 590–597 \| date2011 \| doi 10.1038/mi.2011.39 \| pmid 21937984\| doi-access = free }}</ref> Another role of the Fc region is to selectively distribute different antibody classes across the body. In particular, the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) binds to the Fc region of IgG antibodies to transport it across the placenta, from the mother to the fetus. In addition to this, binding to FcRn endows IgG with an exceptionally long half-life relative to other plasma proteins of 3-4 weeks. IgG3 in most cases (depending on allotype) has mutations at the FcRn binding site which lower affinity for FcRn, which are thought to have evolved to limit the highly inflammatory effects of this subclass.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Damelang \|first1Timon \|last2Rogerson \|first2Stephen J. \|last3Kent \|first3Stephen J. \|last4Chung \|first4Amy W. \|dateMarch 2019 \|titleRole of IgG3 in Infectious Diseases \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2019.01.005 \|journalTrends in Immunology \|volume40 \|issue3 \|pages197–211 \|doi10.1016/j.it.2019.01.005 \|pmid30745265 \|hdl11343/284299 \|s2cid73419807 \|issn1471-4906\|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Antibodies are glycoproteins,<ref name "immune_glycan"/> that is, they have carbohydrates (glycans) added to conserved amino acid residues.<ref name "immune_glycan"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mattu TS, Pleass RJ, Willis AC, Kilian M, Wormald MR, Lellouch AC, Rudd PM, Woof JM, Dwek RA \| title The glycosylation and structure of human serum IgA1, Fab, and Fc regions and the role of N-glycosylation on Fcα receptor interactions \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 273 \| issue 4 \| pages 2260–72 \| date January 1998 \| pmid 9442070 \| doi 10.1074/jbc.273.4.2260 \| doi-access free }}</ref> These conserved glycosylation sites occur in the Fc region and influence interactions with effector molecules.<ref name "immune_glycan">{{cite journal \| vauthors Maverakis E, Kim K, Shimoda M, Gershwin ME, Patel F, Wilken R, Raychaudhuri S, Ruhaak LR, Lebrilla CB \| title Glycans in the immune system and The Altered Glycan Theory of Autoimmunity: a critical review \| journal Journal of Autoimmunity \| volume 57 \| issue 6 \| pages 1–13 \| date February 2015 \| pmid 25578468 \| pmc 4340844 \| doi 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.12.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cobb BA \| title The history of IgG glycosylation and where we are now \| journal Glycobiology \| volume 30 \| issue 4 \| pages 202–213 \| date March 2020 \| pmid 31504525 \| pmc 7109348 \| doi 10.1093/glycob/cwz065 }}</ref>Protein structure The N-terminus of each chain is situated at the tip. Each immunoglobulin domain has a similar structure, characteristic of all the members of the immunoglobulin superfamily: it is composed of between 7 (for constant domains) and 9 (for variable domains) β-strands, forming two beta sheets in a Greek key motif. The sheets create a "sandwich" shape, the immunoglobulin fold, held together by a disulfide bond.<ref>{{Citation \|titleMolecules, Cells, and Tissues of Immunity \|date2004-01-01 \|workImmunology Guidebook \|pages1–15 \|editor-lastCruse \|editor-firstJulius M. \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978012198382650025X \|access-date2025-02-15 \|placeSan Diego \|publisherAcademic Press \|doi10.1016/b978-012198382-6/50025-x \|isbn978-0-12-198382-6 \|editor2-lastLewis \|editor2-firstRobert E. \|editor3-lastWang \|editor3-firstHuan }}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastBajorath \|firstJürgen \|titleCell Surface Receptors and Adhesion Molecules, Three-Dimensional Structures \|date1998-01-01 \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia of Immunology (Second Edition) \|pages515–520 \|editor-lastDelves \|editor-firstPeter J. \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B012226765600671X \|access-date2025-02-15 \|placeOxford \|publisherElsevier \|doi10.1006/rwei.1999.0136 \|isbn978-0-12-226765-9}}</ref> Antibody complexes that bind to multiple antigen molecules.]] Secreted antibodies can occur as a single Y-shaped unit, a monomer. However, some antibody classes also form dimers with two Ig units (as with IgA), tetramers with four Ig units (like teleost fish IgM), or pentamers with five Ig units (like shark IgW or mammalian IgM, which occasionally forms hexamers as well, with six units).<ref name roux>{{cite journal \| vauthors Roux KH \| title Immunoglobulin structure and function as revealed by electron microscopy \| journal International Archives of Allergy and Immunology \| volume 120 \| issue 2 \| pages 85–99 \| date October 1999 \| pmid 10545762 \| doi 10.1159/000024226 \| s2cid 12187510 }}</ref> IgG can also form hexamers, though no J chain is required.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Diebolder \|first1Christoph A. \|last2Beurskens \|first2Frank J. \|last3de Jong \|first3Rob N. \|last4Koning \|first4Roman I. \|last5Strumane \|first5Kristin \|last6Lindorfer \|first6Margaret A. \|last7Voorhorst \|first7Marleen \|last8Ugurlar \|first8Deniz \|last9Rosati \|first9Sara \|last10Heck \|first10Albert J. R. \|last11van de Winkel \|first11Jan G. J. \|last12Wilson \|first12Ian A. \|last13Koster \|first13Abraham J. \|last14Taylor \|first14Ronald P. \|last15Ollmann Saphire \|first15Erica \|date2014-03-14 \|titleComplement Is Activated by IgG Hexamers Assembled at the Cell Surface \|journalScience \|languageen \|volume343 \|issue6176 \|pages1260–1263 \|doi10.1126/science.1248943 \|issn0036-8075 \|pmc4250092 \|pmid24626930\|bibcode2014Sci...343.1260D }}</ref> IgA tetramers and pentamers have also been reported.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kumar \|first1Nikit \|last2Arthur \|first2Christopher P. \|last3Ciferri \|first3Claudio \|last4Matsumoto \|first4Marissa L. \|date2020-02-28 \|titleStructure of the secretory immunoglobulin A core \|urlhttps://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz5807 \|journalScience \|languageen \|volume367 \|issue6481 \|pages1008–1014 \|doi10.1126/science.aaz5807 \|pmid32029686 \|bibcode2020Sci...367.1008K \|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Antibodies also form complexes by binding to antigen: this is called an antigen-antibody complex or immune complex. Small antigens can cross-link two antibodies, also leading to the formation of antibody dimers, trimers, tetramers, etc. Multivalent antigens (e.g., cells with multiple epitopes) can form larger complexes with antibodies. An extreme example is the clumping, or agglutination, of red blood cells with antibodies in blood typing to determine blood groups: the large clumps become insoluble, leading to visually apparent precipitation.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Actor \|first1Jeffrey K. \|titleElsevier's Integrated Review Immunology and Microbiology \|date2012 \|publisherElsevier \|isbn978-0-323-07447-6 \|page71 \|edition2nd \|chapterImmunoassays \|doi10.1016/B978-0-323-07447-6.00009-0 \|chapter-urlhttps://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-07447-6.00009-0 \|quoteAntibody-antigen interactions: the basis of quantitative and qualitative assays. Experimentally, if a known concentration of antibody is mixed with increasing amounts of specific antigen, then cross-linked antibody-antigen complexes begin to precipitate from the solution.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleImmunology Laboratory: Hemagglutination \|urlhttp://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vlab/immun/hemag.htm \|websitemedicine.mcgill.ca \|publisherThe McGill Physiology Virtual Lab \|author<!--Not stated--> \|access-date2024-08-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Yeow \|first1Natasha \|last2Tabor \|first2Rico F. \|last3Garnier \|first3Gil \|titleMapping the distribution of specific antibody interaction forces on individual red blood cells \|journalScientific Reports \|date3 February 2017 \|volume7 \|issue1 \|page41956 \|doi10.1038/srep41956 \|pmid28157207 \|pmc5291206 \|bibcode2017NatSR...741956Y }}</ref> B cell receptors {{main\|B-cell receptor}} The membrane-bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin (sIg) or a membrane immunoglobulin (mIg). It is part of the B cell receptor (BCR), which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation.<ref name"T cell-dependent B cell activation">{{cite journal\|vauthorsParker DC\|year1993\|titleT cell-dependent B cell activation\|journalAnnual Review of Immunology\|volume11\|issue1\|pages331–60\|doi10.1146/annurev.iy.11.040193.001555\|pmid8476565}}</ref> The BCR is composed of surface-bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig-α and Ig-β heterodimers, which are capable of signal transduction.<ref name"Wintrobe">{{cite book \| vauthors Wintrobe MM \|author-linkMaxwell Wintrobe\| veditors Greer JG, Foerster F, Lukens JN, Rodgers GM, Paraskevas F \|titleWintrobe's clinical hematology\|edition11\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|locationHagerstown, MD\|year2004\|pages453–456\|isbn978-0-7817-3650-3}}</ref> A typical human B cell will have 50,000 to 100,000 antibodies bound to its surface.<ref name"Wintrobe" /> Upon antigen binding, they cluster in large patches, which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter, on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors.<ref name="Wintrobe" /> These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response.<ref name"pmid18275475">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tolar P, Sohn HW, Pierce SK \| title Viewing the antigen-induced initiation of B-cell activation in living cells \| journal Immunological Reviews \| volume 221 \| issue 1 \| pages 64–76 \| date February 2008 \| pmid 18275475 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00583.x \| s2cid 38464264 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1230708 }}</ref> In humans, the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers,<ref name"Wintrobe"/> which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences.Classes Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes. In humans there are five antibody classes known as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, which are further subdivided into subclasses such as IgA1, IgA2. The prefix "Ig" stands for immunoglobulin, while the suffix denotes the type of heavy chain the antibody contains: the heavy chain types α (alpha), γ (gamma), δ (delta), ε (epsilon), μ (mu) give rise to IgA, IgG, IgD, IgE, IgM, respectively. The distinctive features of each class are determined by the part of the heavy chain within the hinge and Fc region.<ref name="Janeway5"/> The classes differ in their biological properties, functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens, as depicted in the table.<ref name woof>{{cite journal \| vauthors Woof JM, Burton DR \| title Human antibody-Fc receptor interactions illuminated by crystal structures \| journal Nature Reviews. Immunology \| volume 4 \| issue 2 \| pages 89–99 \| date February 2004 \| pmid 15040582 \| doi 10.1038/nri1266 \| s2cid = 30584218 }}</ref> For example, IgE antibodies are responsible for an allergic response consisting of histamine release from mast cells, often a sole contributor to asthma (though other pathways exist as do symptoms very similar to yet not technically asthma). The variable region of these antibodies bind to allergic antigen, for example house dust mite particles, while its Fc region (in the ε heavy chains) binds to Fc receptor ε on a mast cell, triggering its degranulation: the release of molecules stored in its granules.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Williams CM, Galli SJ \| title The diverse potential effector and immunoregulatory roles of mast cells in allergic disease \| journal The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology \| volume 105 \| issue 5 \| pages 847–59 \| date May 2000 \| pmid 10808163 \| doi 10.1067/mai.2000.106485 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%; text-align:center;" \|+ Antibody isotypes of humans ! Class !! Subclasses !! Description \|- \| IgA \|\| 2 \| style"text-align:left;" \| Found in mucosal areas, such as the gut, respiratory tract and urogenital tract, and prevents colonization by pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Underdown BJ, Schiff JM \| title Immunoglobulin A: strategic defense initiative at the mucosal surface \| journal Annual Review of Immunology \| volume 4 \| issue 1 \| pages 389–417 \| year 1986 \| pmid 3518747 \| doi 10.1146/annurev.iy.04.040186.002133 }}</ref> Also found in saliva, tears, and breast milk. Early clinical studies suggest that IgA isotype antibodies have potential as anti-cancer therapeutics, demonstrating the ability to reduce tumor growth.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal \|last1Mark \|first1Jacqueline Kar Kei \|last2Lim \|first2Crystale Siew Ying \|last3Nordin \|first3Fazlina \|last4Tye \|first4Gee Jun \|date2022-11-01 \|titleExpression of mammalian proteins for diagnostics and therapeutics: a review \|journalMolecular Biology Reports \|languageen \|volume49 \|issue11 \|pages10593–10608 \|doi10.1007/s11033-022-07651-3 \|issn1573-4978 \|pmc9175168 \|pmid35674877}}</ref> \|- \| IgD \|\| 1 \| style"text-align:left;" \| Functions mainly as an antigen receptor on B cells that have not been exposed to antigens.<ref nameGeisberger>{{cite journal \| vauthors Geisberger R, Lamers M, Achatz G \| title The riddle of the dual expression of IgM and IgD \| journal Immunology \| volume 118 \| issue 4 \| pages 429–37 \| date August 2006 \| pmid 16895553 \| pmc 1782314 \| doi 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2006.02386.x }}</ref> It has been shown to activate basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.<ref nameChen>{{cite journal \| vauthors Chen K, Xu W, Wilson M, He B, Miller NW, Bengtén E, Edholm ES, Santini PA, Rath P, Chiu A, Cattalini M, Litzman J, B Bussel J, Huang B, Meini A, Riesbeck K, Cunningham-Rundles C, Plebani A, Cerutti A \| title Immunoglobulin D enhances immune surveillance by activating antimicrobial, proinflammatory and B cell-stimulating programs in basophils \| journal Nature Immunology \| volume 10 \| issue 8 \| pages 889–98 \| date August 2009 \| pmid 19561614 \| pmc 2785232 \| doi 10.1038/ni.1748 }}</ref> Besides, IgD has also been reported to induce the release of immunoactivity and pro-inflammatory mediators.<ref name":0" /> \|- \| IgE \|\| 1 \| style"text-align:left;" \| IgE antibodies are the least abundant class of immunoglobulin. They can engage Fc receptors on monocytes and macrophages to activate various effector cell populations.<ref name":0" /> Binds to allergens and triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, and is involved in allergy. Humans and other animals evolved IgE to protect against parasitic worms, though in the present, IgE is primarily related to allergies and asthma.<ref name"Pier">{{cite book \|titleImmunology, Infection, and Immunity \|vauthorsPier GB, Lyczak JB, Wetzler LM \|publisherASM Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-55581-246-1}}</ref> \|- \| IgG \|\| 4 \| style"text-align:left;" \| In its four forms, provides the majority of antibody-based immunity against invading pathogens.<ref namePier/> The only antibody capable of crossing the placenta to give passive immunity to the fetus. IgG is the most commonly used molecular format in current antibody drugs because it neutralizes infectious agents and activates the complement system to engage immune cells.<ref name=":0" /> \|- \| IgM \| 1 \| style"text-align:left;" \| Expressed on the surface of B cells (monomer) and in a secreted form (pentamer) with very high avidity. Eliminates pathogens in the early stages of B cell-mediated (humoral) immunity before there is sufficient IgG.<ref namePier/><ref nameGeisberger/> IgM also is a pro-inflammatory antibody that serves as the primary defense and effectively stimulates the complement system with specialized immune functions, including higher avidity and steric hindrance, allowing it to neutralize viruses.<ref name":0" /> \|} The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation. Immature B cells, which have never been exposed to an antigen, express only the IgM isotype in a cell surface bound form. The B lymphocyte, in this ready-to-respond form, is known as a "naive B lymphocyte." The naive B lymphocyte expresses both surface IgM and IgD. The co-expression of both of these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell ready to respond to antigen.<ref nameGoding>{{cite book \| vauthors Goding JW \| title Contemporary Topics in Immunobiology \| chapter Allotypes of IgM and IgD Receptors in the Mouse: A Probe for Lymphocyte Differentiation \| volume 8 \| pages 203–43 \| date 1978 \| pmid 357078 \| doi 10.1007/978-1-4684-0922-2_7 \|isbn 978-1-4684-0924-6}}</ref> B cell activation follows engagement of the cell-bound antibody molecule with an antigen, causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody-producing cell called a plasma cell. This requires cytokines from T helper cells, unless antigen cross-links B cell receptors.<ref>{{Citation \|last1Charles A Janeway \|first1Jr \|titleGeneral principles of transmembrane signaling \|date2001 \|workImmunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease. 5th edition \|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27151/#A675 \|access-date2025-01-27 \|publisherGarland Science \|languageen \|last2Travers \|first2Paul \|last3Walport \|first3Mark \|last4Shlomchik \|first4Mark J.}}</ref> In this activated form, the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane-bound form. Activated B cells that encounter certain signaling molecules undergo immunoglobulin class switching, also known as isotope switching, which causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes, IgE, IgA, or IgG.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Yu \|first1Kefei \|last2Lieber \|first2Michael R. \|date2019-07-04 \|titleCurrent insights into the mechanism of mammalian immunoglobulin class switch recombination \|journalCritical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology \|volume54 \|issue4 \|pages333–351 \|doi10.1080/10409238.2019.1659227 \|issn1040-9238 \|pmc6856442 \|pmid31509023}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|last1Oettgen \|first1Hans \|title1 - Introduction to mechanisms of allergic disease \|date2012-01-01 \|workAllergy (Fourth Edition) \|pages1–32 \|editor-lastHolgate \|editor-firstStephen T \|urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780723436584000056 \|access-date2025-02-15 \|placeEdinburgh \|publisherW.B. Saunders \|doi10.1016/b978-0-7234-3658-4.00005-6 \|isbn978-0-7234-3658-4 \|last2Broide \|first2David H \|editor2-lastChurch \|editor2-firstMartin K \|editor3-lastBroide \|editor3-firstDavid H \|editor4-lastMartinez \|editor4-firstFernando D}}</ref>Light chain types {{Further\|Immunoglobulin light chain}} In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain, which are called lambda (λ) and kappa (κ). However, there is no known functional difference between them, and both can occur with any of the five major types of heavy chains.<ref nameJaneway5/> Each antibody contains two identical light chains: both κ or both λ. Proportions of κ and λ types vary by species and can be used to detect abnormal proliferation of B cell clones. Other types of light chains, such as the iota (ι) chain, are found in other vertebrates like sharks (Chondrichthyes) and bony fishes (Teleostei).<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Lefranc \|first1Marie-Paule \|last2Lefranc \|first2Gérard \|date2022-02-28 \|titleIMGT®Homo sapiens IG and TR Loci, Gene Order, CNV and Haplotypes: New Concepts as a Paradigm for Jawed Vertebrates Genome Assemblies \|journalBiomolecules \|languageen \|volume12 \|issue3 \|pages381 \|doi10.3390/biom12030381 \|doi-accessfree \|pmid35327572 \|pmc8945572 \|issn2218-273X}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastXia \|firstZhinan \|titleStructure, Classification, and Naming of Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies \|date2016 \|workBiosimilars of Monoclonal Antibodies \|pages63–83 \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118940648.ch2 \|access-date2025-02-15 \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd \|languageen \|doi10.1002/9781118940648.ch2 \|isbn978-1-118-94064-8}}</ref>In non-mammalian animals In most placental mammals, the structure of antibodies is generally the same. Jawed fish appear to be the most primitive animals that are able to make antibodies similar to those of mammals, although many features of their adaptive immunity appeared somewhat earlier.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Litman GW, Rast JP, Fugmann SD \| title The origins of vertebrate adaptive immunity \| journal Nature Reviews. Immunology \| volume 10 \| issue 8 \| pages 543–53 \| date August 2010 \| pmid 20651744 \| pmc 2919748 \| doi 10.1038/nri2807 }}</ref> Cartilaginous fish (such as sharks) produce heavy-chain-only antibodies (i.e., lacking light chains) which moreover feature longer chain pentamers (with five constant units per molecule). Camelids (such as camels, llamas, alpacas) are also notable for producing heavy-chain-only antibodies.<ref nameJaneway5/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Litman GW, Rast JP, Fugmann SD \| title The origins of vertebrate adaptive immunity \| journal Nature Reviews. Immunology \| volume 10 \| issue 8 \| pages 543–53 \| date August 2010 \| pmid 20651744 \| pmc 2919748 \| doi = 10.1038/nri2807 }}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Antibody classes not found in mammals \|- ! Class !! Types !! Description \|- \| IgY \|\| \|\| Found in birds and reptiles; related to mammalian IgG.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lundqvist ML, Middleton DL, Radford C, Warr GW, Magor KE \| title Immunoglobulins of the non-galliform birds: antibody expression and repertoire in the duck \| journal Developmental and Comparative Immunology \| volume 30 \| issue 1–2 \| pages 93–100 \| date 2006 \| pmid 16150486 \| pmc 1317265 \| doi 10.1016/j.dci.2005.06.019 }}</ref> \|- \| IgW \|\| \|\| Found in sharks and skates; related to mammalian IgD.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Berstein RM, Schluter SF, Shen S, Marchalonis JJ \| title A new high molecular weight immunoglobulin class from the carcharhine shark: implications for the properties of the primordial immunoglobulin \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 93 \| issue 8 \| pages 3289–93 \| date April 1996 \| pmid 8622930 \| pmc 39599 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.93.8.3289 \| bibcode 1996PNAS...93.3289B \| doi-access free }}</ref> \|- \| IgT/Z \|\| \|\| Found in teleost fish<ref>Salinas, I., & Parra, D. (2015). Fish mucosal immunity: Intestine. In Mucosal Health in Aquaculture. Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417186-2.00006-6</ref> \|} Antibody–antigen interactions The antibody's paratope interacts with the antigen's epitope. An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously, and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants.{{cn\|date=July 2024}} Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity (lock and key). The molecular forces involved in the Fab-epitope interaction are weak and non-specific – for example electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals forces. This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible, and the antibody's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute. Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross-react with different antigens of different relative affinities.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} Function {{Further\|Immune system}} thumb\|{{ordered list \| list_style=margin-left:1em; \| Antibodies (A) and pathogens (B) free roam in the blood. \| The antibodies bind to pathogens, and can do so in different formations such as:{{ordered list \| list_style=margin-left:2em; \| list-style-type=lower-alpha \| opsonization, \| neutralisation, and \| agglutination. }} \| A phagocyte (C) approaches the pathogen, and the Fc region (D) of the antibody binds to one of the Fc receptors (E) of the phagocyte. \| Phagocytosis occurs as the pathogen is ingested. }} The main categories of antibody action include the following:{{cn\|date=July 2024}} * Neutralisation, in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective * Agglutination, in which antibodies "glue together" foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis * Precipitation, in which antibodies "glue together" serum-soluble antigens, forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis * Complement activation (fixation), in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex, which leads to the following: Lysis of the foreign cell Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells More indirectly, an antibody can signal immune cells to present antibody fragments to T cells, or downregulate other immune cells to avoid autoimmunity.{{cn\|date=July 2024}} Activated B cells differentiate into either * antibody-producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or * memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures.<ref name"pmid17337763">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBorghesi L, Milcarek C \|year2006 \|titleFrom B cell to plasma cell: regulation of V(D)J recombination and antibody secretion \|journalImmunologic Research \|volume36 \|issue1–3 \|pages27–32 \|doi10.1385/IR:36:1:27 \|pmid17337763 \|s2cid27041937 \|doi-accessfree}}</ref> At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life, the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother. Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies, and usually appear within the first years of life. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway.<ref nameRavetch>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ravetch JV, Bolland S \| title IgG Fc receptors \| journal Annual Review of Immunology \| volume 19 \| issue 1 \| pages 275–90 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11244038 \| doi 10.1146/annurev.immunol.19.1.275 }}</ref> Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens (helminths, allergens). has five Ig units. Each Ig unit (labeled 1) has two epitope binding Fab regions, so IgM is capable of binding up to 10 epitopes.]] Activation of complement Antibodies that bind to surface antigens (for example, on bacteria) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the "classical" complement system.<ref nameRavetch/> This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways.<ref namePier/> First, the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade. Second, some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly (bacteriolysis).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rus H, Cudrici C, Niculescu F \| title The role of the complement system in innate immunity \| journal Immunologic Research \| volume 33 \| issue 2 \| pages 103–12 \| year 2005 \| pmid 16234578 \| doi 10.1385/IR:33:2:103 \| s2cid 46096567 }}</ref> Activation of effector cells To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells, antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together, causing them to agglutinate. Since an antibody has at least two paratopes, it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens. By coating the pathogen, antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region.<ref name=Pier/> Those cells that recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors, which, as the name suggests, interact with the Fc region of IgA, IgG, and IgE antibodies. The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell; phagocytes will phagocytose, mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate, natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe. The activation of natural killer cells by antibodies initiates a cytotoxic mechanism known as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) – this process may explain the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies used in biological therapies against cancer. The Fc receptors are isotype-specific, which gives greater flexibility to the immune system, invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens.<ref nameJaneway5/>Natural antibodiesHumans and higher primates also produce "natural antibodies" that are present in serum before viral infection. Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection, vaccination, other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization. These antibodies can activate the classical complement pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated. Antibodies are produced exclusively by B cells in response to antigens where initially, antibodies are formed as membrane-bound receptors, but upon activation by antigens and helper T cells, B cells differentiate to produce soluble antibodies.<ref name":0" /> Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α(1,3)-galactose (α-Gal), which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins, and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria contained in the human gut.<ref>{{cite news\|authorRacaniello, Vincent \|urlhttp://www.virology.ws/2009/10/06/natural-antibody-protects-against-viral-infection/ \|date6 October 2009 \|titleNatural antibody protects against viral infection \|websiteVirology Blog \|access-date22 January 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100220015318/http://www.virology.ws/2009/10/06/natural-antibody-protects-against-viral-infection/ \|archive-date20 February 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> These antibodies undergo quality checks in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which contains proteins that assist in proper folding and assembly.<ref name":0" /> Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be, in part, the result of natural antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α-Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Milland J, Sandrin MS \| title ABO blood group and related antigens, natural antibodies and transplantation \| journal Tissue Antigens \| volume 68 \| issue 6 \| pages 459–66 \| date December 2006 \| pmid 17176435 \| doi 10.1111/j.1399-0039.2006.00721.x }}</ref>Immunoglobulin diversityVirtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response. Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Mian IS, Bradwell AR, Olson AJ \| title Structure, function and properties of antibody binding sites \| journal Journal of Molecular Biology \| volume 217 \| issue 1 \| pages 133–51 \| date January 1991 \| pmid 1988675 \| doi 10.1016/0022-2836(91)90617-F }}</ref> It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies, each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen.<ref name"pmid8612345">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fanning LJ, Connor AM, Wu GE \| title Development of the immunoglobulin repertoire \| journal Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology \| volume 79 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–14 \| date April 1996 \| pmid 8612345 \| doi 10.1006/clin.1996.0044 }}</ref> Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual, the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome. Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes.<ref name namazee>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nemazee D \| title Receptor editing in lymphocyte development and central tolerance \| journal Nature Reviews. Immunology \| volume 6 \| issue 10 \| pages 728–40 \| date October 2006 \| pmid 16998507 \| doi 10.1038/nri1939 \| s2cid 2234228 }}</ref>Domain variabilityThe chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody—the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes (IGH@) is found on chromosome 14, and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes (IGL@ and IGK@) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans. One of these domains is called the variable domain, which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody, but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells. Differences between the variable domains are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions (HV-1, HV-2 and HV-3) or complementarity-determining regions (CDR1, CDR2 and CDR3). CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions. The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs. Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability. This combination is called V(D)J recombination and discussed below.<ref>Peter Parham. The Immune System. 2nd ed. Garland Science: New York, 2005. pg.47–62</ref>V(D)J recombination {{Further\|V%28D%29J recombination}} Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins, also known as V(D)J recombination, involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region. The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces—known as gene segments (subgenes). These segments are called variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) segments.<ref name namazee/> V, D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains, but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains. Multiple copies of the V, D and J gene segments exist, and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals. In the bone marrow, each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V, one D and one J gene segment (or one V and one J segment in the light chain). As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment, and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region, this process generates a huge number of antibodies, each with different paratopes, and thus different antigen specificities.<ref name"Market">{{cite journal \| vauthors Market E, Papavasiliou FN \| title V(D)J recombination and the evolution of the adaptive immune system \| journal PLOS Biology \| volume 1 \| issue 1 \| pages E16 \| date October 2003 \| pmid 14551913 \| pmc 212695 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pbio.0000016 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The rearrangement of several subgenes (i.e. V2 family) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR-650, which further influences biology of B-cells.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} RAG proteins play an important role with V(D)J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region.<ref name"Market"/> Without the presence of these proteins, V(D)J recombination would not occur.<ref name"Market"/> After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V(D)J recombination, it cannot express any other variable region (a process known as allelic exclusion) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain.<ref nameJaneway5/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bergman Y, Cedar H \| title A stepwise epigenetic process controls immunoglobulin allelic exclusion \| journal Nature Reviews. Immunology \| volume 4 \| issue 10 \| pages 753–61 \| date October 2004 \| pmid 15459667 \| doi 10.1038/nri1458 \| s2cid 8579156 }}</ref>Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation {{Further\|Somatic hypermutation\|Affinity maturation}} Following activation with antigen, B cells begin to proliferate rapidly. In these rapidly dividing cells, the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation, by a process called somatic hypermutation (SHM). SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene, per cell division.<ref namediaz>{{cite journal \| vauthors Diaz M, Casali P \| title Somatic immunoglobulin hypermutation \| journal Current Opinion in Immunology \| volume 14 \| issue 2 \| pages 235–40 \| date April 2002 \| pmid 11869898 \| pmc 4621002 \| doi 10.1016/S0952-7915(02)00327-8 }}</ref> As a consequence, any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody's antigen-binding affinity.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Honjo T, Habu S \| title Origin of immune diversity: genetic variation and selection \| journal Annual Review of Biochemistry \| volume 54 \| issue 1 \| pages 803–30 \| year 1985 \| pmid 3927822 \| doi 10.1146/annurev.bi.54.070185.004103 }}</ref> Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction (low affinity) with their antigen than the original antibody, and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction (high affinity).<ref nameorguil>{{cite journal \| vauthors Or-Guil M, Wittenbrink N, Weiser AA, Schuchhardt J \| title Recirculation of germinal center B cells: a multilevel selection strategy for antibody maturation \| journal Immunological Reviews \| volume 216 \| pages 130–41 \| date April 2007 \| pmid 17367339 \| doi 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2007.00507.x \| s2cid 37636392 }}</ref> B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells, whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not, and will die by apoptosis.<ref nameorguil/> Thus, B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival allowing the average affinity of antibodies to increase over time. The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation. Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V(D)J recombination, and is dependent on help from helper T cells.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Neuberger MS, Ehrenstein MR, Rada C, Sale J, Batista FD, Williams G, Milstein C \| title Memory in the B-cell compartment: antibody affinity maturation \| journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences \| volume 355 \| issue 1395 \| pages 357–60 \| date March 2000 \| pmid 10794054 \| pmc 1692737 \| doi 10.1098/rstb.2000.0573 }}</ref> Class switching Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell, which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody (IgA, IgE, or IgG).<ref nameMarket/> The different classes of antibody, and thus effector functions, are defined by the constant (C) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. Initially, naive B cells express only cell-surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions. Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function; therefore, after activation, an antibody with an IgG, IgA, or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen. Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes. Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching; the variable regions, and therefore antigen specificity, remain unchanged. Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies, all specific for the same antigen, but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge. Class switching is triggered by cytokines; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Stavnezer J, Amemiya CT \| title Evolution of isotype switching \| journal Seminars in Immunology \| volume 16 \| issue 4 \| pages 257–75 \| date August 2004 \| pmid 15522624 \| doi 10.1016/j.smim.2004.08.005 }}</ref> Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR). This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene (except in the δ-chain). The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S-regions.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Durandy A \| title Activation-induced cytidine deaminase: a dual role in class-switch recombination and somatic hypermutation \| journal European Journal of Immunology \| volume 33 \| issue 8 \| pages 2069–73 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 12884279 \| doi 10.1002/eji.200324133 \| s2cid 32059768 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Casali P, Zan H \| title Class switching and Myc translocation: how does DNA break? \| journal Nature Immunology \| volume 5 \| issue 11 \| pages 1101–3 \| date November 2004 \| pmid 15496946 \| pmc 4625794 \| doi 10.1038/ni1104-1101 }}</ref> The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to the desired constant region (γ, α or ε). This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lieber MR, Yu K, Raghavan SC \| title Roles of nonhomologous DNA end joining, V(D)J recombination, and class switch recombination in chromosomal translocations \| journal DNA Repair \| volume 5 \| issue 9–10 \| pages 1234–45 \| date September 2006 \| pmid 16793349 \| doi 10.1016/j.dnarep.2006.05.013 }}</ref>Specificity designations{{anchor\|valence}}An antibody can be called monospecific if it has specificity for a single antigen or epitope,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idTfW5sUfeM5gC&pgPA22 p. 22] in: {{Cite book \| vauthors Shoenfeld Y, Meroni PL, Gershwin ME \| title Autoantibodie \| year 2007 \| publisher Elsevier \| location Amsterdam; Boston \| isbn = 978-0-444-52763-9 }} </ref> or bispecific if it has affinity for two different antigens or two different epitopes on the same antigen.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Spiess C, Zhai Q, Carter PJ \| title Alternative molecular formats and therapeutic applications for bispecific antibodies \| journal Molecular Immunology \| volume 67 \| issue 2 Pt A \| pages 95–106 \| date October 2015 \| pmid 25637431 \| doi 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.01.003 \| doi-access free }}</ref> A group of antibodies can be called polyvalent (or unspecific) if they have affinity for various antigens<ref namefarlex-polyvalent/> or microorganisms.<ref namefarlex-polyvalent>[http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/polyvalent Farlex dictionary > polyvalent] Citing: The American Heritage Medical Dictionary. 2004</ref> Intravenous immunoglobulin, if not otherwise noted, consists of a variety of different IgG (polyclonal IgG). In contrast, monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies produced by a single B cell.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastNelson \|firstP N \|date2000-06-01 \|titleDemystified ...: Monoclonal antibodies \|journalMolecular Pathology \|volume53 \|issue3 \|pages111–117 \|doi10.1136/mp.53.3.111 \|pmc1186915 \|pmid10897328}}</ref>Asymmetrical antibodiesHeterodimeric antibodies, which are also asymmetrical antibodies, allow for greater flexibility and new formats for attaching a variety of drugs to the antibody arms. One of the general formats for a heterodimeric antibody is the "knobs-into-holes" format. This format is specific to the heavy chain part of the constant region in antibodies. The "knobs" part is engineered by replacing a small amino acid with a larger one. It fits into the "hole", which is engineered by replacing a large amino acid with a smaller one. What connects the "knobs" to the "holes" are the disulfide bonds between each chain. The "knobs-into-holes" shape facilitates antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity. Single-chain variable fragments (scFv) are connected to the variable domain of the heavy and light chain via a short linker peptide. The linker is rich in glycine, which gives it more flexibility, and serine/threonine, which gives it specificity. Two different scFv fragments can be connected together, via a hinge region, to the constant domain of the heavy chain or the constant domain of the light chain.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gunasekaran K, Pentony M, Shen M, Garrett L, Forte C, Woodward A, Ng SB, Born T, Retter M, Manchulenko K, Sweet H, Foltz IN, Wittekind M, Yan W \| title Enhancing antibody Fc heterodimer formation through electrostatic steering effects: applications to bispecific molecules and monovalent IgG \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 285 \| issue 25 \| pages 19637–46 \| date June 2010 \| pmid 20400508 \| pmc 2885242 \| doi 10.1074/jbc.M110.117382 \| doi-access free }}</ref> This gives the antibody bispecificity, allowing for the binding specificities of two different antigens.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Muller KM \|titleThe first constant domain (CH1 and CL) of an antibody used as heterodimerization domain for bispecific miniantibodies \|journalFEBS Letters \|volume422 \|issue2 \|pages259–264 \|year1998 \| doi 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)00021-0 \|pmid9490020 \|s2cid35243494 \|doi-accessfree \|bibcode1998FEBSL.422..259M }}</ref> The "knobs-into-holes" format enhances heterodimer formation but does not suppress homodimer formation.{{cn\|date=July 2024}} To further improve the function of heterodimeric antibodies, many scientists are looking towards artificial constructs. Artificial antibodies are largely diverse protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule, but are not limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gao C, Mao S, Lo CH, Wirsching P, Lerner RA, Janda KD \| title Making artificial antibodies: a format for phage display of combinatorial heterodimeric arrays \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 96 \| issue 11 \| pages 6025–30 \| date May 1999 \| pmid 10339535 \| pmc 26829 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.96.11.6025 \| bibcode 1999PNAS...96.6025G \| doi-access free }}</ref> Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three-dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachment of different combinations of drugs to the arms.{{cn\|date=July 2024}} Heterodimeric antibodies have a greater range in shapes they can take and the drugs that are attached to the arms do not have to be the same on each arm, allowing for different combinations of drugs to be used in cancer treatment. Pharmaceuticals are able to produce highly functional bispecific, and even multispecific, antibodies. The degree to which they can function is impressive given that such a change of shape from the natural form should lead to decreased functionality.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} Interchromosomal DNA Transposition Antibody diversification typically occurs through somatic hypermutation, class switching, and affinity maturation targeting the BCR gene loci, but on occasion more unconventional forms of diversification have been documented.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Kanyavuz \|first1Alexia \|last2Marey-Jarossay \|first2Annaelle \|last3Lacroix-Desmazes \|first3Sébastien \|last4Dimitrov \|first4Jordan D. \|dateJune 2019 \|titleBreaking the law: unconventional strategies for antibody diversification \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/s41577-019-0126-7 \|journalNature Reviews Immunology \|languageen \|volume19 \|issue6 \|pages355–368 \|doi10.1038/s41577-019-0126-7 \|pmid30718829 \|s2cid59603663 \|issn1474-1741}}</ref> For example, in the case of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, some antibodies from those who had been infected demonstrated an insertion from chromosome 19 containing a 98-amino acid stretch from leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor 1, LAIR1, in the elbow joint. This represents a form of interchromosomal transposition. LAIR1 normally binds collagen, but can recognize repetitive interspersed families of polypeptides (RIFIN) family members that are highly expressed on the surface of P. falciparum-infected red blood cells. In fact, these antibodies underwent affinity maturation that enhanced affinity for RIFIN but abolished affinity for collagen. These "LAIR1-containing" antibodies have been found in 5-10% of donors from Tanzania and Mali, though not in European donors.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Pieper \|first1Kathrin \|last2Tan \|first2Joshua \|last3Piccoli \|first3Luca \|last4Foglierini \|first4Mathilde \|last5Barbieri \|first5Sonia \|last6Chen \|first6Yiwei \|last7Silacci-Fregni \|first7Chiara \|last8Wolf \|first8Tobias \|last9Jarrossay \|first9David \|last10Anderle \|first10Marica \|last11Abdi \|first11Abdirahman \|last12Ndungu \|first12Francis M. \|last13Doumbo \|first13Ogobara K. \|last14Traore \|first14Boubacar \|last15Tran \|first15Tuan M. \|dateAugust 2017 \|titlePublic antibodies to malaria antigens generated by two LAIR1 insertion modalities \|journalNature \|languageen \|volume548 \|issue7669 \|pages597–601 \|doi10.1038/nature23670 \|issn0028-0836 \|pmc5635981 \|pmid28847005\|bibcode2017Natur.548..597P }}</ref> European donors did show 100-1000 nucleotide stretches inside the elbow joints as well, however. This particular phenomenon may be specific to malaria, as infection is known to induce genomic instability.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Robbiani \|first1Davide F. \|last2Deroubaix \|first2Stephanie \|last3Feldhahn \|first3Niklas \|last4Oliveira \|first4Thiago Y. \|last5Callen \|first5Elsa \|last6Wang \|first6Qiao \|last7Jankovic \|first7Mila \|last8Silva \|first8Israel T. \|last9Rommel \|first9Philipp C. \|last10Bosque \|first10David \|last11Eisenreich \|first11Tom \|last12Nussenzweig \|first12André \|last13Nussenzweig \|first13Michel C. \|dateAugust 2015 \|titlePlasmodium Infection Promotes Genomic Instability and AID-Dependent B Cell Lymphoma \|journalCell \|languageen \|volume162 \|issue4 \|pages727–737 \|doi10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.019 \|pmc4538708 \|pmid26276629}}</ref>History {{See also\|History of immunology}} The first use of the term "antibody" occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich. The term Antikörper (the German word for antibody) appears in the conclusion of his article "Experimental Studies on Immunity", published in October 1891, which states that, "if two substances give rise to two different Antikörper, then they themselves must be different".<ref name"Lindenmann">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLindenmann J\|dateApril 1984\|titleOrigin of the terms 'antibody' and 'antigen'\|journalScandinavian Journal of Immunology\|volume19\|issue4\|pages281–5\|doi10.1111/j.1365-3083.1984.tb00931.x\|pmid6374880\|s2cid222200504}}</ref> However, the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed; these included Immunkörper, Amboceptor, Zwischenkörper, substance sensibilisatrice, copula, Desmon, philocytase, fixateur, and Immunisin.<ref nameLindenmann/> The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to Immunkörper (immune body in English).<ref nameLindenmann/> As such, the original construction of the word contains a logical flaw; the antitoxin is something directed against a toxin, while the antibody is a body directed against something.<ref nameLindenmann/> '' (2008) by Julian Voss-Andreae is a sculpture based on the antibody structure published by E. Padlan.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Padlan EA \| title Anatomy of the antibody molecule \| journal Molecular Immunology \| volume 31 \| issue 3 \| pages 169–217 \| date February 1994 \| pmid 8114766 \| doi 10.1016/0161-5890(94)90001-9 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1258337 }}</ref> Created for the Florida campus of the Scripps Research Institute,<ref>{{cite magazine\| vauthors Sauter E \|date10 November 2018\|titleNew Sculpture Portraying Human Antibody as Protective Angel Installed on Scripps Florida Campus\|urlhttp://www.scripps.edu/newsandviews/e_20081110/sculpture.html\|magazineNews & Views\|publisherThe Scripps Research Institute\|volume8\|issue34\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110110070639/http://www.scripps.edu/newsandviews/e_20081110/sculpture.html\|archive-date10 January 2011\|access-date12 December 2008\|url-statuslive}}</ref> the antibody is placed into a ring referencing Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man thus highlighting the similarity of the antibody and the human body.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.boingboing.net/2008/10/22/protein-sculpture-in.html\|titleProtein sculpture inspired by Vitruvian Man\| vauthors Pescovitz D \|date22 October 2008\|websiteboingboing\|typeBlog\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101104033646/http://boingboing.net/2008/10/22/protein-sculpture-in.html\|archive-date4 November 2010\|access-date12 December 2008}}</ref>]] The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins. Von Behring and Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity, proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen.<ref>Emil von Behring – Biographical. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Media AB 2020. Mon. 20 January 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1901/behring/biographical/<!--MLA citation from bottom of cited page--></ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors AGN \| title The Late Baron Shibasaburo Kitasato \| journal Canadian Medical Association Journal \| volume 25 \| issue 2 \| pages 206 \| date August 1931 \| pmid 20318414 \| pmc 382621 }}</ref> His idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side-chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897, when he hypothesized that receptors (described as "side-chains") on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins&nbsp;– in a "lock-and-key" interaction&nbsp;– and that this binding reaction is the trigger for the production of antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWinau F, Westphal O, Winau R\|dateJuly 2004\|titlePaul Ehrlich—in search of the magic bullet\|journalMicrobes and Infection\|volume6\|issue8\|pages786–9\|doi10.1016/j.micinf.2004.04.003\|pmid15207826\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and, in 1904, Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing; a process that he named opsoninization.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSilverstein AM\|dateMay 2003\|titleCellular versus humoral immunology: a century-long dispute\|journalNature Immunology\|volume4\|issue5\|pages425–8\|doi10.1038/ni0503-425\|pmid12719732\|s2cid31571243\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> ]] In the 1920s, Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies are made of protein.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Van Epps HL \| title Michael Heidelberger and the demystification of antibodies \| journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine \| volume 203 \| issue 1 \| pages 5 \| date January 2006 \| pmid 16523537 \| pmc 2118068 \| doi 10.1084/jem.2031fta }}</ref> The biochemical properties of antigen-antibody-binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Marrack JR \| title Chemistry of antigens and antibodies \| edition 2nd \| year 1938 \| publisher His Majesty's Stationery Office \| location London \| oclc3220539}}</ref> The next major advance was in the 1940s, when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock-and-key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depend more on their shape than their chemical composition.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/specificity.html \|titleThe Linus Pauling Papers: How Antibodies and Enzymes Work \|access-date5 June 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101205061247/http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/MM/Views/Exhibit/narrative/specificity.html \|archive-date5 December 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1948, Astrid Fagraeus discovered that B cells, in the form of plasma cells, were responsible for generating antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Silverstein AM \| title Labeled antigens and antibodies: the evolution of magic markers and magic bullets \| journal Nature Immunology \| volume 5 \| issue 12 \| pages 1211–7 \| date December 2004 \| pmid 15549122 \| doi 10.1038/ni1140 \| s2cid 40595920 \| url http://users.path.ox.ac.uk/~seminars/halelibrary/Paper%2018.pdf \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090325001032/http://users.path.ox.ac.uk/~seminars/halelibrary/Paper%2018.pdf\| url-status dead \| archive-date = 25 March 2009 }}</ref> Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins. A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Edelman GM, Gally JA \| title The nature of Bence-Jones proteins. Chemical similarities to polypetide chains of myeloma globulins and normal gamma-globulins \| journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine \| volume 116 \| issue 2 \| pages 207–27 \| date August 1962 \| pmid 13889153 \| pmc 2137388 \| doi 10.1084/jem.116.2.207 }}</ref> and their realization that this protein is the same as the Bence-Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Stevens FJ, Solomon A, Schiffer M \| title Bence Jones proteins: a powerful tool for the fundamental study of protein chemistry and pathophysiology \| journal Biochemistry \| volume 30 \| issue 28 \| pages 6803–5 \| date July 1991 \| pmid 2069946 \| doi 10.1021/bi00242a001 \| url https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1400136/ }}</ref> Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond-linked heavy and light chains. Around the same time, antibody-binding (Fab) and antibody tail (Fc) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter.<ref nameedel>{{cite journal \| vauthors Raju TN \| title The Nobel chronicles. 1972: Gerald M Edelman (b 1929) and Rodney R Porter (1917–85) \| journal Lancet \| volume 354 \| issue 9183 \| pages 1040 \| date September 1999 \| pmid 10501404 \| doi 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)76658-7 \| s2cid 54380536 }}</ref> Together, these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG, a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<ref nameedel/> The Fv fragment was prepared and characterized by David Givol.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hochman J, Inbar D, Givol D \| title An active antibody fragment (Fv) composed of the variable portions of heavy and light chains \| journal Biochemistry \| volume 12 \| issue 6 \| pages 1130–5 \| date March 1973 \| pmid 4569769 \| doi 10.1021/bi00730a018 }}</ref> While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG, other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s: Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody (IgA);<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tomasi TB \| title The discovery of secretory IgA and the mucosal immune system \| journal Immunology Today \| volume 13 \| issue 10 \| pages 416–8 \| date October 1992 \| pmid 1343085 \| doi 10.1016/0167-5699(92)90093-M }}</ref> David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey discovered IgD;<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Preud'homme JL, Petit I, Barra A, Morel F, Lecron JC, Lelièvre E \| title Structural and functional properties of membrane and secreted IgD \| journal Molecular Immunology \| volume 37 \| issue 15 \| pages 871–87 \| date October 2000 \| pmid 11282392 \| doi 10.1016/S0161-5890(01)00006-2 }}</ref> and Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka discovered IgE and showed it was a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Johansson SG \| title The discovery of immunoglobulin E \| journal Allergy and Asthma Proceedings \| volume 27 \| issue 2 Suppl 1 \| pages S3–6 \| year 2006 \| pmid 16722325 }}</ref> In a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976, Susumu Tonegawa showed that genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hozumi N, Tonegawa S \| title Evidence for somatic rearrangement of immunoglobulin genes coding for variable and constant regions \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 73 \| issue 10 \| pages 3628–32 \| date October 1976 \| pmid 824647 \| pmc 431171 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.73.10.3628 \| bibcode 1976PNAS...73.3628H \| doi-access free }}</ref>Medical applicationsDisease diagnosisDetection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics, and applications such as serology depend on these methods.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.immunospot.eu/elisa-animation.html \|titleAnimated depictions of how antibodies are used in ELISA assays \|access-date8 May 2007 \|websiteCellular Technology Ltd.—Europe \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110614091640/http://www.elispot-analyzers.de/english/elisa-animation.html \|archive-date14 June 2011 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> For example, in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.immunospot.eu/elispot-animation.html \|titleAnimated depictions of how antibodies are used in ELISPOT assays \|access-date8 May 2007 \|websiteCellular Technology Ltd.—Europe \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110516142529/http://www.elispot-analyzers.de/english/elispot-animation.html \|archive-date16 May 2011 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein-Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood. If those antibodies are not present, either the person is not infected or the infection occurred a very long time ago, and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} In clinical immunology, levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry (or turbidimetry) to characterize the antibody profile of patient.<ref>{{cite journal \|authorStern P \|titleCurrent possibilities of turbidimetry and nephelometry \|journalKlin Biochem Metab \|volume14 \|issue3 \|pages146–151 \|year2006 \|urlhttp://www.clsjep.cz/odkazy/kbm0603-146.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080410032918/http://www.clsjep.cz/odkazy/kbm0603-146.pdf \|archive-date10 April 2008 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients for whom the diagnosis is unclear.<ref nameRhoades/> For example, IgM levels are often elevated in patients with primary biliary cirrhosis, whereas IgA deposition along hepatic sinusoids can suggest alcoholic liver disease.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Martin \|first1David M. \|last2Vroon \|first2David H. \|last3Nasrallah \|first3Salah M. \|dateJune 1984 \|titleValue of serum immunoglobulins in the diagnosis of liver disease \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0676.1984.tb00930.x \|journalLiver \|languageen \|volume4 \|issue3 \|pages214–218 \|doi10.1111/j.1600-0676.1984.tb00930.x \|pmid6748875 \|issn0106-9543}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Van De Wiel \|first1Albert \|last2Delacroix \|first2Dominique L. \|last3Van Hattum \|first3Jan \|last4Schuurman \|first4Henk-Jan \|last5Kater \|first5Louis \|dateJanuary 1987 \|titleCharacteristics of serum IgA and liver IgA deposits in alcoholic liver disease \|urlhttps://journals.lww.com/01515467-198701000-00019 \|journalHepatology \|languageen \|volume7 \|issue1 \|pages95–99 \|doi10.1002/hep.1840070120 \|pmid3542782 \|issn0270-9139}}</ref> Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be detected through blood tests. Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test.<ref nameDean>{{cite book \| vauthors Dean L \|titleBlood Groups and Red Cell Antigens\| year 2005\|publisherNational Library of Medicine (US) \|locationNCBI Bethesda (MD)\|chapterChapter 4: Hemolytic disease of the newborn \|chapter-url https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?ridrbcantigen.chapter.ch4}}</ref> The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women.<ref nameDean/> Practically, several immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen-antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases, for example ELISA, immunofluorescence, Western blot, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, and magnetic immunoassay.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Sullivan \|first1Mark V \|last2Stockburn \|first2William J \|last3Hawes \|first3Philippa C \|last4Mercer \|first4Tim \|last5Reddy \|first5Subrayal M \|titleGreen synthesis as a simple and rapid route to protein modified magnetic nanoparticles for use in the development of a fluorometric molecularly imprinted polymer-based assay for detection of myoglobin \|journalNanotechnology \|date26 February 2021 \|volume32 \|issue9 \|pages095502 \|doi10.1088/1361-6528/abce2d\|pmid33242844 \|bibcode2021Nanot..32i5502S \|doi-accessfree \|pmc=8314874 }}</ref> Over-the-counter home pregnancy tests rely on human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-directed antibodies.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Gnoth \|first1C. \|last2Johnson \|first2S. \|date2014-08-01 \|titleStrips of Hope: Accuracy of Home Pregnancy Tests and New Developments \|journalGeburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde \|languagede \|volume74 \|issue7 \|pages661–669 \|doi10.1055/s-0034-1368589 \|issn0016-5751 \|pmc4119102 \|pmid=25100881}}</ref> New dioxaborolane chemistry enables radioactive fluoride (<sup>18</sup>F) labeling of antibodies, which allows for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of cancer.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Rodriguez EA, Wang Y, Crisp JL, Vera DR, Tsien RY, Ting R \| title New Dioxaborolane Chemistry Enables [(18)F]-Positron-Emitting, Fluorescent [(18)F]-Multimodality Biomolecule Generation from the Solid Phase \| language EN \| journal Bioconjugate Chemistry \| volume 27 \| issue 5 \| pages 1390–1399 \| date May 2016 \| pmid 27064381 \| pmc 4916912 \| doi 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00164 }}</ref>Disease therapyTargeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Feldmann M, Maini RN \| title Anti-TNF alpha therapy of rheumatoid arthritis: what have we learned? \| journal Annual Review of Immunology \| volume 19 \| issue 1 \| pages 163–96 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11244034 \| doi 10.1146/annurev.immunol.19.1.163 }}</ref> multiple sclerosis,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Doggrell SA \| title Is natalizumab a breakthrough in the treatment of multiple sclerosis? \| journal Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy \| volume 4 \| issue 6 \| pages 999–1001 \| date June 2003 \| pmid 12783595 \| doi 10.1517/14656566.4.6.999 \| s2cid 16104816 }}</ref> psoriasis,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Krueger GG, Langley RG, Leonardi C, Yeilding N, Guzzo C, Wang Y, Dooley LT, Lebwohl M \| title A human interleukin-12/23 monoclonal antibody for the treatment of psoriasis \| journal The New England Journal of Medicine \| volume 356 \| issue 6 \| pages 580–92 \| date February 2007 \| pmid 17287478 \| doi 10.1056/NEJMoa062382 \| doi-access free }}</ref> and many forms of cancer including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Plosker GL, Figgitt DP \| title Rituximab: a review of its use in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia \| journal Drugs \| volume 63 \| issue 8 \| pages 803–43 \| year 2003 \| pmid 12662126 \| doi 10.2165/00003495-200363080-00005 }}</ref> colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer and breast cancer.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vogel CL, Cobleigh MA, Tripathy D, Gutheil JC, Harris LN, Fehrenbacher L, Slamon DJ, Murphy M, Novotny WF, Burchmore M, Shak S, Stewart SJ \| title First-line Herceptin monotherapy in metastatic breast cancer \| journal Oncology \| volume 61\| issue Suppl. 2 \| pages 37–42 \| year 2001 \| pmid 11694786 \| doi 10.1159/000055400 \| series 61 \| s2cid 24924864 }}</ref> Some immune deficiencies, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia, result in partial or complete lack of antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors LeBien TW \| title Fates of human B-cell precursors \| journal Blood \| volume 96 \| issue 1 \| pages 9–23 \| date July 2000 \| pmid 10891425 \| url http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/96/1/9 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100429220000/http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/96/1/9 \| url-status dead \| archive-date 29 April 2010 \| doi 10.1182/blood.V96.1.9 \| access-date 31 March 2007 }}</ref> These diseases are often treated by inducing a short-term form of immunity called passive immunity. Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready-made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum, pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies, into the affected individual.<ref nameUSC>{{cite web\|authorGhaffer A \|titleImmunization \|websiteImmunology&nbsp;— Chapter 14 \|publisherUniversity of South Carolina School of Medicine \|urlhttp://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/ghaffar/immunization.htm \|date26 March 2006 \|access-date6 June 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101018004057/http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/ghaffar/immunization.htm \|archive-date18 October 2010 \|url-statuslive}}</ref>Prenatal therapyRh factor, also known as Rh D antigen, is an antigen found on red blood cells; individuals that are Rh-positive (Rh+) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rh-negative (Rh–) do not. During normal childbirth, delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy, blood from a fetus can enter the mother's system. In the case of an Rh-incompatible mother and child, consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh+ child, putting the remainder of the pregnancy, and any subsequent pregnancies, at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Urbaniak SJ, Greiss MA \| title RhD haemolytic disease of the fetus and the newborn \| journal Blood Reviews \| volume 14 \| issue 1 \| pages 44–61 \| date March 2000 \| pmid 10805260 \| doi 10.1054/blre.1999.0123 }}</ref> Rho(D) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human RhD antigen.<ref nameFung>{{cite journal \| vauthors Fung Kee Fung K, Eason E, Crane J, Armson A, De La Ronde S, Farine D, Keenan-Lindsay L, Leduc L, Reid GJ, Aerde JV, Wilson RD, Davies G, Désilets VA, Summers A, Wyatt P, Young DC \| title Prevention of Rh alloimmunization \| journal Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada \| volume 25 \| issue 9 \| pages 765–73 \| date September 2003 \| pmid 12970812 \| doi 10.1016/S1701-2163(16)31006-4 }}</ref> Anti-RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rh-negative mother has a Rh-positive fetus. Treatment of a mother with Anti-RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother's system from the fetus. This occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to "remember" Rh antigen by generating memory B cells. Therefore, her humoral immune system will not make anti-Rh antibodies, and will not attack the Rh antigens of the current or subsequent babies. Rho(D) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease, but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself.<ref nameFung/>Research applications image of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Microtubules as shown in green, are marked by an antibody conjugated to a green fluorescing molecule, FITC.]] Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal, such as a mouse, rat, rabbit, goat, sheep, or horse for large quantities of antibody. Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies—multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen—in the serum, which can now be called antiserum. Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tini M, Jewell UR, Camenisch G, Chilov D, Gassmann M \| title Generation and application of chicken egg-yolk antibodies \| journal Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology \| volume 131 \| issue 3 \| pages 569–74 \| date March 2002 \| pmid 11867282 \| doi 10.1016/S1095-6433(01)00508-6 }}</ref> To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen, antibody-secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line. The fused cells are called hybridomas, and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture. Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Cole SP, Campling BG, Atlaw T, Kozbor D, Roder JC \| title Human monoclonal antibodies \| journal Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry \| volume 62 \| issue 2 \| pages 109–20 \| date June 1984 \| pmid 6087121 \| doi 10.1007/BF00223301 \| s2cid 12616168 }}</ref> Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A/G or antigen-affinity chromatography.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kabir S \| title Immunoglobulin purification by affinity chromatography using protein A mimetic ligands prepared by combinatorial chemical synthesis \| journal Immunological Investigations \| volume 31 \| issue 3–4 \| pages 263–78 \| year 2002 \| pmid 12472184 \| doi 10.1081/IMM-120016245 \| s2cid = 12785078 }}</ref> In research, purified antibodies are used in many applications. Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers, or through use of a specialist search engine. Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins. Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express; different types of cells express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface, and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins.<ref nameStecher>{{cite journal \| vauthors Brehm-Stecher BF, Johnson EA \| title Single-cell microbiology: tools, technologies, and applications \| journal Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews \| volume 68 \| issue 3 \| pages 538–59, table of contents \| date September 2004 \| pmid 15353569 \| pmc 515252 \| doi 10.1128/MMBR.68.3.538-559.2004 }}</ref> They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them (co-immunoprecipitation) from other molecules in a cell lysate,<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors Williams NE \| chapter Chapter 23 Immunoprecipitation Procedures \| title Methods in Cell Biology Volume 62 \| volume 62 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/tetrahymenatherm62acad/page/449 449–53] \| year 2000 \| pmid 10503210 \| doi 10.1016/S0091-679X(08)61549-6 \| isbn 978-0-12-544164-3 \| chapter-url https://archive.org/details/tetrahymenatherm62acad/page/449 \| publisher San Diego, CA : Academic Press }}</ref> in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kurien BT, Scofield RH \| title Western blotting \| journal Methods \| volume 38 \| issue 4 \| pages 283–93 \| date April 2006 \| pmid 16483794 \| doi 10.1016/j.ymeth.2005.11.007 }}</ref> and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope.<ref nameStecher/><ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors Scanziani E \| title Mycoplasma Protocols \| chapter Immunohistochemical staining of fixed tissues \| series Methods in Molecular Biology \| volume 104 \| pages [https://archive.org/details/mycoplasmaprotoc00roge/page/133 133–40] \| year 1998 \| pmid 9711649 \| doi 10.1385/0-89603-525-5:133 \| isbn 978-0-89603-525-6 \| chapter-url https://archive.org/details/mycoplasmaprotoc00roge/page/133 \| publisher Totowa, N.J. : Humana Press }}</ref> Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies, using ELISA and ELISpot techniques.<ref>{{Cite book\| vauthors Reen DJ \| title Basic Protein and Peptide Protocols \| chapter Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) \| series Methods in Molecular Biology \| volume 32 \| pages 461–6 \| year 1994 \| pmid 7951745 \| doi 10.1385/0-89603-268-X:461 \| isbn 978-0-89603-268-2 \| pmc 2366430 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\| vauthors Kalyuzhny AE \| title Handbook of ELISPOT \| chapter Chemistry and biology of the ELISPOT assay \| series Methods in Molecular Biology \| volume 302 \| pages 15–31 \| year 2005 \| pmid 15937343 \| doi 10.1385/1-59259-903-6:015 \| isbn = 978-1-59259-903-5 }}</ref> Antibodies used in research are some of the most powerful, yet most problematic reagents with a tremendous number of factors that must be controlled in any experiment including cross reactivity, or the antibody recognizing multiple epitopes and affinity, which can vary widely depending on experimental conditions such as pH, solvent, state of tissue etc. Multiple attempts have been made to improve both the way that researchers validate antibodies<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Saper CB \| title An open letter to our readers on the use of antibodies \| journal The Journal of Comparative Neurology \| volume 493 \| issue 4 \| pages 477–8 \| date December 2005 \| pmid 16304632 \| doi 10.1002/cne.20839 \| s2cid 14082678 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-16-011.html\|titleNOT-OD-16-011: Implementing Rigor and Transparency in NIH & AHRQ Research Grant Applications\|websitegrants.nih.gov}}</ref> and ways in which they report on antibodies. Researchers using antibodies in their work need to record them correctly in order to allow their research to be reproducible (and therefore tested, and qualified by other researchers). Less than half of research antibodies referenced in academic papers can be easily identified.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vasilevsky NA, Brush MH, Paddock H, Ponting L, Tripathy SJ, Larocca GM, Haendel MA \| title On the reproducibility of science: unique identification of research resources in the biomedical literature \| journal PeerJ \| volume 1 \| pages e148 \| date 2 September 2013 \| pmid 24032093 \| pmc 3771067 \| doi 10.7717/peerj.148 \| author-link7 Melissa Haendel \| doi-access free }}</ref> Papers published in F1000 in 2014 and 2015 provide researchers with a guide for reporting research antibody use.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bandrowski A, Brush M, Grethe JS, Haendel MA, Kennedy DN, Hill S, Hof PR, Martone ME, Pols M, Tan S, Washington N, Zudilova-Seinstra E, Vasilevsky N \| title The Resource Identification Initiative: A cultural shift in publishing \| journal F1000Research \| volume 4 \| pages 134 \| year 2015 \| pmid 26594330 \| pmc 4648211 \| doi 10.12688/f1000research.6555.2 \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Helsby MA, Fenn JR, Chalmers AD \| title Reporting research antibody use: how to increase experimental reproducibility \| journal F1000Research \| volume 2 \| pages 153 \| date 23 August 2013 \| pmid 24358895 \| pmc 3829129 \| doi 10.12688/f1000research.2-153.v2 \| doi-access free }}</ref> The RRID paper, is co-published in 4 journals that implemented the RRIDs Standard for research resource citation, which draws data from the antibodyregistry.org as the source of antibody identifiers<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://antibodyregistry.org/\|titleThe Antibody Registry\|websiteantibodyregistry.org}}</ref> (see also group at Force11<ref>{{cite web\|titleResource Identification Initiative\|urlhttps://www.force11.org/group/resource-identification-initiative\|websiteFORCE11\|access-date18 April 2016\|date=14 August 2013}}</ref>). Antibody regions can be used to further biomedical research by acting as a guide for drugs to reach their target. Several application involve using bacterial plasmids to tag plasmids with the Fc region of the antibody such as pFUSE-Fc plasmid.{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}}RegulationsProduction and testingThere are several ways to obtain antibodies, including in vivo techniques like animal immunization and various in vitro approaches, such as the phage display method.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEberle \|firstChristian \|dateFebruary 20, 2023 \|titleAntibody Production simply explained \|workevitria - \|urlhttps://www.evitria.com/journal/antibodies/antibody-production/ \|access-dateDecember 7, 2023}}</ref> Traditionally, most antibodies are produced by hybridoma cell lines through immortalization of antibody-producing cells by chemically induced fusion with myeloma cells. In some cases, additional fusions with other lines have created "triomas" and "quadromas". The manufacturing process should be appropriately described and validated. Validation studies should at least include: * The demonstration that the process is able to produce in good quality (the process should be validated) * The efficiency of the antibody purification (all impurities and virus must be eliminated) * The characterization of purified antibody (physicochemical characterization, immunological properties, biological activities, contaminants, ...) * Determination of the virus clearance studies Before clinical trials * Product safety testing: Sterility (bacteria and fungi), in vitro and in vivo testing for adventitious viruses, murine retrovirus testing..., product safety data needed before the initiation of feasibility trials in serious or immediately life-threatening conditions, it serves to evaluate dangerous potential of the product. * Feasibility testing: These are pilot studies whose objectives include, among others, early characterization of safety and initial proof of concept in a small specific patient population (in vitro or in vivo testing).{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}}Preclinical studies* Testing cross-reactivity of antibody: to highlight unwanted interactions (toxicity) of antibodies with previously characterized tissues. This study can be performed in vitro (reactivity of the antibody or immunoconjugate should be determined with a quick-frozen adult tissues) or in vivo (with appropriates animal models).{{cn\|dateJuly 2024}} * Preclinical pharmacology and toxicity testing: preclinical safety testing of antibody is designed to identify possible toxicity in humans, to estimate the likelihood and severity of potential adverse events in humans, and to identify a safe starting dose and dose escalation, when possible. * Animal toxicity studies: Acute toxicity testing, repeat-dose toxicity testing, long-term toxicity testing * Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics testing: Use for determinate clinical dosages, antibody activities, evaluation of the potential clinical effects Structure prediction and computational antibody design The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution. This information is used for protein engineering, modifying the antigen binding affinity, and identifying an epitope, of a given antibody. X-ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures. However, crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time-consuming. Computational approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography, but their results are more equivocal, since they do not produce empirical structures. Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling (WAM)<ref>{{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110717212251/http://antibody.bath.ac.uk/abmod.html \|date17 July 2011 }}<br /> [http://antibody.bath.ac.uk/abmod.html WAM]</ref> and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS)<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Marcatili P, Rosi A, Tramontano A \| title PIGS: automatic prediction of antibody structures \| journal Bioinformatics \| volume 24 \| issue 17 \| pages 1953–4 \| date September 2008 \| pmid 18641403 \| doi 10.1093/bioinformatics/btn341 \| url http://biocomputing.it/pigs/ \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101126235204/http://arianna.bio.uniroma1.it/pigs/ \| url-status live \| archive-date 26 November 2010 \| doi-access free }}<br /> [http://biocomputing.it/pigs/ Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure (PIGS)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101126235204/http://arianna.bio.uniroma1.it/pigs/ \|date26 November 2010 }}</ref> enable computational modeling of antibody variable regions. Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody F<sub>V</sub> region structure prediction server, which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains, as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen.<ref>{{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719215959/http://antibody.graylab.jhu.edu/ \|date19 July 2011 }}<br />[http://antibody.graylab.jhu.edu RosettaAntibody]</ref> However, describing an antibody's binding site using only one single static structure limits the understanding and characterization of the antibody's function and properties. To improve antibody structure prediction and to take the strongly correlated CDR loop and interface movements into account, antibody paratopes should be described as interconverting states in solution with varying probabilities.<ref name="Fernandez-Quintero2021" /> The ability to describe the antibody through binding affinity to the antigen is supplemented by information on antibody structure and amino acid sequences for the purpose of patent claims.<ref>{{cite web\|titleWritten Description Problems of the Monoclonal Antibody Patents after Centocor v. Abbott\| vauthors Park H \|urlhttp://jolt.law.harvard.edu/digest/patent/written-description-problems-of-the-monoclonal-antibody-patents-after-centocor-v-abbott\|website jolt.law.harvard.edu\|access-date12 December 2014\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20141213031525/http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/digest/patent/written-description-problems-of-the-monoclonal-antibody-patents-after-centocor-v-abbott\|archive-date13 December 2014\|url-status dead}}</ref> Several methods have been presented for computational design of antibodies based on the structural bioinformatics studies of antibody CDRs.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Adolf-Bryfogle J, Kalyuzhniy O, Kubitz M, Weitzner BD, Hu X, Adachi Y, Schief WR, Dunbrack RL \| title RosettaAntibodyDesign (RAbD): A general framework for computational antibody design \| journal PLOS Computational Biology \| volume 14 \| issue 4 \| pages e1006112 \| date April 2018 \| pmid 29702641 \| pmc 5942852 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006112 \| bibcode 2018PLSCB..14E6112A \| doi-access free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lapidoth GD, Baran D, Pszolla GM, Norn C, Alon A, Tyka MD, Fleishman SJ \| title AbDesign: An algorithm for combinatorial backbone design guided by natural conformations and sequences \| journal Proteins \| volume 83 \| issue 8 \| pages 1385–406 \| date August 2015 \| pmid 25670500 \| pmc 4881815 \| doi 10.1002/prot.24779 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Li T, Pantazes RJ, Maranas CD \| title OptMAVEn--a new framework for the de novo design of antibody variable region models targeting specific antigen epitopes \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 9 \| issue 8 \| pages e105954 \| date 2014 \| pmid 25153121 \| pmc 4143332 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0105954 \| bibcode 2014PLoSO...9j5954L \| doi-access free }}</ref> There are a variety of methods used to sequence an antibody including Edman degradation, cDNA, etc.; albeit one of the most common modern uses for peptide/protein identification is liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Pham V, Henzel WJ, Arnott D, Hymowitz S, Sandoval WN, Truong BT, Lowman H, Lill JR \| title De novo proteomic sequencing of a monoclonal antibody raised against OX40 ligand \| journal Analytical Biochemistry \| volume 352 \| issue 1 \| pages 77–86 \| date May 2006 \| pmid 16545334 \| doi 10.1016/j.ab.2006.02.001 }}</ref> High volume antibody sequencing methods require computational approaches for the data analysis, including de novo sequencing directly from tandem mass spectra<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Ma B, Zhang K, Hendrie C, Liang C, Li M, Doherty-Kirby A, Lajoie G \| title PEAKS: powerful software for peptide de novo sequencing by tandem mass spectrometry \| journal Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry \| volume 17 \| issue 20 \| pages 2337–42 \| year 2003 \| pmid 14558135 \| doi 10.1002/rcm.1196 \| bibcode 2003RCMS...17.2337M }}</ref> and database search methods that use existing protein sequence databases.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Zhang J, Xin L, Shan B, Chen W, Xie M, Yuen D, Zhang W, Zhang Z, Lajoie GA, Ma B \| title PEAKS DB: de novo sequencing assisted database search for sensitive and accurate peptide identification \| journal Molecular & Cellular Proteomics \| volume 11 \| issue 4 \| pages M111.010587 \| date April 2012 \| pmid 22186715 \| pmc 3322562 \| doi 10.1074/mcp.M111.010587 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Perkins DN, Pappin DJ, Creasy DM, Cottrell JS \| title Probability-based protein identification by searching sequence databases using mass spectrometry data \| journal Electrophoresis \| volume 20 \| issue 18 \| pages 3551–67 \| date December 1999 \| pmid 10612281 \| doi 10.1002/(SICI)1522-2683(19991201)20:18<3551::AID-ELPS3551>3.0.CO;2-2 \| s2cid 42423655 }}</ref> Many versions of shotgun protein sequencing are able to increase the coverage by utilizing CID/HCD/ETD<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bandeira N, Tang H, Bafna V, Pevzner P \| title Shotgun protein sequencing by tandem mass spectra assembly \| journal Analytical Chemistry \| volume 76 \| issue 24 \| pages 7221–33 \| date December 2004 \| pmid 15595863 \| doi 10.1021/ac0489162 \| bibcode 2004AnaCh..76.7221B }}</ref> fragmentation methods and other techniques, and they have achieved substantial progress in attempt to fully sequence proteins, especially antibodies. Other methods have assumed the existence of similar proteins,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Liu X, Han Y, Yuen D, Ma B \| title Automated protein (re)sequencing with MS/MS and a homologous database yields almost full coverage and accuracy \| journal Bioinformatics \| volume 25 \| issue 17 \| pages 2174–80 \| date September 2009 \| pmid 19535534 \| doi 10.1093/bioinformatics/btp366 \| doi-access free }}</ref> a known genome sequence,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Castellana NE, Pham V, Arnott D, Lill JR, Bafna V \| title Template proteogenomics: sequencing whole proteins using an imperfect database \| journal Molecular & Cellular Proteomics \| volume 9 \| issue 6 \| pages 1260–70 \| date June 2010 \| pmid 20164058 \| pmc 2877985 \| doi 10.1074/mcp.M900504-MCP200 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> or combined top-down and bottom up approaches.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Liu X, Dekker LJ, Wu S, Vanduijn MM, Luider TM, Tolić N, Kou Q, Dvorkin M, Alexandrova S, Vyatkina K, Paša-Tolić L, Pevzner PA \| title De novo protein sequencing by combining top-down and bottom-up tandem mass spectra \| journal Journal of Proteome Research \| volume 13 \| issue 7 \| pages 3241–8 \| date July 2014 \| pmid 24874765 \| doi 10.1021/pr401300m }}</ref> Current technologies have the ability to assemble protein sequences with high accuracy by integrating de novo sequencing peptides, intensity, and positional confidence scores from database and homology searches.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tran NH, Rahman MZ, He L, Xin L, Shan B, Li M \| title Complete De Novo Assembly of Monoclonal Antibody Sequences \| journal Scientific Reports \| volume 6 \| pages 31730 \| date August 2016 \| pmid 27562653 \| pmc 4999880 \| doi 10.1038/srep31730 \| bibcode 2016NatSR...631730T }}</ref> Antibody mimetic Antibody mimetics are organic compounds, like antibodies, that can specifically bind antigens. They consist of artificial peptides or proteins, or aptamer-based nucleic acid molecules with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa. Antibody fragments, such as Fab and nanobodies are not considered as antibody mimetics. Common advantages over antibodies are better solubility, tissue penetration, stability towards heat and enzymes, and comparatively low production costs. Antibody mimetics have been developed and commercialized as research, diagnostic and therapeutic agents.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gebauer M, Skerra A \| title Engineered protein scaffolds as next-generation antibody therapeutics \| journal Current Opinion in Chemical Biology \| volume 13 \| issue 3 \| pages 245–55 \| date June 2009 \| pmid 19501012 \| doi 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.04.627 }}</ref>{{anchor\|BAU}}Binding antibody unitBAU (binding antibody unit, often as BAU/mL) is a measurement unit defined by the WHO for the comparison of assays detecting the same class of immunoglobulins with the same specificity.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleWHO International Standard for anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin \|orig-date2021-02-23 \|date2021-04-10 \|volume397 \|number10282 \|pages1347–1348 \|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00527-4 \|pmc7987302 \|pmid33770519 \|author-first1Paul A. \|author-last1Kristiansen \|author-first2Mark \|author-last2Page \|author-first3Valentina \|author-last3Bernasconi \|author-first4Giada \|author-last4Mattiuzzo \|author-first5Peter \|author-last5Dull \|author-first6Karen \|author-last6Makar \|author-first7Stanley \|author-last7Plotkin \|author-first8Ivana \|author-last8Knezevic \|journalThe Lancet \|publisherWorld Health Organization / Elsevier }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleWHO International Standard for evaluation of the antibody response to COVID-19 vaccines: call for urgent action by the scientific community \|author-first1Ivana \|author-last1Knezevic \|author-first2Giada \|author-last2Mattiuzzo \|author-first3Mark \|author-last3Page \|author-first4Philip \|author-last4Minor \|author-first5Elwyn \|author-last5Griffiths \|author-first6Micha \|author-last6Nuebling \|author-first7Vasee \|author-last7Moorthy \|date2021-10-26 \|journalThe Lancet Microbe \|volume3 \|issue3 \|pagese235–e240 \|publisherWorld Health Organization / Elsevier \|doi10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00266-4 \|pmid34723229 \|pmc8547804 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleTraining webinar for the calibration of quantitative serology assays using the WHO International Standard for anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin \|author-firstIvana \|author-lastKnezevic \|date2021-11-10 \|urlhttps://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/biologicals/covid-19/agenda-ppt-q-a-ik.pdf?sfvrsn89c3ddfa_5 \|access-date2022-03-05 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220218031435/https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/biologicals/covid-19/agenda-ppt-q-a-ik.pdf?sfvrsn89c3ddfa_5 \|archive-date2022-02-18}} (68 pages)</ref> See also {{div col\|colwidth20em}} * Affimer * Anti-mitochondrial antibodies * Anti-nuclear antibodies * Antibody mimetic * Aptamer * Colostrum * ELISA * Humoral immunity * Immunology * Immunosuppressive drug * Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) * Magnetic immunoassay * Microantibody * Monoclonal antibody * Neutralizing antibody * Optimer Ligand * Secondary antibodies * Single-domain antibody * Slope spectroscopy * Surrobody * Synthetic antibody * Western blot normalization {{div col end}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|Antibodies}} <!--({{No more links}})--> <!--\| DO not ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS not A COLLECTION OF \|--> <!--\| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, \|--> <!--\| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link \|--> <!--\| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)\|--> <!--\| \|http://pdl.com/technology-products/how-do-antibodies-work/--> <!--({{No more links}})--> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070403013202/http://www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/mikeimages.html Mike's Immunoglobulin Structure/Function Page] at University of Cambridge * [https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/21 Antibodies as the PDB molecule of the month] Discussion of the structure of antibodies at RCSB Protein Data Bank * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070405170923/http://users.path.ox.ac.uk/~scobbold/tig/new1/mabth.html A hundred years of antibody therapy] History and applications of antibodies in the treatment of disease at University of Oxford * [http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody] from Cells Alive! {{Immune system}} {{Globular proteins}} {{Immune proteins}} {{Autoantibodies}} {{Authority control}} Category:Glycoproteins Category:Immunology Category:Reagents for biochemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody	2025-04-05T18:26:02.077407
2363	Alessandro Scarlatti	{{Short description\|Italian Baroque composer}} {{Other people\|Scarlatti}} {{Expand Italian\|topicbio\|Alessandro Scarlatti\|dateNovember 2023}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2020}} {{Infobox person \| name \| image Alessandro_Scarlatti.jpg \| image_size = 250px \| alt \| caption \| birth_name Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti<ref name"britannica">{{cite web\|urlhttp://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/Alessandro-Scarlatti/66048\|titleBritannica Academic\|websiteacademic.eb.com\|access-date5 February 2018}}</ref> \| birth_date {{Birth date\|1660\|05\|02\|dfy}} \| birth_place Palermo or Trapani, Sicily<ref name"britannica"/> \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1725\|10\|22\|1660\|05\|02\|dfy}} \| death_place Naples<ref name"britannica"/> \| other_names \| occupation Composer \| works = List of operas \| style = Baroque }} Pietro Alessandro Gaspare Scarlatti (2 May 1660 – 22 October 1725) was an Italian Baroque composer, known especially for his operas and chamber cantatas. He is considered the most important representative of the Neapolitan school of opera. Nicknamed by his contemporaries "the Italian Orpheus", he divided his career between Naples and Rome, where he received his training; a significant part of his works was composed for the papal city. He is often considered the founder of the Neapolitan school, although he has only been its most illustrious representative: his contribution, his originality and his influence were essential, as well as lasting, both in Italy and in Europe. Particularly known for his operas, he brought the Italian dramatic tradition to its maximum development, begun by Monteverdi at the beginning of 17th century and continued by Cesti, Cavalli, Carissimi, Legrenzi and Stradella, designing the final form of the Da capo aria, imitated throughout Europe. He was also the inventor of the Italian overture in three movements (which was of the highest importance in the development of the symphony), of the four-part sonata (progenitor of the modern string quartet),<ref>Dirk Kruse: [https://www.br-klassik.de/aktuell/br-klassik-empfiehlt/cd/cd-tipp-alessandro-scarlatti-100.html Alessandro Scarlatti: Größter Erneuerer der Musik ] auf: BR-Klassik vom 19. Februar 2017.</ref> and of the technique of motivic development.<ref name "treccani">[https://www.treccani.it / encyclopedia / alessandro-scarlatti_% 28Biographical-dictionary% 29 / SCARLATTI, Alessandro in "Biographical Dictionary"]</ref> He was a model for the musical theater of his time, as evoked by Händel's Italian works, deeply influenced by his theatrical music.<ref name "treccani" /> Eclectic, Scarlatti also worked on all the other common genres of his time, from the sonata to the concerto grosso, from the motet to the mass, from the oratorio to the cantata, the latter being a genre in which he was an undisputed master. He was the father of two other composers, Domenico Scarlatti and Pietro Filippo Scarlatti.<ref name"britannica"/>LifeScarlatti was born in Palermo (or in Trapani<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13515a.htm\|titleCATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Alessandro Scarlatti\|websitewww.newadvent.org\|access-date5 February 2018}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idHr7nxaZ5cCEC&dqalessandro+scarlatti+trapani+1659&pgPP11 Alfred Music, Anthology of Italian Songs (17th & 18th Century), Volume I: Vocal Collection] </ref>), then part of the Kingdom of Sicily. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Giacomo Carissimi in Rome,<ref>{{Cite book \|lastShrock \|firstDennis \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBpScEAAAQBAJ \|titleChoral Repertoire \|date2022 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-762240-7 \|pages236 \|languageen \|quote=Alessandro Scarlatti 1660-1725...Nothing is known about his youth except that he moved to Rome with his family when he was twelve and likely studied with Giacomo Carissimi.}}</ref> and some theorize that he had some connection with northern Italy because his early works seem to show the influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome of his opera Gli equivoci nel sembiante (1679) gained him the support of Queen Christina of Sweden (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her maestro di cappella. In February 1684 he became maestro di cappella to the viceroy of Naples, perhaps through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who might have been the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of operas, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions. In 1702 Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of Ferdinando de' Medici, for whose private theatre near Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who made him his maestro di cappella, and procured him a similar post at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome in 1703. After visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, Scarlatti took up his duties in Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (Telemaco, 1718; Marco Attilio Regolò, 1719; La Griselda, 1721), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a Messa di Santa Cecilia for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of Saint Cecilia for Cardinal Francesco Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished Erminia serenata for the marriage of the prince of Stigliano in 1723. He died in Naples in 1725 and is entombed there at the church of Santa Maria di Montesanto. Music (c1770)<ref>Portrait of Alessandro Scarlatti, attributed to Lorenzo Vaccaro (c1770). Grove Music Online. Retrieved 19 Nov. 2023, from https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-8000923029 .</ref>]] Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early Baroque Italian vocal styles of the 17th century, with their centers in Florence, Venice and Rome, and the classical school of the 18th century. Scarlatti's style, however, is more than a transitional element in Western music; like most of his Naples colleagues he shows an almost modern understanding of the psychology of modulation and also frequently makes use of the ever-changing phrase lengths so typical of the Napoli school. His early operas—Gli equivoci nel sembiante 1679; ''L'honestà negli amori 1680, containing the famous aria "Già il sole dal Gange"; Il Pompeo 1683, containing the well-known airs "O cessate di piagarmi" and "Toglietemi la vita ancor," and others down to about 1685—retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes with the continuo alone. By 1686, he had definitely established the "Italian overture" form (second edition of Dal male il bene), and had abandoned the ground bass and the binary form air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary form or da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are La Rosaura (1690, printed by the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung), and Pirro e Demetrio (1694), in which occur the arias "Le Violette", and "Ben ti sta, traditor". From about 1697 onwards (La caduta del Decemviri), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Giovanni Bononcini and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (L'Eraclea'', 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for Ferdinando de' Medici are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration. ]] Mitridate Eupatore, accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in 1707, contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (L'amor volubile e tiranno 1709; La principessa fedele 1710; Tigrane, 1714, &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli. In his opera Teodora (1697) he originated the use of the orchestral ritornello. His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (Olimpia vendicata) and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect. {{listen\|filenameScarlatti - Toccata 3.ogg\|titleToccata 3\|descriptionPerformed by Sylvia Kind on a harpsichord of the type made in the early 20th century\|formatogg}} Besides the operas, oratorios (Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684; La Maddalena, 1685; La Giuditta, 1693; Humanita e Lucifero, 1704; Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705; Cain, 1707; S. Filippo Neri'', 1714; and others) and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development. His few remaining Masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great Saint Cecilia Mass (1721), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great Masses of Johann Sebastian Bach and Ludwig van Beethoven. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works. Operas {{main\|List of operas by Alessandro Scarlatti}} Recordings Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra, Nicholas McGegan. (2016). La Gloria di Primavera. Philharmonia Baroque Orchestra. Diana Moore, Suzana Ograjensek, Nicholas Phan, Clint van der Linde, Douglas Williams, Philharmonia Chorale. Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (2007). Griselda. Harmonia Mundi HMC 901805.07. Dorothea Röschmann, Lawrence Zazzo, Veronica Cangemi, Bernarda Fink, Silvia Tro Santafé, Kobie van Rensburg. Le Consert de l'Hostel Dieu. (2006). ''Il martirio di Sant'Orsola. Ligia digital: 0202176–07 Le parlement de musique. (2005). La Giuditta. Ambronay editions: AMY004 Ensemble Europa Galante. (2004). Oratorio per la Santissima Trinità. Virgin Classics: 5 45666 2 Academia Bizantina. (2004). Il Giardino di Rose. Decca: 470 650-2 DSA. Orqestra barocca di Sevilla . (2003). Colpa, Pentimento e Grazia. Harmonia Mundi: HMI 987045.46 Seattle Baroque. (2001). Agar et Ismaele Esiliati. Centaur: CRC 2664 Sedecia, re di Gerusalemme. 2000 . Gérard Lesne, Philippe Jaroussky, Virginie Pouchon, Mark Padmore, Peter Harvey, Il Seminario musicale. Virgin veritas, Erato Capella Palatina. (2000). Davidis pugna et victoria. Agora: AG 249.1 Akademie für alte Musik Berlin, René Jacobs. (1998). Il Primo Omicidio. Harmonia Mundi Fr. Dorothea Röschmann, Graciela Oddone, Richard Croft, René Jacobs, Bernarda Fink, Antonio Abete Ensemble Europa Galante. (1995). Humanita e Lucifero. Opus 111: OPS 30–129 Ensemble Europa Galante. (1993). La Maddalena. Opus 111: OPS 30–96 Allesandro Stradella Consort. (1992). Cantata natalizia Abramo, il tuo sembiante. Nuova era: 7117 I Musici. (1991). Concerto Grosso. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160–2 I Musici. William Bennett (Flute), Lenore Smith (Flute), Bernard Soustrot (Trumpet), Hans Elhorst (Oboe). (1961). 12 Sinfonie di concerto grosso Philips Box 6769 066 [9500 959 & 9500 960 – 2 vinyl discs] Emma Kirkby, soprano and Daniel Taylor, countertenor, with the Theatre of Early Music. (2005). Stabat Mater. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2237 Francis Colpron, recorder, with Les Boréades. (2007). Concertos for flute. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2521 Nederlands Kamerkoor, with Harry van der Kamp, conductor. (2008). Vespro della Beata Vergine for 5 voices and continuo. ATMA Classique: ACD2 2533 See also Messa di Santa Cecilia * Il Martirio di Santa Cecilia'' References {{reflist}} External links {{commons}} {{EB1911 poster\|Scarlatti, Alessandro}} * [http://www.domenicoscarlatti.it Associazione Domenico Scarlatti]. Italian language (some material in English). * Free scores by Alessandro Scarlatti at the International Music Score Library Project * {{ChoralWiki}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150927221629/http://ias.umn.edu/2009/02/12/carissimi-harness/ The Madrigals of Alessandro Scarlatti]: A lecture/recital by Garrick Comeaux and Consortium Carissimi, with Kelley Harness, 12 February 2009. University of Minnesota Institute for Advanced Studies. Audio and video available. * [https://partimentiscarlatti.blogspot.com/ The partimenti of Alessandro Scarlatti (D-Hs M/A 251)] {{Alessandro Scarlatti}} {{Neapolitan School}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Scarlatti, Alessandro}} Category:1660 births Category:1725 deaths Category:17th-century Italian educators Category:18th-century Italian educators Category:18th-century Italian male musicians Category:Catholic liturgical composers Category:Italian classical composers of church music Category:Italian Baroque composers Category:Italian opera composers Category:Italian classical musicians Category:Italian male opera composers Category:Neapolitan school composers Category:Italian string quartet composers Category:17th-century Italian composers Category:18th-century Italian composers Category:Composers from Sicily Category:Musicians from Palermo 01 Category:17th-century Italian male musicians Alessandro	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Scarlatti	2025-04-05T18:26:02.109252
2369	Aston Martin	{{Short description\|British automotive company}} {{Distinguish\|Austin Martin}} {{Pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Pp-semi-indef\|small=yes}} {{Use British English\|date=May 2013}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2024}} {{Infobox company \| name = Aston Martin Lagonda Global Holdings PLC \| logo = Aston Martin Lagonda brand logo.svg \| logo_size \| image \| image_caption \| caption \| former_name Aston Martin Lagonda Global Holdings Limited (July–September 2018)<ref>{{Cite web \|date2018-07-27 \|titleIncorporation Statement of capital on 2018-07-27 GBP 7 \|urlhttps://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11488166/filing-history/MzIxMDc3NzA1OGFkaXF6a2N4/document?formatpdf&download0 \|access-date2024-10-21 \|websiteCompanies House}}</ref> \| type = Public limited company \| traded_as = {{London Stock Exchange\|AML}}<br/>FTSE 250 component \| fate \| predecessor \| successor \| foundation {{start date and age\|1913\|01\|15\|df=y}} \| founders = {{ubl\|Lionel Martin\|Robert Bamford}} \| location = Gaydon, Warwickshire, England, United Kingdom \| locations \| area_served Worldwide \| key_people = {{plainlist\| * Lawrence Stroll<br />(Executive Chairman) * Adrian Hallmark<br />(Chief Executive Officer) * Marek Reichman<br />(Chief Creative Officer) }} \| industry = Automotive \| products = {{ubl\|Luxury cars\|Sports cars\|Grand tourers}} \| production \| services \| revenue {{decrease}} £1,583.9&nbsp;million (2024)<ref name"results">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.astonmartin.com/-/media/corporate/documents/2024-results/aml-fy-2024-results-announcement-vf.pdf?rev28a5dd01ef6c4f8f893e43f0311650ea \|titleAnnual Results 2024 \|access-date26 February 2025}}</ref> \| operating_income {{decrease}} −£82.8&nbsp;million (2024)<ref name"results"/> \| net_income {{decrease}} −£323.5&nbsp;million (2024)<ref name"results"/> \| assets \| equity \| num_employees \| parent \| brands = {{ubl\|Aston Martin\|Lagonda}} \| subsid = Aston Martin Racing \| homepage = {{URL\|https://astonmartinlagonda.com}} \| footnotes \| intl }} Aston Martin Lagonda Global Holdings PLC ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|s\|t\|ə\|n}}) is a British manufacturer of luxury sports cars and grand tourers. Its predecessor was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford. Headed from 1947 by David Brown, it became associated with expensive grand touring cars in the 1950s and 1960s, and with the fictional character James Bond following his use of a DB5 model in the 1964 film Goldfinger.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://tempusmagazine.co.uk/news/bond-behind-the-wheel-a-look-at-007s-relationship-with-aston-martin/ \|titleBond behind the wheel: a look at 007's relationship with Aston Martin \|websiteTempus Magazine \|date15 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/a-thrilling-partnership-aston-martins-unique-bond-with-007 \|titleA Thrilling Partnership: Aston Martin's Unique Bond With 007 \|websiteSotheby's \|date4 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://variety.com/2023/film/focus/aston-martin-james-bond-cannes-1235613291/ \|titleHow Aston Martin Became Integral to James Bond's Screen Legacy \|websiteVariety \|date16 May 2023}}</ref> Their grand tourers and sports cars are regarded as a British cultural icon.<ref>{{cite news \|titleNight of Bond Glamour showcases UK's reputation for creativity \|urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/night-of-bond-glamour-showcases-uk-s-reputation-for-creativity \|publisherGovernment of the United Kingdom \|date4 October 2016}}</ref> Aston Martin has held a royal warrant as purveyor of motorcars to Charles III (as Prince of Wales and later as King) since 1982,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastYeoh \|firstKenny \|date2024-05-15 \|titleAston Martin awarded Royal Warrant by appointment to His Majesty The King \|urlhttps://drivingmotion.com/aston-martin-awarded-royal-warrant-by-appointment-to-his-majesty-the-king/ \|websitedrivingMotion \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web \|date26 May 2019 \|titleA guide to understanding Aston Martin's Heritage \|urlhttps://www.dicklovett.co.uk/aston-martin/news/a-guide-to-understanding-aston-martins-heritage \|websiteDick Lovett \|languageen-gb}}</ref> and has over 160 car dealerships in 53 countries, making it a global automobile brand.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.astonmartinlagonda.com/about-us/locations \|titleAston Martin – Locations \|publisherastonmartin.com}}</ref> The company is traded on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.<ref nameBBC_public>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-45729921 \|titleAston Martin shares slide on debut \|date3 October 2018 \|access-date12 November 2018 \|publisherBBC News}}</ref> In 2003 it received the Queen's Award for Enterprise for outstanding contribution to international trade.<ref>{{London Gazette\|issue56912\|page1\|suppy\|dateApril 2003}}</ref> The company has survived seven bankruptcies throughout its history.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Business/british-automaker-aston-martin-survived-bankruptcies-now-invest/story?id58417290 \|titleBritish automaker Aston Martin has survived 7 bankruptcies. Now it wants you to invest in it \|websiteABC News \|date=11 October 2018}}</ref> The headquarters and main production of its sports cars and grand tourers are in a {{convert\|55\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} facility in Gaydon, Warwickshire, England, on the former site of RAF Gaydon, adjacent to the Jaguar Land Rover Gaydon Centre.<ref name "aml gaydon">{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.rolton.com/case-studies/browse/aston-martin-hq-gaydon\|titleAston Martin HQ, Gaydon \|workRolton \|access-date5 February 2020}}</ref> The old {{convert\|3.6\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} facility in Newport Pagnell, Buckinghamshire, is the present home of the Aston Martin Works classic car department, which focuses on heritage sales, service, spares and restoration operations.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.autoblog.com/2012/05/15/aston-martin-opens-new-works-shop-at-old-newport-pagnell-site/ \|titleAston Martin opens new Works shop at old Newport Pagnell site \|date15 May 2012 \|workAutoblog \|access-date30 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://hauteliving.com/2017/06/aston-martin-works-automotive-paradise/637949/ \|titleAston Martin Works: A Look Into Automotive Paradise \|date19 June 2017 \|workHaute Living \|access-date30 October 2021}}</ref> The {{convert\|90\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} factory in St Athan, Wales, features three converted 'super-hangars' from MOD St Athan, and serves as the production site of Aston Martin's SUV, the DBX.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.itv.com/news/wales/2019-12-06/600-jobs-promised-as-aston-martin-opens-st-athan-factory \|titleNew Aston Martin factory opens in St Athan \|date6 December 2019 \|workITV News \|access-date5 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.business-live.co.uk/manufacturing/aston-martins-new-south-wales-17377243 \|titleAston Martin's new South Wales facility has been officially opened \|date6 December 2019 \|workBusiness Live \|access-date5 October 2021}}</ref> Aston Martin has been involved in motorsport at various points in its history, mainly in sports car racing,<ref name"prodrive">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.motorsport.com/wec/news/how-aston-martin-racing-scaled-new-heights/6487376/ \|titleHow Aston Martin scaled new heights in the Prodrive era \|websiteMotorsport.com \|date27 April 2021}}</ref> and also in Formula One.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/cars/article/aston-martin-formula-one \|titleHow Aston Martin got back on track in Formula One \|websiteGQ \|date24 April 2021}}</ref> The Aston Martin brand is increasingly being used, mostly through licensing, on other products including a submarine,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.topgear.com/car-news/aston-martins-new-submarine \|titleThis is Aston Martin's new submarine\|websiteTop Gear\|date2 May 2018}}</ref> real estate development,<ref nameresidences>{{cite web \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2024/05/02/style/aston-martin-tower-miami-scli-intl/index.html \|titleAston Martin opens 66-story residential tower in Miami \|websiteCNN \|date2 May 2024}}</ref> and aircraft.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/aston-martin-volante-vision-flying-car-concept/ \|titleAston Martin Volante Vision concept gets in on the flying car trend\|websiteCNET\|date16 July 2018}}</ref> History Founding Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.astonmartin.com/the-company/history \|titleCompany History 1913 – 1920 \|publisherAstonmartin.com \|access-date23 August 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140225062127/http://www.astonmartin.com/the-company/history \|archive-date25 February 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The two had joined forces as Bamford & Martin the previous year to sell cars made by Singer from premises in Callow Street, London where they also serviced GWK and Calthorpe vehicles. Martin raced specials at Aston Hill near Aston Clinton, and the pair decided to make their own vehicles.<ref>{{cite journal\|firstE.M. \|lastInman-Hunter \|titleNotes on the Original Aston-Martin Company \|journalMotor Sport \|dateMay 1944 \|page92 }}</ref> The first car to be named Aston Martin was created by Martin by fitting a four-cylinder Coventry-Simplex engine to the chassis of a 1908 Isotta Fraschini.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAston Martin: Car Manufacturer: Great British Design Quest \|urlhttp://www.designmuseum.org/design/aston-martin \|publisherDesign Museum \|access-date23 August 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140701055155/http://designmuseum.org/design/aston-martin \|archive-date 1 July 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.speedace.info/aston_martin.htm \|title Aston martin 1914–2005 \|workspeedace.info \|access-date 23 August 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081228110146/http://www.speedace.info/aston_martin.htm \|archive-date 28 December 2008 \|url-status= dead }}</ref> They acquired premises at Henniker Mews<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.lurotbrand.co.uk/images/mewsnews/MN%202009%2001%20Spring.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.lurotbrand.co.uk/images/mewsnews/MN%202009%2001%20Spring.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive \|titleHenniker Mews, SW3 \|journalMews News \|page3 \|publisherLurot Brand \|dateSpring 2009 \|access-date23 August 2014}}</ref> in Kensington and produced their first car in March 1915. Production could not start because of the outbreak of the First World War, when Martin joined the Admiralty and Bamford joined the Army Service Corps.<ref>{{London Gazette\|issue29337\|page10477\|suppy\|date22 October 1915}}</ref> 1918–1939: Interwar years After the war they found new premises at Abingdon Road, Kensington and designed a new car. Bamford left in 1920 and Bamford & Martin was revitalised with funding from Louis Zborowski. In 1922, Bamford & Martin produced cars to compete in the French Grand Prix, which went on to set world speed and endurance records at Brooklands. Three works Team Cars with 16-valve twin cam engines were built for racing and record-breaking: chassis number 1914, later developed as the Green Pea; chassis number 1915, the Razor Blade record car; and chassis number 1916, later developed as the Halford Special.<ref>The AM Halford Special, The First Five Years, AM Quarterly, Volume 19 Number 77, Summer 1981.</ref> Approximately 55 cars were built for sale in two configurations; long chassis and short chassis. Bamford & Martin went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Dorothea, Lady Charnwood, who put her son John Benson on the board. Bamford & Martin got into financial difficulty again in 1925 and Martin was forced to sell the company (Bamford had already left it in 1920).<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzonQCwAAQBAJ&qAston+Martin+Bankrupt+1926&pgPT718 \|titleThe Singer Story \|firstKevin \|lastAtkinson \|publisherVeloce Publishing \|year2007 \|isbn978-1874105527}}</ref> Later that year, Bill Renwick, Augustus (Bert) Bertelli and investors including Lady Charnwood took control of the business. They renamed it Aston Martin Motors and moved it to the former Whitehead Aircraft Limited Hanworth works in Feltham. Renwick and Bertelli had been in partnership some years and had developed an overhead-cam four-cylinder engine using Renwick's patented combustion chamber design, which they had tested in an Enfield-Allday chassis. The only "Renwick and Bertelli" motor car made, it was known as "Buzzbox" and still survives.<ref namebertelli>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ecuriebertelli.com/amhto1932.html \|titlePre-war Aston Martin, Birth to 1932 \|publisherEcurie Bertelli \|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> The pair had planned to sell their engine to motor manufacturers, but having heard that Aston Martin was no longer in production realised they could capitalise on its reputation to jump-start the production of a completely new car.<ref name=bertelli/> Between 1926 and 1937 Bertelli was both technical director and designer of all new Aston Martins, since known as "Bertelli cars". They included the 1½-litre "T-type", "International", "Le Mans", "MKII" and its racing derivative, the "Ulster", and the 2-litre 15/98 and its racing derivative, the "Speed Model". Most were open two-seater sports cars bodied by Bert Bertelli's brother Enrico (Harry), with a small number of long-chassis four-seater tourers, dropheads and saloons also produced.<ref name=bertelli/> Bertelli was a competent driver keen to race his cars, one of few owner/manufacturer/drivers. The "LM" team cars were very successful in national and international motor racing including at Le Mans.<ref name=bertelli/> Financial problems reappeared in 1932. Aston Martin was rescued for a year by Lance Prideaux Brune before passing it on to Sir Arthur Sutherland. In 1936, Aston Martin decided to concentrate on road cars, producing just 700 until World War II halted work. Production shifted to aircraft components during the war.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.osv.ltd.uk/brief-history-of-aston-martin/\|titleA Brief History of Aston Martin {{!}} OSV {{!}} Learning Centre\|date10 November 2017\|workOSV\|access-date9 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://astrumpeople.com/lionel-martin-biography-a-great-history-of-aston-martin-cars/\|titleLionel Martin Biography: A Great History of Aston Martin Cars\|workAstrum People\|access-date9 September 2018}}</ref> 1947–1972: David Brown ]] In 1947, old-established (1860) privately owned Huddersfield gear and machine tools manufacturer David Brown Limited bought Aston Martin, putting it under control of its Tractor Group. David Brown became Aston Martin's latest saviour.<ref>The David Brown Corporation Limited (Incorporated under the Companies Act. 1948.) The Times, Monday, 12 March 1951; p. 9; issue 51947.</ref> He also acquired Lagonda,<ref>The New Lagonda Car. The Times, Saturday, 20 September 1947; p. 3; issue 50871.</ref> without its factory, for its 2.6-litre W. O. Bentley-designed engine. Lagonda moved operations to Newport Pagnell and shared engines, resources and workshops. Aston Martin began to build the classic "DB" series of cars.<ref namecct>{{cite web \|urlhttps://classiccartrust.com/news/2017/01/70-years-of-aston-martin-dbs-david-brown-and-his-cars/ \|title70 years of Aston Martin DBs: David Brown and his cars \|publisherClassic Car Trust \|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> In April 1950, they announced planned production of their Le Mans prototype to be called the DB2,<ref>The 2½-Litre Aston-Martin. The Times, Tuesday, 25 April 1950; p. 3; issue 51674.</ref> followed by the DB2/4 in 1953, the DB2/4 MkII in 1955, the DB Mark III in 1957 and the Italian-styled 3.7&nbsp;L DB4 in 1958.<ref name=cct/> While these models helped Aston Martin establish a good racing pedigree, the DB4 stood out and yielded the famous DB5 in 1963. Aston stayed true to its grand touring style with the DB6 (1965–70), and DBS (1967–1972).<ref name=cct/> The six-cylinder engines of these cars from 1954 up to 1965 were designed by Tadek Marek.<ref>''Classic Cars: The World's Greatest Marques'' {{ISBN\|978-0-785-81694-2}} p. 29</ref> 1972–1975: William Willson Aston Martin was often financially troubled. In 1972, David Brown paid off all its debts, said to be £5&nbsp;million or more, and handed it for £101 to Company Developments, a Birmingham-based investment bank consortium chaired by accountant William Willson.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleNews and Comment: Aston Martin changes hands \|volume136 \|journalAutocar \|issue3960 \|page2 \|date9 March 1972}}</ref> More detail on this period may be read at Willson's biography. The worldwide recession, lack of working capital and the difficulties of developing an engine to meet California's exhaust emission requirements – it stopped the company's US sales – again pulled Aston Martin into receivership at the end of 1974. The company had employed 460 workers when the manufacturing plant closed.<ref nameTT59502>Receiver is called in at Jensen Motors. The Times, Tuesday, 16 September 1975; p. 17; issue 59502.</ref> 1975–1981: Sprague and Curtis The receiver sold the business in April 1975 for £1.05&nbsp;million to North American businessman Peter Sprague of National Semiconductor, Toronto hotelier George Minden,<ref nameCar197809>{{cite journal \|firstMel \|lastNicols \|titleThe Aston Miracle \|journalCar Magazine \|pages35–362 \|dateSeptember 1978}}</ref> and Jeremy Turner, a London businessman,<ref>Aston Martin bid final, consortium says. The Times, Friday, 4 April 1975; p. 19; issue 59361.</ref> who insisted to reporters that Aston Martin remained a British controlled business. Sprague later claimed he had fallen in love with the factory, not the cars, the workforce's craftsmanship dedication and intelligence. At this point, he and Minden had brought in investor Alan Curtis, a British office property developer, together with George Flather, a retired Sheffield steel magnate.<ref name=TT60284>Lagonda sets out on a new course. The Times, Monday, 24 April 1978; p. 18; issue 60284.</ref> Six months later, in September 1975, the factory – shut down the previous December – re-opened under its new owner as Aston Martin Lagonda Limited with 100 employees, and planned to lift staff to 250 by the end of 1975.<ref name=TT59502/> In January 1976, AML revealed that it now held orders for 150 cars for the US, 100 for other markets and another 80 from a Japanese importing agency.<ref>Aston Martin Revival. The Times, Saturday, 10 January 1976; p. 17; issue 59598.</ref> At the Geneva Motor Show, Fred Hartley, managing director and sales director for 13 years before that, announced he had resigned over "differences in marketing policy".<ref>On the Move. The Times, Wednesday, 16 March 1977; p. 21; issue 59953.</ref> The new owners pushed Aston Martin into modernising its line, introducing the V8 Vantage in 1977, the convertible Volante in 1978, and the one-off Bulldog styled by William Towns in 1980. Towns also styled the futuristic new Lagonda saloon, based on the V8 model.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.hagertyinsurance.co.uk/price-guide/1980-Aston_Martin-Lagonda \|title1980 Aston Martin Lagonda \|publisherHagerty Insurance \|access-date6 December 2018}}</ref> Curtis, who had a 42% stake in Aston Martin,<ref>Consortium puts in its bid for MG. The Times, Friday, 25 January 1980; p. 17; issue 60533.</ref> also brought about a change in direction from the usual customers who were Aston Martin fans, to successful young married businessmen. Prices had been increased by 25%.<ref nameTT60284/> There was speculation that AML was about to buy Italian automobile manufacturer Lamborghini.<ref>August car sales may hit peak. The Times, Friday, 18 August 1978; p. 16; issue 60383.</ref> At the end of the 1970s, there was widespread debate about running MG into the Aston Martin consortium. 85 Conservative MPs formed themselves into a pressure group to get British Leyland to release their grip and hand it over.<ref>Sell MG to Aston Martin, MPs say. The Times, Tuesday, 27 November 1979; p. 16; issue 60485.</ref> CH Industrials plc (car components) bought a 10% share in AML. But in July 1980, blaming a recession, AML cut back their workforce of 450 by more than 20%, making those people redundant.<ref>The Times, Tuesday, 1 July 1980; p. 17; issue 60665.</ref> 1981–1987: Victor Gauntlett In January 1981, there having been no satisfactory revival partners, Alan Curtis and Peter Sprague announced they had never intended to maintain a long-term financial stake in Aston Martin Lagonda and it was to be sold to Pace Petroleum's Victor Gauntlett. Sprague and Curtis pointed out that under their ownership AML finances had improved to where an offer for MG might have been feasible.<ref>Petrol chief takes over Aston Martin. The Times, Monday, 5 January 1981; p. 15; issue 60817.</ref> Gauntlett bought a 12.5% stake in Aston Martin for £500,000 via Pace Petroleum in 1980, with Tim Hearley of CH Industrials taking a similar share. Pace and CHI took over as joint 50/50 owners at the beginning of 1981, with Gauntlett as executive chairman. Gauntlett also led the sales team, and after some development and publicity when the Lagonda became the world's fastest four-seater production car, was able to sell the car in Oman, Kuwait, and Qatar.<ref nameVGOBIT>{{cite news \|urlhttp://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20030409/ai_n12682539 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080203121039/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20030409/ai_n12682539 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date3 February 2008 \|titleObituary: Victor Gauntlett \|newspaperThe Independent (London) \|access-date3 February 2008 }}</ref> In 1982, Aston Martin was granted a Royal Warrant of Appointment by the Prince of Wales.<ref name=":0" /> Understanding that it would take some time to develop new Aston Martin products, they created an engineering service subsidiary to develop automotive products for other companies. It was decided to use a trade name of Salmons & Son, their in-house coachbuilder, Tickford, which Aston Martin had bought in 1955. Tickford's name had been long associated with expensive high-quality carriages and cars along with their folding roofs. New products included a Tickford Austin Metro, a Tickford Ford Capri and even Tickford train interiors, particularly on the Jaguar XJS.<ref nameVGOBIT/> Pace continued sponsoring racing events, and now sponsored all Aston Martin Owners Club events, taking a Tickford-engined Nimrod Group C car owned by AMOC President Viscount Downe, which came third in the Manufacturers Championship in both 1982 and 1983. It also finished seventh in the 1982 24 Hours of Le Mans race. However, sales of production cars were now at an all-time low of 30 cars produced in 1982.<ref nameVGOBIT/> '']] As trading became tighter in the petroleum market, and Aston Martin was requiring more time and money, Gauntlett agreed to sell Hays/Pace to the Kuwait Investment Office in September 1983. As Aston Martin required greater investment, he also agreed to sell his share holding to American importer and Greek shipping tycoon Peter Livanos, who invested via his joint venture with Nick and John Papanicolaou, ALL Inc. Gauntlett remained chairman of AML, 55% of the stake was owned by ALL, with Tickford a 50/50 venture between ALL and CHI. The uneasy relationship was ended when ALL exercised options to buy a larger share in AML; CHI's residual shares were exchanged for CHI's complete ownership of Tickford, which retained the development of existing Aston Martin projects. In 1984, Papanicolaou's Titan shipping business was in trouble so Livanos's father George bought out the Papanicolaou's shares in ALL, while Gauntlett again became a shareholder with a 25% holding in AML. The deal valued Aston Martin/AML at £2&nbsp;million, the year it built its 10,000th car.<ref name=VGOBIT/> Although as a result Aston Martin had to make 60 members of the workforce redundant, Gauntlett bought a stake in Italian styling house Zagato, and resurrected its collaboration with Aston Martin.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.motorauthority.com/news/1120288_aston-martin-shows-off-vanquish-zagato-shooting-brakes-interior \|titleAston Martin shows off Vanquish Zagato shooting brake's interior \|date4 December 2018 \|publisherMotor Authority \|access-date4 December 2018}}</ref> In 1986, Gauntlett negotiated the return of the fictional British secret agent James Bond to Aston Martin. Cubby Broccoli had chosen to recast the character using actor Timothy Dalton, in an attempt to re-root the Bond-brand back to a more Sean Connery-like feel. Gauntlett supplied his personal pre-production Vantage for use in the filming of The Living Daylights, and sold a Volante to Broccoli for use at his home in America. Gauntlett turned down the role of a KGB colonel in the film, however: "I would have loved to have done it but really could not afford the time."<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.thegoldengun.co.uk/tld/tldpress.html \|titleTLD – Press (Allies/MI6) \|publisherthegoldengun.co.uk \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080513082305/http://www.thegoldengun.co.uk/tld/tldpress.html \|archive-date13 May 2008 \|access-date23 August 2014}}</ref> 1987–2007: Ford Motor Company As Aston Martin needed funds to survive in the long term, Ford bought a 75% stake in the company in 1987, and bought the rest later.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.autoweek.com/news/a1919051/100-years-aston-martin/ \|title100 Years Of Aston Martin \|websiteAutoweek \|date27 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-aston-martin-20131214-story.html \|title100 years later, Aston Martin stays true to its classy sports car lineage \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|date14 December 2013}}</ref> In May of that year, Victor Gauntlett and Prince Michael of Kent were staying at the home of Contessa Maggi, the wife of the founder of the original Mille Miglia, while watching the revival event. Another house guest was Walter Hayes, vice-president of Ford of Europe. Despite problems over the previous acquisition of AC Cars, Hayes saw the potential of the brand and the discussion resulted in Ford taking a share holding in September 1987.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.classicdriver.com/upload/classicinside/archive/CIUK2003-14.htm \|titleClassicInside – The ClassicDriver Newsletter \|publisherClassicdriver.com \|access-date30 September 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011191943/http://classicdriver.com/upload/classicinside/archive/CIUK2003-14.htm \|archive-date11 October 2007 }}</ref> In 1988, having produced some 5,000 cars in 20 years, a revived economy and successful sales of limited edition Vantage, and 52 Volante Zagato coupés at £86,000 each; Aston Martin finally retired the ancient V8 and introduced the Virage range.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motoring/buying-guide-used-aston-martin-special \|titleAston Martin Virage Coupe (1989–2000) \|workAutocar \|access-date6 December 2018}}</ref> Although Gauntlett was contractually to stay as chairman for two years, his racing interests took the company back into sports car racing in 1989 with limited European success. However, with engine rule changes for the 1990 season and the launch of the new Volante model, Ford provided the limited supply of Cosworth engines to the Jaguar cars racing team. As the entry-level DB7 would require a large engineering input, Ford agreed to take full control of Aston Martin, and Gauntlett handed over Aston Martin's chairmanship to Hayes in 1991.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172472030.html \|workThe Sydney Morning Herald \|titleKeeping the best of British running \|date14 April 2003}}</ref> In 1992, the high-performance variant of the Virage called the Vantage was announced, and the following year Aston Martin renewed the DB range by announcing the DB7.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.royalautomobileclub.co.uk/motoring/rotunda-cars/aston-martin-db7-1993 \|titleAston Martin DB7 1993 \|publisherRoyal Automobile Club \|access-date6 December 2018 \|archive-date28 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190328165101/https://www.royalautomobileclub.co.uk/motoring/rotunda-cars/aston-martin-db7-1993 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1993, Ford had fully acquired the company after having built a stake in 1987.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-astonmartin-stroll-history-timeline-idUSKBN1ZU15W \|titleTimeline: Twists and turns in Aston Martin's long history \|websiteReuters \|date31 January 2020}}</ref> Ford placed Aston Martin in the Premier Automotive Group, invested in new manufacturing and ramped up production. In 1994, Ford opened a new factory at Banbury Road in Bloxham to manufacture the DB7. In 1995, Aston Martin produced a record 700 cars.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/19/automobiles/aston-martin-s-mission-to-be-ford-s-ferrari.html \|titleAston Martin's Mission: To Be Ford's Ferrari \|websiteThe New York Times \|date19 November 1999}}</ref> Until the Ford era, cars had been produced by hand coachbuilding craft methods, such as the English wheel. During the mid-1990s, the Special Projects Group, a secretive unit with Works Service at Newport Pagnell, created an array of special coach-built vehicles for the Brunei royal family.<ref>David Dowsey (2007). Aston Martin: Power, Beauty and Soul. Peleus Press. {{ISBN\|9780957875951}}.</ref> In 1998, the 2,000th DB7 was built, and in 2002, the 6,000th, exceeding production of all of the previous DB series models. The DB7 range was revamped by the addition of more powerful V12 Vantage models in 1999, and in 2001, Aston Martin introduced the V12-engined flagship model called the Vanquish which succeeded the aging Virage (now called the V8 Coupé).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rac.co.uk/drive/car-reviews/aston-martin/vanquish/vanquish-2001-2007 \|titleAston Martin Vanquish (2001–2007) used car review \|publisherRAC \|access-date6 December 2018}}</ref> At the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan in 2003, Aston Martin introduced the V8 Vantage concept car. Expected to have few changes before its introduction in 2005, the Vantage brought back the classic V8 engine to allow Aston Martin to compete in a larger market. 2003 also saw the opening of the Gaydon factory, the first purpose-built factory in Aston Martin's history. The facility is situated on a {{convert\|55\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} site of a former RAF V Bomber airbase, with an {{convert\|8000\|m2\|sqft\|abbron}} front building for offices, meeting rooms and customer reception, and a {{convert\|35000\|m2\|sqft\|abbron}} production building.<ref name"aml gaydon"/><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.sdc.co.uk/portfolio/lagonda-facility/ \|titleASTON MARTIN LAGONDA HQ, GAYDON \|workSDC \|access-date12 June 2020}}</ref> Also introduced in 2003 was the DB9 coupé, which replaced the ten-year-old DB7. A convertible version of the DB9, the DB9 Volante, was introduced at the 2004 Detroit auto show.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.autonews.com/article/20040112/SUB/401120857/2004-detroit-auto-show:-aston-martin-shows-db9-volante \|title2004 Detroit Auto Show: Aston Martin shows DB9 Volante \|publisherAutonews \|date12 January 2004 \|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> In October 2004, Aston Martin set up the dedicated {{convert\|12500\|m2\|sqft\|abbron}} Aston Martin Engine Plant (AMEP) within the Ford Germany plant in Niehl, Cologne. With the capacity to produce up to 5,000 engines a year by 100 specially trained personnel, like traditional Aston Martin engine production from Newport Pagnell, assembly of each unit was entrusted to a single technician from a pool of 30, with V8 and V12 variants assembled in under 20 hours. By bringing engine production back to within Aston Martin, the promise was that Aston Martin would be able to produce small runs of higher performance variants' engines.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/aston-martin-opens-new-engine-plant \|titleAston Martin opens new engine plant \|websiteAutocar \|date29 October 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://astonmartins.com/factory-guide/aston-martin-engine-plant-amep/ \|titleAston Martin Engine Plant (AMEP) \|websiteastonmartins.com \|date29 October 2004}}</ref> This expanded engine capacity allowed the entry-level V8 Vantage sports car to enter production at the Gaydon factory in 2006, joining the DB9 and DB9 Volante.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.rac.co.uk/drive/car-reviews/aston-martin/vantage/vantage-2006-2017/ \|titleAston Martin Vantage (2006–2017) used car review \|publisherRAC \|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> In December 2003, Aston Martin announced it would return to motor racing in 2005. A new division was created, called Aston Martin Racing, which became responsible, together with Prodrive, for the design, development, and management of the DBR9 program. The DBR9 competes in the GT class in sports car races, including the world-famous 24 Hours of Le Mans.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.motorsport.com/in/lemans/photos/aston-martin-racing-aston-martin-14/16586770/ \|titleAston Martin Racing Aston Martin DBR9 \|workMotor Sport \|date30 May 2018 \|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> In 2006, an internal audit led Ford to consider divesting itself of parts of its Premier Automotive Group. After suggestions of selling Jaguar Cars, Land Rover, or Volvo Cars were weighed, Ford announced in August 2006 it had engaged UBS AG to sell all or part of Aston Martin at auction.<ref>{{cite web \|lastMartinez \|firstJames \|urlhttp://www.motorauthority.com/cars/aston-martin/aston-martin-the-past-the-present-and-tomorrow/ \|publisherMotor Authority \|titleFord confirms Aston Martin is for sale \|date31 August 2006 \|access-date23 August 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080521091102/http://www.motorauthority.com/cars/aston-martin/aston-martin-the-past-the-present-and-tomorrow/ \|archive-date21 May 2008 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> 2007–2018: Private Limited Company On 12 March 2007, a consortium led by Prodrive chairman David Richards purchased Aston Martin for £475&nbsp;million (US$848&nbsp;million).<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/6442101.stm \|titleAston Martin sold to UK-led group \|workBBC News \|date12 June 2007 \|access-date30 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30000-1254955,00.html \|title00-Heaven! Bond's Car British Again, Sky News, Home \|publisherSky News \|access-date30 September 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011174406/http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0%2C%2C30000-1254955%2C00.html \|archive-date11 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117370443833533989 \|titleFord to Sell Aston Martin Unit In Deal Valued at $848 Million \|websiteThe Wall Street Journal \|date12 March 2007}}</ref> The group included American investment banker John Sinders and two Kuwaiti companies namely Investment Dar and Adeem Investment.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/13/automobiles/13auto.html \|titleFord to Sell Aston Martin to Group Led by Ex-Racer \|websiteThe New York Times \|date13 March 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/13/business/12ford.web.html \|titleFord Is Selling Aston Martin \|websiteThe New York Times \|date13 March 2007}}</ref> Prodrive had no financial involvement in the deal.<ref>{{cite press release \|titleDavid Richards heads consortium to buy Aston Martin \|publisherProdrive \|date12 March 2007 \|urlhttp://www.prodrive.com/p_releases.html \|access-date23 August 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140826160907/http://www.prodrive.com/p_releases.html?id98 \|archive-date26 August 2014 }}</ref> Ford kept a stake in Aston Martin valued at £40&nbsp;million (US$70&nbsp;million).<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1545308/Aston-Martin-back-under-British-ownership.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1545308/Aston-Martin-back-under-British-ownership.html \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleAston Martin back under British ownership\|newspaperThe Telegraph\|date13 March 2007\|access-date6 December 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> To demonstrate the V8 Vantage's durability across hazardous terrain and promote the car in China, the first east–west crossing of the Asian Highway was undertaken between June and August 2007. A pair of Britons drove {{convert\|12089\|km\|mi\|abbrin}} from Tokyo to Istanbul before joining the European motorway network for another {{convert\|3259\|km\|mi\|abbrin}} to London. The promotion was so successful Aston Martin opened dealerships in Shanghai and Beijing within three months.<ref>{{cite press release \|titleNew Aston Martin race series for Asia in 2008 \|publisherAston Martin \|date28 November 2007 \|urlhttp://www.astonmartin.com/eng/thecompany/news?a02df19a0-f937-459b-837d-12d13e71a501 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071204083915/http://www.astonmartin.com/eng/thecompany/news?a02df19a0-f937-459b-837d-12d13e71a501 \|archive-date4 December 2007 \|access-date=23 August 2014}}</ref> On 19 July 2007, the Newport Pagnell plant rolled out the last of nearly 13,000 cars made there since 1955, a Vanquish S. The Tickford Street facility was converted and became the home of the Aston Martin Works classic car department which focuses on heritage sales, service, spares and restoration operations.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.classicdriver.com/en/article/cars/focus-heritage-aston-martin-works \|titleFocus on Heritage: 'Aston Martin Works' \|date13 January 2012 \|websiteClassic Driver \|access-date30 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleFrom Newport Pagnell to Gaydon \|journalThe Automobile \|dateNovember 2007}}</ref> UK production was subsequently concentrated on the {{convert\|55\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} facility in Gaydon on the former RAF V Bomber airbase.<ref>[http://www.astonmartins.com/factory/gaydon.htm Aston Martin Gaydon] at Tim Cottingham's Aston Martins (non-official) site {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120828163849/http://www.astonmartins.com/factory/gaydon.htm \|date28 August 2012 }}</ref> In March 2008, Aston Martin announced a partnership with Magna Steyr to outsource manufacture of over 2,000 cars annually to Graz, Austria, reassuringly stating: "The continuing growth and success of Aston Martin is based upon Gaydon as the focal point and heart of the business, with the design and engineering of all Aston Martin products continuing to be carried out there."<ref>[http://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a203a26c4-47e1-4667-9a0c-3ddb9415aa1f Statement by Aston Martin's CEO, Dr Ulrich Bez] Official site, 4 March 2008 {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130523165139/http://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a203a26c4-47e1-4667-9a0c-3ddb9415aa1f \|date=23 May 2013 }}</ref> More dealers in Europe and the new pair in China brought the total to 120 in 28 countries.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAston Martin News – Aston Martin arrives in China \|urlhttp://www.astonmartin.com/eng/thecompany/news?aa7e62136-48fa-487b-8065-fe2a12e60af1 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130523170337/http://www.astonmartin.com/eng/thecompany/news?aa7e62136-48fa-487b-8065-fe2a12e60af1 \|archive-date23 May 2013 }}</ref> On 1 September 2008, Aston Martin announced the revival of the Lagonda marque, proposing a concept car to be shown in 2009 to coincide with the brand's 100th anniversary. The first production cars were slated for production in 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAston Martin News – Aston Martin CEO confirms the revival of the Lagonda Marque \|urlhttp://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a007b120b-8120-4ad9-80f9-60da21ed0c01 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130523171711/http://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a007b120b-8120-4ad9-80f9-60da21ed0c01 \|archive-date23 May 2013 }}</ref> In December 2008, Aston Martin announced it would cut its workforce from 1,850 to 1,250 due to the economic recession.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7759239.stm \|titleEngland, Third of jobs go at Aston Martin \|workBBC News \|date1 December 2008 \|access-date29 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/sep/27/automotive-industry-manufacturing-sector \|locationLondon \|workThe Guardian \|firstPhillip \|lastInman \|titleAston Martin in peril as owner Investment Dar runs out of cash \|date=27 September 2009}}</ref> The first four-door Rapide grand tourers rolled out of the Magna Steyr factory in Graz, Austria, in 2010.<ref>[http://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a62fae734-e1d7-434f-af22-259a8848fbb4 Media announcement] on official website, 7 May 2010 {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130523181625/http://www.astonmartin.com/thecompany/news?a62fae734-e1d7-434f-af22-259a8848fbb4 \|date23 May 2013 }}</ref> The contract manufacturer provides dedicated facilities to ensure compliance with the exacting standards of Aston Martin and other marques, including Mercedes-Benz. Then CEO of the company, Ulrich Bez had publicly speculated about outsourcing all of Aston Martin's operations with the exception of marketing.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.carmagazine.co.uk/News/Search-Results/Industry-News/Aston-to-build-cars-abroad-/ \|titleAston to build cars abroad \|firstBen \|lastOliver \|workCar Magazine \|date3 March 2008 \|access-date28 December 2011 }}</ref> In September 2011, it was announced that production of the Rapide would be returned to Gaydon in the second half of 2012, restoring all of the company's automobile manufacture there.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleProduction of Aston Martin Rapide Moves to Gaydon, England \|urlhttp://wot.motortrend.com/production-aston-martin-rapide-moves-gaydon-england-84627.html \|firstJake \|lastHolmes \|date7 June 2011 \|magazineMotor Trend \|access-date28 December 2011 }}</ref> Italian private equity fund Investindustrial signed a deal on 6 December 2012 to buy a 37.5% stake in Aston Martin, investing £150&nbsp;million as a capital increase.<ref nameBBC20640529>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20640529\|titleAston Martin sells stake to Investindustrial\|workBBC News\|date7 December 2012\|access-date7 December 2012}}</ref><ref nameReuters21207>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-astonmartin-stake-idUSBRE8B60C620121207 \|first1Rhys \|last1Jones \|first2Jennifer \|last2Clark \|titleItalian private equity fund Investindustrial has signed a deal to buy 37.5 percent of Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd ASTON.UL from its Kuwaiti owner Investment Dar \|workReuters \|date7 December 2012 \|access-date14 December 2013 \|archive-date8 March 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140308014159/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/12/07/us-astonmartin-stake-idUSBRE8B60C620121207 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.ilmessaggero.it/economia/aston_martin_italiana_investindustrial_bonomi/notizie/236499.shtml \|titlePagina non Trovata \|websitewww.ilmessaggero.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.motori24.ilsole24ore.com/Industria-Protagonisti/2012/12/aston--martin-passa-mani-italiane.phpAston \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130126010244/http://www.motori24.ilsole24ore.com/Industria-Protagonisti/2012/12/aston--martin-passa-mani-italiane.phpAston \|url-statusdead \|titleMotori 24 – Il Sole 24 ORE \|archive-date26 January 2013 \|access-date7 December 2012}}</ref> This was confirmed by Aston Martin in a press release on 7 December 2012.<ref>{{cite press release \|urlhttp://www.astonmartin.com/en/news?nTitleAston+Martin+announces+new+partnership+with+Investindustrial&nIdea602804-3762-43f4-acf4-4f54b257f30b \|titleAston Martin – The Latest News and Press Releases from Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd \|access-date27 June 2013}}</ref> David Richards left Aston Martin in 2013, returning to concentrate on Prodrive.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.driving.co.uk/news/interview/motor-david-richards-prodrive-boss-former-world-rally-champion/ \|titleME AND MY MOTOR: DAVID RICHARDS, PRODRIVE BOSS AND FORMER WORLD RALLY CHAMPION \|firstJeremy \|lastTaylor \|workThe Sunday Times \|date4 July 2017 \|access-date16 June 2019}}</ref> In April 2013, it was reported that Bez would be leaving his role as the chief executive officer to take up a more ambassadorial position.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/ulrich-bez-expected-step-down-boss-aston-martin\|titleUlrich Bez expected to step down as boss of Aston Martin\|websiteAutocar\|date30 April 2013}}</ref> On 2 September 2014, Aston Martin announced it had appointed the Nissan executive Andy Palmer as the new CEO with Bez retaining a position as non-executive chairman.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/industry-news/aston-martin/aston-martin-appoints-nissans-andy-palmer-as-new-ceo/\|titleAston Martin appoints Nissan's Andy Palmer as new CEO\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date2 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.motortrend.com/news/nissans-andy-palmer-appointed-ceo-of-aston-martin/\|titleNissan's Andy Palmer Appointed CEO of Aston Martin\|websiteMotor Trend\|date2 September 2014}}</ref> As sales had been declining from 2015, Aston Martin sought new customers (particularly wealthy female buyers) with introducing concept cars like the DBX SUV along with track focused cars like the Vulcan.<ref>{{cite news \|firstRussell \|lastHotten \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-31727799 \|workBBC News \|titleAston Martin battles to reinvent itself \|date5 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|firstRussell \|lastHotten \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-31710283 \|workBBC News \|titleAston Martin targets female buyers \|date3 March 2015}}</ref> According to Palmer, the troubles started when sales of the DB9 failed to generate sufficient fund to develop next-generation models which led to a downward spiral of declining sales and profitability.<ref name=autonews04092015/> Palmer outlined that the company plans to develop two new platforms, add a crossover, refresh its supercar lineup and leverage its technology alliance with Daimler as part of its six-year plan to make the 100-year-old British brand consistently profitable. He stated, "In the first century we went bankrupt seven times. The second century is about making sure that is not the case."<ref nameautonews04092015>{{cite news\|last1Gibbs\|first1Nick\|titleAston CEO calls crossover, Daimler deal keys to revival\|urlhttp://europe.autonews.com/article/20150409/ANE/150409991/aston-ceo-calls-crossover-daimler-deal-keys-to-revival\|access-date9 March 2017\|workThe Automotive News\|date9 April 2015}}</ref> In preparation for its next-generation of sports cars, the company invested £20&nbsp;million ($33.4&nbsp;million) to expand its manufacturing plant in Gaydon. The expansion at the Gaydon plant includes a new chassis and pilot build facility, as well as an extension of the parts and logistics storage area, and new offices. In total, Aston Martin will add approximately {{convert\|10000\|m2\|sqft\|abbron}} to the plant.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Kew \|first1Oliver \|titleAston Martin commits £20m to British factory expansion \|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/db9/87193/aston-martin-commits-20m-to-british-factory-expansion \|access-date31 May 2020 \|workAuto Express \|date28 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Udy \|first1Jason \|titleAston Martin Invests $33.4 Million in Gaydon Factory \|urlhttps://www.motortrend.com/news/aston-martin-invests-33-4-million-in-gaydon-factory/ \|access-date31 May 2020 \|workMotor Trend \|date28 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Siler \|first1Steve \|titleAston Martin Pours $33.4M into Gaydon Factory in Initial Expansion Phase \|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15365095/aston-martin-pours-33-4m-into-gaydon-factory-in-initial-expansion-phase/ \|access-date31 May 2020 \|workCar and Driver \|date30 May 2014}}</ref> ]] In 2014, Aston Martin suffered a pre-tax loss of £72&nbsp;million, almost triple of the amount of 2013 selling 3,500 cars during the year, well below the 7,300 cars sold in 2007 and 4,200 sold in 2013 respectively.<ref name"FT10162015"/> In March 2014, Aston Martin issued "payment in kind" notes of US$165&nbsp;million, at 10.25% interest, in addition to the £304&nbsp;million of senior secured notes at 9.25% issued in 2011.<ref name"FT10162015"/> Aston Martin also had to secure an additional investment of £200&nbsp;million from its shareholders to fund development of new models.<ref name"FT10162015">{{cite news \|last1Sharman \|first1Andy \|titleAston Martin reports near tripling of annual losses \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/6402a54a-73f9-11e5-a129-3fcc4f641d98 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/6402a54a-73f9-11e5-a129-3fcc4f641d98 \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|access-date9 March 2017 \|workFinancial Times \|date16 October 2015}}</ref> It was reported that Aston Martin's pre-tax losses for 2016 increased by 27% to £162.8&nbsp;million, the sixth year it continued to suffer a loss.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Pitas \|first1Costas \|titleAston Martin's losses accelerate, new DB11 brings year-end surge to sales \|urlhttp://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-astonmartin-results-idUKKBN1631VP \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170225024150/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-astonmartin-results-idUKKBN1631VP \|url-statusdead \|archive-date25 February 2017 \|access-date25 February 2017 \|workReuters \|date24 February 2017}}</ref> In February 2016, the company selected a {{convert\|90\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} site in St Athan, South Wales for its new factory.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/astonmartin-wales/aston-martin-picks-st-athan-site-in-wales-for-new-crossover-car-idUSL2N1622OZ\|titleAston Martin picks St. Athan site in Wales for new crossover car\|date24 February 2016\|websiteReuters\|access-date24 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/24/james-bond-carmarker-aston-martin-to-open-wales-factory-for-dbx-model\|titleAston Martin to open Wales factory for new DBX model\|date24 February 2016\|websiteThe Guardian\|access-date24 February 2016}}</ref> The Welsh facility was unanimously chosen by Aston's board despite fierce competition from other locations as far afield as the Americas, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Europe, as well as other sites in the UK, believed to be Bridgend, Birmingham, and Coventry. The facility featured three existing 'super-hangars' of MOD St Athan.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-dbx-be-built-wales\|titleAston Martin DBX to be built in Wales\|date23 February 2016\|websiteAutocar\|access-date23 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/fde72ee1-5f17-318d-b835-36ba5df6408b\|titleAston Martin picks Wales for new manufacturing plant\|date24 February 2016\|websiteFinancial Times\|access-date24 February 2016}}</ref> Construction work of converting the hangars commenced in April 2017.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.motor1.com/news/141550/aston-martin-dbx-production-plant/\|titleAston Martin DBX SUV Teased As Welsh Super-Factory Gets Started\|date6 April 2017\|workmotor1.com\|access-date11 July 2020}}</ref> Aston Martin returned to profit in 2017 after selling over 5,000 cars. The company made a pre-tax profit of £87&nbsp;million compared with a £163&nbsp;million loss in 2016.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-43204733 \|titleAston Martin roars back into the black with £87m profit \|websiteBBC News \|date26 February 2018}}</ref> 2017 also marked the return of production of the Newport Pagnell facility ten years after it originally ceased.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.miltonkeynes.co.uk/lifestyle/cars/production-returns-aston-martin-site-newport-pagnell-after-10-years-1059430 \|titleProduction returns to Aston Martin site in Newport Pagnell after 10 years \|date4 January 2018 \|workMilton Keynes Citizen \|access-date5 February 2020}}</ref> 2013–present: Partnership with Mercedes-Benz Group In December 2013, Aston Martin signed a deal with Mercedes-Benz Group (at the time known as Daimler) to supply the next generation of Aston Martin cars with Mercedes-AMG engines.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Holt \|first1Richard \|titleAston Martin signs engine deal with Mercedes-AMG \|date19 December 2013 \|url https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/motoring/19368/aston-martin-signs-engine-deal-with-mercedes-amg.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131222092555/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/motoring/19368/aston-martin-signs-engine-deal-with-mercedes-amg.html \|url-status dead \|archive-date22 December 2013 \|newspaperThe Daily Telegraph \|access-date23 August 2014}}</ref> Mercedes-AMG also was to supply Aston Martin with electrical systems. This technical partnership was intended to support Aston Martin's launch of a new generation of models that would incorporate new technology and engines. In exchange, Mercedes will get as much as 5% equity in Aston Martin and a non-voting seat on its board.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-autos-aston-martin-mercedes--partnership-20131219-story.html\|titleAston Martin and Mercedes-Benz's parent company finalize partnership\|websiteLos Angeles Times\|date19 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15366495/done-deal-aston-martin-and-mercedes-benz-amg-technical-partnership-finalized/\|titleAston Martin and Mercedes-Benz AMG Technical Partnership Finalized\|websiteCar and Driver\|date19 December 2013}}</ref> The first model to sport the Mercedes-Benz technology was the DB11, announced at the 86th Geneva Motor Show in March 2016.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/a9241698-dfa3-11e5-b072-006d8d362ba3 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/a9241698-dfa3-11e5-b072-006d8d362ba3 \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleAston Martin reveals DB11 in drive to reinvent itself\|websiteFinancial Times\|date1 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/motoring/motoring-news/aston-martin-db11-revealed-at-geneva-motor-show-a6921031.html\|titleAston Martin DB11 Revealed At Geneva Motor Show\|websiteThe Independent\|date9 March 2016}}</ref> It featured Mercedes-Benz electronics for the entertainment, navigation and other systems.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-geneva-motor-show/aston-martin-db11-video-analysis-full-tech-details-prices-and\|titleAston Martin DB11 video analysis: full tech details, prices and exclusive pics \|websiteAutocar \|date2 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/db11/90946/new-aston-martin-db11-price-specs-and-video\|titleNew Aston Martin DB11: price, specs and video\|websiteAuto Express\|date18 March 2016}}</ref> It was also the first model to use Mercedes-AMG V8 engines.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Wiseman \|first1Ed \|titleV8 advantage – Aston Martin launches 'more affordable' V8 DB11 grand tourer \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/cars/news/v8-advantage-aston-martin-launches-affordable-v8-db11-grand/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/cars/news/v8-advantage-aston-martin-launches-affordable-v8-db11-grand/ \|archive-date11 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|newspaperThe Telegraph\|access-date4 February 2020\|date28 June 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In October 2020, Mercedes confirmed it will increase its holding "in stages" from 5% to 20%.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-54712376 \|titleAston Martin: Mercedes to take 20% stake in luxury brand \|websiteBBC News \|date27 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/alistaircharlton/2020/10/27/mercedes-to-significantly-increase-ownership-of-aston-martin/?sh419660da5e22\|titleMercedes To Significantly Increase Ownership Of Aston Martin\|websiteForbes\|date27 October 2020}}</ref> In return, Aston Martin will have access to Mercedes-Benz hybrid and electric drivetrain technologies for its future models.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/aston-martin-divestiture-idUSKBN27D11D\|titleMercedes-Benz to lift Aston Martin stake to up to 20% by 2023\|websiteReuters\|date28 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/1abfa75b-1d31-455a-9e43-9bfef1d06844 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/1abfa75b-1d31-455a-9e43-9bfef1d06844 \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleDaimler to increase stake in Aston Martin to 20%\|websiteFinancial Times\|date28 October 2020}}</ref> 2018–present: Listed on the London Stock Exchange After "completing a turnaround for the once perennially loss-making company that could now be valued at up to 5&nbsp;billion pounds ($6.4&nbsp;billion),"<ref name"BBC Results">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-astonmartin-ipo/aston-martin-plans-to-go-public-as-turnaround-picks-up-speed-idUSKCN1LE0G5\|titleAston Martin plans to go public as turnaround picks up speed\|firstCostas\|lastPitas\|newspaperReuters\|date29 August 2018\|access-date23 September 2018}}</ref> and now reporting a full-year pre-tax profit of £87&nbsp;million (compared with a £163&nbsp;million loss in 2016) Aston Martin in August 2018 announced plans to float the company at the London Stock Exchange as Aston Martin Lagonda Global Holdings plc.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fool.co.uk/investing/2018/09/14/will-the-aston-martin-ipo-crush-the-market-or-should-you-avoid-it/\|titleWill the Aston Martin IPO crush the market or should you avoid it?\|date14 September 2018\|access-date12 November 2018}}</ref><ref name"BBC Results"/> The company was the subject of an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange on 3 October 2018.<ref nameBBC_public /> In the same year, Aston Martin opened a new vehicle dynamics test and development centre at Silverstone's Stowe Circuit alongside a new HQ in London.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/aston-martin-use-silverstone%E2%80%99s-stowe-circuit-high-speed-testing \|titleAston Martin to use Silverstone's Stowe Circuit for high-speed testing \|websiteAutocar \|date21 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/industry-news/aston-martin/new-silverstone-test-centre-and-london-office/ \|titleAston Martin on a roll – with new Silverstone and London bases \|websiteCAR Magazine \|date21 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.evo.co.uk/aston-martin/21406/aston-martin-moves-into-new-silverstone-test-base \|titleAston Martin moves into new Silverstone test base \|websiteEVO \|date31 October 2018}}</ref> In June 2019, the company opened its new {{convert\|90\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} factory in St Athan for the production of its first-ever SUV the DBX.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-48601807\|titleAston Martin makes first DBX cars at St Athan factory\|workBBC News\|date12 June 2019\|access-date12 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/dbx/107114/aston-martin-s-st-athan-factory-in-south-wales-all-set-for-the-dbx\|titleAston Martin's St Athan factory in South Wales all set for the DBX\|workAuto Express\|access-date12 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2019/jun/10/aston-martin-targets-wealthy-women-first-suv-dbx\|titleAston Martin opens new factory in south Wales to build SUV\|workThe Guardian\|date10 June 2019\|access-date12 June 2019}}</ref> The factory was finally completed and officially opened on 6 December 2019. When full production begins in the second quarter of 2020, around 600 people will be employed at the factory, rising to 750 when peak production is reached.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/aston-martin-opens-pivotal-st-athan-factory\|titleAston Martin opens 'pivotal' St Athan factory\|date6 December 2019\|workAutocar\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://wales247.co.uk/aston-martin-lagonda-officially-opens-new-250m-st-athan-factory/\|titleAston Martin Lagonda Officially Opens New £250m St Athan Factory\|date6 December 2019\|workWales247\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref> On 31 January 2020 it was announced that Canadian billionaire and investor Lawrence Stroll was leading a consortium, Yew Tree Overseas Limited, who will pay £182&nbsp;million in return for 16.7% stake in the company. The re-structuring includes a £318&nbsp;million cash infusion through a new rights issue, generating a total of £500&nbsp;million for the company.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/billionaire-stroll-takes-major-stake-aston-martin\|titleBillionaire Stroll takes major stake in Aston Martin\|date31 January 2020\|workAutocar\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/31/business/aston-martin-bailout-lawrence-stroll/index.html\|titleAston Martin has been bailed out by Formula 1 billionaire\|date31 January 2020\|workCNN\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddawkins/2020/01/31/billionaire-stroll-takes-stake-in-aston-martin-in-655-million-rescue-deal/\|titleBillionaire Stroll Takes Stake in Aston Martin In $655 Million Rescue Deal\|date31 January 2020\|workForbes\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref> Stroll will also be named as chairman, replacing Penny Hughes.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-51323241\|titleF1 billionaire owner in Aston Martin rescue deal\|date31 January 2020\|workBBC News\|access-date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/jan/31/lawrence-stroll-f1-boss-fashion-tycoon-rescuing-aston-martin\|titleLawrence Stroll: the F1 boss and fashion tycoon rescuing Aston Martin\|date31 January 2020\|workThe Guardian\|access-date3 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-31/aston-martin-said-to-near-deal-to-sell-stake-to-lawrence-stroll-k61soxrp\|titleAston Martin to Sell Stake to Formula One Billionaire\|date31 January 2020\|workBloomberg\|access-date3 February 2020}}</ref> Swiss pharmaceutical magnate Ernesto Bertarelli and Mercedes-AMG Petronas F1 team principal and CEO Toto Wolff have also joined the consortium, acquiring 3.4% and 4.8% stakes, respectively.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.autosport.com/other/news/149128/looking-into-aston-martin-new-era-ahead\|titleLooking into Aston Martin's new era after Stroll purchase\|date23 April 2020\|workAutosport\|access-date25 April 2020}}</ref> In March 2020, Stroll increased his stake in the company to 25%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/lawrence-stroll-take-bigger-stake-aston-martin\|titleLawrence Stroll to take bigger stake in Aston Martin\|date13 March 2020\|workAutocar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/18/aston-martin-chairman-stroll-on-turnaround-plan-the-risks-are-behind-us.html\|titleAston Martin Chairman Stroll on luxury automaker's turnaround plan: 'The risks are behind us'\|date19 August 2021\|workCNBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/10/sports/autoracing/f1-aston-martin-lawrence-stroll.html\|titleLawrence Stroll Is Making No Little Plans\|date10 September 2021\|work=The New York Times}}</ref> On 26 May 2020, Aston Martin announced that Andy Palmer had stepped down as CEO. Tobias Moers of Mercedes-AMG will succeed him starting 1 August, with Keith Stanton as interim chief operating officer.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/business-52804705\|titleAston Martin chief leaves after 94% share price collapse\|date26 May 2020\|workBBC News\|access-date26 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/may/26/aston-martin-sacking-chief-share-andy-palmer-tobias-moers\|titleAston Martin confirms sacking of chief after share collapse\|date26 May 2020\|workThe Guardian\|access-date26 May 2020}}</ref> In June 2020, the company announced that it cut out 500 jobs as a result of the poor sales, an outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/78d1da83-a42a-467f-956d-6231276ca5fb \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/78d1da83-a42a-467f-956d-6231276ca5fb \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|title Aston Martin and Lookers cut thousands of jobs as UK car sales slump\|workFinancial Times \|author1Peter Campbell \|author2Philip Georgiadis \|author3Sarah Provan\|date4 June 2020\|access-date7 June 2020\|locationLondon}}</ref> In March 2021, executive chairman Lawrence Stroll stated that the company plans on building electric vehicles by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://europe.autonews.com/automakers/aston-martin-will-build-electric-vehicles-uk-2025-report-says \|titleAston Martin will build electric vehicles in UK from 2025, report says \|date7 March 2021 \|workAutomotive News Europe \|access-date28 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-03-07/aston-martin-to-make-electric-cars-in-u-k-from-2025-ft-reports \|titleAston Martin To Make Electric Cars in U.K. from 2025, FT Reports\|date7 March 2021 \|workBloomberg\|access-date28 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/6127125e-fbe5-4900-bd8d-54cc01d8922b \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/6127125e-fbe5-4900-bd8d-54cc01d8922b \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleAston Martin promises to make electric models in UK\|date7 March 2021 \|workFinancial Times \|access-date28 March 2021}}</ref> In May 2022, Aston Martin named 76-year-old Amedeo Felisa as the new chief executive officer, replacing Tobias Moers. Roberto Fedeli was also announced as the new chief technical officer.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/business-finance-and-corporate/aston-martin-ceo-tobias-moers-leave-british-firm-official\|titleAston Martin CEO Tobias Moers to leave British firm – official\|date3 May 2022\|websiteAutocar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a39906157/tobias-moers-out-aston-martin-ceo/\|titleTobias Moers Is Out as Aston Martin Replaces CEO, Again\|date4 May 2022\|websiteCar and Driver}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/db433c25-c209-4c0b-8320-08e9623dcc9d \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/db433c25-c209-4c0b-8320-08e9623dcc9d \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleAston Martin replaces chief Tobias Moers in management overhaul\|date4 May 2022\|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref> {{anchor\|Astongate}}In late 2020, Aston Martin was involved in a controversy in which it was accused of using a report to spread disputed information about electric vehicles in the wake of the UK's declaration to end the sale of combustion engine vehicles by 2030, with some in the media dubbing the controversy as "Astongate".<ref>{{cite web \|date2020-12-01 \|title'Astongate': Aston Martin and Bosch accused of using controversial report to downplay EV's environmental benefits \|urlhttps://www.businessgreen.com/news/4024132/astongate-aston-martin-bosch-accused-controversial-report-downplay-evs-environmental-benefits \|websitewww.businessgreen.com \|publisherBusiness Green}}</ref> In November 2020, a communications agency called Clarendon Communications published a report comparing the environmental impact of various powertrain options for cars. After the report received coverage from The Sunday Times and other publications, it emerged that the company had been set up in February that year and was registered under the name of Rebecca Stephens – the wife of James Stephens, who is the government affairs director of Aston Martin Lagonda. Citing a study by Polestar, the report stated that electric vehicles would need to be driven {{Convert\|48000\|mi\|km}} before they would have lower overall {{CO2}} emissions than a petrol car. This statement was disputed by electric vehicle researcher Auke Hoekstra, who argued that the report underestimated the emissions from combustion engine vehicles and did not consider the emissions from creating petrol. According to him, a typical EV would need to drive 16,000–18,000 miles (25,700–30,000&nbsp;km) to offset the emissions from manufacture. Bosch and a number of other companies were also involved with the report.<ref>{{cite web \|url https://inews.co.uk/news/environment/electric-cars-questions-raised-misleading-ev-report-778113\|titleElectric cars: Questions raised over 'misleading' EV report\|website www.inews.co.uk\|publisherI News \|date 30 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2020/dec/02/aston-martin-pr-firm-anti-electric-vehicle-study\|title Aston Martin in row over 'sock puppet PR firm' pushing anti-electric vehicle study\|websiteThe Guardian\|date 2 December 2020}}</ref> In July 2022, Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund (PIF) will take a stake in the company through a £78&nbsp;million equity placing as well as a £575&nbsp;million separate rights issue, giving it two board seats in the company. After the rights issue, the Saudi fund will have a 16.7% stake in Aston Martin, behind the 18.3% holding by Stroll's Yew Tree consortium while the Mercedes-Benz Group will own 9.7%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/c8d74fb3-7fc2-4f04-977c-c97b27cb762e \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/c8d74fb3-7fc2-4f04-977c-c97b27cb762e \|archive-date10 December 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleAston Martin to raise £653mn as Saudi Arabia becomes major shareholder\|date15 July 2022\|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://europe.autonews.com/automakers/saudi-sovereign-fund-become-aston-martins-no-2-shareholder\|titleSaudi sovereign fund to become Aston Martin's No. 2 shareholder\|date15 July 2022\|websiteAutomotive News Europe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2022/jul/15/aston-martin-raises-650m-as-saudi-arabia-takes-a-stake\|titleAston Martin raises £650m as Saudi Arabia takes a stake\|date15 July 2022\|websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> In September 2022, Chinese automaker Geely acquired a 7.6% stake in the company.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/business-finance-and-corporate/breaking-geely-acquires-76-stake-aston-martin\|titleBreaking: Geely acquires 7.6% stake in Aston Martin\|date30 September 2022\|websiteAutocar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://europe.autonews.com/automakers/geely-takes-stake-aston-martin\|titleGeely takes stake in Aston Martin\|date30 September 2022\|websiteAutomotive News Europe}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/chinas-geely-buys-76-stake-aston-martin-lagonda-90757391\|titleChina's Geely buys 7.6% stake in Aston Martin Lagonda\|date30 September 2022\|websiteABC News}}</ref> In December 2022, Stroll and the Yew Tree consortium increased their stake in the company to 28.29%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/12/18/50m-buying-spree-tightens-lawrence-strolls-grip-aston-martin/\|title£50m buying spree tightens Lawrence Stroll's grip on Aston Martin\|date18 December 2022\|websiteThe Telegraph}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/business-finance-and-corporate/aston-martin-stroll-ups-stake-block-possible-geely-takeover\|titleAston Martin: Stroll ups stake to block possible Geely takeover\|date20 December 2022\|websiteAutocar}}</ref> In May 2023, Geely increased its stake to 17%, becoming the third-largest shareholder after the Yew Tree consortium and the Saudi Arabia Public Investment Fund.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/c02a9658-106e-4e71-b181-381b7ec935a3\|titleGeely doubles stake in Aston Martin to 17%\|date18 May 2023\|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/chinas-geely-invest-295-mln-aston-martin-2023-05-18/\|titleAston Martin stock soars as China's Geely to become no.3 shareholder\|date18 May 2023\|websiteReuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://europe.autonews.com/automakers/geely-ups-aston-martin-stake-17-third-largest-shareholder\|titleGeely doubles stake in Aston Martin\|date18 May 2023\|websiteAutomotive News Europe}}</ref> In June 2023, Aston Martin signed an agreement with Lucid Motors after selecting it to help supply electric motors, powertrains, and battery systems for its upcoming range of fully electric cars. In return, Aston Martin will make cash payments and issue a 3.7{{nbsp}}percent stake in its company to Lucid, worth $232{{nbsp}}million in total.<ref>{{cite news \|lastValdes-Dapena \|firstPeter \|date26 June 2023 \|titleAston Martin strikes deal with California-based Lucid to help make EVs \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2023/06/26/business/aston-martin-lucid/index.html \|websiteCNN Business}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Carey \|first1Nick \|last2Koilparambil \|first2Aby Jose \|date26 June 2023 \|titleAston Martin turns to US EV company Lucid for high-tech help \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/aston-martin-lucid-enter-into-agreement-make-electric-vehicles-2023-06-26/ \|websiteReuters}}</ref> In September 2023, the Yew Tree consortium increased their stake by 3.27% to 26.23%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/aston-martin-chair-strolls-yew-tree-ups-stake-carmaker-2023-09-29/\|titleAston Martin Chair Stroll's Yew Tree ups stake in carmaker\|date29 September 2023\|websiteReuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/business/billionaire-lawrence-stroll-s-yew-tree-consortium-hikes-stake-in-aston-martin-b2420891.html\|titleBillionaire Lawrence Stroll's Yew Tree consortium hikes stake in Aston Martin\|date29 September 2023\|websiteThe Independent}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://europe.autonews.com/automakers/lawrence-strolls-consortium-raises-stake-aston-martin\|titleAston Martin Chairman Stroll's Yew Tree increases stake in automaker\|date29 September 2023\|websiteAutomotive News Europe}}</ref> In October 2023, Aston Martin announced that it would compete in the FIA World Endurance Championship and IMSA SportsCar Championship in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motorsport-le-mans-and-sportscars/aston-martin-valkyrie\|titleAston Martin confirms 2025 Le Mans entry with Valkyrie racer\|date4 October 2023\|websiteAutocar}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.motorsport.com/lemans/news/aston-martin-to-return-to-le-mans-24-hours-in-2025-with-valkyrie-lmh/10528577/\|titleAston Martin to return to Le Mans 24 Hours in 2025 with Valkyrie LMH\|date4 October 2023\|websiteMotorsport.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a45432924/aston-martin-le-mans-return-valkyrie/\|titleAston Martin Set to Return to 24 Hours of Le Mans with Valkyrie\|date4 October 2023\|websiteCar and Driver}}</ref> In April 2024, the company said it would push back production of its first electric vehicle to 2027.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-keep-combustion-cars-sale-well-2030s\|titleAston Martin to keep combustion cars on sale well into 2030s\|date10 April 2024\|websiteAutocar}}</ref> In March 2024, Aston Martin announced Adrian Hallmark as its new CEO beginning 1 October 2024, replacing Amedeo Felisa.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/d04f3cbf-ae93-435d-abbe-1955b1bf0375\|titleAston Martin appoints Bentley's Adrian Hallmark as chief executive\|date22 March 2024\|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/aston-martin-name-bentleys-adrian-hallmark-ceo-ft-reports-2024-03-22/\|titleAston Martin names Bentley's Adrian Hallmark as next CEO\|date22 March 2024\|websiteReuters}}</ref> In September 2024, Aston Martin issued a profit warning, saying it had been hit by a fall in demand in China.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-11-27 \|titleAston Martin issues second profit warning in two months \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c98dze04eyyo \|access-date2024-11-27 \|websiteBBC News \|languageen-GB}}</ref> In November 2024, Aston Martin issued another warning following a minor delay in the deliveries of their Valiant model. In response, they said they would issue new shares and debt totalling £210 million.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-11-27 \|titleAston Martin issues second profit warning in two months \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c98dze04eyyo \|access-date2024-11-27 \|websiteBBC News \|languageen-GB}}</ref> In February 2025, CEO Adrian Hallmark announced the company would again push back production of its first electric vehicle to 2030.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-launch-first-ev-2030-after-hybrid-model-blitz\|titleAston Martin to launch first EV by 2030 after hybrid model blitz\|date3 February 2025\|websiteAutocar}}</ref> On 31 March 2025, the Yew Tree Consortium is set to inject an additional £52.5 million into the marque by purchasing 75 million shares at 70 pence per share, increasing its stake to 33%.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2025/03/31/aston-martin-shares-of-luxury-carmaker-pop-on-plans-to-raise-cash.html\|titleAston Martin shares pop as Canadian billionaire Lawrence Stroll invests more cash\|date31 March 2025\|websiteCNBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/yaraelshebiny/2025/03/31/aston-martin-to-raise-over-162-million-through-f1-team-stake-sale-and-strolls-increased-investment/\|titleAston Martin To Raise Over $162 Million Through F1 Team Stake Sale And Stroll's Increased Investment\|date31 March 2025\|websiteForbes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/2e2899d8-2e94-4eba-ac41-99d9acf56b5a\|titleAston Martin to raise more than £125mn amid US tariff threat\|date31 March 2025\|websiteFinancial Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/aston-martin-says-chairman-invest-further-68-million-carmaker-2025-03-31/\|titleAston Martin gets $162 million funding boost to counter losses, Trump tariffs\|date31 March 2025\|websiteReuters}}</ref> Sales at auction In August 2017, a 1956 Aston Martin DBR1/1 sold at a Sotheby's auction at the Pebble Beach, California Concours d'Elegance for US$22,550,000, which made it the most expensive British car ever sold at an auction, according to Sotheby's.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://robbreport.com/motors/cars/most-expensive-auction-cars-all-time-1234771735/\|titleThe 23 Most Expensive Cars Ever Sold at Auction, From Ferraris to Jaguars\|websiteRobb Report\|date5 December 2023}}</ref> The car had previously been driven by Carroll Shelby and Stirling Moss.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2017/08/16/the-five-most-expensive-cars-on-auction-at-pebble-beach.html\|titleThe five most expensive cars on auction at Pebble Beach\|websiteCNBC\|date16 August 2017}}</ref><ref> {{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/features/88249/top-10-most-expensive-cars-ever-sold-auction\|titleTop 10 most expensive cars ever sold at auction\|websiteAuto Express\|date21 August 2023}}</ref> In 2015 a 1962 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato for US$14,300,000 in New York,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/motoring-issues/most-expensive-cars/\|titleRare Merc 300 SLR Uhlenhaut Coupe becomes world's most expensive car\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date20 May 2022}}</ref> and a 1963 Aston Martin DP215 for US$21,455,000 in August 2018.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.topgear.com/car-news/retro/here-are-most-expensive-cars-ever-sold-auction\|titleHere are the most expensive cars ever sold at auction\|websiteTop Gear\|access-date22 March 2024}}</ref> Models Pre-war cars {{Div col}} * 1921–1925 Aston Martin Standard Sports * 1927–1932 Aston Martin First Series * 1929–1932 Aston Martin International * 1932–1932 Aston Martin International Le Mans * 1932–1934 Aston Martin Le Mans * 1933–1934 Aston Martin 12/50 Standard * 1934–1936 Aston Martin Mk II * 1934–1936 Aston Martin Ulster * 1936–1940 Aston Martin 2-litre Speed Models (23 built; the last 8 were fitted with C-type bodywork) * 1937–1939 Aston Martin 15/98 {{Div col end}} Post-war cars {{Div col}} * 1948–1950 Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1) * 1950–1953 Aston Martin DB2 * 1953–1957 Aston Martin DB2/4 * 1957–1959 Aston Martin DB Mark III * 1958–1963 Aston Martin DB4 * 1961–1963 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato * 1963–1965 Aston Martin DB5 * 1965–1966 Aston Martin Short Chassis Volante * 1965–1969 Aston Martin DB6 * 1967–1972 Aston Martin DBS * 1969–1989 Aston Martin V8 * 1977–1989 Aston Martin V8 Vantage * 1986–1990 Aston Martin V8 Zagato * 1989–1996 Aston Martin Virage * 1989–2000 Aston Martin Virage * 1993–2000 Aston Martin Vantage * 1996–2000 Aston Martin V8 Coupe/V8 Volante * 1993–2003 Aston Martin DB7 * 2001–2007 Aston Martin Vanquish * 2002–2003 Aston Martin DB7 Zagato * 2002–2004 Aston Martin DB AR1 * 2004–2016 Aston Martin DB9 * 2005–2018 Aston Martin V8 and V12 Vantage * 2007–2012 Aston Martin DBS * 2009–2012 Aston Martin One-77 * 2010–2020 Aston Martin Rapide * 2011–2012 Aston Martin Virage * 2011–2013 Aston Martin Cygnet (based on the Toyota iQ) * 2012–2018 Aston Martin Vanquish * 2015–2016 Aston Martin Vulcan * 2016–2023 Aston Martin DB11 * 2018–2024 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera * 2021–2024 Aston Martin Valkyrie * 2018–present Aston Martin Vantage * 2020–present Aston Martin DBX * 2023–present Aston Martin DB12 * 2024–present Aston Martin Vanquish {{Div col end}} Other {{Div col\|colwidth=30em}} * 1944 Aston Martin Atom (concept) * 1961–1964 Lagonda Rapide * 1976–1989 Aston Martin Lagonda * 1980 Aston Martin Bulldog (concept) * 1993 Lagonda Vignale (concept) * 2001 Aston Martin Twenty Twenty (Italdesign concept) * 2007 Aston Martin V12 Vantage RS (concept)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-reviews/aston-martin/aston-martin-v12-vantage-rs-concept-2008-review/\|titleAston Martin V12 Vantage RS concept (2008) review\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date26 January 2015}}</ref> * 2009 Aston Martin Lagonda SUV (concept)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/first-official-pictures/aston-martin/aston-martin-lagonda-concept-unveiled-at-geneva-motor-show-2009/\|titleAston Martin Lagonda Concept unveiled at Geneva motor show 2009\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date4 March 2009}}</ref> * 2012 Aston Martin V12 Zagato<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/v12-vantage/62247/aston-martin-v12-zagato\|titleAston Martin V12 Zagato\|websiteAuto Express\|date30 January 2013}}</ref> * 2013 Aston Martin Rapide Bertone Jet 2+2 (concept) * 2013 Aston Martin CC100 Speedster (concept)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a15115491/aston-martin-cc100-speedster-concept-photos-and-info-news/\|titleAston Martin CC100 Speedster Concept Revealed!\|websiteCar and Driver\|date19 May 2013}}</ref> * 2015 Aston Martin DB10 (concept) * 2015–2016 Lagonda Taraf * 2019 Aston Martin Lagonda All-Terrain (concept)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/105896/new-lagonda-all-terrain-concept-previews-2022-luxury-suv\|titleNew Lagonda All-Terrain concept previews 2022 luxury SUV\|websiteAuto Express\|date7 March 2019}}</ref> * 2019 Aston Martin Vanquish Vision (concept)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/first-official-pictures/aston-martin/vanquish/\|titleAston Martin Vanquish Vision: everything you need to know\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date25 April 2019}}</ref> * 2019 Aston Martin DBS GT Zagato<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-dbs-gt-zagato-760bhp-special-revealed\|titleAston Martin DBS GT Zagato: 760bhp special revealed\|websiteAutocar\|date4 October 2019}}</ref> * 2020 Aston Martin V12 Speedster<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.evo.co.uk/aston-martin/202085/aston-martin-v12-speedster-unveiled-to-rival-ferrari-monza-sp2\|titleAston Martin V12 Speedster unveiled to rival Ferrari Monza SP2\|websiteEvo\|date4 March 2020}}</ref> * 2021 Aston Martin Victor<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-review/aston-martin/first-drives/aston-martin-victor-2021-uk-first-drive\|titleAston Martin Victor 2021 UK first drive\|websiteAutocar\|date26 May 2021}}</ref> * 2022 Aston Martin DBR22<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autoexpress.co.uk/aston-martin/358610/new-aston-martin-dbr22-705bhp-limited-run-speedster\|titleNew Aston Martin DBR22 is a 705bhp limited-run speedster\|websiteAuto Express\|date15 August 2022}}</ref> * 2023 Aston Martin Valour<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/first-official-pictures/aston-martin/valour/\|titleAston Martin Valour: a brilliantly brutal 705bhp birthday present\|websiteCAR Magazine\|date11 July 2023}}</ref> * 2024 Aston Martin Valiant<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-valiant-manual-track-weapon-screaming-v12\|titleAston Martin Valiant is manual track weapon with screaming V12\|websiteAutocar\|date26 June 2024}}</ref> {{Div col end}} Current models {{Div col}} * Aston Martin Vantage * Aston Martin DB12 * Aston Martin Vanquish * Aston Martin DBX {{Div col end}} Upcoming models {{Div col}} * Aston Martin Valhalla {{Div col end}} Gallery <gallery mode"packed" caption"Aston Martin models"> File:Aston Martin International, 1500 cm³, Bj. 1930 (2008-06-28).JPG\|1930 Aston Martin1.5L International File:1933 Aston Martin Le Mans.JPG\|1932–1934 Aston Martin Le Mans short chassis File:Aston Martin 2 Litre 1950.JPG\|1948–1950 Aston Martin DB1 File:Aston Martin DB2-4 Mark I.jpg\|1950–1957 DB2 and later DB2/4 File:Aston Martin DB Mark III.jpg\|1957–1959 Aston Martin DB Mark III File:Aston-Martin DB4.JPG\|1958–1963 Aston Martin DB4/GT File:DB4GT Zagato at Goodwood.jpg\|1961–1963 Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato File:AMDB5No1.jpg\|1963–1965 Aston Martin DB5 File:Aston Martin DB6 r.jpg\|1965–1971 Aston Martin DB6 File:Aston Martin DBS V8 and Series II.jpg\|1967–1989 DBS and later V8s File:Zagato.jpg\|1986–1990 Aston Martin V8 Zagato File:Virage Volante.jpg\|1989–2000 Virage/V8/Vantage File:2001 Aston Martin DB7 Vantage Coupe.jpg\|1993–2003 Aston Martin DB7/Vantage File:Amvanquish.jpg\|2001–2007 Aston Martin V12 Vanquish/S File:Zagato Paris.JPG\|2002–2003 DB7 Zagato coupé/roadster File:Aston Martin DB AR1.jpg\|2002–2004 Aston Martin DB AR1 roadster File:Aston Martin DB9 - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (16) (cropped).jpg\|2003–2016 Aston Martin DB9 coupé/Volante File:Aston Martin V8 Vantage - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (15) (cropped).jpg\|2005–2017 Aston Martin V8/V12 Vantage File:Aston Martin DBS - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (11) (cropped).jpg\|2007–2012 Aston Martin DBS File:Aston Martin One-77 (8701486190) (cropped).jpg\|2009–2012 Aston Martin One-77 File:Aston Martin Rapide - Flickr - Alexandre Prévot (12) (cropped).jpg\|2010–2020 Aston Martin Rapide File:2012 Aston Martin Virage coupé.jpg\|2011–2012 Aston Martin Virage File:Aston Martin Cygnet (82).JPG\|2011–2013 Aston Martin Cygnet File:Red Aston Martin V12 Zagato fr IAA 2011.jpg\|2012–2013 Aston Martin V12 Zagato File:White Aston Martin Vanquish in France (cropped).jpg\|2012–2018 Aston Martin Vanquish File:2018 Aston Martin DB11 V8 Automatic 4.0.jpg\|2016–2023 Aston Martin DB11 File:2019 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera in White Stone, front left.jpg\|2018–2024 Aston Martin DBS Superleggera File:2023 Aston Martin Valkyrie 5.jpg\|2021–2024 Aston Martin Valkyrie File:Aston Martin Vantage, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0660.jpg\|2018– Aston Martin Vantage File:Aston Martin DBX Auto Zuerich 2021 IMG 0427.jpg\|2020– Aston Martin DBX File:Aston Martin DB12 1X7A1921.jpg\|2023– Aston Martin DB12 File:Aston Martin Vanquish (2024) Auto Zuerich 2024 DSC 6828.jpg\|2024– Aston Martin Vanquish </gallery> Brand expansion pictured in 2017]] Since 2015, Aston Martin has sought to increase its appeal to women as a luxury lifestyle brand.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/aston-martin-seeks-women-drivers-luxury-tag-1432721358\|titleAston Martin Seeks Women Drivers, Luxury Tag\|lastClark\|firstSimon\|date27 May 2015\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|access-date27 February 2018\|issn0099-9660}}</ref> A female advisory panel was established to adapt the design of the cars to the taste of women.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-02-13/luxury-automakers-are-finally-discovering-the-power-of-women-buyers\|titleLuxury Automakers Are Finally Discovering the Power of Women Buyers\|date13 February 2018\|workBloomberg L.P.\|access-date27 February 2018}}</ref> In September 2016, a 37-foot-long Aston Martin speedboat was unveiled called the Aston Martin AM37 powerboat.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/juyoungseo/2016/09/30/aston-martins-first-speedboat-am37-take-an-exclusive-tour/\|titleAston Martin's First Speedboat AM37: Take an Exclusive Tour\|date7 October 2016\|workForbes\|access-date7 October 2016}}</ref> In May 2018, Aston Martin launched a submersible called Project Neptune in partnership with submarine building company Triton Submarines.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/new-cars/aston-martin-launches-luxury-submersible-project-neptune\|titleAston Martin launches luxury submersible Project Neptune\|date2 May 2018\|workAutocar\|access-date2 May 2018}}</ref> Aston Martin has collaborated with the luxury clothing company Hackett London to deliver items of clothing.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/aston-martin-hackett-london\|titleYour driving gear just got a whole lot sexier thanks to Aston Martin and Hackett\|date23 March 2021\|workGQ\|access-date23 March 2021}}</ref> In November 2017, Aston Martin unveiled a special limited edition bicycle after collaborating with bicycle manufacturer Storck.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.goodwood.com/grr/road/news/on-your-bike-aston-builds-a-bicycle-with-storck/\|titleOn your bike! Aston builds a bicycle with Storck\|date2 November 2017\|workGoodwood Road & Racing\|access-date=2 November 2017}}</ref> Aston Martin and global property developer G&G Business Developments constructed a 66-storey luxury condominium tower called Aston Martin Residences at 300 Biscayne Boulevard Way in Miami, Florida, which opened in 2024.<ref name=residences/> In July 2018, Aston Martin unveiled the Volante Vision Concept, a luxury concept aircraft with vertical take-off and landing capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.caranddriver.com/news/a22160881/aston-martin-takes-to-the-skies-with-volante-vision-concept/\|titleAston Martin Takes to the Skies with Volante Vision Concept\|date16 July 2018\|workCar and Driver\|access-date16 July 2018}}</ref> Also in July, a Lego version of James Bond's DB5 car was put on sale,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/lego-aston-martin-db5-be-careful-with-it-007\|titleLego Aston Martin DB5: be careful with it, 007\|date21 July 2018\|workGQ\|access-date21 July 2018}}</ref> and an Aston Martin-branded watch was released in collaboration with TAG Heuer.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://robbreport.com/style/watch-collector/chronograph-watches-celebrate-tag-heuers-partnership-with-aston-martin-2791552/\|titleSpecial Edition Watches Celebrate Tag Heuer's Partnership with Aston Martin\|date2 May 2018\|workRobb Report\|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> In October 2018, Aston Martin announced it was opening a design and brand studio in Shanghai.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.barrons.com/articles/aston-martin-to-open-design-and-brand-studios-in-shanghai-1540416341?modhp_minor_pos26\|titleAston Martin to Open Design and Brand Studios in Shanghai\|date24 October 2018\|workBarron's\|access-date24 October 2018}}</ref> Motorsport {{see also\|Aston Martin Racing}} ]] Aston Martin is currently associated with two different racing organisations. The Aston Martin Formula One team which competes in the Formula One Championship and Aston Martin Racing which currently competes in the FIA World Endurance Championship. Both racing organisations use the Aston Martin brand, but are not directly owned by Aston Martin. The Aston Martin Formula One team is owned by major Aston Martin shareholder Lawrence Stroll and operated by his company AMR GP,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/company/11496673\|titleAMR GP LIMITED – Overview (free company information from Companies House)\|websitefind-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk}}</ref> while Aston Martin Racing is operated by racing company Prodrive as part of a partnership with Aston Martin.<ref name"prodrive"/> Formula One at the 2023 Austrian Grand Prix]] {{main\|Aston Martin in Formula One}} Aston Martin participated as a Formula One constructor in {{F1\|1959}} and {{F1\|1960}} entering six races over the two years but failing to score any points.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.espn.com/f1/story/_/id/20867563/a-brief-history-aston-martin-f1\|titleA brief history of Aston Martin and F1\|websiteESPN\|date30 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.motorsportmagazine.com/articles/single-seaters/f1/aston-martins-f1-history-60-years-since-its-last-race\|titleAston Martin's F1 history: 60 years since its last race\|websiteMotor Sport\|date31 January 2020}}</ref> In January 2020, it was announced that the Racing Point F1 Team is due to be rebranded as Aston Martin for the 2021 season, as a result of a funding investment led by Racing Point owner Lawrence Stroll.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.racing-point-set-to-become-aston-martin-racing-for-2021.2YwShWhMbZr2NK1M4Q1nMn.html\|titleRacing Point set to become Aston Martin works team for 2021\|websiteFormula 1\|date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/uk-motor-f1-astonmartin-idUKKBN1ZU1EK\|titleRacing Point F1 team to become Aston Martin in 2021\|websiteReuters\|date31 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12433/11922412/racing-point-to-become-aston-martin-team-from-f1-2021\|titleRacing Point to become Aston Martin team from F1 2021\|websiteSky Sports\|date31 January 2020}}</ref> As part of the rebrand, the team switched their racing colour of BWT pink to a modern iteration of Aston Martin's British racing green.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAston Martin reveal new title partners ahead of F1 return\|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.aston-martin-reveal-new-title-partners-ahead-of-f1-return.6W4e4TqPqZ4IDZUXvRazs8.html\|date7 January 2021\|websiteFormula 1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleAston Martin ditches pink F1 livery with new title sponsorship\|urlhttps://www.autosport.com/f1/news/aston-martin-ditches-pink-f1-livery-with-new-title-sponsorship-4975937/4975937/\|date7 January 2021\|websiteAutosport}}</ref> The Aston Martin AMR21 was unveiled in March 2021 and became Aston Martin's first Formula One car after a 61-year absence from the sport.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.aston-martin-are-back-see-the-first-pictures-of-vettel-and-strolls-2021-f1.YqSMfNe7Ogyx5ALO8PhwV.html\|titleAston Martin are back: See the first pictures and video of Vettel and Stroll's 2021 F1 car\|websiteFormula 1\|date3 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2021/03/03/aston-martin-launches-amr21-f1-car-to-be-driven-by-vettel-and-stroll.html\|titleAston Martin launches first F1 car in over 60 years\|websiteCNBC\|date3 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.skysports.com/f1/news/12477/12234426/aston-martin-licenced-to-thrill-in-formula-1-return-as-2021-car-revealed-with-historic-green-livery\|titleAston Martin licensed to thrill in Formula 1 return as 2021 car revealed with historic green livery\|websiteSky Sports\|date3 March 2021}}</ref> Racing cars (post-war) at Goodwood Festival of Speed 2009]] competed with sports prototypes powered by an Aston Martin V12.]] ]] {{Div col\|colwidth=20em}} * Aston Martin DB3 (1950–1953) * Aston Martin DB3S (1953–1956) * Aston Martin DBR1 (1956–1959) * Aston Martin DBR2 (1957–1958) * Aston Martin DBR3 (1958) * Aston Martin DBR4 (1959) * Aston Martin DBR5 (1960) * Aston Martin DP212 (1962) * Aston Martin DP214 (1963) * Aston Martin DP215 (1963) * Aston Martin RHAM/1 (1976–1979) * Aston Martin AMR1 (1989) * Aston Martin AMR2 (never raced) * Aston Martin DBR9 (2005–2008) * Aston Martin DBRS9 (2005–2008) * Aston Martin V8 Vantage N24 (2006–2008) * Aston Martin V8 Vantage Rally GT (2006–2010) * Aston Martin V8 Vantage GT2 (2008–2017) * Aston Martin V8 Vantage GT4 (2008–2018) * Aston Martin DBR1-2 (2009) * Aston Martin AMR-One (2011) * Aston Martin Vantage GTE (2018–2023) * Aston Martin Vantage DTM (2019) * Aston Martin Vantage GT3 (2019–) * Aston Martin Vantage GT4 (2019–) * Aston Martin AMR21 (2021) * Aston Martin AMR22 (2022) * Aston Martin AMR23 (2023) * Aston Martin AMR24 (2024) {{Div col end}} Aston Martin-powered racing cars {{Div col}} * Cooper-Aston Martin (1963) * Lola T70-Aston Martin (1967) * Aston Martin DPLM (1980–1982) * Nimrod NRA/C2-Aston Martin (1982–1984) * Aston Martin EMKA C83/1 and C84/1 (1983–1985) * Cheetah G604-Aston Martin * Lola B08/60-Aston Martin (2008–2011) {{Div col end}} 24 Hours of Le Mans finishes {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Pos ! Class ! No ! Team ! Drivers ! Chassis ! Engine ! Laps \|- \| 1931 \| 5 \| 1.5 \| 25 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} A.C. Bertelli<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Maurice Harvey \| Aston Martin 1½-litre International \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 139 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1932 \| 5 \| 1.5 \| 20 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Sammy Newsome<br>{{Flagicon\|Sweden}} Henken Widengren \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 174 \|- \| 7 \| 1.5 \| 21 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} A.C. Bertelli<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Pat Driscoll \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 168 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1933 \| 5 \| 1.5 \| 25 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Pat Driscoll<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Clifton Penn-Hughes \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 188 \|- \| 7 \| 1.5 \| 24 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} A.C. Bertelli<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Sammy Davis \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 174 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1934 \| 10 \| 1.5 \| 20 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} M.R.E. Tongue \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Reggie Tongue<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Maurice Faulkner \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 188 \|- \| 11 \| 1.5 \| 24 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} John Cecil Noël \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} John Cecil Noël<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Jen Wheeler \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Le Mans \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 180 \|- \| rowspan="6" \| 1935 \| 3 \| 1.5 \| 29 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Roy Eccles \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Charles E.C. Martin<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Charles Brackenbury \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 215 \|- \| 8 \| 1.5 \| 33 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Maurice Faulkner \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Maurice Faulkner<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Tom Clarke \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 202 \|- \| 10 \| 1.5 \| 32 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} C.T. Thomas \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} C.T. Thomas<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} M. Kenyon \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 199 \|- \| 11 \| 1.5 \| 31 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} P.L. Donkin \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Donkin<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Lord Malcolm Douglas-Hamilton \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 199 \|- \| 12 \| 1.5 \| 27 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} John Cecil Noël \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Jim Elwes<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mortimer Morris-Goodall \| Aston Martin 1½-litre \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 196 \|- \| 15 \| 1.5 \| 30 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} R.P. Gardner \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} R.P. Gardner<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} A.C. Beloë \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 190 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1937 \| 5 \| 1.5 \| 37 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} J.M. Skeffington \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} J.M. Skeffington<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} R.C. Murton-Neale \| Aston Martin 1½-litre Ulster \| Aston Martin 1.5L I4 \| 205 \|- \| 11 \| 2.0 \| 31 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} C.T. Thomas \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mortimer Morris-Goodall<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert P. Hichens \| Aston Martin Speed Model \| Aston Martin 2.0L I4 \| 193 \|- \| 1939 \| 12 \| 2.0 \| 29 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert Peverell Hichens \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert P. Hichens<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mortimer Morris-Goodall \| Aston Martin Speed Model \| Aston Martin 2.0L I4 \| 199 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1949 \| 7 \| S<br>2.0 \| 27 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Arthur Jones \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Arthur Jones<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Nick Haines \| Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1) \| Aston Martin 2.0L I4 \| 207 \|- \| 11 \| S<br>2.0 \| 29 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert Lawrie \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert Lawrie<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robert W. Walke \| Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1) \| Aston Martin 2.0L I4 \| 193 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1950 \| 5 \| S<br>3.0 \| 19 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} George Abecassis<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Lance Macklin \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 249 \|- \| 6 \| S<br>3.0 \| 21 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Charles Brackenbury<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Reg Parnell \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 244 \|- \| rowspan="5" \| 1951 \| 3 \| S<br>3.0 \| 26 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Lance Macklin<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Eric Thompson \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 257 \|- \| 5 \| S<br>3.0 \| 25 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} George Abecassis<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Brian Shawe-Taylor \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 255 \|- \| 7 \| S<br>3.0 \| 24 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Reg Parnell<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} David Hampshire \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 252 \|- \| 10 \| S<br>3.0 \| 28 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} N.H. Mann \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Nigel Mann<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mortimer Morris-Goodall \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 236 \|- \| 13 \| S<br>3.0 \| 27 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} P.T.C. Clark \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Clark<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} James Scott Douglas \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 233 \|- \| 1952 \| 7 \| S<br>3.0 \| 32 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter C.T. Clark \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Clark<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mike Keen \| Aston Martin DB2 \| Aston Martin 2.6L I6 \| 248 \|- \| 1955 \| 2 \| S<br>3.0 \| 23 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Collins<br>{{flagicon\|Belgium}} Paul Frère \| Aston Martin DB3S \| Aston Martin 2.9L I6 \| 302 \|- \| 1956 \| 2 \| S<br>3.0 \| 8 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Stirling Moss<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Collins \| Aston Martin DB3S \| Aston Martin 2.9L I6 \| 299 \|- \| 1957 \| 11 \| S<br>3000 \| 21 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} David Brown \| {{Flagicon\|France}} Jean-Paul Colas<br>{{Flagicon\|France}} Jean Kerguen \| Aston Martin DB3S \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 272 \|- \| 1958 \| 2 \| S<br>3000 \| 5 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} P & A.G. Whitehead \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Graham Whitehead<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Peter Whitehead \| Aston Martin DB3S \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 293 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1959 \| 1 \| S<br>3.0 \| 5 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} David Brown Racing Dept. \| {{flagicon\|United States\|1912}} Carroll Shelby<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Roy Salvadori \| Aston Martin DBR1/300 \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 323 \|- \| 2 \| S<br>3.0 \| 6 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} David Brown Racing Dept. \| {{flagicon\|France}} Maurice Trintignant<br>{{flagicon\|Belgium}} Paul Frère \| Aston Martin DBR1/300 \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 322 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1960 \| 3 \| S<br>3.0 \| 7 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Border Reivers \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Roy Salvadori<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Jim Clark \| Aston Martin DBR1/300 \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 306 \|- \| 9 \| S<br>3.0 \| 8 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Major Ian B. Baillie \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Ian B. Baillie<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Jack Fairman \| Aston Martin DBR1/300 \| Aston Martin 3.0L I6 \| 281 \|- \| 1977 \| 17 \| GTP \| 83 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} SAS Robin Hamilton \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Robin Hamilton<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} David Preece<br> {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mike Salmon \| Aston Martin DBS V8 RHAM/1 \| Aston Martin 5.3L V8 \| 260 \|- \| 1982 \| 7 \| C \| 32 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Viscount Downe Pace Petroleum \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Ray Mallock<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Simon Phillips<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Mike Salmon \| Nimrod NRA/C2 \| Aston Martin-Tickford DP1229 5.3L V8 \| 317 \|- \| 1983 \| 17 \| C \| 41 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} EMKA Productions Ltd. \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Tiff Needell<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Steve O'Rourke<br> {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Nick Faure \| EMKA C83/1 \| Aston Martin-Tickford 5.3L V8 \| 275 \|- \| 1985 \| 11 \| C1 \| 66 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} EMKA Productions, Ltd. \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Tiff Needell<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Steve O'Rourke<br> {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Nick Faure \| EMKA C84/1 \| Aston Martin-Tickford 5.3L V8 \| 338 \|- \| 1989 \| 11 \| C1 \| 18 \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin<br>{{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Ecurie Ecosse \| {{Flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Brian Redman<br>{{Flagicon\|Ireland}} Michael Roe<br>{{Flagicon\|Greece}} Costas Los \| Aston Martin AMR1 \| Aston Martin (Callaway) RDP87 6.0L V8 \| 340 \|- \| 2005 \| 9 \| GT1 \| 59 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Australia}} David Brabham<br>{{flagicon\|France}} Stéphane Sarrazin<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Darren Turner \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 333 \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2006 \| 6 \| GT1 \| 007 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Tomáš Enge<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|Italy}} Andrea Piccini \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 350 \|- \| 9 \| GT1 \| 62 \| {{flagicon\|Russia}} Russian Age Racing<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Team Modena \| {{flagicon\|Spain}} Antonio García<br>{{flagicon\|Australia}} David Brabham<br>{{flagicon\|Brazil}} Nelson Piquet Jr. \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 343 \|- \| 10 \| GT1 \| 009 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Portugal}} Pedro Lamy<br>{{flagicon\|France}} Stéphane Sarrazin<br>{{flagicon\|Monaco}} Stéphane Ortelli \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 342 \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2007 \| 1 \| GT1 \| 009 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Australia}} David Brabham<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|Sweden}} Rickard Rydell \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 343<ref name"web.archive.org">{{cite web\|url http://www.lemans.org/24heuresdumans/chronos/pdf/course/chronos_24h2007.pdf#page74 \|title24 Heures Du Mans \|year2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927033111/http://www.lemans.org/24heuresdumans/chronos/pdf/course/chronos_24h2007.pdf#page74 \|archive-date27 September 2007 \|access-date=21 June 2014}}</ref> \|- \| 3 \| GT1 \| 008 \| {{flagicon\|France}} AMR Larbre Compétition \| {{flagicon\|Denmark}} Casper Elgaard<br> {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Johnny Herbert<br> {{flagicon\|Italy}}Fabrizio Gollin \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 341<ref name="web.archive.org"/> \|- \| 4 \| GT1 \| 007 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Tomáš Enge<br> {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Johnny Herbert<br> {{flagicon\|Netherlands}}Peter Kox \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 337<ref name="web.archive.org"/> \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2008 \| 1 \| GT1 \| 009 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Australia}} David Brabham<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|ESP}} Antonio Garcia \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 344 \|- \| 4 \| GT1 \| 007 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Germany}} Heinz-Harald Frentzen<br> {{flagicon\|Italy}}Andrea Piccini<br> {{flagicon\|Austria}}Karl Wendlinger \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 339 \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2009 \| 4 \| LMP1 \| 007 \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} AMR Eastern Europe \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Tomáš Enge<br>{{flagicon\|Czech Republic}}Jan Charouz<br>{{flagicon\|Germany}} Stefan Mücke \| Lola-Aston Martin B09/60 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 373 \|- \| 13 \| LMP1 \| 008 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Anthony Davidson<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Jos Verstappen \| Lola-Aston Martin B09/60 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 342 \|- \| 3 \| GT1 \| 66 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Jetalliance Racing \| {{flagicon\|AUT}} Lukas Lichtner-Hoyer<br>{{flagicon\|AUT}} Thomas Gruber<br>{{flagicon\|DEU}} Alex Müller \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 294 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2010 \| 6 \| LMP1 \| 007 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Switzerland}} Harold Primat<br>{{flagicon\|Mexico}}Adrián Fernández<br>{{flagicon\|Germany}} Stefan Mücke \| Lola-Aston Martin B09/60 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 365 \|- \| 3 \| GT1 \| 52 \| {{flagicon\|Germany}} Young Driver AMR \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} Tomáš Enge<br>{{flagicon\|Denmark}}Christoffer Nygaard<br>{{flagicon\|Netherlands}} Peter Kox \| Aston Martin DBR9 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 311 \|- \| 2011 \| 7 \| LMP1 \| 22 \| {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Kronos Racing<br>{{flagicon\|Belgium}} Marc VDS Racing Team \| {{flagicon\|Belgium}} Vanina Ickx<br>{{flagicon\|Belgium}}Bas Leinders<br>{{flagicon\|Belgium}} Maxime Martin \| Lola-Aston Martin B09/60 \| Aston Martin 6.0L V12 \| 328 \|- \| 2012 \| 3 \| GTE-Pro \| 97 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|Mexico}}Adrián Fernández<br>{{flagicon\|Germany}} Stefan Mücke \| Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE \| Aston Martin 4.5L V8 \| 332 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2013 \| 3 \| GTE-Pro \| 97 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Darren Turner<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Peter Dumbreck<br>{{flagicon\|Germany}} Stefan Mücke \| Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE \| Aston Martin 4.5L V8 \| 314 \|- \| 6 \| GTE-Am \| 96 \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Aston Martin Racing \| {{flagicon\|Germany}} Roald Goethe<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}}Jamie Campbell-Walter<br>{{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} Stuart Hall \| Aston Martin V8 Vantage GTE \| Aston Martin 4.5L V8 \| 301 \|} Sponsorships Aston Martin sponsors 2. Bundesliga club 1860 Munich.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.sportspromedia.com/news/aston_martin_deal_for_tsv_1860_munich/\|titleAston Martin deal for TSV 1860 Munich\|date19 September 2011\|publisherSports Pro Media\|access-date6 December 2018}}</ref>See also * Aston Martin Heritage Trust Museum * Aston Martin Owners Club * List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom {{portal bar\|Cars\|Companies\|England}} References {{reflist\|30em}} External links {{commons category}} * {{Official website}} {{Navboxes \|titlestyle = background:#ccccff \|list1= {{Aston Martin F1}} {{Aston Martin Racing}} {{David Brown Ltd.}} {{Aston Martin Sportscar Racers}} {{Aston Martin vehicles timeline}} {{Aston Martin timeline 2000 to date}} {{Automotive industry in the United Kingdom}} {{British car industry}} {{British royal warrant holders}} {{Mercedes-Benz Group}} {{Formula One constructors\|state=collapsed}} {{Ford Motor Company}} {{FTSE 250 Index constituents}} {{Zhejiang Geely Holding Group}} }} {{Authority control}} Category:1913 establishments in England Category:2018 initial public offerings Category:Automotive companies of England Category:British racecar constructors Category:British royal warrant holders Category:Car brands Category:Car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Category:Companies based in Warwickshire Category:Companies in the FTSE 250 Index Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange Category:English brands Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers of England Category:Premier Automotive Group Category:Sports car manufacturers Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aston_Martin	2025-04-05T18:26:02.260297
2371	Albert Pike	{{Short description\|American author, Mason, and soldier (1809–1891)}} {{Use American English\|date=October 2017}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=April 2023}} {{Infobox officeholder \| name = Albert Pike \| image = Albert Pike - Brady-Handy.jpg \| caption = Pike in Masonic regalia by Mathew Brady \| office = Associate Justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court \| status = In exile \| term_start = June 8, 1864 \| term_end = May 28, 1865 \| appointed = Harris Flanagin \| predecessor = Hulbert F. Fairchild \| successor = Charles A. Harper \| birth_date = {{Birth date\|1809\|12\|29}} \| death_date = {{Death date and age\|1891\|4\|2\|1809\|12\|29}} \| birth_place = Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. \| death_place = Washington, D.C., U.S. \| resting_place = Oak Hill Cemetery, Washington,&nbsp;D.C. \| resting_place_coordinates {{coord\|38\|54\|45.9\|N\|77\|03\|21.4\|W\|region:US-DC_type:landmark\|displayinline,title}} \| signature = Signature of Albert Pike (1809–1891).png \| allegiance = {{unbulleted list\|United States\|Confederate States}} \| branch = {{unbulleted list\|<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not add the Army flag adopted by the U.S. government in 1956 (65 years after Pike's death) as it would be historically inaccurate. Thank you. -->United States Volunteers\|Confederate States Army}} \| branch_label = Service \| serviceyears = {{unbulleted list\|1846–1847 (U.S.)\|1861–1862 (C.S.)}} \| rank = {{unbulleted list\|Captain (U.S.)\|Brigadier general (C.S.)}} \| commands = {{unbulleted list\|Company E, Arkansas Mounted Infantry Regiment (1846–1847)\|District of Indian Territory (1861–1862)}} \| battles = {{tree list}} * Mexican–American War ** Battle of Buena Vista * American Civil War ** Battle of Pea Ridge{{tree list/end}} \| battles_label = Battles }} Albert Pike (December 29, 1809{{spaced ndash}}April 2, 1891) was an American author, poet, orator, editor, lawyer, jurist and Confederate States Army general who served as an associate justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court in exile from 1864 to 1865. He had previously served as a senior officer of the Confederate States Army, commanding the District of Indian Territory in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. A prominent member of the Freemasons, Pike served as the Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council, Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction from 1859 to 1891. Early life and education Albert Pike was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 29, 1809, the son of Benjamin and Sarah (Andrews) Pike. He grew up in Byfield and Newburyport, Massachusetts. His colonial ancestors had settled in the area in 1635,<ref name=mscacw/> and included John Pike (1613–1688/1689), the founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey.<ref>Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor John Pike is as follows: John Pike (1572–1654); John Pike (1613–1688/89); Joseph Pike (1638–1694); Thomas Pike (1682–1753/4); John Pike (1710–1755); Thomas Pike (1739–1836); Benjamin Pike (1780–?); Albert Pike (1809–1891).</ref> He attended school in Newburyport and Framingham until he was 15. In August 1825, he passed entrance exams at Harvard University, though when the college requested payment of tuition fees for the first two years, he chose not to attend. He began a program of self-education, later teaching school in Gloucester, North Bedford, Fairhaven and Newburyport.<ref>Hubbell, Jay B. (1954) The South in American Literature: 1607–1900. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 640.</ref> Pike was an imposing figure; {{convert\|6\|ft\|m\|sigfig3}} tall and {{convert\|300\|lb\|kg}} with hair that reached his shoulders and a long beard.<ref name"smithassoc">{{Cite web \|title"Albert Pike – Hero or Scoundrel?", The Smithsonian Associates Civil War E-Mail Newsletter, Volume 5, Number 1, Civil War Studies.org, Smithsonian Associates \|urlhttp://civilwarstudies.org/articles/Vol_5/pike.shtm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170808063358/http://civilwarstudies.org/articles/Vol_5/pike.shtm \|archive-dateAugust 8, 2017 \|access-dateJune 10, 2016}}</ref><ref name=Cutrer/> In 1831, he left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in Nashville, Tennessee. He later moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he joined a hunting and trading expedition to Taos, New Mexico.<ref namemscacw/> En route his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining {{convert\|500\|mi\|km}} to Taos. After this, he joined a trapping expedition to the Llano Estacado in New Mexico and Texas. Trapping was minimal and, after traveling about {{convert\|1300\|mi\|km}}, half of it on foot, he finally arrived at Fort Smith, Arkansas.<ref name"Cutrer">{{cite web\| url http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fpi18\| title Cutrer, Thomas W., "Pike, Albert", The Handbook of Texas, Texas State Historical Association}}</ref> Career Settling in Arkansas in 1833, Pike taught in a school and wrote a series of articles for the Little Rock Arkansas Advocate under the pen name of "Casca."<ref nameEncycArkansas>{{Cite web \|last1Moneyhon \|first1Carl H. \|titleAlbert Pike (1809–1891) \|urlhttps://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/albert-pike-1737/ \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2021\|websiteEncyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (EOA\|publisherCentral Arkansas Library System )}}</ref> The articles were sufficiently well received for him to be asked to join the newspaper's staff. Under Pike's administration, the Advocate promoted the viewpoint of the Whig Party in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas in December 1832.<ref nameEncycArkansas/> After marrying Mary Ann Hamilton in 1834, he purchased the newspaper.<ref name"ipw">{{cite web\| url http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entryPI006\| title = Westmoreland, Ingrid P., "Pike, Albert", Oklahoma Historical Society}}</ref> He was the first reporter for the Arkansas Supreme Court. He wrote a book (published anonymously), titled The Arkansas Form Book, which was a guidebook for lawyers.<ref name=EncycArkansas/> Pike began to study law and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the Advocate the same year. (At least one source indicates that Pike read Kent and Blackstone and was admitted to the bar in 1834 by Superior Court judge Thomas J. Lacy, after a perfunctory examination.)<ref>Walter Lee Brown, A Life of Albert Pike, p. 57 (1997).</ref> He proved to be a highly effective lawyer, representing clients in courts at every level. This continued after he received permission in 1849 to practice before the United States Supreme Court.<ref name=EncycArkansas/> He also made several contacts among the Native American tribes in the area. He specialized in claims on behalf of Native Americans against the federal government.<ref namesmithassoc/> In 1852, he represented the Creek Nation before the Supreme Court in a claim regarding ceded tribal land. In 1854 he advocated for the Choctaw and Chickasaw, although compensation later awarded to the tribes in 1856 and 1857 was insufficient.<ref nameipw/> These relationships were to influence the course of his Civil War service. Pike also began a campaign of newspaper essays urging support for the construction of a transcontinental railroad to extend from New Orleans to the Pacific coast. He moved to New Orleans in 1853 and prepared to pass the state bar in furtherance of his campaign. He ultimately secured a charter from the Louisiana State Legislature for a project, following which he returned to Little Rock in 1857.<ref name=EncycArkansas/> He joined the anti-Catholic Know Nothing Party at its founding;<ref nameEncycArkansas/> in the summer of 1854, he helped introduce the party in Arkansas.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Smith \|first1Harold T. \|titleThe Know-Nothings in Arkansas \|journalThe Arkansas Historical Quarterly \|dateWinter 1975 \|volume34 \|issue5 \|pages291–303 \|doi10.2307/40022446 \|jstor40022446 \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/40022446}}</ref> He attended the national convention in 1856, but walked out when it failed to adopt a pro-slavery platform.<ref name=EncycArkansas/> Additionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects. He also continued writing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts. His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten. Several volumes of his works were privately published posthumously by his daughter. In 1859, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Harvard.<ref>"The Phoenix," Manly P. Hall</ref> Poetry As a young man of letters, Pike wrote poetry, and he continued to do so for the rest of his life. At 23, he published his first poem, "Hymns to the Gods." Later work was printed in literary journals such as ''Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine and local newspapers. His first collection of poetry, Prose Sketches and Poems Written in the Western Country, was published in 1834.<ref nameCutrer /> He later gathered many of his poems and republished them in Hymns to the Gods and Other Poems (1872). After his death these were published again in Gen. Albert Pike's Poems (1900) and Lyrics and Love Songs'' (1916).<ref nameEncycArkansas/> The authorship of "The Old Canoe" was attributed to Pike. He was suggested as author because about the time of its publication, when it was going the rounds of the press, probably without any credit, a doggerel called "The Old Canoe" was composed about Pike by one of his political foes. The subject was a canoe in which he left Columbia, Tennessee, when a young man practicing law in that place. Pike told Senator Edward W. Carmack that he was not the author of "The Old Canoe," and could not imagine how he ever got the credit for it. The rightful author was Emily Rebecca Page.{{sfn\|Bob Taylor's Magazine\|1910\|p192}}Freemasonry {{Freemasonry}} Pike first joined the fraternal Independent Order of Odd Fellows in 1840. He next joined a Masonic Lodge, where he became extremely active in the affairs of the organization. In 1859 he was elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the Scottish Rite's Southern Jurisdiction.<ref name="Eicher429" /> He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the rest of his life, devoting a large amount of his time to developing the rituals of the order.<ref>Warner, Ezra J. (1959) Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. {{ISBN\|0-8071-0823-5}}. pp. 240–241</ref> He published a book called Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in 1871, the first of several editions.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPike \|firstAlbert \|titleMorals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. \|date2013 \|publisherOrkos Press \|isbn978-1592328154}}</ref> This helped the Order grow during the nineteenth century. He also researched and wrote the seminal treatise Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda. In the United States, Pike is still considered an eminent<ref name"Pikeeminent">[https://web.archive.org/web/20061221064805/http://www.freemason.org/cfo/mar_apr_2002/pike.htm "Albert Pike and Freemasonry"]. California Freemason</ref> and influential<ref name"Pikeinfluence">[http://www.masonicinfo.com/pike.htm Albert Pike] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151031104117/http://www.masonicinfo.com/pike.htm \|dateOctober 31, 2015 }}, masonicinfo.com</ref> Freemason, primarily in the Scottish Rite Southern Jurisdiction.<ref>{{cite web\| url https://scottishrite.org/headquarters/virtual-tour/albert-pike-museum/\| title Albert Pike Museum, The Scottish Rite of Freemasonry\| access-date June 10, 2016\| archive-date June 24, 2016\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160624005828/https://scottishrite.org/headquarters/virtual-tour/albert-pike-museum/\| url-status dead}}</ref> Pike was also the Provincial Grand Master of the Royal Order of Scotland from 1877 to 1891.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePast Provincial Grand Masters {{!}} Royal Order Of Scotland PGL USA \|urlhttps://roosusa.org/past-pgms/ \|access-date1 August 2024}}</ref>Military serviceMexican–American WarWhen the Mexican–American War started, Pike joined the Arkansas Mounted Infantry Regiment and was commissioned as a company commander with the rank of captain in June 1846. With his regiment, he fought in the Battle of Buena Vista. Pike was discharged in June 1847. He and his commander, Colonel John Selden Roane, had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to an "inconclusive" duel between Pike and Roane on July 29, 1847, near Fort Smith, Arkansas.<ref name"Eicher429">Eicher, John H., aer (2001) Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press. {{ISBN\|0-8047-3641-3}}. p. 429</ref> Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.<ref name"allsopp">{{cite web\| url https://archive.org/details/lifestoryofalber00allsrich\| title <!-- quotealbert pike. --> Allsopp, Frederick William. A Life of Albert Pike, Parke-Harper news service, 1920\| year 1920\| publisher Little Rock, Ark., Parke-Harper news service}}</ref> After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to New Orleans for a time beginning in 1853.<ref nameEncycArkansas/> He wrote another book, Maxims of the Roman Law and Some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence.<ref name":0">{{Cite book \|lastBrown \|firstWalter Lee \|titleA life of Albert Pike \|publisherUniversity of Arkansas Press \|year1997 \|isbn1557284695 \|locationFayetteville \|pages61, 240, 302, 408}}</ref> Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field. At the Southern Commercial Convention of 1854, Pike said the South should remain in the Union and seek equality with the North, but if the South "were forced into an inferior status, she would be better out of the Union than in it."<ref>Potter, David Morris and Edward, Don (1976) The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861. HarperCollins. p. 467</ref> His stand was that state's rights superseded national law and he supported the idea of a Southern secession. This stand is made clear in his pamphlet of 1861, "State or Province, Bond or Free?"<ref nameEncycArkansas/>American Civil WarIn 1861, Pike penned the lyrics to "Dixie to Arms!"<ref>{{cite web\| url http://chnm.gmu.edu/loudountah/activities/pdf/DixieSongLyrics2.pdf\| title "Dixie to Arms!", Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University}}</ref> At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native American nations. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861. At the time, Ross agreed to support the Confederacy, which promised the tribes a Native American state if it won the war. Ross later changed his mind and left Indian Territory, but the succeeding Cherokee government maintained the alliance.<ref namesmithassoc/> Pike was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army on November 22, 1861, and given a command in the Indian Territory. With Brig. Gen. Ben McCulloch, Pike trained three Confederate regiments of Indian cavalry, most of whom belonged to the "civilized tribes", whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable. Although initially victorious at the Battle of Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern) in March 1862,<ref name"mscacw">[http://www.ma150.org/day-by-day/1862-03-06/massachusetts-born-csa-general-albert-pike-leads-brigade-native-americans-batt "Massachusetts born CSA general Albert Pike leads brigade of Native Americans at the Battle of Pea Ridge", Massachusetts Sesquicentennial Commission of the American Civil War] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160725142921/http://www.ma150.org/day-by-day/1862-03-06/massachusetts-born-csa-general-albert-pike-leads-brigade-native-americans-batt \|dateJuly 25, 2016 }}</ref> Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. When Pike was ordered in May 1862 to send troops to Arkansas, he resigned in protest.<ref nameipw/> As in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one time drafting a letter to Jefferson Davis complaining about his direct superior.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBoyden \|firstWilliam Llewellyn \|titleBibliography of the Writings of Albert Pike: Prose, Poetry, Manuscript. \|publisherA.A.S.C. \|year1921 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|pages=18}}</ref> After Pea Ridge, it was alleged that Pike's Native American troops had scalped soldiers in the field.<ref>Shea, William, and Earl Hess, Pea Ridge: Civil War Campaign in the West. University of North Carolina Press, 1992. {{ISBN\|0-8078-4669-4}}.</ref> The single incident of scalping was, however, done by a Native American acting on his own. Official records submitted to the Headquarters Department of Indian territory reveal that Pike "regarded [the incident] with horror" and that he was personally "angry and disgusted." He also filed a report in which he said it caused him the "utmost pain and regret."<ref name ="Huff">Huff, Sanford W.,The Annals of Iowa, Published by the State Historical Society (Iowa State Historical Department, Division of Historical Museum and Archives, 1868), p. 149</ref> Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman charged Pike with mishandling of money and material, ordering his arrest.<ref name"Smith585">Smith, Dean E. (1986) "Pike, Albert" in Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust. New York: Harper & Row. {{ISBN\|978-0-06-273116-6}}. p. 585</ref> The incident arose when Hindman, who had declared martial law in Arkansas, ordered Pike to turn over weapons and Native American Indian treaty funds. Pike thought the action was illegal and refused.<ref name"Brown406-16">Brown, Walter Lee, A Life of Albert Pike (University of Arkansas Press, 1997), pp. 406–16</ref> Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, submitting his resignation from the Confederate States Army on July 12, 1862.<ref name"Smith585" /> He was arrested on November 3 on charges of insubordination and treason, and held briefly in Warren, Texas. His resignation was accepted on November 11, and he was allowed to return to Arkansas.<ref name"Smith585" /> As Union troops advanced toward the state capital in September 1863, the State Supreme Court retreated to Washington, Arkansas, which was made the new Confederate state capital. Associate Justice Hulbert F. Fairchild resigned because the new location was too far from his family, and Pike was appointed as his replacement.<ref nameSCOA>{{Cite web \|last1Jones \|first1William B \|titleSupreme Court of Arkansas\|urlhttps://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/supreme-court-of-arkansas-2242/ \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2021\|websiteEncyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (EOA\|publisherCentral Arkansas Library System )}}</ref> In the wake of the war, Pike moved to New York City, then for a short time to Canada.<ref nameEncycArkansas/> On June 24, 1865, Pike applied to President Andrew Johnson for a pardon, disowning his earlier interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. He said he now planned "to pursue the arts of peace, to practice my profession, to live among my books, and to labour to benefit my fellows and my race by other than political courses". President Johnson pardoned him on April 23, 1866.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc95JSzYD3E0C&pgPA287 \|titleThe Papers of Andrew Johnson \|date1867 \|publisherUniversity of Tennessee Press \|isbn9780870496134 \|editor-lastBergeron \|editor-firstPaul H. \|volume8: May–August 1865 \|page287 \|access-dateJune 20, 2020}}</ref>Later life and deathDuring the Arkansas political conflict known as the Brooks-Baxter War, Pike was one of the lawyers to speak on behalf of Elisha Baxter.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Moneyhon \|first1Carl H. \|titleBrooks-Baxter War \|urlhttps://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/brooks-baxter-war-2276/ \|websiteEncyclopedia of Arkansas \|publisherCentral Arkansas Library System \|access-dateSeptember 6, 2020}}</ref>, torn down by rioters on June 19, 2020<ref name"FoxNews">{{Cite news\|titleProtesters topple only outdoor Confederate statue in the nation's capital\|languageen\|newspaperThe Washington Post\|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/protesters-topple-only-confederate-statue-in-the-nations-capital/2020/06/20/d996348c-b2a8-11ea-8f56-63f38c990077_story.html\|access-dateNovember 16, 2023}}</ref>]] Pike died on April 2, 1891, at the Scottish Rite Temple of the Supreme Council in Washington DC, at the age of 81,<ref>[https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045462/1891-04-03/ed-1/seq-11/#date104%2F02%2F1891&index0&date204%2F08%2F1891&searchTypeadvanced&language&sequence0&wordsAlbert+ALBERT+PIKE+Pike&proxdistance5&stateDistrict+of+Columbia&rows20&ortext&proxtext&phrasetext&andtextalbert+pike&dateFilterTyperange&page1 Washington Star, April 3, 1891]</ref> and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery, despite the fact that he had left instructions for his body to be cremated.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastCutrer \|firstThomas W. \|dateMay 1, 1995 \|titlePike, Albert (1809–1891) \|urlhttps://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/pike-albert \|access-dateNovember 5, 2023 \|websiteTexas State Historical Association}}</ref> In 1944, his remains were moved to the House of the Temple, headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe House of the Temple: A History \|urlhttps://scottishritenmj.org/blog/house-of-temple-history \|access-date2024-02-21 \|websiteScottish Rite, NMJ \|languageen-US}}</ref> The House of the Temple contains numerous memorials and artifacts related to Pike, including his personal library. Legacy A memorial to Pike was erected in 1901 in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The location was appropriate considering that Pike had sued the government to secure Native American rights. The statue portrayed him as a private citizen and Freemason. He was the only former Confederate military officer with an outdoor statue in Washington, D.C., and in 2019 Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton called for its removal.<ref name"CurbedNorton">{{Cite news \|lastGlambrone \|firstAndrew \|dateJuly 31, 2019 \|titleConfederate statue near Judiciary Square should be removed, D.C. delegate says. \|workCurbed \|urlhttps://dc.curbed.com/2019/7/31/20749036/dc-confederate-statue-Albert-pike-congress-history \|access-dateAugust 1, 2019}}</ref> On June 19, 2020, protesters tore down the statue and set it ablaze, in connection with the George Floyd protests because of Pike's association with the Confederacy and of his alleged association with the Ku Klux Klan.<ref name="FoxNews" /> The Albert Pike Memorial Temple is an historic Masonic lodge in Little Rock, Arkansas; the structure is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.littlerock.com/travel-tools/local-services/detail/historic-albert-pike-masonic-center\| title "Historic Albert Pike Masonic Center", Little Rock Convention and Visitors Bureau\| access-date June 10, 2016\| archive-date May 23, 2016\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160523002448/http://www.littlerock.com/travel-tools/local-services/detail/historic-Albert-pike-masonic-center\| url-status dead}}</ref> Albert Pike Highway was an auto trail that extended more than {{convert\|900\|mi\|km}} from Hot Springs, Arkansas, to Colorado Springs, Colorado, crossing the Ozark Mountains and passing through Fort Smith, Muskogee, Tulsa, Dodge City, La Junta and Pueblo.<ref>{{cite map \|url https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/15603730 \|title Map of the Albert Pike Highway: Showing Every City, Town, Village and Hamlet Throughout Its Entire Length \|scale 1:1,900,800 \|location Washington, DC \|author Albert Pike Highway Association \|publisher National Highways Association \|year 1919 \|via Yale University Library }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|year1930 \|titleAlbert Pike Highway \|encyclopediaEncyclopedia Britannica \|edition14\|volume1\|page527 \|languageen}}</ref>Controversies Masonic baptism In 1865, Pike publicly performed a ceremony of Masonic baptism in New York City.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleInteresting Masonic Ceremony Baptism of Six Children by Albert Pike, of Arkansas. \|languageen \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1865/10/01/83208749.html \|access-dateDecember 29, 2022}}</ref> The ceremony was greeted with skepticism by many American Masons including Albert Mackey, but was based on older European Masonic baptism ceremonies that began in the 1820s.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastChariton \|firstJesse D. \|date2021 \|title"Some Ceremony Peculiar to Themselves": The Continuation of a European Masonic Ceremony in Nineteenth-Century Wisconsin \|urlhttps://journals.ku.edu/ygas/article/view/20050 \|journalYearbook of German-American Studies \|languageen \|volume56 \|pages21–40 \|issn0741-2827}}</ref> However, some, like the New York Times, reacted positively to the ceremony describing it as "interesting" and "novel." In the ritual, six children were baptized by Pike with water and consecrated oil.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleInteresting Masonic Ceremony Baptism of Six Children by Albert Pike, of Arkansas\|languageen\|workThe New York Times\|dateOctober 1865 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1865/10/01/archives/interesting-masonic-ceremony-baptism-of-six-children-by-albert-pike.html\|access-date2023-11-16}}</ref> Racism In the aftermath of the Civil War, as former Confederates found themselves barred from the ballot box, Pike remained deeply opposed to black suffrage, insisting that "the white race, and that race alone, shall govern this country. It is the only one that is fit to govern, and it is the only one that shall."<ref name"Brown439-442">{{Cite book \|lastBrown \|firstWalter Lee \|titleA life of Albert Pike \|publisherUniversity of Arkansas Press \|year1997 \|isbn1557284695 \|locationFayetteville \|pages=439–442}}</ref> Regarding membership in the Freemasons, Pike is quoted as saying, "Prince Hall Lodge was as regular a Lodge as any Lodge created by competent authority. It had a perfect right to establish other Lodges and make itself a Mother Lodge. I am not inclined to meddle in the matter. I took my obligations from white men, not from negroes. When I have to accept negroes as brothers or leave masonry, I shall leave it. Better let the thing drift." His attitudes towards African-Americans may have changed towards the end of his life. A 1945 letter written by Willard W. Allen, the Sovereign Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, S.J. Prince Hall Affiliation noted that "what practically all Masonic scholars know very well, viz., that in the closing years of General Pike's Masonic career, he became a very staunch friend of Negro Masonry."<ref name "de Hoyos">de Hoyos, Arturo (1996) "On the Origins of the Prince Hall Scottish Rite Rituals", Heredom: The Transaction of the Scottish Rite Research Society vol. 5 Washington, D.C.: Scottish Rite Research Society, pp. 52–53</ref> Pike had become a personal friend of Thornton A. Jackson, Supreme Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction, Prince Hall Affiliation and even gifted to Thornton his complete set of rituals for Prince Hall Scottish Rite Masonry to use.<ref>{{Cite web\|dateNovember 26, 2012\|titleAlbert Pike did not found the Ku Klux Klan\|urlhttps://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/kkk.html#014\|url-statuslive\|websiteGrand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A.M.\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20011025000123/http://freemasonry.bcy.ca:80/anti-masonry/kkk.html \|archive-dateOctober 25, 2001 }}</ref> Involvement with the Ku Klux Klan Pike first wrote about the Ku Klux Klan less than three years after the Klan's founding, in an April 16, 1868 editorial in the Memphis Daily Appeal. In the editorial, Pike indicated that his main problems lay not with its aims, but with its methods and leadership. Later in this editorial, he proposed "one great Order of Southern Brotherhood", a secret society which would have been a larger and more centrally organized version of the Klan: "If it were in our power, if it could be effected, we would unite every white man in the South, who is opposed to negro suffrage, into one great Order of Southern Brotherhood, with an organization complete, active, vigorous, in which a few should execute the concentrated will of all, and whose very existence should be concealed from all but its members."<ref name"Brown439-442" /><ref name"Dickerson2003">{{Cite book \|lastDonna Lee Dickerson \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgXOan-fUeCMC&pgPA263 \|titleThe Reconstruction Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1865 to 1877 \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|year2003 \|isbn978-0-313-32094-1 \|pages263–264}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|lastUrban \|firstHugh \|date2001 \|titleThe Adornment of Silence \|urlhttp://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2001/2001-2.pdf \|url-statuslive \|journalJournal of Religion & Society \|volume3 \|page9 \|issn1522-5658 \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2001/2001-2.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|access-dateJune 26, 2020}}</ref> In 1905's Ku Klux Klan: Its Origin, Growth and Disbandment, the author Walter Lynwood Fleming, lists Pike as the Klan's "chief judicial officer".<ref name"Lester">{{cite book \|last1Lester \|first1J.C. \|last2Wilson \|first2D.L. \|last3Fleming \|first3Walter L. \|titleKu Klux Klan: Its Origin, Growth and Disbandment \|date1905 \|publisherThe Neal Publishing Company \|locationNew York and Washington \|page27 \|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/31819/31819-h/31819-h.htm}}</ref> Susan Lawrence Davis, whose father was a founding member of the Klan in Alabama,<ref name"Whites2016">{{cite book\|authorL. Whites\|titleGender Matters: Race, Class and Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century South\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idn2cYDAAAQBAJ\|dateApril 30, 2016\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan US\|isbn978-1-137-05915-4\|page93}}</ref> writes in her sympathetic account titled Authentic History: Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877, published in 1924, that Pike was personally chosen by Nathan Bedford Forrest to serve as the Klan's "Chief Judicial Officer" and to head the Klan in Arkansas as "Grand Dragon of that Realm."<ref name"Davis1924">{{cite book\|authorSusan Lawrence Davis\|titleAuthentic History, Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrvZEAAAAIAAJ\|year1924\|publisherAmerican Library Service\|page276}}</ref> In 1939's Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871, Stanley Horn, who served as president of the Tennessee Historical Society, also reports that Forrest appointed Pike to lead the Klan in Arkansas and credits him with a surge of local Klan activity in April 1868. Horn says that a pro-Klan poem, "Death's Brigade", is attributed to Pike, although "of course, he did not have the bravado to claim that honor publicly at that time."<ref name"Horn">{{cite book \|last1Horn \|first1Staney F. \|titleInvisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 \|date1939 \|publisherHoughton-Mifflin \|locationBoston \|pages245–246, 337 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/invisibleempires00hornrich/page/336/mode/2up?qpike}}</ref> Southern Agrarian poet John Gould Fletcher, who grew up in Little Rock in a house that Pike built,<ref>{{cite web \|last1Johnson \|first1Ben \|titleJohn Gould Fletcher (1886–1950) \|urlhttps://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/john-gould-fletcher-1646/ \|websiteEncyclopedia of Arkansas \|publisherCLAS \|access-dateSeptember 7, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date1950-05-24 \|titleJohn Gould Fletcher, 1950 \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-star-john-gould-fletcher/146340804/ \|access-date2024-07-28 \|workThe Kansas City Star \|pages50}}</ref> likewise believed that Pike wrote the poem.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSmith \|firstA. Drew \|titleConfederate monuments: General Albert Pike joined an effort to expel free Blacks from Arkansas \|urlhttps://www.commercialappeal.com/story/news/2020/07/30/confederate-monument-albert-pike-arkansas/5448301002/ \|access-date2024-07-28 \|websiteThe Commercial Appeal \|languageen-US}}</ref> When the Ku Klux Klan was revived in 1915, there even existed an Albert Pike Klan, a local chapter of the organization based in Illinois.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAlbert Pike: Confederate Commissioner, Masonic Demiurge, Apologist for Slavery, Apostate of the Union {{!}} Readex \|urlhttps://www.readex.com/blog/albert-pike-confederate-commissioner-masonic-demiurge-apologist-slavery-apostate-union \|access-date2023-04-14 \|websitewww.readex.com}}</ref> In 1971, Allen W. Trelease published White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, and claimed that the office that Pike allegedly held in the KKK was not mentioned in "The Prescript", the Klan constitution.<ref name"Brown439-442" /> However, the office of Grand Dragon, which Davis claims Pike once held, is explicitly mentioned in the 1867 Klan constitution.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnlhHAQAAIAAJ&q%22Grand+Wizard+of+the+Empire%22 \|titleCongressional Serial Set \|date1872 \|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://thereconstructionera.com/the-prescript-of-the-ku-klux-klan-1867/ \| titleThe Prescript of the Ku Klux Klan 1867 \| dateJune 12, 2019 }}</ref> At the same time, Trelease noted that "Pike may well have affiliated with the Klan."<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTrelease \|firstAllen W. \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/whiteterrorkuklu0000trel \|titleWhite terror : the Ku Klux Klan conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction \|date1995 \|publisherBaton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press \|othersInternet Archive \|isbn=978-0-8071-1953-2}}</ref> As evidence, Trelease notes that Pike "was intrigued by secret societies and rituals" and "sympathized with the Klan's stated objectives." In his 1997 biography of Pike, Walter Lee Brown asserts that Pike was not a member of the Klan and Brown found "no contemporary, nor no reliable late evidence that Pike ever joined the Klan."<ref name"Brown439-442" /> Brown claims the work of Fleming, Davis and Horn are "unreliable histories", but offers no further evidence other than citing Trelease, which, in Brown's interpretation "cast's doubt on Pike's membership."Selected books * Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda (1872) * Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite (1872) * Book of the Words (1874) * Reprints of Old Rituals (1879) * Esoterika (1887) See also<!-- EDITORS NOTE: This section should primarily contain lists linked to the main article which are directly related to the person. Thank you. --> * List of Arkansas adjutants general * List of Confederate States Army generals * List of Freemasons * List of people from Boston * List of people from Little Rock, Arkansas Footnotes {{Reflist\|30em}} References {{Div col\|colwidth=30em}} * {{Cite book \|lastAbel \|firstAnnie \|titleThe American Indian as Participant in the Civil War \|publisherBiblioBazaar \|year2007 \|isbn978-1-4264-6170-5 \|location=City}} * {{Cite book \|lastAllsopp \|firstFred \|titleAlbert Pike a Biography \|publisherKessinger Publishing \|year1997 \|isbn1-56459-134-4 \|location=City}} * {{Cite book \|lastBrown \|firstWalter \|titleA Life of Albert Pike \|publisherUniversity of Arkansas Press \|year1997 \|isbn1-55728-469-5 \|location=Fayetteville}} * {{Cite book \|lastCousin \|firstJohn \|titleShort Biographical Dictionary of English Literature \|publisherKessinger Publishing, LLC \|year2003 \|isbn0-7661-4348-1 \|location=City}} * {{Cite book \|lastMorris \|firstS. Brent \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/completeidiotsgu00morr \|titleThe Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry \|publisherAlpha Books \|year2006 \|isbn1-59257-490-4 \|url-accessregistration}} * {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}} * {{Source-attribution\| {{Cite book \|lastBob Taylor's Magazine \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideOARAAAAYAAJ&pgPA192 \|titleBob Taylor's Magazine \|publisherTaylor's Publishing Company \|year1910 \|editionPublic domain \|volume=11–12 }} }} {{Div col end}} Further reading * {{Cite book \|lastLafferty \|firstR.A. \|titleOkla Hannali \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|year1991 \|isbn0-8061-2349-4 \|location=Oklahoma}} * {{Cite book \|lastUnited Daughters of the Confederacy. Memorial Chapter No. 48 (Little Rock, Ark.) \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historicalarkans00unit \|titleHistorical Arkansas. Compliments of the Memorial chapter, U. D. C., Little Rock, Arkansas \|daten.d. \|publisherDemocrat Printing and Lithographing Company \|locationLittle Rock \|pages[https://archive.org/details/historicalarkans00unit/page/5 5]–7 \|chapterChapter 2: Albert Pike \|lccn20018497}}External links<!-- WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS. Only a limited number of new links should be added to this article. PLEASE DO NOT ADD external links to sites with information already in the article or in its sources. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for further details --> {{commons category}} * {{Find a Grave\|11051}} * [https://freemasonry.network/famous-freemasons/reformers-of-freemasonry/albert-pike/ Albert Pike] at Freemasonry.network * [http://albertpike.wordpress.com/albert-pike-lucifer Albert Pike and Lucifer] at Freemasonry and the World (albertpike.wordpress.com) * [https://allfreemasonry.com/masonic-lodge-symbols-wisdom-through-art/ Albert Pike and Masonic Lodge Symbols] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725033653/https://allfreemasonry.com/masonic-lodge-symbols-wisdom-through-art/ \|dateJuly 25, 2020 }} at Allfreemasonry.com * [http://www.masonicinfo.com/pikesphilosophy.htm Albert Pike's Philosophy] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100420101810/http://www.masonicinfo.com/pikesphilosophy.htm \|dateApril 20, 2010 }} at Masonicinfo.com * [http://www.civilwarpoetry.org/confederate/songs/apdixie.html "Everybody's Dixie" by Albert Pike] at Civilwarpoetry.org * {{Gutenberg author\|id8681\|nameAlbert Pike}} * {{Internet Archive author\|sname=Albert Pike}} <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please follow the WP:EL guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. Thank you. --> {{s-start}} {{s-mil}} {{s-bef\|before={{Nowrap\|Colonel S. H. Hempstead}}}} {{s-ttl\|titleAdjutant General of Arkansas\|years1845–1846}} {{s-aft\|after={{Nowrap\|Colonel Solon Borland}}}} {{s-legal}} {{s-bef\|before=Hulbert F. Fairchild}} {{s-ttl\|title{{Nowrap\|Associate Justice of the Arkansas Supreme Court}}<br />In exile\|years1864–1865}} {{s-aft\|after=Charles A. Harper}} {{s-end}} {{Subject bar\|portal1American Civil War\|portal2Arkansas\|portal3Biography\|portal4Journalism\|portal5Law\|portal6Literature\|commonsy\|commons-searchCategory:Albert Pike\|qy\|q-searchAlbert Pike\|sy\|s-searchAuthor:Albert Pike}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Pike, Albert}} Category:1809 births Category:1891 deaths Category:19th-century American educators Category:19th-century American Episcopalians Category:19th-century American judges Category:19th-century American lawyers Category:19th-century American male writers Category:19th-century American newspaper editors Category:19th-century American non-fiction writers Category:19th-century United States Army personnel Category:Activists from Arkansas Category:Adjutants General of Arkansas Category:American duellists Category:American Freemasons Category:American Ku Klux Klan members Category:American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law Category:American military personnel of the Mexican–American War Category:American militia officers Category:American people of English descent Category:American political journalists Category:American slave owners Category:Arkansas Democrats Category:Arkansas Know Nothings Category:Arkansas lawyers Category:Arkansas Whigs Category:Burials at Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.) Category:Confederate States Army brigadier generals Category:Confederate States of America diplomats Category:Deaths from digestive disease Category:Editors of Arkansas newspapers Category:Episcopalians from Massachusetts Category:Exiled politicians Category:Justices of the Arkansas Supreme Court Category:Lawyers from Little Rock, Arkansas Category:Lawyers from Washington, D.C. Category:Northern-born Confederates Category:People of Arkansas in the American Civil War Category:People pardoned by Andrew Johnson Category:Schoolteachers from Massachusetts Category:Writers from Arkansas Category:People charged with treason Category:Prisoners and detainees of the Confederate States of America	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Pike	2025-04-05T18:26:02.305118
2372	ALF Tales	{{short description\|American animated series}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=March 2025}} {{Infobox television \| image = ALFtales-tc-remaster.png \| caption \| runtime 30 minutes per episode \| creator = {{Plainlist\| * Paul Fusco * Tom Patchett }} \| starring = {{Plainlist\| * Paul Fusco * Peggy Mahon * Paulina Gillis * Thick Wilson * Dan Hennessey{{Citation needed \|date=May 2024}} * Rob Cowan * Ellen-Ray Hennessy * Noam Zylberman }} \| country = United States \| language = English \| network = NBC \| company = {{Plainlist\| * DIC Animation City * Saban Entertainment * Alien Productions }} \| first_aired = {{Start date\|1988\|09\|10}} \| last_aired = {{End date\|1989\|12\|09}} \| num_seasons = 2 \| num_episodes = 21 }} ALF Tales is a 30-minute Saturday morning animated series that aired on NBC from September 10, 1988, to December 9, 1989.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hyatt \|first1Wesley \|titleThe Encyclopedia of Daytime Television \|date1997 \|publisherWatson-Guptill Publications \|isbn978-0823083152 \|page4}}</ref> The show is a spin-off of ALF: The Animated Series that featured characters from that series playing various characters from fairy tales.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Erickson \|first1Hal \|titleTelevision Cartoon Shows: An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1949 Through 2003 \|date2005 \|edition2nd \|publisherMcFarland & Co \|isbn978-1476665993 \|page72}}</ref> The fairy tale parody was usually altered for comedic effect in a manner akin to Jay Ward's "Fractured Fairy Tales".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Perlmutter \|first1David \|titleThe Encyclopedia of American Animated Television Shows \|date2018 \|publisherRowman & Littlefield \|isbn978-1538103739 \|pages20–21}}</ref> The episodes were performed in the style of a resident theater company or ensemble cast where Gordon and Rhonda would take the leading male and female roles, and the other characters were cast according to their characteristics. Many stories spoof a film genre, such as the "Cinderella" episode which is presented like an Elvis Presley film. Some episodes featured a "fourth wall" effect where Gordon is backstage preparing for the episode, and Rob Cowan would appear drawn as a TV executive (who introduced himself as "Roger Cowan, network executive") who tries to brief Gordon on how to improve the episode. For instance Cowan once told Gordon who was readying for a medieval themed episode that "less than 2% of our audience lives in the Dark Ages". Voice cast Paul Fusco as ALF (Gordon Shumway), Rick Fusterman Paulina Gillis<ref name"pitheatre">{{cite web\|urlhttp://pitheatre.com/the-baroness-and-the-pig/ \|titlePi Theatre, Independent Vancouver Theatre >> The Baroness and the Pig \|access-dateOctober 30, 2011 \|authorDamian Inwood \|quoteThat's what Vancouver actresses Diane Brown and Tabitha St. Germain do with the delightful black comedy, The Baroness and the Pig. (...) St. Germain – better known to Vancouver audiences as Paulina Gillis – plays the Baroness as a naïve gentlewoman, full of prissy mannerisms and twittering, bird-like movements. \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120425122725/http://pitheatre.com/the-baroness-and-the-pig/ \|archive-date=April 25, 2012 }}</ref>) as Augie, Rhonda Peggy Mahon as Flo Thick Wilson as Larson Petty, Bob Dan Hennessey as Sloop<ref>https://deadline.com/2024/11/dan-hennessey-dead-voice-actor-care-bears-inspector-gadget-x-men-tv-series-director-1236182060/</ref> Rob Cowan as Skip Ellen-Ray Hennessy as Stella the Waitress Noam Zylberman as Curtis (1988) Michael Fantini as Curtis (1989) Episodes Season 1 (1988–89) {{Episode table \|background=#8B4513 \|overall=5 \|season=5 \|title\|writer \|airdate=12 \|episodes= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 1 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 1 \| Title = Robin Hood \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|09\|10}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon portrays Robin Hood, leading a jazz band called "Ye Merry Men." They oppose the Sheriff of Nottingham's unjust taxes and raids on peasants. Robin Hood's group sneaks into Nottingham Castle to rescue Maid Marian, using their jazz music to disarm the guards, who are unexpectedly sympathetic. When King Richard returns, he punishes Prince John and the Sheriff by making them watch the Home Shopping Network for ten years. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 2 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 2 \| Title = Sleeping Beauty \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|09\|17}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon takes on the role of Sleeping Beauty. A witch, angered by Flo and Bob, curses their newborn with a fatal papercut. Three wizards, Rick, Skip, and Curtis, arrive to bless the baby. One wizard counters the curse with a sleeping spell. King Bob responds by outlawing paper in his kingdom and promotes television over reading. Sixteen years later, a bored teenage prince reads a smuggled newspaper and gets a paper cut. Rhonda portrays a princess who must defeat the witch with the help of the three wizards. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 3 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 3 \| Title = Cinderella \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|09\|24}} \| ShortSummary = Based in 1962, "Gordo Shumway" portrays a rock star akin to Elvis Presley in search of love. Cinderella's stepfamily obtains tickets to his concert, where he plans to choose a bride. Feeling disheartened, Cinderella receives a wish from her fairy godmother "which he can't refuse." At the concert, Gordo performs his hit song, and Cinderella impresses him with a spontaneous duet, culminating in a high note that breaks all the glass in the auditorium. Determined to find the woman who can shatter a glass slipper, Gordo searches until he discovers Cinderella. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 4 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 4 \| Title = The Legend of Sleepy Hollow \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|10\|01}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon plays Ichabod Crane, a photographer applicant at the Daily Hemisphere in Sleepy Hollow. He meets Katrina, the publisher's daughter, and is assigned to photograph the Headless Horseman. During a date with Katrina, he is chased by the horseman, who warns him away. Ichabod, spurred by the full moon, pursues multiple headless horsemen, discovering they are impostors. Eventually, he flees with Katrina, only to be pursued by a genuinely frightening headless horseman. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 5 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 5 \| Title = Jack and the Beanstalk \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|10\|08}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon plays Jack Bates (Norman Bates's son) who, in an effort to save their struggling motel, trades the family cow for three magic beans. Overnight, the beans grow into a massive beanstalk. Climbing it, Jack finds a giant named J. Mason with a hen that lays golden eggs. Jack steals the hen to renovate the motel. When a beautiful guest named Pippi Lee Sing arrives, Jack is captured by two men and taken to the giant. Fortunately, Pippi, actually a secret agent, rescues him. They escape with the hen, cutting down the beanstalk and defeating the giant. Jack and Pippi marry and leave with the hen by train. The story parodies Alfred Hitchcock's works, with nods to Psycho, Vertigo and Rear Window. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 6 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 6 \| Title = The Aladdin Brothers and Their Lamp \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|10\|15}} \| ShortSummary = Inspired by the One Thousand and One Nights, Gordon and Skip play Ziggy and Roy Aladdin, a struggling duo who discover a magic lamp. The genie inside transports them to Sheboygan, where they face trouble for catching sight of the princess. After overcoming challenges and exposing a plot against the king, they win favor and marry the princess and Skip's girlfriend. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 7 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 7 \| Title = Rapunzel \| WrittenBy = David Steven Cohen & Roger S.H. Schulman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|10\|29}} \| ShortSummary = The Wicked Witch controls all media in the country, offering limited content on Witch TV and censoring rap music. Rhonda portrays Rapunzel, whose family loses on the Witch's rigged television quiz show, leading to her imprisonment. Prince Gordon and his rap friends rescue Rapunzel from the forest and return to advocate for media reform. They persuade the king to limit media ownership and establish a commission to prevent monopolies. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 8 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 8 \| Title = Rumplestilskin \| WrittenBy = Eddie Gorodetsky \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|11\|12}} \| ShortSummary = Presented like a Dashiell Hammett novel, Gordon plays Sam Shovel Private Eye. A poor girl makes a deal with a dwarf magician to spin straw into gold to impress the king. However, unless she discovers the dwarf's name in 24 hours he will claim her first born child. She hires Sam Shovel to find his name, Rumplestilskin, and he does so in the nick of time. Caricature of Humphrey Bogart as Sam Shovel. NOTE: Last episode with a mailbag segment. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 9 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 9 \| Title = The Princess and the Pea \| WrittenBy = Michael Rowe \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|11\|19}} \| ShortSummary = Prince Gordy would rather be a stand-up comic on the David Letterock Show than a prince but the Queen chooses a short, overweight, precocious princess for him to marry. Meanwhile, Gordy misses his chance to perform before Letterock, but he impresses Avery Fisher-Hall, the waitress in the comedy café who is really a princess. Gordy tells the Queen that he wants to marry Avery so she demands that Avery must pass the mattress test to prove she is a princess before she can marry the prince - and she does. Caricature of David Letterman. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 10 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 10 \| Title = John Henry \| WrittenBy = Ellis Weiner \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|12\|03}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon play John Henry, a master chef with his TV show, Eatie Gourmet who focusses on hand preparation of his meals. His competitor, the evil Art Cuisine, invents the K-Art mechanical food processor as part of his plot to take over the world. A competition to see who can serve the most six-course meals is held, with John Henry's old-fashioned methods being extremely slow and losing to K-Art's rapid ways. Henry fades into obscurity and Cuisine becomes prominent with everyone in America now owning the K-Art Chopper. However, during a dinner at the White House, the President is disgusted with the processed food of the K-Art Chopper and demands tomato roses, which only John Henry knew how to make. Art Cuisine activates all K-Art Choppers to transform into killer robots to cow all of America and depose the President. When all seems lost, Henry returns and destroys the robots using hand tools. As a reward for saving his life, the President appoints John Henry the White House Chef. Parody of the H. G. Wells book, The War of the Worlds and features a Caricature of Bob Dylan as a folk singer. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 11 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 11 \| Title = The Three Little Pigs \| WrittenBy = Mitchell Kriegman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|12\|10}} \| ShortSummary = Rick, Skip, and Alf play the respective trio (Ernie, Chip, and Robbie) in a twist on the classic story. The beginning and ending scenes parody The Twilight Zone. Also, the straw is switched to soup cans. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 12 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 12 \| Title = Alice in Wonderland \| WrittenBy = Alicia Marie Schudt \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1988\|12\|17}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon doesn't want to do the story, but everyone else does. As he begins to ready, he falls asleep and a humanoid rabbit named Blanche du Lapine steals his birthday present for Rhonda. Gordon follows her down an elevator shaft and through a cat door to a Wonderland featuring obnoxious flowers, a Pee-wee Herman version of Humpty Dumpty, a Wooster-Chester cat, a saxophone-playing caterpillar (possibly played by Skip), the Tweedle Sisters (Dee is changed to Blonde), Rick and Larson as The Mad Catter and The March Hare, and a very awful Queen. In the end, Blanche reveals herself to be Rhonda and the whole thing was an un-birthday surprise for Gordon, and the whole thing was a dream. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 13 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 13 \| Title = Peter Pan \| WrittenBy = Bradley Kesden & Skip Shepard \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|01\|07}} \| ShortSummary = Peter Pan (Gordon) and Tinkerbell (Neep) take Wendy (Rhonda) and her siblings off to Never-Never land. Meanwhile, Captain Hook is a stand-up pirate comedian who see Peter Pan as a rival. Wendy fancies Peter, but becomes frustrated when she is treated like a maid by Peter and the Lost Boys, and tells them all to "grow up". To find Peter's secret location, Hook captures Tinkerbell who resents Wendy's arrival. Hook then kidnaps, Wendy and the others, but Tinkerbell escapes and warns Peter who comes to their rescue. Peter decides to "grow up" and after returning to England with Wendy and the others, he opens a burger joint with Hook. Features a caricature of Michael "Crocodile" Dundee as the crocodile. \| LineColor = 8B4513 }} }} Season 2 (1989) {{Episode table \|background=#D2B48C \|overall=5 \|season=5 \|title\|writer \|airdate=12 \|episodes= {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 14 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 1 \| Title = Hansel & Gretel \| WrittenBy = Story by Steve Roberts, teleplay by Bradley Kesden & Skip Shepard \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|09\|16}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon plays a plump Bavarian boy with a large appetite, Hansel and Rhonda plays his sister Gretel. They get lost in the forest and end up at Camp Eat-a-Kid. The resident witch Fattens up Hansel while Gretel is thrown in a cell with Simon and Theodore – Alvin has disappeared. They get free but are recaptured so they put Hansel through a rigorous fitness program to lose weight. This time they escape and the witch is arrested. Parody of Alvin and the Chipmunks and caricatures of Mr. T as Mr. Tree and The Monkees as The New Donkees. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 15 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 2 \| Title = The Wizard of Oz \| WrittenBy = Story by Steve Roberts, teleplay by Bradley Kesden & Skip Shepard \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|09\|23}} \| ShortSummary = Set in East Velcro back in the era of Black and White TV, Gordon is selling encyclopedias door-to-door when a tornado lifts up the family farmhouse and he lands in the colourful 60s along the Mellow Brick Road. He lands on a witch and her magical ruby high-top sneakers attaches themselves to his feet. He heads along the road to find the Wizard of Oz to remove them, meanwhile the Wicked Witch casts faulty spells in an effort to retrieve them. He encounters a trio, Tin, Straw and Fur who join him and the travel to the Cubic Zirconia City where they are caught by the Witch. Gordon challenges her to a game of basketball and when she gets covered in milk during the game she melts away and he returns home, to live with the Good Witch and star in his own sitcom. Parody of counterculture of the 1960s, caricature of Bill Cosby as the Wizard of Oz. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 16 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 3 \| Title = The Elves and the Shoemaker \| WrittenBy = Richard J. Schellbach \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|09\|30}} \| ShortSummary = In the village of Birkenstock, Melmac's lower east side, two elves from "Elves-R-Us" are sent to help the struggling shoe store of Donald Tramp played by Larson and his wife Imelda played by Sloop. The elves make shoes which Tramp sells for a high price, and each night they do the same until the store becomes very successful. He expands his business to become the richest man in the land, however the elves feel exploited and go on strike. Special agent of the Impartial Mediators Federation (IMF), Gordon, is assigned to resolve the situation and he approaches Tramp but has no success. Meanwhile the new automated production line malfunctions and faulty shoes threaten to overwhelm the factory. Gordo/Gordon finds a solution where Tramp is arrested and Imelda takes over the production and she leaves Tramp for Shumway. Parody of Mission Impossible and caricature of Donald Trump and Imelda Marcos. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 17 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 4 \| Title = The Emperor's New Clothes \| WrittenBy = Story by Phil Harnage, teleply by Ellis Weiner \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|10\|14}} \| ShortSummary = The emperor demands some new clothes for an upcoming the Label Day parade. The prime minister, Lord Bloomingdale, played by Snout, grouses that he must spent most of his time presenting clothes and hardly any energy left over for governmental issues. Gordon plays a wannabe clothes designer, Beneton Espirit who, joins Coco Klein's fashion house where he meets the beautiful model Christy Dinkly played by Rhonda. However his casual sportswear look is soundly rejected by the emperor. He tries again as a masked fashion designer named Guess Who but when he appears to have no pants, Guess says his pants are made of invisible Schmatex. The Emperor demands that his new outfit be made of Schmatex and when he walks through the streets the ruse is revealed along with his nakedness. However, Beneton has a change of heart and presents the emperor with one of his actual line, a simple shirt and pair of chinos. Having learned his lesson on vanity, the emperor donates his excessive wardrobe to the poor. Parody of the fashion industry and haute couture. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 18 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 5 \| Title = Goldilocks & the Three Bears \| WrittenBy = Phil Harnage & Judy Rothman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|10\|28}} \| ShortSummary = Mayor Bear and his family have to go away on business, so they contract Rhonda's house-sitting service to look after their Malizoo beach house while they're away, including their special possessions, their canine Studs and very special vibrating beds. However, Rhonda gets a better offer and asks Goldilocks, played by Gordon, to do the job. Gordon and his friends decide to turn the place into an amusement park to earn some extra money, but they are busted by the corrupt police who confiscate the house's contents. Desperate, Goldilocks uses his profits to buy the furniture back from the police, but when the Bears return, they detect that someone has been using their furniture and beds. Eventually everything is resolved, although the Bears contemplate starting a folk band called the Moma and the Poppa. Parody of Southern California youth culture and their social dialect. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 19 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 6 \| Title = Little Red Riding Hood \| WrittenBy = Bradley Kesden & Skip Shepard \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|11\|11}} \| ShortSummary = Gordon plays a Courier called Red who has to deliver a package to scientist Grandma to complete her shrinking and enlarging device, however the Wolf gets there first and shrinks then swallows grandma. Red arrives, and the Wolf shrinks and swallows him too. However, Grandma and Red end up in the McStomach start a food fight which gives the Wolf a stomach ache and he burps them up. They get free and complete the assembly of Grandma's device, shrinking the Wolf and returning themselves to normal size. Parody of Honey I Shrunk the Kids. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 20 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 7 \| Title = Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs \| WrittenBy = Judy Rothman \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|12\|02}} \| ShortSummary = The story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is presented as an episode of Unsolved Mysteries by Gordon as Robert Stuck. Snow White, a keen skier, disappears after winning a ski competition and beating the Wicked Queen. The Queen used to ask ski instructor Mario de la Wall "who is the fairest skier", and after he answered "Snow White" she disappeared. She was last seen in the company of a thug for hire, played by Bob, tasked by the Queen to cut off her fingers and toes. However, the thug takes pity on her and tells her to head to the forest. Stuck says the thug was seen at a joke shop where he acquired funny fingers, giving those to the Queen as a ploy. Snow White heads to "The middle of Nowhere" where she finds a condo rented by seven dwarf ski bums. Besides skiing, her passion is cleaning and is soon appreciated by the dwarves for making their quartes pleasant. The Queen resumes her vendetta when she realizes she was tricked. While the dwarves are away at work, Snow White bites a poisonous apple left by the Queen and goes into a deep sleep. The dwarfs enter her in the "Date Connection Show". All the male skiers try to kiss her awake, but their lips are chapped. Robert Stuck is ineligible as he is not a skier, so he masters the green circle slope and kisses her, thus being the one to awaken her and marry her. Parody of dating game shows and caricature of Robert Stack in Unsolved Mysteries. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} {{Episode list \| EpisodeNumber = 21 \| EpisodeNumber2 = 8 \| Title = King Midas \| WrittenBy = Phil Harnage and Bradley Kesden & Skip Shepard \| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date\|1989\|12\|09}} \| ShortSummary = Oklahoma Jones (Gordon) goes in search of King Midas but he is captured by the evil Professor Bouquet who steals his map. It appears that Midas made a fortune franchising camel mufflers and a grateful client granted him the power to turn everything he touched into gold. Jones travels to Midas Land and finds King Midas and decides to help remove the spell by finding a magic coffee mug. Parody of Indiana Jones and Midas automotive service centers. \| LineColor = D2B48C }} }} Home media The first seven episodes were released on DVD on May 30, 2006, in Region 1 from Lionsgate Home Entertainment in a single-disc release entitled ALF and The Beanstalk and Other Classic Fairy Tales. The complete series was remastered and subsequently released on October 17, 2023, by Shout! Factory in the DVD box set ALF: The Complete Series (Deluxe Edition). The box set release also included the original 1986–90 sitcom, ALF: The Animated Series and Project: ALF.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-06-05 \|titleALF and Co-Creator Reunite to Provide New Commentary on Classic Episodes \|urlhttps://movieweb.com/alf-on-alf-shout/ \|access-date2023-07-14 \|websiteMovieWeb \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titlePilot Ep. PLUS New Commentary by ALF! {{!}} FULL Episode: S1 Ep1 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vC25mnALFAOs \|access-date2023-07-14 \|websiteYouTube \|languageen}}</ref> See also List of animated spinoffs from prime time shows References {{Reflist}} External links * {{IMDb title\|0094413\|ALF Tales}} {{ALF (TV series)}} {{Children's programming on NBC in the 1980s}} {{Children's programming on NBC in the 1990s}} Category:ALF (TV series) Category:1980s American animated comedy television series Category:1980s American children's comedy television series Category:1980s American comic science fiction television series Category:1988 American animated television series debuts Category:1989 American television series endings Category:American animated television spinoffs Category:American children's animated comic science fiction television series Category:Animated television series about extraterrestrial life Category:American English-language television shows Category:Television series by DIC Entertainment Category:Television series by Lorimar Television Category:Television series by Saban Entertainment Category:Television series created by Paul Fusco Category:Television series created by Tom Patchett Category:Animated television shows based on fairy tales Category:Television series by Lorimar-Telepictures Category:NBC animated television series	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALF_Tales	2025-04-05T18:26:02.339420
2376	Abdul Rashid Dostum	{{Short description\|Afghan Field Marshal, politician (born 1954)}} {{pp-pc\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=June 2024}} {{Infobox officeholder \| name = Abdul Rashid Dostum \| office = First Vice President of Afghanistan \| honorific_suffix = {{small\|HDR(A)}} {{small\|O.R.(B)}}{{small\| MSSS}} \| native_name = {{nobold\|{{nq\|عبدالرشید دوستم}}}}{{pb}} \| native_name_lang = prs \| image = Abdul Rashid Dostum in September 2014.jpg \| alt \| caption Dostum in September 2014 \| predecessor = Yunus Qanuni \| president = Ashraf Ghani \| successor = Amrullah Saleh \| signature \| birth_name \| birth_date {{birth date and age\|1954\|03\|25\|dfy}}<ref name"WT2008">{{cite news \|titleBig fish among the Afghan warlords \|urlhttp://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/oct/12/big-fish-among-the-Afghan-warlords/?pageall \|workThe Washington Times \|date12 October 2008 \|quoteGen. Dostum, 54 \|access-date6 March 2012 \|archive-date25 December 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181225213549/https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2008/oct/12/big-fish-among-the-Afghan-warlords/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> \| birth_place = Khwaja Du Koh, Jowzjan, Kingdom of Afghanistan \| death_date = <!-- {{Death date and age\|YYYY\|MM\|DD\|YYYY\|MM\|DtD}} --> \| death_place \| blank1 Nationality \| data1 = Afghan \| party = PDPA (until 1992)<br/>Junbish-e Milli (from 1992) \| relations \| website <!-- {{URL\|example.com}} --> \| nickname = Pasha (پاشا) \| allegiance = {{flagicon\|Afghanistan\|1974}} Republic of Afghanistan<br>(1976–1978)<br />{{flagicon\|Afghanistan\|1987}} Democratic Republic of Afghanistan<br>(1978–1992)<br />{{flagicon\|Afghanistan\|1978a}} Junbish-e Milli<br>(1992–1996)<br />{{flagicon\|Afghanistan\|1992}} Northern Alliance<br>(1996–2001)<br />{{flagicon\|Afghanistan\|2013}} Islamic Republic of Afghanistan<br>(2001–2021) \| branch = Afghan Army \| serviceyears = 1976–2021 \| rank = Field Marshal \| unit = 2nd Infantry Division 444th Commando Battalion 6th Corps \| commands = {{tree list}} * Afghan Army ** Afghan Commando Forces (formerly) {{tree list/end}} \| battles = {{tree list}} * Saur Revolution * Soviet–Afghan War Siege of Khost Second Battle of Zhawar ** Battle of Arghandab * First Afghan Civil War ** Battle of Jalalabad * Second Afghan Civil War Battle of Kabul Afshar Operation * Third Afghan Civil War ** Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif * War in Afghanistan (2001–2021) US invasion of Afghanistan Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif Siege of Kunduz Battle of Qala-i-Jangi Dasht-i-Leili massacre Operation Enduring Freedom Taliban insurgency Battle of Darzab ** 2021 Taliban offensive {{tree list/end}} \| awards = Hero of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan<br/> Order of the Red Banner<br/> Afghan KGB Medal<br/> {{small\|Order of the Saur Revolution}} \| image_size \| term_start 29 September 2014 \| term_end = 19 February 2020 \| placeofburial \| placeofburial_label \| placeofburial_coordinates <!-- {{Coord\|LAT\|LONG\|displayinline,title}} --> \| servicenumber \| battles_label \| laterwork \| honorific_prefix Marshal }} Abdul Rashid Dostum ({{IPAc-en\|audioEn-us-Abdul Rashid Dostum from Afghanistan pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg\|ˈ\|ɑː\|b\|d\|əl\|_\|r\|ə\|ˈ\|ʃ\|iː\|d\|_\|d\|oʊ\|ˈ\|s\|t\|uː\|m}} {{respell\|AHB\|dəl\|_\|rə\|SHEED\|_\|doh\|STOOM}}; {{langx\|prs\|عبدالرشید دوستم}}; Uzbek Latin: {{lang\|uz-Latn\|Abdurrashid Do'stum}}, Uzbek Cyrillic: {{lang\|uz-Cyrl\|Абдуррашид Дўстум}}, {{IPA\|uz\|ˈæbdurræˈʃid dosˈtum\|IPA}}; born 25 March 1954) is an Afghan former military officer, warlord and exiled politician. He is the founder and leader of the Junbish-e Milli political party, and was a senior army officer in the military of the former Afghan communist government during the Soviet–Afghan War, initially part of the Afghan Commando Forces. In 2001, Dostum became a key indigenous ally{{Sfn\|Harnden\|2021\|p54}} to the U.S. Special Forces and the CIA during the campaign to topple the Taliban government. He is one of the most powerful warlords since the beginning of the Afghan conflict,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEsfandiari \|firstGolnaz \|date2 March 2005 \|titleAfghanistan: Powerful Commander Gets High-Ranking Military Post \|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/1057773.html \|websiteRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721220334/https://www.rferl.org/a/1057773.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> infamous for being an opportunist and siding with winners during Afghanistan's several civil wars.<ref>{{cite news \|lastPartlow \|firstJoshua \|date23 April 2014 \|titleHe was America's man in Afghanistan. Then things went sour. Now Abdurrashid Dostum may be back. \|newspaperThe Washington Post \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/world/dostum-a-former-warlord-who-was-once-americas-man-in-afghanistan-may-be-back/2014/04/23/9d1a7670-c63d-11e3-8b9a-8e0977a24aeb_story.html \|access-date4 January 2018 \|archive-date4 January 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180104192525/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/dostum-a-former-warlord-who-was-once-americas-man-in-afghanistan-may-be-back/2014/04/23/9d1a7670-c63d-11e3-8b9a-8e0977a24aeb_story.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Dostum was also referred to as a kingmaker due to his significant role in Afghan politics.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://jamestown.org/program/the-return-of-the-kingmaker-afghanistans-general-dostum-ends-his-exile/\|title The Return of the Kingmaker: Afghanistan's General Dostum Ends his Exile}}</ref> An ethnic Uzbek from a peasant family in Jawzjan province, Dostum joined the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) as a teenager before enlisting in the Afghan Army and training as a paratrooper, serving in his native region around Sheberghan. Following the outbreak of the Soviet–Afghan War, Dostum commanded a KHAD paramilitary unit and eventually gained a reputation for defeating mujahideen commanders in northern Afghanistan and even persuading some to defect to the communist cause. As a result, the communist government gained effective control over the country's north. He achieved several promotions in the army and was honored as a "Hero of Afghanistan" by President Mohammed Najibullah in 1988.<ref name"auto2">{{Cite web \|lastRiedel \|firstBruce \|date30 November 2001 \|titleThe Warlord Who Defines Afghanistan: An Excerpt from Bruce Riedel's 'What We Won' \|urlhttps://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-warlord-who-defines-afghanistan-an-excerpt-from-bruce-riedels-what-we-won/ \|websiteBrookings Institution \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date10 January 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220110124047/https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-warlord-who-defines-afghanistan-an-excerpt-from-bruce-riedels-what-we-won/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> By this time he was commanding up to 45,000 troops in the region under his responsibility.<ref name"auto">{{Cite thesis \|lastHwang \|firstBenjamin E. \|date2007 \|titleUnderstanding Warlordism \|urlhttp://hdl.handle.net/10945/3592 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201028044207/https://www.soc.mil/SWCS/DOTDP/AY_2007/Hwang,%20B%202007.pdf \|archive-date28 October 2020 \|access-date23 February 2023 \|publisherNaval Postgraduate School\|hdl=10945/3592 }}</ref> Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Dostum played a central role in the collapse of Najibullah's government by "defecting" to the mujahideen; the division-sized<ref name"auto" /> loyal forces he commanded in the north became an independent paramilitary of his newly founded party called Junbish-e Milli.<ref name"auto2"/> He allied with Ahmad Shah Massoud and together they captured Kabul, before another civil war loomed.<ref name"auto5">{{Cite web \|lastCockburn \|firstPatrick \|date1 December 2001 \|titleRashid Dostum: The treacherous general \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/rashid-dostum-treacherous-general-9224857.html \|url-accesslimited \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308011259/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/rashid-dostum-treacherous-general-9224857.html \|archive-date2021-03-08 \|websiteThe Independent\|locationLondon}}</ref> Initially supporting the new government of Burhanuddin Rabbani, he switched sides in 1994 by allying with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, but he backed Rabbani again by 1996. During this time he remained in control of the country's north which functioned as a relatively stable proto-state, but remained a loose partner of Massoud in the Northern Alliance. A year later, Mazar-i-Sharif was overrun by his former aide Abdul Malik Pahlawan, resulting in a battle in which he regained control. In 1998, the city was overrun by the Taliban and Dostum fled the country until returning to Afghanistan in 2001, joining the Northern Alliance forces after the US invasion and leading his loyal faction in the Fall of Mazar-i-Sharif.<ref name="auto5" /> After the fall of the Taliban-led government, he joined interim president Hamid Karzai's administration as Deputy Defense Minister and later served as chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Afghan Army, a role often viewed as ceremonial.<ref name"canada.com">{{Cite web \|lastPugliese \|firstDavid \|date10 May 2007 \|titleFormer Afghan warlord says he can defeat Taliban \|urlhttp://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id1acb5330-dfe8-4f0e-8a1b-4f581478244f&k44800&p1 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080521102841/http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id1acb5330-dfe8-4f0e-8a1b-4f581478244f&k44800&p1 \|archive-date21 May 2008 \|access-date22 April 2008 \|publisherCanWest News Service}}</ref> His militia feuded with forces loyal to general Atta Muhammad Nur.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2003-10-09 \|titleFactional Fighting Escalates in Afghanistan \|urlhttps://www.voanews.com/archive/factional-fighting-escalates-afghanistan-2003-10-09 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721130432/https://www.voanews.com/archive/factional-fighting-escalates-afghanistan-2003-10-09 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|websiteVoice of America }}</ref> Dostum was a candidate in the 2004 elections, and was an ally of victorious Karzai in the 2009 elections. From 2011, he was part of the leadership council of the National Front of Afghanistan along with Ahmad Zia Massoud and Mohammad Mohaqiq. He served as Vice President of Afghanistan in Ashraf Ghani's administration from 2014 to 2020. In 2020, he was promoted to the rank of marshal after a political agreement between Ghani and former Chief Executive Abdullah Abdullah.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAnsar \|firstMassoud \|date8 June 2020 \|titleSources Report Rift over Marshal Rank for Dostum \|urlhttps://tolonews.com/afghanistan/sources-report-rift-over-marshal-rank-dostum-0 \|access-date23 February 2023 \|websiteTOLOnews \|archive-date17 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210817212837/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/sources-report-rift-over-marshal-rank-dostum-0 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On 11 August 2021 during the Taliban's nationwide offensive, Dostum fled across Hairatan to Uzbekistan.<ref name":2" /> In 2021 he pledged allegiance to the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan, and formed the Supreme Council of National Resistance of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in opposition to the new Taliban government.<ref name":3" /><ref name":4" /> Dostum now resides in exile in Turkey, and on 15 September 2024 urged groups opposed to Taliban rule to form a government-in-exile.<ref name":5">{{Cite news \|lastAzadi \|firstRFE/RL's Radio \|titleVeteran Warlord Dostum Seeks Parallel Afghan Government To Undermine Taliban \|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-dostum-taliban-government-opposition/33121836.html \|access-date2024-12-06 \|workRadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \|languageen}}</ref><ref name":6">{{Cite web \|lastTV \|firstAmu \|date2024-09-16 \|titleDostum calls for formation of 'government-in-exile' \|urlhttps://amu.tv/124043/ \|access-date2024-12-06 \|websiteAmu TV \|languageen-US}}</ref> Dostum is a controversial figure in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastPutz \|firstCatherine \|date13 July 2017 \|titleKabul's Dostum Problem \|urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2017/07/kabuls-dostum-problem/ \|websiteThe Diplomat \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721130432/https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/kabuls-dostum-problem/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date25 September 2001 \|titleProfile: General Rashid Dostum \|publisherBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1563344.stm \|access-date18 March 2009 \|archive-date8 April 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090408185925/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1563344.stm \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He is seen as a capable and fierce military leader<ref>{{Cite journal\|titleWith the State against the State? The Formation of Armed Groups\|firstKlaus\|lastSchlichte\|date10 August 2009\|journalContemporary Security Policy\|volume30\|issue2\|pages246–264\|doi10.1080/13523260903059799\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> and remains wildly popular among the Uzbek community in the country.<ref name"auto4">{{Cite web \|lastMacKenzie \|firstJean \|date17 July 2009 \|titleHero on horseback, or mass murderer? \|urlhttps://www.pri.org/stories/2009-07-17/hero-horseback-or-mass-murderer \|websiteThe World \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215945/https://www.pri.org/stories/2009-07-17/hero-horseback-or-mass-murderer \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Many of his supporters call him "Pasha" (پاشا), an honorable Uzbek/Turkic term.<ref name"auto5"/> However, he has also been widely accused of committing atrocities and war crimes, most notoriously the suffocation of up to 1,000 Taliban fighters in the Dasht-i-Leili massacre, and he was widely feared among the populace.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Mashal\|first1Mujib\|date16 May 2020\|titleAfghan Power-Sharing Deal Would Promote General Accused of Rape\|newspaperThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/16/world/asia/afghanistan-general-rape-dostum.html\|access-date20 July 2020\|archive-date2 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200702203700/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/16/world/asia/afghanistan-general-rape-dostum.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleAfghanistan's most feared warlord says sorry to victims of conflict\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/10369344/Afghanistans-most-feared-warlord-says-sorry-to-victims-of-conflict.html\|websiteThe Telegraph\|access-date21 July 2021\|archive-date21 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215944/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/10369344/Afghanistans-most-feared-warlord-says-sorry-to-victims-of-conflict.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"auto1">{{Cite web \|lastShariff \|firstOmar \|date3 April 2014 \|titleAfghanistan's most feared warlord \|urlhttps://gulfnews.com/world/asia/afghanistans-most-feared-warlord-1.1313234 \|websiteGulf News \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215945/https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/afghanistans-most-feared-warlord-1.1313234 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2018, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was reported to be considering launching an inquiry into whether Dostum had engaged in war crimes in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42908396\|titleInternational Criminal Court judges consider Afghanistan war crimes inquiry\|publisherBBC News\|date2 February 2018\|access-date20 July 2020\|archive-date6 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806183758/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42908396\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Early life {{expand section\|smallno\|dateOctober 2014}} Dostum was born in 1954 in Khwaja Du Koh near Sheberghan in Jowzjan province, Afghanistan. Coming from an impoverished ethnic Uzbek family, he received a very basic traditional education as he was forced to drop out of school at a young age. From there, he took up work in the village's major gas fields. Career Dostum began working in 1970 in a state-owned gas refinery in Sheberghan. He began participating in union politics when the republican government led by Daoud Khan started to arm the staff of the workers in the oil and gas refineries. The reason for this was to create "groups for the Defense of the Revolution". As a result of the new communist ideas entering Afghanistan in the 1970s, Dostum enlisted in the Afghan Army in 1976. He received his basic military training in Jalalabad and his squadron was deployed in the rural areas around Sheberghan, under the auspices of the Ministry of National Security.<ref name"globalsecurity">{{Cite web \|titleAbdul Rashid Dostum \|urlhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/afghanistan/dostum.htm \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090301152731/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/afghanistan/dostum.htm \|archive-date1 March 2009 \|access-date18 March 2009 \|publisherGlobalSecurity.org}}</ref> According to photographic evidence, Dostum additionally received airborne training and still chooses to wear two first-class "Master Paratrooper" Afghan jump wings.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleDostum Calls for Political Settlement to Conflict \|urlhttps://tolonews.com/afghanistan-170205 \|access-date2024-05-02 \|websiteTOLOnews}}</ref> As a Parcham faction member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), he was exiled after the purge of Parcham by the party's Khalqist faction leaders, living in Peshawar, Pakistan for a while. After the Soviet invasion (Operation Storm-333) and installation of Babrak Karmal as head of state, Dostum returned to Afghanistan, where he started commanding a local pro-government militia in his native Jawzjan Province.<ref name"auto2"/> Soviet–Afghan War {{Main\|Soviet–Afghan War}} By the mid-1980s, he commanded a force of around 20,000 paramilitaries and controlled the northern provinces of Afghanistan.<ref name"bbc">{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1563344.stm \|titleProfile: General Rashid Dostum \|publisherBBC News \|access-date18 March 2009 \|date25 September 2001 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090408185925/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1563344.stm\|archive-date8 April 2009 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> While the unit recruited throughout Jowzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum's home village. He left the army after the purge of Parchamites, but returned after the Soviet occupation began.<ref name"globalsecurity" /> During the Soviet–Afghan War, Dostum was commanding a paramilitary battalion to fight and route mujahideen forces; he had been appointed an officer due to prior military experience. This eventually became a regiment and later became incorporated into the defense forces as the 53rd Infantry Division. Dostum and his new division reported directly to President Mohammad Najibullah.<ref>Marshall, p. 3</ref> Later on, he became the commander of the military unit 374 in Jowzjan. He defended the Soviet-backed Afghan government against the mujahideen forces throughout the 1980s. While he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised his forces by himself. The Jowzjani militia Dostum controlled was one of the few in the country that was able to be deployed outside its own region. They were deployed in Kandahar in 1988 when Soviet forces were withdrawing from Afghanistan.<ref name"afghanistan">{{Cite web \|titleAbdul Rashid Dostum \|urlhttp://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com/abdul-rashid-dostum/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090310122509/http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com/abdul-rashid-dostum/ \|archive-date10 March 2009 \|access-date18 March 2009 \|publisherIslamic Republic of Afghanistan}}</ref> Due to his efforts in the army, Dostum was awarded the title "Hero of the Republic of Afghanistan" by President Najibullah.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastAdamec \|firstLudwig W. \|titleHistorical Dictionary of Afghanistan \|publisherScarecrow Press \|year2012 \|isbn9780810878150 \|pages112 \|author-linkLudwig W. Adamec}}</ref> Civil war and northern Afghanistan autonomous state {{Main\|Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)}} Dostum's men would become an important force in the fall of Kabul in 1992, with Dostum deciding to defect from Najibullah and allying himself with opposition commanders Ahmad Shah Massoud and Sayed Jafar Naderi,{{Sfn\|Vogelsang\|2001\|p324}} the head of the Isma'ili community, and together they captured the capital city. With the help of fellow defectors Mohammad Nabi Azimi and Abdul Wakil, his forces entered Kabul by air in the afternoon of 14 April.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastKakar \|firstM. Hassan \|urlhttp://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft7b69p12h/ \|titleAfghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|year1995 \|locationBerkeley \|access-date23 February 2023 \|archive-date11 May 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511192249/http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft7b69p12h/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He and Massoud fought in a coalition against Gulbuddin Hekmatyar.<ref name="afghanistan" /> Massoud and Dostum's forces joined to defend Kabul against Hekmatyar. Some 4,000–5,000 of his troops, units of his Sheberghan-based 53rd Division and Balkh-based Guards Division, garrisoning Bala Hissar fort, Maranjan Hill and Khwaja Rawash Airport, where they stopped Najibullah from entering to flee.<ref>Anthony Davis, 'The Battlegrounds of Northern Afghanistan,' Jane's Intelligence Review, July 1994, p.323-4</ref> Dostum then left Kabul for his northern stronghold Mazar-i-Sharif, where he ruled, in effect, an independent region (or 'proto-state'), often referred as the Northern Autonomous Zone. He printed his own Afghan currency, ran a small airline named Balkh Air,{{Sfn\|Vogelsang\|2001\|p232}} and formed relations with countries like Uzbekistan effectively creating his own proto-state with an army of up to 40,000 men, and with tanks supplied by Uzbekistan and Russia. While the rest of the country was in chaos, his region remained prosperous and functional, and it won him the support from people of all ethnic groups. Many people fled to his territory to escape the violence and fundamentalism imposed by the Taliban later on.<ref>The Last Warlord: The Life and Legend of Dostum, the Afghan Warrior Who Led US Special Forces to Topple the Taliban Regime by Brian Glyn Williams, 2013</ref> In 1994, Dostum allied himself with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar against the government of Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud, but in 1995 sided with the government again.<ref name"afghanistan" /> Taliban era {{Main\|Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)}} Following the rise of the Taliban and their capture of Kabul, Dostum aligned himself with the Northern Alliance (United Front) against the Taliban.<ref name="afghanistan" /> The Northern Alliance was assembled in late 1996 by Dostum, Massoud and Karim Khalili against the Taliban. At this point, he is said to have had a force of some 50,000 men supported by both aircraft and tanks. Much like other Northern Alliance leaders, Dostum also faced infighting within his group and was later forced to surrender his power to General Abdul Malik Pahlawan. Malik entered into secret negotiations with the Taliban, who promised to respect his authority over much of northern Afghanistan, in exchange for the apprehension of Ismail Khan, one of their enemies.<ref name"Johnson">{{Cite journal \|lastJohnson \|firstThomas H. \|dateJuly 2004 \|titleIsmail Khan, Herat, and Iranian Influence \|urlhttp://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/jul/johnsonJul04.asp \|url-statusdead \|journalStrategic Insights \|publisherCenter for Contemporary Conflict \|volumeIII \|issue7 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040811091257/http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/jul/johnsonJul04.asp \|archive-date11 August 2004 \|access-date20 March 2007}}</ref><ref>De Ponfilly, Christophe(2001); ''Massoud l'Afghan''; Gallimard; {{ISBN\|2-07-042468-5}}; p. 75</ref> Accordingly, on 25 May 1997, Malik arrested Khan, handed him over and let the Taliban enter Mazar-e-Sharif, giving them control over most of northern Afghanistan. Because of this, Dostum was forced to flee to Turkey.<ref name"Hardcastle_Book">page 6-8 – {{Cite book\| last Nate Hardcastle\| author-link Nate Hardcastle\| title American Soldier: Stories of Special Forces from Grenada to Afghanistan\| date 28 October 2002\|edition 2002\|pages364 \| publisher Thunder's Mouth Press\| isbn1-56025-438-6}}</ref> However, Malik soon realized that the Taliban were not sincere with their promises as he saw his men being disarmed. He then rejoined the Northern Alliance and turned against his erstwhile allies, driving them from Mazar-e-Sharif. In October 1997, Dostum returned from exile and retook charge. After Dostum briefly regained control of Mazar-e-Sharif, the Taliban returned in 1998, and he again fled to Turkey.<ref name"afghanistan" /><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.hri.ca/forthereCord1998/bilan1998/documentation/security/s-1998-222.htm\|titleLa situation en Afghanistan et ses conséquences pour la paix et la sécurité internationales\|lastUN Security Council report\|publisherHuman Rights Internet\|access-date20 March 2007\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930165006/http://www.hri.ca/forthereCord1998/bilan1998/documentation/security/s-1998-222.htm\|archive-date30 September 2007\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Operation Enduring Freedom {{Main\|Operation Enduring Freedom\|Battle of Qala-i-Jangi}} Dostum returned to Afghanistan in May 2001 to open up a new front before the U.S.-led campaign against the Taliban joined him, along with Commander Massoud, Ismail Khan and Mohammad Mohaqiq.<ref name"bbc" /> On 17 October 2001, the CIA's eight-man Team Alpha, including Johnny Micheal Spann landed in the Dar-e-Suf to link up with Dostum.{{Sfn\|Harnden\|2021\|p78}} Three days later, the 12 members of Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) 595 landed to join forces with Dostum and Team Alpha.<ref name"nationalgeographic">{{Cite web\|year2007 \|url http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0203/story.html#story_3\|title The Legend of Heavy D & the Boys:In the Field With an Afghan Warlord\|publisher National Geographic Society\| access-date 22 April 2008 \| authorRobert Young Pelton \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080406030343/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0203/story.html\| archive-date6 April 2008 \| url-status dead}}</ref><ref name"ODA595">{{Cite web\|year2007 \|url https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/campaign/interviews/595.html\|title ODA 595\|publisher PBS\| access-date 22 April 2008 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080429063752/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/campaign/interviews/595.html\| archive-date 29 April 2008 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> Dostum, the Tajik commander Atta Muhammad Nur and their American allies defeated Taliban forces and recaptured Mazar-i-Sharif on 10 November 2001.{{Sfn\|Harnden\|2021\|p132}} On 24 November 2001, 15,000 Taliban soldiers were due to surrender after the Siege of Kunduz to American and Northern Alliance forces. Instead, 400 Al-Qaeda prisoners arrived just outside Mazar-i-Sharif. After they surrendered to Dostum, they were transferred to the 19th century garrison fortress, Qala-i-Jangi. The next day, while being questioned by CIA officers Spann and David Tyson, they used concealed weapons to revolt, triggering what became the Battle of Qala-i-Jangi against the guards. The uprising was finally brought under control after six days.{{Sfn\|Harnden\|2021\|p275}} Dasht-i-Leili massacre {{Main\|Dasht-i-Leili massacre\|Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death}} Dostum has been accused by Western journalists of responsibility for the suffocating or otherwise killing of Taliban prisoners in December 2001,<ref name"NYT2001" /> with the number of victims estimated as 2,000. In 2009, Dostum denied the accusations and US President Obama ordered an investigation into the massacre.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2009-07-12 \|titleObama orders probe of alleged mass grave \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna31879223 \|access-date2024-05-10 \|publisherNBC News}}</ref> Karzai administration {{Further\|Presidency of Hamid Karzai}} In the aftermath of Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with Tajik forces loyal to Atta Muhammad Nur. Atta's men kidnapped and killed a number of Dostum's men, and constantly agitated to gain control of Mazar-e-Sharif. Through the political mediations of the Karzai administration, the International Security Assistance Force (ISA) and the United Nations, the Dostum-Atta feud gradually declined, leading to their alignment in a new political party. Dostum served as deputy defense minister the early period of the Karzai administration. On 20 May 2003, Dostum narrowly escaped an assassination attempt.<ref>{{cite web\|titleDostum, Abdul Rashid\|urlhttp://afghan-bios.info/index.php?optioncom_afghanbios&id439&taskview&total2001&start439&Itemid2\|websiteAfghan Biographies\|access-date16 January 2017\|archive-date23 February 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230223232705/http://afghan-bios.info/index.php?optioncom_afghanbios&id439&taskview&total2001&start439&Itemid2\|url-statuslive}}</ref> He was often residing outside Afghanistan, mainly in Turkey. In February 2008, he was suspended after the apparent kidnapping and torture of a political rival.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/03/world/africa/03iht-03afghan.9704363.html\|titleAfghan police lay siege to home of former warlord\|firstAbdul Waheed\|lastWafa\|newspaperThe New York Times\|date3 February 2008\|access-date21 October 2018\|archive-date30 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180730050749/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/03/world/africa/03iht-03afghan.9704363.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Time in TurkeySome media reports in 2008 stated earlier that Dostum was "seeking political asylum" in Turkey<ref>"[http://quqnoos.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id2188&Itemid48 Dostum seeking asylum in Turkey – media reports]{{Dead link\|dateJune 2020 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}," Quqnoos.com, 6 December 2008, retrieved 6 December 2008</ref> while others said he was exiled.<ref>"[http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/244638,afghan-general-rashid-dostum-flies-to-exile-in-turkey.html Afghan general Rashid Dostum flies to exile in Turkey] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141012131401/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/244638,afghan-general-rashid-dostum-flies-to-exile-in-turkey.html \|date12 October 2014 }}," Deutsche Presse-Agentur via earthtimes.org, 4 December 2008, retrieved 6 December 2008</ref> One Turkish media outlet said Dostum was visiting after flying there with then Turkey's Foreign Minister Ali Babacan during a meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).<ref>"[http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?loaddetay&link160690&bolum102 Afghan warlord in Turkey but not in exile, official says]{{dead link\|dateJune 2017 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}," Today's Zaman, 5 December 2008, retrieved 6 December 2008</ref> On 16 August 2009, Dostum was asked to return from exile to Afghanistan to support President Hamid Karzai in his bid for re-election. He later flew by helicopter to his northern stronghold of Sheberghan, where he was greeted by thousands of his supporters in the local stadium. He subsequently made overtures to the United States, promising he could "destroy the Taliban and al Qaeda" if supported by the U.S., saying that "the U.S. needs strong friends like Dostum."<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/sep/22/afghan-warlords-will-fight-if-us-gives-aid/?feathome_headlines&\|titleAfghan warlords will fight if U.S. gives weapons\|lastMotlagh\|firstJason\|author2Carter, Sara A.\|date22 September 2009\|workThe Washington Times\|access-date23 September 2009\|archive-date7 June 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607122649/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/sep/22/afghan-warlords-will-fight-if-us-gives-aid/?feathome_headlines&\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Ghani administration {{Further\|Ghani cabinet}} on 30 September 2014]] On 7 October 2013, the day after filing his nomination for the 2014 general elections as running mate of Ashraf Ghani, Dostum issued a press statement that some news media were willing to welcome as "apologies": "Many mistakes were made during the civil war (…) It is time we apologize to the Afghan people who were sacrificed due to our negative policies (…) I apologize to the people who suffered from the violence and civil war (…)".<ref>{{cite news\|last1Bezhan\|first1Frud\|titleFormer Afghan Warlord Apologizes For Past 'Mistakes'\|urlhttp://www.rferl.org/content/afghanistan-dostum-warcrimes-apology/25130594.html\|workRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty\|date8 October 2013\|access-date28 April 2016\|archive-date28 April 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160428060948/http://www.rferl.org/content/afghanistan-dostum-warcrimes-apology/25130594.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Dostum was directly chosen as First Vice President of Afghanistan in the April–June 2014 Afghan presidential election, next to Ashraf Ghani as president and Sarwar Danish as second vice president. In July 2016, Human Rights Watch accused Abdul Rashid Dostum's National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan of killing, abusing and looting civilians in the northern Faryab Province during June.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2016-07-31 \|titleAfghanistan: Forces Linked to Vice President Terrorize Villagers \|urlhttps://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/31/afghanistan-forces-linked-vice-president-terrorize-villagers \|access-date2022-10-11 \|websiteHuman Rights Watch\|archive-date9 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209205219/https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/07/31/afghanistan-forces-linked-vice-president-terrorize-villagers \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"australian0801">{{cite news\|titleTaliban kills 24 police in two days\|newspaperThe Australian\|date1 August 2016}}</ref> Militia forces loyal to Dostum stated that the civilians they targeted – at least 13 killed and 32 wounded – were supporters of the Taliban.<ref name=australian0801 /> In November 2016, at a buzkashi match, he punched his political rival Ahmad Ischi, and then his bodyguards beat Ischi. In 2017, he was accused of having Ischi kidnapped in that incident and raped with a gun on camera during a five-day detention, claims that Dostum denies but that nevertheless forced him into exile in Turkey.<ref>{{cite news \|date28 November 2016 \|titleAfghan VP 'punches, kidnaps' rival at traditional sporting event \|workThe New Arab \|urlhttps://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/blog/2016/11/28/afghan-vp-punches-kidnaps-rival-at-traditional-sporting-event \|access-date18 May 2018 \|archive-date18 May 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180518200733/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/blog/2016/11/28/afghan-vp-punches-kidnaps-rival-at-traditional-sporting-event \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/18/world/asia/afghanistan-dostum-ghani-plane.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/07/18/world/asia/afghanistan-dostum-ghani-plane.html \|archive-date2022-01-01 \|url-accesslimited\|titleAfghan Vice President's Return Thwarted as Plane Is Turned Back\|first1Mujib\|last1Mashal\|first2Najim\|last2Rahim\|date18 July 2017\|access-date4 January 2018\|workThe New York Times}}{{cbignore}}</ref> On 26 July 2018, he narrowly escaped a suicide bombing by ISIL-KP as he returned to Afghanistan at Kabul airport. Just after Dostum's convoy departed the airport, an attacker armed with a suicide vest bombed a crowd of several hundred people celebrating his return at the entrance to the airport. The attack killed 14 and injured 50, including civilians and armed security.<ref name"rferl.org">{{cite web \|date22 July 2018 \|titleAfghan Vice President Dostum Escapes Suicide Attack; 14 Others Killed \|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/afghan-vice-president-dostum-to-return-to-kabul-amid-torture-claims/29381984.html \|access-date21 October 2018 \|websiteRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \|archive-date14 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181114160050/https://www.rferl.org/a/afghan-vice-president-dostum-to-return-to-kabul-amid-torture-claims/29381984.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> On 30 March 2019, Dostum again escaped an expected assassination attempt while traveling from Mazar-e-Sharif to Jawzjan Province, though two of his bodyguards were killed. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the attack, the second in eight months.<ref name":0">{{Cite news \|lastSahak \|firstAbdul Matin \|date30 March 2019 \|titleAfghan vice president narrowly escapes death for a second time\|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-dostum/afghan-vice-president-narrowly-escapes-death-for-a-second-time-idUSKCN1RB0HO \|access-date30 March 2019 \|archive-date30 March 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330163917/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-dostum/afghan-vice-president-narrowly-escapes-death-for-a-second-time-idUSKCN1RB0HO \|url-status=live }}</ref> On 11 August 2021 during the Taliban's nationwide offensive, Dostum, along with Atta Muhammad Nur, led the government's defence of the city of Mazar-i-Sharif.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Varshalomidze \|first1Tamila \|last2Siddiqui \|first2Usaid \|date11 August 2021 \|titleAfghan leader rallies forces in Taliban-besieged northern city \|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/11/afghanistan-provinces-city-taliban-ghani-mazar-i-sharif-live-news \|websiteAl Jazeera English \|access-date11 September 2021 \|archive-date10 January 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220110143458/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/11/afghanistan-provinces-city-taliban-ghani-mazar-i-sharif-live-news \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Three days later, they fled across Hairatan to Uzbekistan. Atta Nur claimed that they were forced to flee due to a "conspiracy".<ref name":2">{{Cite news \|date2021-08-14 \|titleAfghan militia leaders Atta Noor, Dostum escape 'conspiracy'\|workReuters\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-militia-leaders-atta-noor-dostum-escape-conspiracy-2021-08-14/ \|access-date2021-08-15 \|archive-date14 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210814235651/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/afghan-militia-leaders-atta-noor-dostum-escape-conspiracy-2021-08-14/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Both men later pled allegiance to the National Resistance Front of Afghanistan, the remaining remnants of the collapsed Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.<ref name":3">{{Cite web \|lastLucas \|firstScott \|date6 September 2021 \|titleAfghanistan: The warlords who will decide whether civil war is likely \|urlhttps://theconversation.com/afghanistan-the-warlords-who-will-decide-whether-civil-war-is-likely-167380 \|websiteThe Conversation \|access-date11 September 2021 \|archive-date20 January 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220120122748/http://theconversation.com/afghanistan-the-warlords-who-will-decide-whether-civil-war-is-likely-167380 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Dostum, Atta, Yunus Qanuni, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and some other political figures formed the Supreme Council of National Resistance of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in opposition to the new Taliban government in October 2021.<ref name":4">{{Cite web \|date23 October 2021 \|titleIslamic Emirate Reacts to Newly-Formed 'Resistance Council' \|urlhttps://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175143 \|websiteTOLOnews \|access-date22 November 2021 \|archive-date22 November 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211122142747/https://tolonews.com/afghanistan-175143 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Dostum now resides in exile in Turkey, and on 15 September 2024 urged groups opposed to Taliban rule to form a government-in-exile.<ref name":5" /><ref name":6" /> Political and social views Dostum is considered to be liberal and somewhat leftist. Being ethnic Uzbek, he has worked on the battlefield with leaders from all other major ethnic groups, Hazaras, Tajiks and Pashtuns.<ref>{{cite web \|lastWilliams \|firstBrian Glyn \|date6 July 2016 \|titleThe State Department Insults the Afghan Vice President (And All Afghan Uzbeks) \|urlhttps://www.huffingtonpost.com/brian-glyn-williams/post_12508_b_10802718.html \|access-date4 January 2018 \|websiteHuffPost \|archive-date12 May 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170512151820/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/brian-glyn-williams/post_12508_b_10802718.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> When Dostum was ruling his northern Afghanistan proto-state before the Taliban took over in 1998, women were able to go about unveiled, girls were allowed to go to school and study at the University of Balkh, cinemas showed Indian films, music played on television, and Russian vodka and German beer were openly available: activities which were all banned by the Taliban.{{Sfn\|Vogelsang\|2001\|p232}} {{Blockquote \|text=We will not submit to a government where there is no whisky and no music. \|authorDostum to his aides during the rise of the Taliban in {{Circa\|1995}}<ref name"auto5"/><ref name"auto3">{{Cite news\|date1 December 2001\|urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12131965.the-peace-seeking-missile-profile-general-abdul-rashid-dostum/\|titleThe peace-seeking missile profile general abdul rashid dostum\|websiteThe Herald\|locationGlasgow\|access-date21 July 2021\|archive-date21 July 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721134457/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/12131965.the-peace-seeking-missile-profile-general-abdul-rashid-dostum/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> }} He viewed the ISAF forces attempt to crush the Taliban as ineffective and has gone on record saying in 2007 that he could mop up the Taliban "in six months"<ref name"canada.com" /> if allowed to raise a 10,000 strong army of Afghan veterans.<ref name"canada.com" /> As of 2007, senior Afghan government officials did not trust Dostum as they were concerned that he might be secretly rearming his forces.<ref name"canada.com" />Personal lifeDostum is more than {{convert\|183\|cm\|ft}} tall and has been described as "beefy". He generally prefers to wear a Soviet-style camouflage military uniform, previously having worn KLMK, having a trademark bushy moustache.<ref name"auto3"/><ref name="auto1"/> Dostum was married to a woman named Khadija. According to Brian Glyn Williams, Khadija had an accidental death in the 1990s which broke Dostum as he "really loved his wife". Dostum eventually remarried after Khadija's death.<ref>{{Cite web \|date16 July 2014 \|titleAuthor Says Dostum Is Not A Blood-thirsty Warlord \|urlhttps://gandhara.rferl.org/a/25459519.html \|websiteRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215945/https://gandhara.rferl.org/a/25459519.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He named one of his sons Mustafa Kamal, after the founder of the modern Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.<ref name":1" /> Dostum has spent a considerable amount of time in Turkey, and some of his family reside there.<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|lastKardas \|firstSaban \|date8 December 2008 \|titleDostum Says He Is Not in Exile in Turkey and Remains a Potent Force in Afghanistan \|urlhttps://jamestown.org/program/dostum-says-he-is-not-in-exile-in-turkey-and-remains-a-potent-force-in-afghanistan/ \|websiteJamestown Foundation \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215945/https://jamestown.org/program/dostum-says-he-is-not-in-exile-in-turkey-and-remains-a-potent-force-in-afghanistan/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Dostum is known to drink alcohol, a rarity in Afghanistan, and apparently a fan of Russian vodka. He reportedly suffered from diabetes.<ref name"auto4"/> In 2014 when he became vice president, Dostum reportedly gave up drinking for healthy meals and morning jogs.<ref>{{Cite web \|date10 December 2014 \|titleAfghanistan's Warlord-Turned-VP Abdul Rashid Dostum Fights for Fitness \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-warlord-turned-vp-abdul-rashid-dostum-fights-fitness-n265451 \|publisherNBC News \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721215944/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/afghanistans-warlord-turned-vp-abdul-rashid-dostum-fights-fitness-n265451 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In popular culture * Navid Negahban portrays Dostum in the 2018 film 12 Strong.<ref>{{cite news\|lastKroll\|firstJustin\|titleChris Hemsworth's Afghanistan War Drama 'Horse Soldiers' Adds 'Homeland's' Navid Negahban\|urlhttps://variety.com/2016/film/news/chris-hemsworth-afghanistan-war-movie-horse-soldiers-navid-negahban-1201921032/\|access-date16 January 2018\|workVariety\|date17 November 2016\|archive-date5 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170205181603/http://variety.com/2016/film/news/chris-hemsworth-afghanistan-war-movie-horse-soldiers-navid-negahban-1201921032/\|url-status=live}}</ref> * Dostum appears as a playing card in the board game A Distant Plain, part of a series of wargames simulating historic insurgency and counterinsurgency conflicts.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.gmtgames.com/adistantplain/ADP-PLAYBOOK-2015.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.gmtgames.com/adistantplain/ADP-PLAYBOOK-2015.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|title"A Distant Plain: Insurgency in Afghanistan" Playbook\|last1Train\|first1Brian\|last2Ruhnke\|first2Volko\|date2013\|publisherGMT Games\|page38\|access-date12 July 2018}}</ref> See also * Abdul Jabar Qahraman * Afghan Civil War (1989–1992) * Afghan Civil War (1992–1996) References {{Reflist\|refs<ref name"NYT2001">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/11/international/asia/11JAIL.html \|workThe New York Times \|titleWitnesses Recount Taliban Dying While Held Captive \|firstCarlotta \|lastGall \|date11 December 2001 \|access-date1 May 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090718205011/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/11/international/asia/11JAIL.html \|archive-date18 July 2009}}</ref> }} Bibliography * {{Cite book \|lastHarnden \|firstToby \|titleFirst Casualty: The Untold Story of the CIA Mission to Avenge 9/11 \|publisherLittle, Brown and Company \|year2021 \|isbn9780316540964}} * {{Cite book \|lastVogelsang \|firstWillem \|titleThe Afghans \|publisherBlackwell \|year2001 \|isbn0-631-19841-5 \|locationOxford \|author-linkWillem Vogelsang}} External links {{External links\|date=January 2018}} {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110128113515/http://generaldostum.com/ General Abdul Rashid Dostum's official website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090310122509/http://www.islamicrepublicofafghanistan.com/abdul-rashid-dostum/ Article on Abdul Rashid Dostum on Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (.com)] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1563344.stm Profile: General Rashid Dostum] – BBC News * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051115130402/http://www.zmag.org/cockburndostum.htm Biography about Dostum] * [http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/presents/index.house.of.war.html CNN Presents: House of War] * [https://swap.stanford.edu/20100312073854/http%3A//afghanistan.phrblog.org/ Afghanistan Mass Grave: The Dasht-e Leili War Crimes Investigation] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090422060348/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/227/story/57649.html As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent] * [http://www.democracynow.org/2009/7/13/obama_calls_for_probe_into_2001 Obama Calls for Probe into 2001 Massacre of Suspected Taliban POWs by US-Backed Afghan Warlord] – video by Democracy Now! * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130601225547/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/0203/life.html Eyewitness account from National Geographic war reporter Robert Young Pelton] {{S-start}} {{s-off}} {{succession box\|beforeYunus Qanuni\|title First Vice President of Afghanistan\|years29 September 2014–19 February 2020\|afterAmrullah Saleh}} {{S-end}} {{Vice Presidents of Afghanistan}} {{Soviet-Afghan War}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Dostum, Abdul Rashid}} Category:1954 births Category:Living people Category:Afghan military personnel Category:Vice presidents of Afghanistan Category:Afghan warlords Category:Afghanistan conflict (1978–present) Category:People of the Soviet–Afghan War Category:Afghan communists Category:National Islamic Movement of Afghanistan politicians Category:People from Jowzjan Province Category:Afghan expatriates in Turkey Category:Afghan exiles Category:Afghan expatriates in Pakistan Category:Military of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Category:Islamic State of Afghanistan<!--Northern Alliance--> Category:21st-century Afghan politicians Category:Afghan Uzbek politicians Category:Afghan military officers Category:Marshals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Rashid_Dostum	2025-04-05T18:26:02.385785
2377	Andhra Pradesh	{{Short description\|State in southeastern India}} {{redirect\|Andhra}} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2024}} {{Use Indian English\|date=September 2024}} {{Infobox Indian state or territory \| name = Andhra Pradesh \| type = State <!-- image_skyline restricted to 3 images as per consensus on talk page discussion during May 2023 (Talk:Andhra_Pradesh/Archive_2#Reducing_the_number_of_images_in_infobox). For any improvements, please discuss first on the talk page .... -->\| official_name = State of Andhra Pradesh \| former = Madras Presidency \| image_skyline = {{Photomontage \| photo1a = Tirumala_090615.jpg \| photo2a = Undavalli Caves, Vijayawada, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India (2018) 1.jpg \| photo2b = Vizag_seaport.jpg \| spacing = 1 \| space = 2 \| position = center \| color_border = black \| color = black \| size = 250 \| foot_montage = }} \| image_caption = From top, left to right: Venkateswara temple at Tirumala, Undavalli Caves near Vijayawada, and Vizag seaport \| image_seal = Emblem of Andhra Pradesh.svg \| etymology = Province of Andhras (State of Andhras) \| motto = Satyameva Jayate (Truth alone triumphs) \| anthem = "Mā Telugu Talliki"<br/> (To Our Telugu Mother) \| image_map = IN-AP.svg \| coordinates {{coord\|16.51\|80.52\|region:IN-AP_type:adm1st_dim:500000\|displayinline,title}} \| region = South India \| year_start = <!-- the year in which the territory was established as a separate entity --> \| formation_date4 = 1 October 1953 <!-- formation date of the state or territory --> \| consolidation = 1 November 1956 <!-- the date when the states or territories were merged or into another state --> \| before_was = Undivided Andhra Pradesh \| formation_date3 = 2 June 2014 (Bifurcation by forming Telangana) <!-- date when the state or territory was bifurcated --> \| capital = Amaravati \| largestcity = Visakhapatnam \| metro = Andhra Pradesh Capital Region \| districts = 26 \| Governor = Syed Abdul Nazeer \| Chief_Minister = N. Chandrababu Naidu \| party = TDP \| Deputy_CM = K. Pawan Kalyan<br />(JSP) \| judiciary = Andhra Pradesh High Court \| Chief_secretary = K.Vijayanand, IAS \| legislature_type = Bicameral <br/>Andhra Pradesh Legislature \| assembly = Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly \| assembly_seats = 175 seats \| council = Andhra Pradesh Legislative Council \| council_seats = 58 seats \| rajya_sabha_seats = 11 seats \| lok_sabha_seats = 25 seats \| area_total_km2 = 162970 \| area_rank = 7th \| elevation_m = 269 \| elevation_max_m = 1680 \| elevation_max_point = Arma Konda \| population_total = 49577103 \| population_footnotes {{IncreaseNeutral}}{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p430}}{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p=3}} \| population_as_of = 2011 \| population_rank = 10th \| population_urban = 29.47% (14610372) \| population_rural = 70.53% (34966730) \| population_density = 304 \| population_demonym = Andhrulu, Teluguvaaru \| 0fficial_Langs = Telugu \| additional_official Urdu<ref name":1"/><ref name":2">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/ap-govt-issues-orders-recognising-urdu-as-the-official-language-749112\|titleAP govt. issues orders recognising Urdu as the official language\|lastPavan\|workThe Hans India\|date17 June 2022\|access-date27 July 2023\|archive-date27 July 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230727054829/https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/ap-govt-issues-orders-recognising-urdu-as-the-official-language-749112\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| official_script = Telugu script \| GDP_footnotes <ref name"GSDP">{{cite report\|urlhttps://esankhyiki.mospi.gov.in/datacatalogue/NASdata/SDP/SDP-as%20on%2001.08.2024/State_wise_SDP-01082024_GSDP_Current.xlsx\|titleGross State Domestic Product (Current Prices)\|publisherGovernment of India\|access-date1 November 2024}}</ref><ref name"NSDP">{{cite report\|urlhttps://mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/press_releases_statements/State_wise_SDP_as_on_15032024.xls\|titlePer Capita Net State Domestic Product (Current Prices)\|publisherGovernment of India\|access-date=1 November 2024}}</ref> \| GDP_total {{Increase}} {{INRConvert\|16.40\|t\|lkr}} \| GDP_year = 2024–25 \| GDP_rank = 9th \| GDP_per_capita {{Increase}} {{INRConvert\|298362\|lkr}} \| GDP_per_capita_rank = 16th \| HDI_year = 2024 \| HDI {{Increase}} 0.648 {{color\|#fc0\|Medium}} <ref name"snhdi-gdl"/> \| literacy = {{Increase}} 67.02% \| literacy_year = 2011 \| literacy_rank = 31st \| sex_ratio = 993♀/1000 ♂ \| sexratio_year = 2011 \| sexratio_rank = 20th \| iso_code = IN-AP \| registration_plate = AP \| website = ap.gov.in \| foundation_day = Andhra Pradesh Day \| mammal Blackbuck<ref name"dc-newsymbols">{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh gets new state bird, state flower \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/310518/andhra-pradesh-gets-new-state-bird-state-flower.html \|workDeccan Chronicle \|date31 May 2018 \|access-date1 June 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180601000928/https://deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/310518/andhra-pradesh-gets-new-state-bird-state-flower.html \|archive-date1 June 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| bird Rose-ringed parakeet<ref name"dc-newsymbols" /> \| flower = Jasmine \| tree = Azadirachta indica \| fruit = Banginapalle Mango \| image_highway = SH IN-AP.png \| SH_numbers = AP SH1{{ndash}}AP SH240 }} Andhra Pradesh ({{Indic Transl\|te\|Āndhra Pradēśa\|aːndʱɾə pɾədeʃᵊ}}, {{small\|abbr.}} AP) is a state on the east coast of southern India. It is the seventh-largest state and the tenth-most populous in the country. Telugu is the most widely spoken language in the state, as well as its official language. Amaravati is the state capital, while the largest city is Visakhapatnam. Andhra Pradesh shares borders with Odisha to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the north, Karnataka to the southwest, Tamil Nadu to the south, Telangana to northwest and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It has the second-longest coastline in India at about {{convert\|974\|km}}. Archaeological evidence indicates that Andhra Pradesh has been continuously inhabited for over 247,000 years, from early archaic hominins to Neolithic settlements. The earliest reference to the Andhras appears in the Aitareya Brahmana ({{Circa\|800 BCE}}) of the Rigveda. Around 300 BCE, the Andhras living in the Godavari and Krishna river deltas were renowned for their formidable military strength—second only to the Maurya Empire in the subcontinent. The first major Andhra polity was the Satavahana dynasty (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE) which ruled over the entire Deccan Plateau and even distant areas of western and central India. They established trade relations with the Roman Empire, and their capital, Dhanyakataka, was the most prosperous city in India during the 2nd century CE. Subsequent major dynasties included the Vishnukundinas, Eastern Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Vijayanagara Empire, and Qutb Shahis, followed by British rule. After gained independence, Andhra State was carved out of Madras State in 1953. In 1956, it merged with Telangana, comprising the Telugu-speaking regions of the former Hyderabad State, to form Andhra Pradesh. It reverted to its earlier form in 2014, when the new state of Telangana was bifurcated from it. The Eastern Ghats separate the coastal plains from the peneplains. Major rivers include the Krishna, Godavari, Tungabhadra and Penna. Andhra Pradesh holds about one-third of India's limestone reserves and significant deposits of baryte and granite. Agriculture and related activities employ 62.17% of the population, with rice being the staple crop. The state contributes 30% of India’s fish production and accounts for 35% of the country’s seafood exports. The Sriharikota Range, located on Sriharikota island in Tirupati district, serves as India's primary satellite launch centre. Andhra is the birthplace of the Amaravati school of art, an ancient Indian art style that influenced South Indian, Sri Lankan, and Southeast Asian art. It is also home to Kuchipudi, one of India’s classical dance forms, and has produced several renowned Carnatic music composers. The state features prominent pilgrimage centres and natural attractions, including the Venkateswara temple in Tirumala and the Araku Valley. Notable products with geographical indication (GI) registration include Tirupati Laddu, Banganapalle mangoes, Kondapalli toys, Dharmavaram sarees, and Pootharekulu. Etymology Andhras were mentioned in Aitareya Brahmana of the Rigveda ({{Circa\|800-500 BCE}}) as descendants of Sage Vishvamitra.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMartin Haug \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.104262/page/n175/mode/2up?qandhras \|titleAitareya Brahmana Of The Rigveda \|date1922 \|pages175}}</ref> Andhras were referred to as non-aryans living on the fringes of Aryan settlements.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastShimada \|firstAkira \|titleEarly Buddhist architecture in context: the great stūpa at Amarāvatī (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE) \|date2013 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-90-04-23283-9 \|seriesBrill's Indological library \|locationLieden ; Boston \|quoteIn the Aitareya Brahmaņa (VII, 18), the Andhras were mentioned together with the Pundras, Sabaras, Pulindas and Mūtibas as dasyu (non-Aryan tribes) living on the borders of the land}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastBhandarkar \|firstD. R. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7014/page/n15/mode/2up?qandhras \|titleLectures on the Ancient History of India on the period from 650 to 325 B.C. \|date1919 \|publisherUniversity of Calcutta, Calcutta \|pages14}}</ref> The Satavahanas, the earliest kings who ruled this region were mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jateeya, and Andhrabhrtya in the Puranic literature. "Andhra" is both a tribal and territorial name.{{Sfn\|Sen\|1999\|p172-176}} The region inhabited by Andhras was called Andhradesa.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dli.jZY9lup2kZl6TuXGlZQdjZM1k0My/page/3/mode/2up \|titleA History of the Early Dynasties of AndhraDesa C. 200-625 A.D. : with a map of ancient Andhradesa and Daksinapatna \|date1942 \|publisherV. Ramaswami Sastrulu & sons (Madras)}}</ref> History {{Main\|History of Andhra Pradesh}} Pre-history Excavated stone tools from Hanumanthunipadu in Prakasam district were dated to be 2.47 lakh (247,000) years old (Middle Paleolithic). This finding means that these tools were developed by archaic hominins (pre-humans) as such tools were thought to be used by modern man migrating out of Africa about 2.10 lakh (210,000) years ago. In the absence of fossil evidence, it became a riddle to understand what happened to them.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastP. \|firstSujatha Varma \|date30 September 2022 \|titleAncient stone tools found in Prakasam lead to startling revelations \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ancient-stone-tools-found-in-prakasam-lead-to-startling-revelations/article65946249.ece \|url-accesssubscription \|access-date21 July 2024 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date21 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240721120534/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ancient-stone-tools-found-in-prakasam-lead-to-startling-revelations/article65946249.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The discovery of petroglyphs, pictographs, and dolmens in Chakrala Bodu, near Boyalapalli village in the Yerragondapalem mandal area of Prakasam district indicates the presence of Neolithic-age human settlements in the region.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastIVNP \|firstPrasad \|date17 November 2023 \|titleNeolithic-age rock art, burial chambers discovered in Prakasam \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/Nov/17/neolithic-age-rock-art-burial-chambers-discovered-in-prakasam-2633669.html \|access-date21 July 2024 \|workThe New Indian Express \|archive-date21 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240721121055/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/Nov/17/neolithic-age-rock-art-burial-chambers-discovered-in-prakasam-2633669.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Early and medieval history , built during the 3rd century BCE–2nd century BCE]] Megasthenes reported in his Indica ({{Circa\|310 BCE}}) that Andhras were living in the Godavari and Krishna river deltas and were famous for their military strength which was second only to Mauryans in all of India.<ref name":6">{{Cite book \|lastV. D. \|firstMahajan \|author-linkVidya Dhar Mahajan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7TJlDwAAQBAJ&dqMegasthenes+Andhras&pgPA297 \|titleAncient India \|date2016 \|publisherS. Chand Publishing \|isbn978-93-5253-132-5 \|pages297}}{{Cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|titleHistory of Andhra Pradesh\|urlhttp://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history.html\|publisherGovernment of Andhra Pradesh\|access-date22 July 2012\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120716182646/http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history.html\|archive-date16 July 2012}}</ref> Archaeological evidence from places such as Bhattiprolu, Amaravathi, and Dharanikota suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan empire. After the death of Emperor Ashoka, Mauryan rule weakened around 200&nbsp;BCE and was replaced by several smaller kingdoms in the Andhra region.<ref name"Akira_2012">{{Cite book \|authorAkira Shimada \|titleEarly Buddhist architecture in context: The great stupa at Amaravati (ca. 300&nbsp;BCE{{snd}}300&nbsp;CE) \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYweEJsuLNCUC&pgPA39 \|year2012 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn978-90-04-23283-9 \|pages33–40 \|access-date14 October 2016}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> One of the earliest examples of the Brahmi script, from Bhattiprolu was used on an urn containing the relics of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.buddhavihara.in/ancient.htm \|access-date29 April 2024\|title Ananda Buddha Vihara\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071014070155/http://www.buddhavihara.in/ancient.htm \|archive-date14 October 2007}}</ref> This is considered as the rosetta stone for decipherment of Tamil Brahmi.<ref name"Magnum">{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm\|titleA magnum opus on Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions\|lastChampahalakshmi\|firstR\|workFrontline\|publisherThe Hindu\|access-date7 October 2011\|archive-date30 December 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131230030420/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2013/stories/20030704000207100.htm\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Kadamba script, derived from Bhattiprolu Brahmi later led to the evolution of Telugu and Kannada scripts.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Alla \|first1Chakradhar \|editor1-lastChakrabarti \|editor1-firstDebkumar \|titleErgonomics for design and innovation \|date1 June 2022 \|page331 \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9 \|access-date29 July 2024 \|chapterImpact of writing tools in the evolution of Telugu script \|seriesLecture Notes in Networks and Systems \|volume391 \|doi10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9_29 \|isbn978-3-030-94276-2 \|publisherSpringer \|archive-date13 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230513133402/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-94277-9 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan Plateau from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE.<ref name"CH_2009">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH1c1UIEVH9gC&pgPA299 \|titleEncyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations \|authorCharles Higham \|publisherInfobase Publishing \|year2009 \|isbn978-1-4381-0996-1 \|page299 \|access-date6 March 2016 }}{{Cbignore}}</ref> It had trade relations with the Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Dutt \|first1Sukumar \|titleBuddhist monks and monasteries of India: Their history and their contribution to Indian culture \|date1988 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass \|isbn978-81-20-80498-2 \|page132 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlxRHYFd0fB4C&pgPA132 \|access-date29 April 2024}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> The Satavahanas made Dhanyakataka-Amaravathi their capital. According to historian Stanley Wolpert, it might have been the most prosperous city in India in 2nd century CE.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHistory of Amaravati \|urlhttps://crda.ap.gov.in/APCRDADOCS/DataModuleFIles/History/01~10531.Historical%20timeline.pdf \|websitecrda.ap.gov.in \|publisherGovernment of AP \|access-date29 July 2024 \|archive-date19 May 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240519110822/https://crda.ap.gov.in/APCRDADOCS/DataModuleFIles/History/01~10531.Historical%20timeline.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name":10">{{Cite book \|lastWolpert \|firstStanley A. \|author-linkStanley Wolpert \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQSZuAAAAMAAJ&qAndhra \|titleA new history of India \|date1989 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-505636-5 \|pages75, 76\|quoteAmaravati on the banks of the Krishna, which was later the southeast capital of the Satavahanas, flourished in its trade with Rome, Ceylon, and Southeast Asia, and may well have been the most prosperous city of India during the second century of the Christian era.}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Nagarjuna, the philosopher of Mahayana, lived in this region.<ref>{{Cite book \|authorDavid M. Knipe \|titleVedic voices: Intimate narratives of a living Andhra tradition \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8oUSBwAAQBAJ&qNagarjuna \|year2015 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-026673-8 \|pages8–9 \|access-date24 July 2024 }}{{Cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1Padma\|first1Sree\|last2Barber\|first2Anthony W. \|titleBuddhism in the Krishna river valley of Andhra\|publisherSUNY Press \|year2008\|page2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastDavidson\|firstRonald\|titleTibetan renaissance\| publisherColumbia \|year2005\|pages29}}</ref> Mahayana spread to China, Japan, and Korea. It became the largest Buddhist denomination in the world.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastWarder \|firstAnthony Kennedy \|author-linkA. K. Warder \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsE8MgUVGNHkC&qAndhra \|titleIndian Buddhism \|date2004 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass \|isbn978-81-208-1741-8 \|pages336, 355, 402, 464\|quoteThose of us who have studied the evidence above will prefer to locate this source of most of the Mahāyāna sutras in Andhra. (p. 355) From the internal evidence, it appears that this sutra was written in South India, very likely in Andhra, in which case the country of origin of the Mahāyāna continued in the lead in the development of new ideas in India. (p. 402)}}{{Cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1Johnson\|first1Todd M.\|urlhttp://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf\|titleThe world's religions in figures: An introduction to international religious demography\|last2Grim\|first2Brian J.\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\|year2013\|locationHoboken, NJ\|page36\|access-date2 September 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131020100448/http://media.johnwiley.com.au/product_data/excerpt/47/04706745/0470674547-196.pdf\|archive-date20 October 2013}}</ref> Amaravati School of Art is regarded as one of the three major styles of ancient Indian art and had a great influence on art in South India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.{{Sfn\|Rowland\|1967\|p210}} The Andhra Ikshvakus, with their capital at Vijayapuri, succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley in the latter half of the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Subramanian\|first1K. R.\|titleBuddhist remains in Andhra and the history of Andhra between 225 and 610 A.D.\|publisherAsian Educational Services\|isbn978-81-20-60444-5\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvnO2BMPdYEoC&qandhra+ikshvaku&pgPA82 \|access-date29 April 2024\|year1989}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> The Salankayanas were an ancient dynasty that ruled the Andhra region between Godavari and Krishna rivers with their capital at Vengi (modern Pedavegi) around 300 CE.{{Sfn\|Sen\|1999\|p433}} Telugu Cholas ruled present-day Kadapa region from the six to the thirteenth centuries intermittently.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHistory – Kadapa district \|urlhttps://kadapa.ap.gov.in/history-2/ \|websiteKadapa district \|access-date25 August 2024}}</ref> Kallamalla sasanam (law), engraved in 575&nbsp;CE during the rule of Dhanamjaya, is the earliest completely Telugu inscription.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastరెడ్డి \|firstతులసీ ప్రసాద్ \|date22 February 2022 \|titleకడప జిల్లాలోని కలమల్ల శాసనమే తొలి తెలుగు శాసనమా? \|languagete \|publisherBBC News తెలుగు \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/telugu/india-60467482 \|access-date5 April 2023 \|archive-date6 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230406173134/https://www.bbc.com/telugu/india-60467482 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> , Guntur district]] The Vishnukundinas was the first dynasty in the fifth and sixth centuries to hold sway over South India.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSarma\|firstA. Rajeswara\|year2009\|titleIndrapura: The capital city of Vishnukundi dynasty\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/44147663\|access-date29 April 2024\|journalProceedings of the Indian History Congress\|volume70\|pages138–141\|jstor44147663\|issn2249-1937}}</ref> Undavalli Caves is an example of Indian rock-cut architecture of that time.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://guntur.nic.in/undavalli_caves.html\|titleWelcome to Guntur district official website\|access-date31 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160627173402/http://guntur.nic.in/undavalli_caves.html\|archive-date27 June 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose dynasty lasted for around five hundred years from the 7th century until 1130&nbsp;CE, eventually merged with the Chola dynasty. They continued to rule under the protection of the Chola dynasty until 1189&nbsp;CE.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.ap.gov.in/eastern-chalukyas/ \|titleAbout Eastern Chalukyas – Official AP state government portal – AP state portal\|access-date27 May 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160617075255/http://www.ap.gov.in/eastern-chalukyas/ \|archive-date17 June 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> At the request of King Rajaraja Narendra, Nannaya, considered the first Telugu poet, took up the translation of the Mahabharata into Telugu in 1025 CE.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idak9csfpY2WoC&dqNannaya+tikkana&pgPA393 \|titleLiterary cultures in history: Reconstructions from South Asia \|date19 May 2003 \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-22821-4 \|editor-lastPollock \|editor-firstSheldon \|editor-linkSheldon Pollock \|pages393, 397\|access-date1 June 2023}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Kakatiyas ruled this region and Telangana for nearly two hundred years between the 12th and 14th centuries. They were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMamidi \|firstHarikrishna \|author-linkMamidi Harikrishna \|date19 October 2023 \|titleRise and fall of Kakatiyas, turning point in Indian history \|urlhttps://telanganatoday.com/rise-and-fall-of-kakatiyas-turning-point-in-indian-history \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231019020424/https://telanganatoday.com/rise-and-fall-of-kakatiyas-turning-point-in-indian-history \|archive-date19 October 2023 \|access-date30 October 2023 \|websiteTelangana Today}}</ref> Bahamani sultanate took over when Delhi sultanate became weak.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Kulke\|first1Hermann\|titleA History of India \|last2Rothermund\|first2Dietmar\|publisherPsychology Press\|year2004\|isbn9780415329200 \|pages181\|quoteThe Bahmani sultanate of the Deccan: Soon after Muhammad Tughluq left Daulatabad, the city was conquered by Zafar Khan, a Turkish or Afghan officer of unknown descent, had earlier participated in a mutiny of troops in Gujarat.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastWink \|firstAndré \|titleThe making of the Indo-Islamic world C.700–1800 CE \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2020 \|isbn9781108417747 \|pages87\|quoteFinally, and more importantly, the independent Bahmani dynasty of the Deccan was founded in 1348 by Zafar Khan, probably an Afghan who broke away from Delhi with the support of Afghan and Mongol "New Muslims"}}</ref> Around the same time, Musunuris and Reddi Kingdom ruled parts of this region in the early 14th century.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTalbot \|firstCynthia \|titlePre-colonial India in practice: Society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19803-123-9 \|year2001 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpfAKljlCJq0C\|page177}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Reddy kings constructed Kondaveedu Fort and Kondapalli Fort.<ref namegazette>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume15&objectidDS405.1.I34_V15_399.gif \|titleImperial gazetteer of India, v. 15 1931\|workKondaveedu\|page393\|access-date20 October 2009\|publisherDigital South Asia Library\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100613100037/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?volume15&objectidDS405.1.I34_V15_399.gif \|archive-date13 June 2010\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref namegallery>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000000739u00000000.html \|titleKondavid-durg near Guntur. 19 February 1804. Signed 'W.R.'\|access-date20 October 2009\|publisherBritish on line Gallery\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018115359/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000000739u00000000.html \|archive-date18 October 2012\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Gajpathis ruled parts of this region, before the entire region became part of the Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishnadevaraya.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastDurga Prasad \|firstJ. \|titleHistory of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. \|year1988 \|publisherP.G. Publisher \|locationGuntur \|urlhttp://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf \|access-date27 January 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060422120411/http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf \|archive-date22 April 2006\|pages231–235 }}</ref> Pemmasani Nayaks controlled parts of Andhra Pradesh and had large mercenary armies that were the vanguard of the empire in the 16th century.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastStein \|firstBurton \|author-linkBurton Stein \|year1989 \|titleThe new Cambridge history of India: Vijayanagara \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOpxeaYQbGDMC&pgPA1 \|access-date29 April 2024\|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-26693-2 \|page88 \|quote "Controlling numerous villages and many large towns, these powerful chiefs commanded large mercenary armies that were the vanguard of Vijayanagara forces during the sixteenth century."}}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|lastRamaswamy \|firstVijaya \|chapterMapping migrations of South Indian weavers before, during and after the Vijayanagara Period: Thirteenth and eighteenth centuries \|editor-first1Jan \|editor-last1Lucassen \|editor-first2Leo \|editor-last2Lucassen \|titleGlobalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience (16th–21st Centuries) \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCCqiAwAAQBAJ&pgPA99 \|year2014 \|publisherBRILL \|isbn978-90-04-27136-4 \|page99}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Several tanks and anicuts were built. Some of these include the Cumbum tank, Mopad tank, and Koregal anicut, Vallabhapur anicut across the Tungabhadra River.<ref name"wrd-aboutus">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/aboutUs \|titleWater resources department – History \|access-date30 May 2023 \|websiteWater resources department \|archive-date30 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230530064708/https://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/aboutUs \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorB. A. Saletore\|titleSocial and political life in the Vijayanagara Empire Vol II\|year1930\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.52848 \|access-date29 April 2024 }}</ref> The Lepakshi group of monuments built during this period have mural paintings of the Vijayanagara kings, Dravidian art, and inscriptions. These are put on the tentative list of the UNESCO World Heritage committee.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/lepakshi-nandi-veerabhadra-temple-on-unesco-world-heritage-tentative-list/article65271080.ece \|titleLepakshi Nandi, Veerabhadra temple on UNESCO world heritage tentative list\|websiteThe Hindu\|date29 March 2022\|access-date30 May 2023\|archive-date1 December 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221201091816/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/lepakshi-nandi-veerabhadra-temple-on-unesco-world-heritage-tentative-list/article65271080.ece \|url-statuslive\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6607/ \|titleSri Veerabhadra Temple and Monolithic Bull (Nandi), Lepakshi \|access-date22 July 2024 \|publisherUNESCO \|archive-date17 May 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220517062600/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6607/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Modern history {{See also\|Andhra State\|Andhra Pradesh (1956–2014)}} , Carnatic Sultanate, British East India Company and Kingdom of Mysore and transformation to British East India Company rule by 1801 (map dated 1805) (right)]] Following the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over most of present-day general Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Later, this region came under the rule of the Mughal Empire.<ref name"Richards">{{Cite journal\|lastRichards\|firstJ. F.\|titleThe Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687–1707\|year1975 \|journalModern Asian Studies \|volume9\|issue2\|pages241–260\|doi10.1017/S0026749X00004996\|s2cid142989123\| issn 0026-749X}}</ref> Chin Qilich Khan who was initially appointed as viceroy of Deccan by the Mughal in 1713, established himself as a semi-independent ruler as Nizam of Hyderabad .{{Sfn\|Faruqui, At Empire's End\|2013\|pp9–13}} In 1765, British Lord Robert Clive obtained from the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II a grant of four circars to the British East India Company, that was formalised in 1778 treaty with Nizam Ali, the 5th Nizam of Hyderabad state with addition of another circar. Later, four territories were ceded to the British by Nizam Ali in 1800, which eventually became the Rayalaseema region.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1T. \|first1Bhujang Rao \|titleThe ceded districts, the circars, and the Nizam \|journalTriveni Journal \|year1940 \|urlhttps://trivenijournal.org/CD%20&%20WEB/TheCededDistrictstheCircarsandtheNizamoct40.html \|access-date20 August 2024}}</ref> Meanwhile, in the present day North Andhra, Raja Viziaram Raz (Vijayaram Raj) established a sovereign kingdom and acquired neighbouring estates with the support of British. Later it fell out with the British and, as a result, was attacked and defeated in the battle of Padmanabham in 1794. It was annexed as a tributary estate like other principalities and remained so until it acceded to the Indian Union in 1949.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectidDS405.1.I34_V24_345.gif\|titleImperial gazetteer of India v. 24\|pages339–341\|access-date31 May 2023\|archive-date4 June 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230604191302/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectidDS405.1.I34_V24_345.gif\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Following the annexation of Carnatic sultanate in 1801, the last major piece of the present day Andhra Pradesh came under British East India Company rule as part of Madras Presidency.<ref>{{Cite journal \|titleBritish annexation of the Carnatic, 1801 \|journalProceedings of the Indian History Congress \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/44138505 \|lastK. \|firstRajayyan \|issue2 \|volume32 \|pages54–62 \|year1970 \|jstor44138505 \|access-date18 July 2024}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the region became part of British crown till India became independent in 1947.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleNizam-British relations, 1724–1857\|publisherConcept Publishing\| pages130–150\|isbn978-81-7022-195-1\|lastRegani\|firstSarojini\|year=1988}}</ref> built in 1850 by Arthur Cotton]] Anicut at Dowleswaram built in 1850 by Arthur Cotton<ref name"hope">{{Cite book \|last1Hope \|first1Elizabeth \|titleGeneral Sir Arthur Cotton, R. E., K. C. S. I.: His life and work \|year1900 \|publisherHodder and Stoughton \|locationLondon \|isbn978-1444629965 \|page[https://archive.org/details/generalsirarthur01hope/page/120 120] \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/generalsirarthur01hope \|quotedowleswaram. \|access-date26 December 2018}}</ref> and several others at Vijayawada, Nellore, Sangam, Sunkesula, and Polampalli are examples of irrigation facilities built during the British raj, that irrigated lacs of acres across coastal districts.<ref name"wrd-aboutus"/> Buckingham Canal built during 1806–1878, running parallel to the Coramandal coast from Kakinada to Marakkanam in Tamil Nadu served as a major water transportation route for goods till the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1K. \|first1Venkateshwarlu \|titleAn ambitious plan to revive the Buckingham Canal \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/long-live-the-canal/article19429503.ece \|access-date24 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date5 August 2017}}</ref> Telegraph service initiated in 1850 served for over 160 years till it was stopped on 15 July 2013 citing poor patronage due to advances in mobile communications and short message service.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleTelegram is dead \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/telegram-is-dead/article4915659.ece \|workThe Hindu\|access-date24 August 2024 \|date15 July 2013}}</ref> Charles Philip Brown did pioneering work in transforming Telugu to the print era and introduced Vemana poems to English readers.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorPeter L. Schmitthenner\|titleTelugu resurgence: C.P. Brown and cultural consolidation in nineteenth-century South India \|year2001\|publisherManohar\|isbn978-81-7304-291-1\|page94\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/teluguresurgence0000schm}}</ref> Kandukuri Veeresalingam is considered the father of the Telugu renaissance movement, as he encouraged the education of women and lower caste people. He fought against Brahmin marriage customs such as child marriage, the bride price system, and the prohibition of widow remarriage.<ref>{{Cite book \|author1John Leonard \|editor1-lastJones \|editor1-firstKenneth W \|titleReligious controversy in British India \|date1992 \|publisherSUNY Press \|urlhttps://sites.socsci.uci.edu/~kbleonar/bio/Karen%20Religious%20Controversy%20in%20British%20India%20.pdf \|access-date6 August 2024\|chapterViresalingam and the idea of Social change in Andhra \|archive-date6 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240806104944/https://sites.socsci.uci.edu/~kbleonar/bio/Karen%20Religious%20Controversy%20in%20British%20India%20.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> , whose fast unto death in 1952 led to the formation of Andhra State]] To gain an independent state based on linguistic identity and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. The Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras state on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleStruggle for Andhra state – AP state portal\|urlhttps://www.ap.gov.in/?page_id228\|access-date20 July 2020\|archive-date15 June 2020\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200615190824/https://www.ap.gov.in/?page_id228\|url-statusdead}}</ref> On the basis of the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, the States reorganisation act created Andhra Pradesh by merging the neighbouring Telugu-speaking areas of the Hyderabad State with Hyderabad as the capital on 1 November 1956.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html#Emergence \|titlePost-independence era, then and now \|publisheraponline.gov.in \|access-date3 August 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131220113947/http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick%20links/hist-cult/history_post.html \|archive-date20 December 2013 }}</ref> Hyderabad grew rapidly partly through investments flowing in from agrarian change and 'green revolution' in coastal Andhra.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.rediff.com/money/2007/nov/13spec1.htm \|titleLocal origins of Hyderabad's development \|date13 November 2007 \|access-date17 July 2024 \|workRediff.com \|lastBarua \|firstSanjay \|archive-date17 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240717050415/https://www.rediff.com/money/2007/nov/13spec1.htm \|url-status=live }}</ref> In the unified state, Indian National Congress (INC) enjoyed a monopoly in ruling the state till 1983. After that Telugu Desam Party (TDP) led by N. T. Rama Rao (NTR) came to power and became another major party to rule the state.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/nt-rama-rao-a-timeline/article62061789.ece \|titleN.T. Rama Rao: A timeline \|date28 May 2017 \|access-date1 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date1 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230601112102/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/nt-rama-rao-a-timeline/article62061789.ece \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Nagarjuna Sagar Dam commissioned in 1967, Srisailam hydro electric project commissioned in 1982 are few examples of irrigation and electricity projects.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/static/approjects/Nagarjuna.html \|titleNagarjuna Sagar Dam \|access-date18 July 2024 \|websiteWater resources department \|archive-date16 April 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240416064910/https://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/static/approjects/Nagarjuna.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastV. \|firstRaghavendra \|date6 August 2023 \|titleAP-Genco plans capital overhaul of Srisailam right bank powerhouse in phases \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-genco-plans-capital-overhaul-of-srisailam-right-bank-power-house-in-phases/article67164609.ece \|access-date19 July 2024 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809105425/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-genco-plans-capital-overhaul-of-srisailam-right-bank-power-house-in-phases/article67164609.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The increased presence of women, Dalits, and tribals in the social and political spheres of the state, driven by social movements, led to a rise in violence against these groups. Securing access to resources like land remains an unachieved objective in the effort to expand their economic opportunities in the state.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleHuman development report 2007 – Andhra Pradesh \|date2008 \|publisherGovernment of Andhra Pradesh \|locationHyderabad \|pages19–32 \|urlhttps://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/in/human_revelop_report_andhra_pradesh_2007_full_report.pdf \|access-date25 August 2024}}</ref> When the union cabinet decided to consider the formation of Telangana state in 2009 heeding to the demand of relaunched Telangana movement, Samaikyandhra Movement opposing it took shape and the state went through a turmoil.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleHyderabad on the edge; APNGOs meet today \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/hyderabad-on-the-edge-apngos-meet-today/article5101666.ece \|access-date19 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date7 September 2013}}</ref> Finally, the Andhra Pradesh reorganisation act bill was passed by the parliament of India for the formation of the Telangana state, despite opposition by the state legislature.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-challenge-to-indian-federalism/article5278609.ece \|titleA challenge to Indian federalism \|date28 October 2013 \|access-date20 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|authorJayaprakash Narayan \|archive-date20 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230620002607/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/a-challenge-to-indian-federalism/article5278609.ece \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the president of India, with the residual state continuing as Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Telangana-State-to-Be-Born-on-June-2/2014/03/04/article2090470.ece\|titleTelangana state formation gazette\|workThe New Indian Express\|access-date14 May 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140706093144/http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra_pradesh/Telangana-State-to-Be-Born-on-June-2/2014/03/04/article2090470.ece\|archive-date6 July 2014\|url-status=dead}}</ref> TDP formed the first government of the residual state with Chandrababu Naidu as chief minister.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/naidu-takes-oath-as-andhra-pradesh-cm/article6094917.ece\|titleNaidu takes oath as Andhra Pradesh CM\|date8 June 2014 \|access-date6 August 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140610025100/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/naidu-takes-oath-as-andhra-pradesh-cm/article6094917.ece \|archive-date10 June 2014 \|workThe Hindu\|url-access subscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2017, the government of Andhra Pradesh began operating from its new greenfield capital, Amaravati, for which 33,000 acres were acquired from farmers through an innovative land pooling scheme.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastP\|firstAshish\|date2 March 2017\|titleChief Minister Chandrababu Naidu inaugurates new Andhra Pradesh assembly\|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/new-andhra-pradesh-assembly-chandrababu-naidu-velagapudi-guntur-district-963618-2017-03-02\|access-date9 March 2021\|workIndia Today\|archive-date14 April 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414060454/https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/new-andhra-pradesh-assembly-chandrababu-naidu-velagapudi-guntur-district-963618-2017-03-02\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the 2019 elections, Y. S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, leader of the YSR Congress Party, became the chief minister by winning 151 out of 175 seats.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleJagan Mohan Reddy sworn in as Andhra Pradesh CM \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/jagan-mohan-reddy-sworn-in-as-andhra-pradesh-cm/article27316397.ece \|access-date19 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date30 May 2019}}</ref> He introduced the 'village and ward volunteers' system,<ref>{{Cite news \|titleJagan rolls out grama and ward volunteer system \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/jagan-asks-volunteers-to-rise-and-shine/article29103714.ece \|date15 August 2019 \|access-date15 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date15 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240715003522/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/jagan-asks-volunteers-to-rise-and-shine/article29103714.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and reorganised the state with 26 districts.<ref name"apreorg-2022">{{Cite news \|last1V. \|first1Raghavendra \|titleJagan launches 13 new districts of Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/thirteen-new-districts-come-into-existence-in-andhra-pradesh/article65289032.ece \|access-date21 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date4 April 2022}}</ref> Introduction of English as the medium of instruction was done in almost all the state schools. The move to three capitals with Amaravati getting reduced to being the legislative capital, Vizag as the executive capital and Kurnool as the judicial capital was stuck down by the High Court. His government appealed to the Supreme Court.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleSupreme Court to examine if A.P. can insist on compulsory English medium education \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/supreme-court-to-examine-if-ap-can-insist-on-compulsory-english-medium-education/article32512075.ece \|date3 September 2020 \|access-date15 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200903184404/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/supreme-court-to-examine-if-ap-can-insist-on-compulsory-english-medium-education/article32512075.ece \|archive-date3 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleThree capitals case: Supreme Court adjourns hearing of SLP filed by A.P. govt. to December \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/three-capitals-case-supreme-court-adjourns-hearing-of-slp-filed-by-ap-govt-to-december/article67071078.ece \|lastV \|firstRaghavendra \|date12 July 2023 \|access-date15 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230713032159/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/three-capitals-case-supreme-court-adjourns-hearing-of-slp-filed-by-ap-govt-to-december/article67071078.ece\|archive-date13 July 2023}}</ref> Geography {{Main\|Geography of Andhra Pradesh\|List of rivers in Andhra Pradesh}} Andhra Pradesh is the seventh-largest state with an area of {{cvt\|162970\|km2}}.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p3}} Politically, the state shares borders with Orissa to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the north, Karnataka to the southwest, Tamil Nadu to the south, Telangana to northwest and the Bay of Bengal to the east. Yanam district, an enclave of Puducherry, is in the state bordering Kakinada district.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://surveyofindia.gov.in/documents/polmap-eng-11012021.jpg \|titlePolitical map of India 1:4000000 (10th edition) \|date1 January 2020 \|access-date16 June 2023 \|websiteSurvey of India \|archive-date10 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230410024610/https://surveyofindia.gov.in/documents/polmap-eng-11012021.jpg \|url-statusdead }}</ref> It has a coastline of around {{Convert\|974\|km}}, which makes it the second-longest coastline in the nation.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p3}} The Eastern Ghats are a major dividing line separating coastal plains and peneplains in the state's geography. These are discontinuous, and individual sections have local names. The ghats become more pronounced towards the south and extreme north of the coast. Some of these consist of the Horsley Hills, the Seshachala Hills, the Nallamala Hills, and the Papi Hills.<ref name"Kohli2013">{{Cite book \| authorM.S. Kohli \| titleMountains of India: Tourism, Adventure and Pilgrimage \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGIs4zv17HHwC&pgPA36 \| access-date4 July 2013 \| dateAugust 2010 \| publisherIndus Publishing, 2014 \| isbn978-81-7387-135-1 \| pages36–}}{{Cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.goindigo.in/get-inspired/hill-stations-in-andhra-pradesh.html \|title7 offbeat hill stations in Andhra Pradesh that are worth exploring this season \|date3 January 2023 \|access-date29 April 2024 \|websiteGoindigo \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809113347/https://www.goindigo.in/get-inspired/hill-stations-in-andhra-pradesh.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|firstSudhakar\|lastG. \|titleCompendium on Indian biosphere reserves: Progression during two decades of conservation \|date2012 \|publisherMinistry of environment and forests, Government of India \|pages178–183 \|urlhttps://gbpihed.gov.in/PDF/Publication/comp_IBR.pdf \|access-date19 August 2024 \|chapter18 Seshachalam biosphere reserve\|editor-last1Palni \|editor-first1Lok Man Singh \|editor-last2Rawal \|editor-first2Ranbeer S \|editor-last3Rai\|editor-first3Rama K\|editor-last4S. \|editor-first4Venkata Reddy }}</ref> Arma Konda, located in Visakhapatnam district, is the highest peak in the state.<ref name"Kohli2013"/><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid52152 \|titleArma Konda, India \|access-date17 June 2023 \|websitepeakbagger \|archive-date5 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230105061047/https://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid52152 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Peneplains, part of Rayalaseema, slope towards the east.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p107}} The Eastern Coastal Plains comprise the area of coastal districts up to the Eastern ghats as their border along the Bay of Bengal, with variable width. These are, for the most part, delta regions formed by the Krishna, Godavari, and Penna rivers. The state has five different soil types with the majority soil types being red lateritic and black soil types.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNatural forming – Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://naturalfarming.niti.gov.in/andhra-pradesh/ \|websiteNiti Ayog \|access-date11 August 2024}}</ref> Most of the coastal plains are put to intensive agricultural use.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1D \|first1Kumara Charyulu\|last2D.\|first2Moses Shyam\|last3S.P.\|first3Wani\|last4KV \|first4Raju KV \|titleRythu Kosam: Andhra Pradesh primary sector mission Coastal Andhra region baseline summary report, Research report IDC-13 \|urlhttps://oar.icrisat.org/9900/1/Cover%20and%20Text%20%20Rythu%20Kosam%20(Coastal%20Andhra%20Region%20Baseline)).pdf \|publisherICRISAT \|access-date20 August 2024}}</ref> The Kadapa basin, formed by two arching branches of the Eastern ghats, is a mineral-rich area.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleKadapa or Cuddapah basin\|urlhttps://www.ndrdgh.gov.in/NDR/?page_id860\|publisherDirectorate General of Hydrocarbons\|access-date2 June 2023\|url-statuslive\|archive-date26 April 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230426141217/https://www.ndrdgh.gov.in/NDR/?page_id860}}</ref> in YSR district]] The valleys include Araku Valley, which is rich in biodiversity<ref>{{Cite book \|titleVisakhapatnam hub \|publisherAndhra Pradesh tourism authority \|locationVijayawada \|pages3–4 \|urlhttps://aptourism.gov.in/media-data/brouchers/11-e5315decdcefede21063bca108b108ce783f9e6d.pdf \|access-date19 August 2024}}</ref> and Gandikota gorge. Gandikota gorge is a canyon formed between the Erramala range of hills, through which the Penna (Pennar) river flows.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGandikota: The stunning Indian gorge that resembles the Grand Canyon \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-asia-india-59731622 \|publisherBBC \|access-date19 August 2024\|date5 January 2022}}</ref> Borra Caves, created millions of years ago by water activity<ref>{{Cite news\|last1Bhattacharjee\|first1Sumit\|titleNatural world heritage status for Borra Caves sought\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/Natural-world-heritage-status-for-Borra-Caves-sought/article17041900.ece\|access-date13 May 2017\|workThe Hindu\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170116062146/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/Natural-world-heritage-status-for-Borra-Caves-sought/article17041900.ece\|archive-date16 January 2017\|url-statuslive\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> and the country's second-longest cave system, the Belum Caves are in the state.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleFilm tourism to boost Kurnool economy\|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/030217/film-tourism-to-boost-kurnool-economy.html\|access-date13 May 2017\|workDeccan Chronicle\|date3 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170313031427/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/viral-and-trending/030217/film-tourism-to-boost-kurnool-economy.html\|archive-date13 March 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The state has several beaches in its coastal districts, such as Rushikonda, Mypadu, Suryalanka.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleThe charming beaches of Andhra Pradesh \|publisherAP tourism authority \|urlhttps://aptourism.gov.in/media-data/brouchers/7-e96706d65633f39c39fc01a0514e30d260d77afc.pdf \|access-date12 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220712023755/https://aptourism.gov.in/media-data/brouchers/7-e96706d65633f39c39fc01a0514e30d260d77afc.pdf \|archive-date12 July 2022}}</ref> Flora and fauna {{Main\|Natural vegetation and wildlife of Andhra Pradesh}} (parrot) (state bird) feeding on Neem fruits (state tree)]] The total forest cover of the state is {{convert\|29784.3\|km2}}, amounting to 18.28% of the total area.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleChapter 13: Forests and tree resources in states and union territories \|year2021 \|pages257–264\|urlhttps://fsi.nic.in/isfr-2021/chapter-13.pdf \|access-date2 June 2023 \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602105334/https://fsi.nic.in/isfr-2021/chapter-13.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Eastern ghats region is home to dense tropical forests, while the vegetation becomes sparse as the ghats give way to the peneplains, where shrub vegetation is more common. The vegetation found in the state is largely of dry deciduous types, with a mixture of teak, and genera of Terminalia, Dalbergia, Pterocarpus, etc. The state possesses some rare and endemic plants like Cycas beddomei, Pterocarpus santalinus, Terminalia pallida, Syzygium alternifolium, Shorea tumburgia etc.<ref name"flora and fauna">{{Cite book \|titleIndia state of forest report 2019, Vol II \|date2019 \|publisherForest Survey of India \|pages2–12 \|urlhttps://fsi.nic.in/isfr19/vol2/isfr-2019-vol-ii-andhra-pradesh.pdf \|access-date=22 August 2024}}</ref> The state has 3 national parks and 13 wildlife sanctuaries {{as of\|2019\|lcy}}.<ref name"flora and fauna"/> The diversity of fauna includes tigers, leopards, cheetals, sambars, sea turtles, and several birds and reptiles. The estuaries of the Godavari and Krishna rivers support rich mangrove forests with fishing cats and otters as keystone species.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAbout-us \|urlhttps://forests.ap.gov.in/about.php \|publisherAP Forest Department \|access-date6 June 2024 \|archive-date5 June 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240605071323/https://forests.ap.gov.in/about.php \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is an example of mangrove forests and salt-tolerant forest ecosystems near the sea. The area of these forests is {{convert\|582\|km2\|abbron}}, accounting for about 9% of the local forest area of the state.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://eastgodavari.ap.gov.in/tourist-place/coringa-sanctuary/ \|titleCoringa sanctuary \|access-date2 June 2023 \|websiteEast godavari district, Government of AP \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602102822/https://eastgodavari.ap.gov.in/tourist-place/coringa-sanctuary/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Other sanctuaries include Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://nstr.in/facts.php?pagefacts \|titleFacts & Figures of NagarjunaSagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve Atmakur Andhra Pradesh \|access-date26 January 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140202104626/http://nstr.in/facts.php?pagefacts \|archive-date2 February 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Kolleru Bird Sanctuary,<ref name"lakes and wetlands">{{Cite web\|titleThe list of wetlands of international importance\|urlhttp://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf\|websiteThe Ramsar convention on wetlands\|publisherThe Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)\|access-date5 June 2014\|page20\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120530015101/http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf\|archive-date30 May 2012\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1G. \|first1Ravikiran \|titleRain brings back winged visitors \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/rain-brings-back-winged-visitors/article19994754.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date7 November 2017}}</ref> Neem (Azadirachta indica) is the state tree, jasmine is the state flower, rose ringed parakeet is the state bird, and blackbuck is the state mammal.<ref name"dc-newsymbols" /> Mineral resources s]] The state, with its varied geological formations, contains a variety of industrial minerals and building stones. Major minerals found in significant quantities in the state include beach sand, bauxite, limestone, granite, and diamonds. Minor minerals include barytes, calcite, and mica.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.mines.ap.gov.in/miningportal/Inner/MineralReserves.aspx \|titleMineral reserves \|access-date29 April 2024 \|websiteMines, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|archive-date7 December 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221207071803/https://www.mines.ap.gov.in/miningportal/Inner/MineralReserves.aspx \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The largest reserves of uranium are in Tummalapalli village of YSR district.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14196372\|titleIndia: 'Massive' uranium find in Andhra Pradesh\|date19 July 2011\|publisherBBC World News\|access-date19 July 2011\|locationNew Delhi\|archive-date19 July 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719112659/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14196372\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The state also has reserves of oil and natural gas.{{Sfn\|MOPNG\|2023}} Climate The climate varies considerably, depending on the geographical region. Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are generally higher than in the rest of the state, with temperatures exceeding {{convert\|35\|°C}}. The minimum temperature during summer is about {{convert\|20\|°C}} in the far southwest. July to September is the season for tropical rains from the southwest monsoon. The winter season is from October to February.<ref name"Britannica-ap"/> Low-pressure systems and tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal along with the northeast monsoon during October to December, bringing rains to the southern and coastal regions of the state.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1M \|first1Rajeevan \|titleIMD Meteorological Monograph: Northeast Monsoon of South Asia \|date2022 \|publisherIndian Meteriological department \|pages5–7 \|urlhttps://mausam.imd.gov.in/imd_latest/contents/met_monograph.pdf \|access-date7 August 2024 \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809113415/https://mausam.imd.gov.in/imd_latest/contents/met_monograph.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The range of winter temperatures is generally {{convert\|30\|to\|35\|°C}} except in the northeast where it could fall below {{convert\|15\|°C}}.<ref name"Britannica-ap">{{Cite encyclopedia \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Andhra-Pradesh/People \|titleAndhra Pradesh \|lastBritannica \|date23 April 2024 \|access-date29 April 2024 \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|archive-date29 April 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240429041751/https://www.britannica.com/place/Andhra-Pradesh/People \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Lambasingi in Visakhapatnam district is nicknamed the "Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh" as its temperature ranges from {{convert\|0\|to\|10\|°C}}.<ref>{{Cite news\|last1Ganguly\|first1Nivedita\|titleLambasingi set to become tourist hotspot\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/lambasingi-set-to-become-tourist-hotspot/article6416560.ece\|access-date26 November 2014\|workThe Hindu\|date17 September 2014\|locationVisakhapatnam\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150903183458/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/lambasingi-set-to-become-tourist-hotspot/article6416560.ece\|archive-date3 September 2015\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|titleLambasingi records 2º c\|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/131216/news-current-affairs/article/lambasingi-records-2%C2%BA-c\|access-date26 November 2014\|workDeccan Chronicle\|date16 December 2013\|locationVisakhapatnam\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713203422/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/131216/news-current-affairs/article/lambasingi-records-2%C2%BA-c\|archive-date13 July 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The normal rainfall for the state is {{Convert\|966\|mm\|abbron}}.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p31}} Demographics {{See also\|Ethnic groups of Andhra Pradesh\|Demographics of Andhra Pradesh\|Religion in Andhra Pradesh}} {{Pie chart \| label1 = Telugu \| value1 = 89.21 \| color1 = #FF9966 \| label2 = Urdu \| value2 = 6.55 \| color2 = green \| label3 = Tamil \| value3 = 1.04 \| color3 = saddlebrown \| label4 = Others \| value4 = 3.20 \| color4 = grey \| caption Languages of Andhra Pradesh{{efn\|namelang1\|Based on 2011 census data, excluding districts and mandals which are part of Telangana}} (2011)<ref name="census2011-langreport"/> }} Based on the 2011 Census of India, the population of Andhra Pradesh is 49,577,103, with a density of {{cvt\|304\|/km2}}. The rural population accounts for 70.53%, while the urban population accounts for 29.47%.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p3}} The state has 17.08% scheduled caste (SC) and 5.53% scheduled tribe (ST) population.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p16}} Children in the age group of 0–6 years number 5,222,384, constituting 10.6% of the total population.<ref>{{Cite book \|titlePopulation in different age group – Census 2011 \|publisherMHRD \|pages3 \|urlhttps://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/Population2011.pdf \|access-date28 May 2023 \|archive-date10 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221010154018/https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/Population2011.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state has a sex ratio of 997 females per 1000 males, higher than the national average of 926 per 1000. The literacy rate in the state stands at 67.35%. Erstwhile West Godavari district has the highest literacy rate of 74.32%, and erstwhile Vizianagaram district has the lowest with 58.89%.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p=3}} Human Development Index (HDI) of the state for the year 2022 is 0.642.<ref name"snhdi-gdl">{{Cite web \|titleSub-national HDI – area database \|urlhttps://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/IND/?levels1%2B4&interpolation1&extrapolation0&nearest_real0 \|access-date16 November 2024 \|websiteGlobal Data Lab \|publisherInstitute for Management Research, Radboud University}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> {{As of\|2023\|1\|1}}, there are 39,984,868 voters including 3,924 third-gender voters. Kurnool district has the maximum number of voters at 1,942,233, while Alluri Sitharama Raju district has the minimum at 729,085.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-has-39984868-voters-women-outnumber-men/article66342507.ece \|titleA.P. has 3,99,84,868 voters, women outnumber men \|date5 January 2023 \|access-date28 May 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528033458/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-has-39984868-voters-women-outnumber-men/article66342507.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-status=live }}</ref> Telugu is the first official language, and Urdu is the second official language of the state.<ref name":1">{{Cite news \|titleBill recognising Urdu as second official language passed \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/bill-recognising-urdu-as-second-official-languagepassed/article65252966.ece \|access-date21 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date23 March 2022}}</ref> Telugu is the mother tongue of nearly 90% of the population.{{efn\|namelang1}}<ref name"census2011-langreport">{{Cite web \|titleTable C-16 Population by mother tongue: Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10193/download/13305/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2800.XLSX \|publisherRegistrar General and Census Commissioner of India \|access-date4 January 2023 \|archive-date12 November 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221112190710/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10193/download/13305/DDW-C16-STMT-MDDS-2800.XLSX \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Tamil, Kannada, and Odia are spoken in the border areas. Lambadi and several other languages are spoken by the scheduled tribes of the state.<ref name"nclmanurep2010">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf\|titleReport of the commissioner for linguistic minorities: 47th report (July 2008 to June 2010)\|publisherCommissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India\|pages122–126\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120513161847/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf\|archive-date13 May 2012\|access-date16 February 2012}}</ref> 19% of the population aged 12+ years can read and understand English, as per the Indian readership survey for Q4 2019.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleIndian readership survey 2019 Q4 \|publisherIRS \|year2020 \|urlhttps://mruc.net/uploads/posts/cd072cdc13d2fe48ac660374d0c22a5d.pdf \|page20 \|access-date27 May 2023 \|archive-date25 September 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200925203217/https://mruc.net/uploads/posts/cd072cdc13d2fe48ac660374d0c22a5d.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Religion {{Pie chart \| label1 = Hinduism \| label2 = Islam \| label3 = Christianity \| label4 = Jainism \| label5 = Others \| value1 = 90.89 \| value2 = 7.30 \| value3 = 1.38 \| value4 = 0.05 \| value5 = 0.37 \| color1 = darkorange \| color2 = green \| color3 = blue \| color4 = pink \| color5 = grey \| caption Religion in Andhra Pradesh <ref name"census2011">{{cite web \| title Census of India – Religious Composition \| publisher Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs \| url http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html \| access-date 27 August 2015 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150913045700/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-01.html \| archive-date 13 September 2015 \| url-status=live }}</ref> }} According to the 2011 census, the major religious groups in the state are Hindus (90.89%), Muslims (7.30%), and Christians (1.38%).<ref name"religion">{{Cite web\|year2011\|titlePopulation by religion – Andhra Pradesh\|urlhttps://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11363/download/14476/DDW28C-01%20MDDS.XLS\|publisherRegistrar General and Census Commissioner of India\|access-date4 January 2023\|archive-date28 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220528173240/https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/11363/download/14476/DDW28C-01%20MDDS.XLS\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Some of the popular Hindu religious pilgrim destinations include Tirumala Venkateswara temple at Tirupati, Mallikarjuna temple at Srisailam, Kanaka Durga Temple at Vijayawada, and Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Simhachalam.{{Sfn\|APTDC\|2018}} Buddhist sites at Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda are also popular.{{Sfn\|APTDC\|2019\|p18–25}} Sub categorisaton For the state of Andhra Pradesh, there are 59 entries in the SC category, 34 entries in the ST category, and 104 entries in Other Backward Classes (OBC) category.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSC list – Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://socialjustice.gov.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/Scan-0001.jpg \|websiteDepartment of Social Justice and Empowement \|access-date25 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleST list \|urlhttps://tribal.nic.in/ST/LatestListofScheduledtribes.pdf \|websiteMinistry of Tribal Affairs \|access-date25 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleState/UT-wise Number of Entries in the Central List of OBCs (as on 12.04.2018 \|urlhttps://socialjustice.gov.in/common/76674 \|websiteDepartment of Social Justice and Empowerment \|access-date25 August 2024 \|date12 April 2018}}</ref> Komati, Brahmin, Kamma, Kapu, Raju, Reddy, and Velama communities constitute the Forward castes.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh Chief Minister to release second tranche of YSR EBC Nestham on April 12 \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-chief-minister-to-release-second-tranche-of-ysr-ebc-nestham-on-april-12/article66725268.ece \|access-date25 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date11 April 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh Chief Minister releases ₹536.77 crore aid for women under Kapu Nestham scheme in A.P. \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/chief-minister-releases-53677-crore-aid-for-women-under-kapu-nestham-scheme-in-andhra-pradesh/article67314648.ece \|access-date25 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date16 September 2023}}</ref> Culture {{Main\|Culture of Andhra Pradesh}} {{Map/Museums in Andhra Pradesh}} Andhra Pradesh has 32 museums featuring a varied collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery, inscriptions, and religious artefacts.{{Sfn\|Seth\|Sadiya\|2023}}{{Efn\|Two entries are repeated}} The Amaravathi archaeological museum has a display of art traditions of Amaravathi and images of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_amravati.asp\|titleArchaeological museum, Amaravati – Archaeological Survey of India\|publisherAsi.nic.in\|access-date19 August 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110929190235/http://asi.nic.in/asi_museums_amravati.asp\|archive-date29 September 2011\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Bapu museum in Vijayawada has historical galleries, stone cut writings, coins, swords, body armour, shields, arms, and ornamentation.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleTourist Guide to Andhra Pradesh\|publisherSura Books\|isbn978-81-747-8176-5\|page36\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idE4l78qG3TkAC&dqMangalagiri+Sarees&pgPA36\|accessdate24 January 2016}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Telugu Samskruthika Niketanam in Visakhapatnam displays historical artefacts of the pre-independence era.{{Sfn\|Seth\|Sadiya\|2023\|p18\|loc1.19}} The Archaeological Survey of India identified 135 centrally protected monuments in the state of Andhra Pradesh. These include the reconstructed monuments at Anupu and Nagarjunakonda.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://asi.nic.in/alphabetical-list-of-monuments-andhra-pradesh/ \|titleAlphabetical list of monuments – Andhra Pradesh \|access-date24 May 2023 \|websiteArchaeological Survey of India \|archive-date30 November 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221130155258/https://asi.nic.in/alphabetical-list-of-monuments-andhra-pradesh/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The state has 17 geographical indication (GI) registrations in the categories of agriculture, handicrafts, foodstuffs, and textiles as per the Geographical indications of goods (Registration and protection) act, 1999.<ref name"GIlist">{{Cite book \|titleAnnual report 2021-22 Intellectual property India \|publisherThe Office of the controller general of patents, designs and geographical indications, Government of India \|year2022 \|pages76 \|urlhttps://ipindia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/pdf/Final_Annual_Report_Eng_for_Net.pdf \|access-date30 May 2023 \|archive-date30 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230530054648/https://ipindia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/Images/pdf/Final_Annual_Report_Eng_for_Net.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Clothing artwork on a cloth]] The men's traditional wear consists of Panche, a {{convert\|4.5\|m}} long, white rectangular piece of non-stitched cloth often bordered in brightly coloured stripes.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleIndian Dhoti\|urlhttps://www.indianmirror.com/culture/clothing/dhoti.html\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200729202155/https://www.indianmirror.com/culture/clothing/dhoti.html\|archive-date29 July 2020\|access-date3 January 2021\|websiteIndian Mirror}}</ref> Women traditionally wear a sari, a garment that consists of a drape varying from {{convert\|5\|to\|9\|yd\|}} in length and {{convert\|2\|to\|4\|ft\|}} in breadth that is typically wrapped around the waist, with one end draped over the shoulder, baring the midriff, as according to Indian philosophy, the navel is considered as the source of life and creativity.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastBoulanger\|firstChantal\|titleSaris: An Illustrated Guide to the Indian Art of Draping\|year1997\|publisherShakti Press International\|locationNew York\|isbn978-0-966-14961-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastLynton\|firstLinda\|titleThe Sari\|year1995\|publisherHarry N. Abrams, Incorporated\|locationNew York\|isbn978-0-810-94461-9}}</ref> Women wear colourful silk saris on special occasions such as marriages.<ref>{{Cite book\|titleSociology of Religion\|first1Susanne\|last1C. Monahan\|first2William\|last2 Andrew Mirola\|first3Michael\|last3 O. Emerson\|publisherPrentice Hall\|year2001\|isbn978-0-130-25380-4\|page83}}</ref> The traditional wear of young girls is a half-saree with blouse.<ref>{{Cite web \|title'Lehnaga choli' back in vogue in Bengaluru this Diwali \|urlhttps://www.onmanorama.com/lifestyle/beauty-and-fashion/2020/11/13/lehnaga-choli-back-in-vogue-in-bengaluru-diwali.html \|websiteOnmanorama \|access-date22 August 2024 \|date13 November 2020}}</ref> The shift to wearing western clothing of pant and shirt has become common for boys and men, while women also wear salwar kameez in addition to saris.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Vidhi \|first1Jhaveri \|titleTraditional wear of Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.holidify.com/pages/andhra-pradesh-dresses-123.html \|websiteHolidify}}</ref> Dharmavaram textiles, Machilipatnam, and Srikalahasti Kalamkari handicrafts are few examples in clothes category with GI status.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleKalamkari: Craft of the matter\|urlhttp://www.mid-day.com/articles/kalamkari-craft-of-the-matter/16478155\|websitemid-day\|access-date26 January 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160131082254/http://www.mid-day.com/articles/kalamkari-craft-of-the-matter/16478155\|archive-date31 January 2016\|url-statuslive\|date24 August 2015}}</ref><ref name"GIlist"/> Cuisine {{Main\|Telugu cuisine}} Andhra meals are combinations of spicy, tangy, and sweet flavours. The use of chillies, tamarind, and gongura (leaves of roselle) is common in Andhra food.{{Sfn\|APTDC\|2019\|p54–63}} Curry leaves are used copiously in most preparations of curries and chutneys. Various types of Pappu are made using lentils in combination with tomatoes, spinach, gongura, ridge gourd, etc. Apart from curries, pulusu, a stew made using tamarind juice in combination with vegetables, seafood, chicken, mutton, etc., is popular. Pachchadi, a paste usually made with a combination of groundnuts, fried vegetables, and chillies, is a must in a meal. Pickles made using mangoes, gooseberries, lemons, etc. are enjoyed in combination with Pappu. Buttermilk and yoghurt mixed with rice eaten towards the end of the meal soothe the body, especially after eating spicy food items earlier.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.indianculture.gov.in/food-and-culture/south/andhra-cuisine-symphony-spices \|titleAndhra cuisine: A symphony of spices \|access-date29 May 2023 \|websiteIndianculture.gov.in \|archive-date29 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230529003146/https://www.indianculture.gov.in/food-and-culture/south/andhra-cuisine-symphony-spices \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A tamarind-rich dish popularly known as Pulihora is made with a thick sauce of tamarind, chillies, salt and asafoetida. It is tempered with mustard, curry leaves, peanuts and mixed with rice. It is offered even to the gods and then served as a prasadam (divine offering) in the temples to the devotees. Popular vegetarian curries include Dondakaya koora (ivy gourd cooked with coconut and green chilli) and Guttivankaya koora(stuffed brinjal curry). Thalakaya koora (lamb head gravy), Royyala koora (prawns cooked in tamarind), and Natukodi koora (freehold chicken curry with chillies) are popular non-vegetarian dishes across Guntur and surrounding regions. Yeta mamsam kobbari biryani (mutton cooked with coconut), Seema kodi (Rayalaseema-style chicken), Chennuru dum biryani, and Gongura mamsam (mutton cooked in sorrel gravy) are popular non-vegetarian dishes in Rayalaseema. Among fish preparations, Pulasa pulusu, thick aromatic and tangy gravy made from a single fish of the Godavari Pulasa variety is most desired in Konaseema. Ariselu, Burelu, Laddu, and Pootharekulu are some of the sweets made for special festivals and occasions. Pootharekulu, a preparation of sugar and rice flour and Taandri, a mango-flavoured sun-dried fruit jelly are popular sweets originating from Athreyapuram in Konaseema. Kakinada Khaaja layered flour deep fried and dipped in sugar is another popular sweetmeat.{{Sfn\|APTDC\|2019\|p60-62}} Bandar laddu, Tirupati Laddu are some of the food products with GI status.<ref>{{Cite news\|last1Naidu\|first1T. Appala\|titleBandar laddu gets GI tag\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/bandar-laddu-gets-gi-tag/article17722857.ece\|access-date13 May 2017\|workThe Hindu\|archive-date12 November 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112020245/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/bandar-laddu-gets-gi-tag/article17722857.ece\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"GIlist"/> Literature {{Main\|Telugu literature}} Nannayya, Tikkana, and Yerrapragada form the trinity who translated the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata into Telugu during 11–14 centuries.{{Sfn\|Pandippedi\|Mantripragada\|1928\|pages42–49}} Nannayya wrote the first treatise on Telugu grammar, called Andhra Shabda Chintamani in Sanskrit.<ref name"Padmapriya ch1">{{Cite book \|titleA comparative study of Andhrasabdachintamani and Balavyakaranam \|last Gopavaram \|firstPadmapriya \|author2Subrahmanyam, Korada \|year2011 \|publisher University of Hyderabad \|locationHyderabad\|chapter1}}</ref> Pothana translated Bhagavatam into Telugu.{{Sfn\|Pandippedi\|Mantripragada\|1928\|page64}} Vemana was an Indian philosopher who wrote Telugu poems using simple language and native idioms on a variety of subjects including yoga, wisdom, and morality.{{Sfn\|Pandippedi\|Mantripragada\|1928\|page99}} Potuluri Veerabrahmendhra swami, a clairvoyant and social reformer of 17th century, wrote Kalagnanam, a book of predictions.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleCelebrated Professor harassed for identifying 17th-century social reformer as 'Sudra' \|urlhttps://thewire.in/caste/andhra-professor \|lastShaw \|firstPadmaja \|date5 November 2019 \|access-date29 April 2024 \|workThe Wire \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809105935/https://thewire.in/caste/andhra-professor \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|titleProceedings of the Andhra Pradesh oriental conference, first session, Andhra Saraswathi Parishat, Hyderabad, May 1977\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHhlUAAAAYAAJ\|publisherThe Conference\|year1979\|page131\|quoteKalagnana is a special type of discipline very popular in Andhra Desa because of the famous Kalagnanam of Sri Potuluri Veerabrahmendhra swami written in Telugu. It forecasts many incidents which are proved to be correct by the posterity.\|access-date2 June 2023}}{{Cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|titleSouth Asian intellectuals and social change: A study of the role of vernacular-speaking intelligentsia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5ZvZAAAAMAAJ \|access-date29 April 2024\|page314\|authorYogendra K. Malik\|publisherHeritage\|year1981\|isbn 978-08-364-0825-6\|quoteA later poet similar to Vemana was Potuluri Veerabrahmendhra swami, popularly known as Brahmamgaru}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam is termed Adhunika Telugu Sahityam (modern Telugu literature).{{Sfn\|D.\|1976\|p80}} He was the author of the first Telugu social novel Rajasekhara Charitram, published in 1880.{{Sfn\|D.\|1976\|p88}} The use of colloquial idiom rather than grandhik (classical) in literature, championed by Gurajada Apparao and Gidugu Ramamurthy Panthulu led to increased literacy.<ref name"subbarayudu">{{Cite book \|urlhttps://omnilogos.com/twentieth-century-telugu-literature/ \|titleHandbook of twentieth-century literatures of India. \|editorNalini Natarajan \|publisherGreenwoord press \|year1996 \|chapterTwentieth-century Telugu literature \|access-date30 May 2023 \|first1Subbarayudu \|last1GK \|first2Vijayasree \|last2C \|archive-date14 January 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210114193908/https://omnilogos.com/twentieth-century-telugu-literature/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Various forms of literature such as poetry, novel, short story were vibrant as indicated by the responses to national and international developments in various spheres of human life.<ref name"tlt-1995">{{Cite journal \|titleTelugu Literature Today \|journalIndian Literature \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23335697 \|lastDasari \|firstAmarendra \|date1 March 1995\|volume38 \|issue2 \|pages159–163 \|jstor23335697 \|access-date18 July 2024}}</ref> The modern Telugu poetry, which began around 1900 developed into three forms – Bhava kavitvam (lyrical poetry), Abhyudaya kavitvam (progressive poetry), and new experimental poetry, including Viplava kavitvam (revolutionary poetry). Gurajada Apparao, Rayaprolu Subbarao, Gurram Jashuva, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Devulapalli Krishnasastri, and Sri Sri were some of the modern Telugu poets. Palagummi Padmaraju's short story Galivaana won second prize in World Short Story competition in 1952.<ref>{{Cite journal \|titlePalagummi Padmaraju—Sensitive Telugu Writer \|journalIndian Literature \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23331331 \|lastD. \|firstAnjaneyulu \|date1 September 1983 \|issue5 \|volume26 \|pages22–26\|jstor23331331 }}</ref> Rachakonda Viswanadha Sastry initiated a new trend by focussing on the downtrodden in his novel Raju-Mahishi. Women writers such as Malati Chandur and Ranganayakamma dominated novels in the 1950s and 1960s. However, in the late 1970s, Yandamuri Veerendranath started writing popular novels with a focus on sex, suspense and violence, which were serialised in magazines.<ref name"tlt-1995"/> Viswanatha Satyanarayana was conferred the first Jnanpith Award for Telugu literature in 1970.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleJnanpith laureates official listings\|urlhttp://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html\|publisherJnanpith Website\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071013122739/http://jnanpith.net/laureates/index.html\|archive-date13 October 2007\|access-date7 November 2008}}</ref> Telugu film song as literature took shape in the 1930s. Some of the famous lyric writers include Samudrala Senior, Arudra, Athreya, Daasarathi, and C. Narayana Reddy.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleC Narayana Reddi: Changing contours of Telugu film lyrics \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/the-hindu-friday-review-telangana/article30535419.ece \|lastA.D. \|firstRangarajan \|date10 January 2020 \|access-date7 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date7 May 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240507085557/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/the-hindu-friday-review-telangana/article30535419.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Architecture , showing Gopuram (big tower) in the front and Vimanam(small tower) in gold color at the back]] Traditional temple architecture is influenced by Dravidian and Vijayanagara styles. In Dravidian architecture for which Tirumala temple is an example, the temples consisted of porches or mantapas preceding the door leading to the sanctum, gate-pyramids or gopurams in quadrangular enclosures that surround the temple, and pillared halls used for many purposes. Besides these, the temple usually has a tank called the Kalyani or pushkarni.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastFergusson\|first James\|titleHistory of Indian and Eastern Architecture\|orig-date 1910\|edition3rd\|year 1997\|publisherLow Price Publications\|location New Delhi\|page309}}</ref> The gopuram is a monumental tower, usually ornate at the entrance of the temple forms a prominent feature.<ref name"Gopuram">{{Cite book\|firstFrancis D.K.\|last Ching\|year2007\|title A Global History of Architecture\|publisherJohn Wiley and Sons\|locationNew York\|isbn978-0-471-26892-5\|page762\|display-authorsetal}}</ref> They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial.<ref>{{Cite book\|firstFrancis D.K.\|lastChing\|year 1995\|titleA Visual Dictionary of Architecture\|publisherJohn Wiley and Sons\|locationNew York\|isbn978-0-471-28451-2\|page253}}</ref> Vimanam are similar structures built over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum of the temple but are usually smaller than the gopurams.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorS.R. Balasubrahmanyam\|title Middle Chola Temples\|publisherThomson Press\|year1975\|isbn978-9-060-23607-9\|pages16–29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Neela\|first1N.\|last2Ambrosia\|first2G.\|titleVimana architecture under the Cholas\|journalShanlax International Journal of Arts, Science & Humanities\|dateApril 2016\|volume3\|issue4\|page57\|urlhttps://www.shanlax.com/wp-content/uploads/SIJ_ASH_V3_N4_008.pdf\|access-date5 July 2019\|issn2321-788X\|archive-date5 July 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190705140824/https://www.shanlax.com/wp-content/uploads/SIJ_ASH_V3_N4_008.pdf\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the Vijayanagar style for which Lepakshi Veerabhadra temple is an example, the main temple is laid out in three parts, these are: The assembly hall known as the mukha mantapa; arda mantapa or antarala (ante chamber); and the garbhagriha or the sanctum sanctorum.{{Sfn\|Bhardwaj\|1998\|p295}} Sri Venkateswara institute of traditional sculpture and architecture, run by Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams offers diploma courses.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1A.D. \|first1Rangarajan \|titleOrnate sculptures delight visitors at SVITSA expo \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ornatesculptures-delight-visitors-at-svitsa-expo/article65143784.ece \|access-date11 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date1 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last1T. \|first1Sudhakar \|titleInstitute of traditional sculpture, ancient architecture at Tirupati \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2014/Oct/05/institute-of-traditional-sculpture-ancient-architecture-at-tirupati-668114.html \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe New Indian Express \|date5 October 2014}}</ref> Civic architecture which mainly featured courtyard structure to support joint family system and simple round houses is giving way to modern apartments.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleThe 'manduva logili' homes of Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/real-estate/the-manduva-logili-homes-of-andhra-pradesh/article19682124.ece \|access-date11 August 2024 \|date17 September 2017 \|workThe Hindu}}</ref> Arts {{Main\|Music of Andhra Pradesh\|Telugu theatre\|Carnatic music}} {{See also\|Tholu bommalata}} at a house in Vijayawada]] dance]] Kondapalli Toys, the soft limestone idol carvings of Durgi<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://guntur.nic.in/durgi_stonecraft.html\|titleDurgi stone craft\|publisherCesdeva\|access-date20 December 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131204034111/http://guntur.nic.in/durgi_stonecraft.html\|archive-date4 December 2013\|url-statusdead}}</ref> and Etikoppaka lacquered wooden toys are few handicrafts with GI status.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://lepakshihandicrafts.gov.in/etikoppaka-toys.html \|titleLacquer ware toys \|access-date30 May 2023 \|websiteLepakshi handicrafts \|archive-date30 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230530055241/https://lepakshihandicrafts.gov.in/etikoppaka-toys.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"GIlist"/> Kuchipudi, the cultural dance recognised as the official dance form of the state of Andhra Pradesh, originated in the village of Kuchipudi in Krishna district.{{Sfn\|Ragini Devi\|1990\|page67}} Several renowned composers of Carnatic music like Annamacharya, Kshetrayya, Tyagaraja, and Bhadrachala Ramadas hailed from the state.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleBhajana tradition in South India \|last1Kuppuswami \|first1Gowri \|publisherSangeet Natak Academy \|year1982 \|locationNew Delhi \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.10217/page/36/mode/1up \|last2Hariharan \|first2M.}}</ref>{{Sfn\|Ragini Devi\|1990\|page75}} Sannai and Dolu are common musical instruments of marriages, household, and temple functions in the state.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1D. \|first1Surendra Kumar \|title22-year-old keeps her father's legacy alive through Sannai \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2022/Sep/11/22-year-old-keeps-her-fathers-legacy-alive-through-sannai-2497014.html \|access-date11 August 2024 \|workThe New Indian Express \|date11 September 2022}}</ref> Harikathaa Kalakshepam (or Harikatha) involves the narration of a story, intermingled with various songs relating to the story.<ref>{{Cite book\|authorThoomati Donappa\|titleTelugu harikatha sarvasvam\|oclc13505520}}</ref> Burra katha is an oral storytelling technique in which the topic is either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBurrakatha \|urlhttp://shilparamam.ap.gov.in/burrakatha-inner.html \|publisherThe Andhra Pradesh Shilparamam Arts, Crafts & Cultural Society \|access-date19 August 2024}}</ref> Drama is an Indian theatre art form that is still popular.<ref>{{Cite news \|title'Nandi Natakotsavam' begins with exciting plays in Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/Dec/24/nandi-natakotsavam-begins-with-exciting-plays-in-andhra-pradesh-2644479.html \|date24 December 2023 \|access-date8 May 2024 \|workThe New Indian Express \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809113513/https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/Dec/24/nandi-natakotsavam-begins-with-exciting-plays-in-andhra-pradesh-2644479.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Gurajada Apparao wrote the play Kanyasulkam in spoken dialect for the first time. It was first presented in 1892.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Gurujada \|first1Venkata Apparao \|titleGirls for Sale: A Play from Colonial India \|date2007 \|publisherIndiana University Press \|isbn978-0-253-34899-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpC8XkT8pGtAC \|access-date21 August 2024\|translator-last1Velcheru\|translator-first1Narayana Rao }}</ref> It is considered the greatest play in the Telugu language.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/remembering-the-immortal-satirist/article3938721.ece\|titleRemembering the immortal satirist\|firstSrihari\|lastGudipoodi\|date27 September 2012\|workThe Hindu\|access-date16 June 2022\|archive-date17 August 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210817061308/https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/theatre/remembering-the-immortal-satirist/article3938721.ece\|url-statuslive\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> The Telugu film industry (known as "Tollywood") is primarily based in Hyderabad, though several films are shot in Vizag, Tirupati, Rajamahendravaram. About 300 films are produced annually,<ref>{{Cite news \|titleIs Telugu cinema set for a change of scene? \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/is-telugu-cinema-set-for-a-change-of-scene-from-hyderabad-to-visakhapatnam/article65191021.ece \|lastReddem \|firstAppaji \|date5 March 2022 \|access-date23 June 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date23 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230623100438/https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/movies/is-telugu-cinema-set-for-a-change-of-scene-from-hyderabad-to-visakhapatnam/article65191021.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> C. Pullaiah is cited as the father of the Telugu cinema.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/SATI-SAVITHRI-1933/article15677207.ece\|titleSati Savithri (1933)\|workThe Hindu\|date7 November 2010\|lastM. L.\|firstNarasimham\|access-date8 July 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101113225918/http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-cinemaplus/article871376.ece\|archive-date13 November 2010\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"SoManyCinemas">{{Cite book\|titleSo many cinemas: the motion picture in India\|authorBhagwan Das Garg\|publisherEminence Designs\|year1996\|isbn978-81-900602-1-9\|page86\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwXRZAAAAMAAJ&q%22East+India+Film+Company%22+-inpublisher:icon\|access-date17 February 2017}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Film producer D. Ramanaidu holds a Guinness record for the most films produced by a person.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRamakrishnan \|firstSathyalaya \|urlhttp://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/09/11/prestigious-phalke-award-conferred-veteran-film-producer-d-rama-naidu \|titlePrestigious 'Phalke" award conferred to veteran film producer D Rama Naidu \|workAsian Tribune \|date11 September 2010 \|access-date8 October 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120523215222/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/09/11/prestigious-phalke-award-conferred-veteran-film-producer-d-rama-naidu \|archive-date23 May 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Music composers and playback singers of the state include Ghantasala, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela, S. Janaki, and P. B. Sreenivas.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Gopinath \|first1Rajendran \|titleA voice to remember \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/chennai/2022/Aug/24/a-voice-to-remember-2490667.html \|access-date19 August 2024 \|workThe New Indian Express \|date24 August 2022}}</ref> "Naatu Naatu" from the film RRR became the first song from an Asian film to win the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/rrr-oscars-2023-naatu-naatu-wins-best-original-song-ss-rajamouli-8487068/ \|titleOscars 2023: RRR's 'Naatu Naatu' wins best original song at the 95th Academy Awards, MM Keeravani sings ode to India on stage \|workThe Indian Express \|date13 March 2023 \|access-date13 March 2023 \|archive-date13 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230313050942/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/telugu/rrr-oscars-2023-naatu-naatu-wins-best-original-song-ss-rajamouli-8487068/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|date13 March 2023 \|titleOscars 2023: RRR's Naatu Naatu wins best original song\|publisherBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64935389 \|access-date13 March 2023 \|archive-date13 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230313112208/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-64935389 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Efforts are on to make Vizag as the hub of film industry by offering incentives.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/visakhapatnam/film-hub-focus-on-vizag-again-729641 \|titleFilm hub: Focus on Vizag again \|date17 February 2022 \|access-date30 May 2023 \|workThe Hans India \|archive-date30 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230530052913/https://www.thehansindia.com/news/cities/visakhapatnam/film-hub-focus-on-vizag-again-729641 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Festivals Sankranti is the major harvest festival celebrated across the state.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/festive-flavours-of-sankranti-in-andhra-pradesh/article66368521.ece \|titleFestive flavours of Sankranti in Andhra Pradesh \|date12 January 2023 \|access-date2 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|lastGanguli \|firstNivedita \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602115642/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/festive-flavours-of-sankranti-in-andhra-pradesh/article66368521.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> It is celebrated for four days in the second week of January. The first day of the Telugu new year Ugadi which occurs during March/April is also a special festival with the preparation and sharing of pickles (pachhadi) made from raw mangoes, neem flowers, pepper powder, jaggery and tamarind. Tasting this pickle which is a mix of different tastes teaches the importance of taking positive/negative life experiences in one's stride. Celebrations end with the recitation of the coming year's astrological predictions called Panchanga sravanam. Vijaya Dasami known commonly as Dussera and Deepavali, the festival of lights are other major Hindu festivals.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://aptourism.gov.in/articles/3/festivals-fairs-of-andhra-pradesh \|titleFestivals and fairs of Andhra Pradesh \|access-date5 October 2023 \|websiteAP Tourism \|archive-date7 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220707162638/https://aptourism.gov.in/articles/3/festivals-fairs-of-andhra-pradesh \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Shivaratri is celebrated at Kotappakonda, with people from nearby villages preparing 80–100&nbsp;ft height frames called prabhalu and taking it in a procession to the shine. Eid is celebrated with special prayers.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/Special-prayers-mark-Ramzan/article14477505.ece \|titleSpecial prayers mark Ramzan \|date8 July 2016 \|access-date2 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602115641/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/Special-prayers-mark-Ramzan/article14477505.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> Rottela Panduga is celebrated at Bara Shaheed Dargah in Nellore with participation across religious lines.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/regions/nellore/stage-set-rottela-panduga-640 \|access-date6 December 2011 \|titleStage set for Rottela panduga \|websiteDeccan Chronicle \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111206091559/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/cities/regions/nellore/stage-set-rottela-panduga-640 \|archive-date6 December 2011}}</ref> Christians celebrate their religious festivals Good Friday, Easter and Christmas with processions and prayers.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleGood Friday observed across the State \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/good-friday-observed-across-the-state/article8397137.ece \|date26 March 2016 \|access-date7 May 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325205746/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/good-friday-observed-across-the-state/article8397137.ece\|archive-date25 March 2016\|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleEaster celebrated with fervour and gaiety \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/100423/easter-celebrated-with-fervour-and-gaiety.html \|date10 April 2023 \|access-date7 May 2024 \|workDeccan Chronicle \|archive-date7 May 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240507091522/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/100423/easter-celebrated-with-fervour-and-gaiety.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleGrandeur marks Christmas celebrations \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/grandeur-marks-christmas-celebrations/article6725551.ece \|date26 December 2014 \|access-date7 May 2024\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240507092835/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/grandeur-marks-christmas-celebrations/article6725551.ece\|archive-date7 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Government and administration {{Main\|Government of Andhra Pradesh\|Politics of Andhra Pradesh\|Andhra Pradesh Legislature\|List of districts in Andhra Pradesh}} There are a total of 175 assembly constituencies in the state legislative assembly.<ref name"constitutiencies">{{Cite web\|titleDelimitation of parliamentary and assembly constituencies order, 2008\|urlhttp://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf\|publisherElection Commission of India\|access-date11 October 2014\|pages16–28\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101005180821/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/CurrentElections/CONSOLIDATED_ORDER%20_ECI%20.pdf\|archive-date5 October 2010\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The legislative council is the upper house with 58 members.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleOverview\|urlhttp://www.aplegislature.org/web/legislative-council/overview\|websiteAP Legislature\|publisherGovernment of Andhra Pradesh\|access-date23 May 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150519055636/http://www.aplegislature.org/web/legislative-council/overview\|archive-date19 May 2015\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the Indian parliament, the state has 25 seats in the Lok Sabha and 11 seats in the Rajya Sabha.<ref name"constitutiencies"/> In accordance with the Constitution of India, the governor is a state's de jure head and appoints the chief minister who has the de facto executive authority.<ref>{{Cite report\|urlhttps://interstatecouncil.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/CHAPTERI.pdf\|titleChapter I, Constitution of India\|dateJune 2015\| publisherGovernment of India\|access-date1 May 2024\|page5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|authorDurga Das Basu\|titleIntroduction to the Constitution of India\|year2011\|edition22\|pages241, 245\|publisherUniversity of Michigan\|isbn=978-81-8038-559-9}}</ref> Reddy, Kamma and Kapu communities cornered a share of 66% of seats in the 2019 election results. In the 2024 assembly elections, Reddy, Kamma and Kapu communities among the forward classes got more allocation than OBC in the unreserved category by major political parties or alliances.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleA.P. elections {{!}} Politically influential castes get a lion's share in unreserved seats \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/elections/andhra-pradesh-assembly/ap-elections-politically-influential-castes-get-a-lions-share-in-unreserved-seats/article68025222.ece \|access-date25 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date4 April 2024}}</ref> TDP-led National Democratic Alliance with Jana Sena Party and Bharatiya Janata Party emerged victorious defeating the incumbent YSRCP led by Jagan. It won 164 seats, while YSRCP got 11, a big drop from 151 it held. N. Chandrababu Naidu became the chief minister of the state for the fourth time.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleChandrababu Naidu sworn in as Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/chandrababu-naidu-sworn-in-as-andhra-pradesh-chief-minister/article68280396.ece \|lastG.V.R. \|firstSubba Rao \|date12 June 2024 \|access-date15 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date15 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240715012042/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/chandrababu-naidu-sworn-in-as-andhra-pradesh-chief-minister/article68280396.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> According to an opinion by Ayesha Minhaz in The Hindu daily, several factors including the prevailing anti-incumbency against the previous government and the alliance's promise of "Welfare with wealth generation" contributed to the success of TDP-led alliance.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMinhaz \|firstAyesha \|date11 June 2024 \|titleTDP-JSP-BJP juggernaut heralds a major shift in Andhra Pradesh's politics \|urlhttps://frontline.thehindu.com/election-2024/andhra-pradesh-lok-sabha-election-chandrababu-naidy-jagan-mohan-reddy-anti-incumbency/article68266643.ece \|access-date15 June 2024 \|websiteFrontline\|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809110052/https://frontline.thehindu.com/election-2024/andhra-pradesh-lok-sabha-election-chandrababu-naidy-jagan-mohan-reddy-anti-incumbency/article68266643.ece \|url-status=live }}</ref> Andhra Pradesh police are structured in district, subdivision, circle, and police station hierarchy.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePolice GIS \|urlhttps://apsac.ap.gov.in/dashboard-staging/ap-police-gis/ \|websiteAndhra Pradesh Space Applications Centre \|access-date24 August 2024}}</ref> In 2022, crimes against women and children saw a rise of 43.66% with a case count of 25,503 cases in Andhra Pradesh as per the National crime records bureau (NCRB) data. The state stood fifth in the country with 2,341 cybercrime cases.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Gilai \|first1Harish \|titleCrimes against women and children rise in Andhra Pradesh in 2022, says NCRB data \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/crimes-against-women-and-children-rise-in-andhra-pradesh-in-2022-says-ncrb-data/article67607773.ece \|access-date24 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date5 December 2023}}</ref> Andhra Pradesh High Court at Amaravati is headed by Chief justice with 37 judges. District judiciary is organised in a three-tier system with district courts at the top, civil (senior) and assistant sessions courts in the middle and civil (junior) and judicial first-class magistrate courts at the lower level. Apart from these, there are special courts such as family, CBI, ACB, Land reforms appellate tribunals, and industrial tribunals.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleObligatiions of public authorities – Manual of judicial department \|urlhttps://aphc.gov.in/docs/MANUAL_OF_JUDICIAL_DEPARTMENT.pdf \|publisherAndhra Pradesh High Court \|access-date24 August 2024 \|date1 November 2023}}</ref> Andhra Pradesh comprises two regions, namely Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema from a historical perspective.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleThe birth of Rayalaseema \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/the-birth-of-rayalaseema/article5948111.ece \|access-date24 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date21 May 2016}}</ref> The northern part of Coastal Andhra is sometimes mentioned separately as North Andhra, to raise voice against underdevelopment.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/andhra-pradesh-development-eludes-north-andhra-region-despite-rich-in-natural-resources-say-leaders-of-various-political-parties/article66350378.ece \|titleAndhra Pradesh: development eludes North Andhra region despite rich in natural resources, say leaders of various political parties \|date7 January 2023 \|access-date16 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date13 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230113051040/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/andhra-pradesh-development-eludes-north-andhra-region-despite-rich-in-natural-resources-say-leaders-of-various-political-parties/article66350378.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state is further divided into 26 districts.<ref name"apreorg-2022"/> These districts are made up of 76 revenue divisions,{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p431}} 679 mandals{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p431}} and 13,324 village panchayats as part of the administrative organisation.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleMonthly bulletin \|publisherMinistry of Panchayat raj, Government of India \|year2022 \|pages3 \|urlhttps://egramswaraj.gov.in/FileRedirect.jsp?FDBulletin&nameMonthlyBulletin_July_v01.pdf \|access-date3 June 2023 \|archive-date3 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230603070851/https://egramswaraj.gov.in/FileRedirect.jsp?FDBulletin&nameMonthlyBulletin_July_v01.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Cities and towns There are 123 urban local bodies, comprising 17 municipal corporations, 79 municipalities, and 27 nagar panchayats, in the state. The urban population is 14.9 million (1.49 crores) as per the 2011 census.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p18}} There are two cities with more than one million inhabitants, namely Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada.<ref name"top cities">{{Cite web \|titleAndhra Pradesh (India): State, major agglomerations & cities – Population statistics, maps, charts, weather and web information \|urlhttp://www.citypopulation.de/India-AndhraPradesh.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181021060205/http://www.citypopulation.de/India-AndhraPradesh.html \|archive-date21 October 2018 \|websiteCitypopulation.de \|access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref> {{Static row numbers}} {\| class="wikitable sortable static-row-numbers" \|+Cities with the highest population in Andhra Pradesh, as per the 2011 Census<ref name="top cities" /> \|- !scope=col\|City/Town !scope=col\| District(s) !scope=col\| Population (2011) \|- !scope=row\| Visakhapatnam \| Visakhapatnam, Anakapalli<ref>{{Cite news \|titleMerger of Anakapalli and Bheemili municipalities\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/gvmc-wards-up-from-72-to-81/article19505492.ece\|workThe Hindu\|date17 August 2017\|access-date17 August 2017\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> \| 1,728,128 \|- !scope=row\| Vijayawada \| NTR \| 1,476,931 \|- !scope=row\| Guntur \| Guntur \| 743,354 \|- !scope=row\| Nellore \| Nellore \| 558,548 \|- !scope=row\| Kurnool \| Kurnool \| 484,327 \|- !scope=row\| Rajahmundry \| East Godavari \| 476,873 \|- !scope=row\| Tirupati \| Tirupati \| 461,900 \|- !scope=row\| Kakinada \| Kakinada \| 443,028 \|- !scope=row\| Kadapa \| YSR \| 344,893 \|- !scope=row\| Anantapur \| Anantapur \| 340,613 \|} Government revenue and expenditure For 2021–22, total receipts of the Andhra Pradesh government were {{INRConvert\|2.05\|lc}}, inclusive of {{INRConvert\|53284\|c}} of loans. States' tax revenue was {{INRConvert\|70979\|c}}. The top three sources of tax revenue are statedcrores goods and services tax (GST) (₹23,809 crore), sales tax/value added tax (VAT) (₹20,808 crores), and state excise (₹14,703 crores).<ref name"prsindia2023">{{Cite web \|urlhttps://prsindia.org/budgets/states/andhra-pradesh-budget-analysis-2023-24 \|titleAndhra Pradesh budget analysis 2023–24 \|access-date28 May 2023 \|websitePRSINDIA \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528001217/https://prsindia.org/budgets/states/andhra-pradesh-budget-analysis-2023-24 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The government earned a revenue of ₹7,345 crore from 2.574 million transactions for registration services. Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Guntur, and Tirupati are the top contributors to the revenue.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-witnesses-an-upswing-in-revenue-earned-through-registration-and-stamps-department/article66215408.ece \|titleAndhra Pradesh witnesses an upswing in revenue earned through registration and stamps department \|date2 December 2022 \|access-date26 May 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date26 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526093314/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-witnesses-an-upswing-in-revenue-earned-through-registration-and-stamps-department/article66215408.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-status=live }}</ref> The government's total expenditure was ₹1,91,594 crore, which includes debt repayment of ₹13,920 crore. The fiscal deficit was 2.1% of the GSDP. Outstanding debt was ₹3.89 lakh crore, an increase of almost ₹40,000 crore compared to the previous year. This accounts for 32.4 per cent of the GSDP, which is more than the usual limit of 25% as per the Fiscal Responsibility Budget Management Actthe and Budget Management ActActstated crores.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/ap-govts-debt-mounts-to-389-lakh-crore-in-fy22/article65221649.ece \|titleAP Govt's debt mounts to ₹3.89 lakh crore in FY22 \|date13 March 2022 \|access-date28 May 2023 \|websiteBusiness Line\|locationChennai \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528011200/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/ap-govts-debt-mounts-to-389-lakh-crore-in-fy22/article65221649.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> The outstanding guarantee estimate was ₹1,38,875 crore, of which power sector accounts for ₹38,473 crore equal to 12% of GDP.<ref name"prsindia2023"/> Out of the audited total expenditure of ₹1,77,674 crore of the state in 2021–22, social services accounted for 42.65% and capital expenditure 9.21%. When compared to 2020–21, the capital expenditure decreased by 14 per cent. Of the total expenditure, major components of the social services breakdown are as follows. The social welfare category accounted for 16%, education, sport, arts and culture had a share of 15% and health and family welfare had a share of 6.3%. Comptroller and Auditor general in its 2023 report warned that the trend of increasing levels of revenue expenditure coupled with a low level of capital spend will adversely impact infrastructure development, development, aggregate demand, employment generation, and revenue generation in the long run.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleReport of Comptroller and Auditor General of India – State finances audit report for the year ended 31 March 2022 \|lastComptroller and Auditor General \|year2023 \|pages33}}</ref> Economy {{Main\|Economy of Andhra Pradesh}} Gross state domestic product (GSDP/GDP) at current prices for the year 2022–23 is estimated at {{INRConvert\|1317728\|c\|abbron\|year2023}} (advanced estimates). The share of agriculture's contribution to the GSDP is at 36.19%, while industry is at 23.36%, and services are at 40.45%. The state posted a record growth of 7.02% at constant prices (2011–12) against the country's growth of 7%. GDP per capita is estimated at {{INRConvert\|219518\|abbron}}. The sectoral growth rates at constant 2011–12 prices were for agriculture at 4.54%; industry at 5.66 and services at 10.05%.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p3}}<ref name"SES 2022-23 news">{{Cite news \|lastM \|firstSambasiva Rao \|date16 March 2023 \|titleAndhra Pradesh posts a growth of 16.22% over the previous year \|workThe Hindu \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-posts-a-growth-of-1622-over-the-previous-year/article66623793.ece \|access-date25 March 2023 \|archive-date25 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230325001840/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-posts-a-growth-of-1622-over-the-previous-year/article66623793.ece \|url-statuslive\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Poverty rate is reduced to 4.2% in 2023 from 11.77% in 2015–16 as per Niti Ayog report. The methodology, based on the global multidimensional poverty index uses 10 indicators, covering three areas health, education, and standard of living and additionally maternal health and bank accounts.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMultidimensional poverty in India since 2005–06 \|urlhttps://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/MPI-22_NITI-Aayog20254.pdf \|publisherNiti Ayog \|access-date19 August 2024}}</ref> Unemployment rate of people with graduation in Andhra Pradesh is estimated at 24% as per periodic labour force survey of July 2022 to June 2023, the third highest in the country. The number for the whole of India is at 13.4%.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleUnemployment rate among graduates declines to 13.4% between July 2022 and June 2023 \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/unemployment-rate-among-graduates-declines-to-134-between-july-2022-and-june-2023/article67647219.ece \|date17 December 2023 \|access-date19 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date19 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240719015035/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/unemployment-rate-among-graduates-declines-to-134-between-july-2022-and-june-2023/article67647219.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Agriculture ]] The agricultural economy comprises agriculture, livestock, poultry farming, and fisheries.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p31}} Four important rivers in India, the Godavari, Krishna, Penna, and Tungabhadra, flow through the state and provide irrigation.<ref name"wrd-aboutus"/> The population engaged in agriculture and related activities as per 2020–21 fiscal data is 62.17%.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|pvii (Executive summary)}} Rice is the state's major food crop and staple food.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p9}} Besides rice, farmers grow jowar, bajra, maize, many varieties of pulses, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p110-113}} The state contributed to 30% of fish production of India and it had a share of 35% in total sea food exports of India in 2022–23.{{Sfn\|DES\|2021\|p6}} The state has three agricultural export zones: the undivided Chittoor district for mango pulp and vegetables, the undivided Krishna district for mangoes, and the undivided Guntur district for chillies.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleUnited AP stood second in agri exports\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/united-ap-stood-second-in-agri-exports/article8116244.ece\|access-date17 January 2016\|workThe Hindu\|date17 January 2016\|locationVijayawada\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160117011133/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/united-ap-stood-second-in-agri-exports/article8116244.ece\|archive-date17 January 2016\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Banaganapalle mangoes produced in the state were accorded GI status in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleBanaganapalle mangoes finally get GI tag\|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/040517/banaganapalle-mangoes-finally-get-gi-tag.html\|access-date13 May 2017\|workDeccan Chronicle\|date4 May 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170505001210/http://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/040517/banaganapalle-mangoes-finally-get-gi-tag.html\|archive-date5 May 2017\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name="GIlist"/> Rythu Seva Kendras (RSK) or farmer facilitation centres are initiated by the government in 2020 to serve as a hassle-free, one-stop solution for the requirements of farmers from seed-to-sale.<ref>{{Cite news \|title195 Rythu Bharosa Kendras getting ready in the first phase \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/195-rythu-bharosa-kendras-getting-ready-in-the-first-phase/article30952002.ece \|date19 February 2020 \|access-date6 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200301152031/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/195-rythu-bharosa-kendras-getting-ready-in-the-first-phase/article30952002.ece\|archive-date1 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last1Deekshitula \|first1Subrahmanyam \|titleRBKs renamed as Rythu Seva Kendras \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/rbks-renamed-as-rythu-seva-kendras-888407 \|access-date12 August 2024 \|workThe Hans India \|date1 July 2024}}</ref> Banking services through banking correspondent are also integrated. {{As of \|2023\|post,}} 10,778 RSKs are functioning.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleRythu Bharosa Kendras a big success, says A.P. Agriculture Minister \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/rythu-bharosa-kendras-a-big-success-says-ap-agriculture-minister/article66556800.ece \|date26 February 2023 \|access-date6 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230228040257/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/rythu-bharosa-kendras-a-big-success-says-ap-agriculture-minister/article66556800.ece\|archive-date28 February 2023}}</ref> AP land titling act 2023 was brought in to change from presumptive land ownership system based on possession, registration or inheritance documents to conclusive land ownership system, with government standing as surety for the ownership. Lands in 6000 villages were surveyed with drones and land title certificates were issued to owners, with georeferencing of their land parcels. The benefits of the act include a reduction in land disputes and easier acquisition of lands for public requirements.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleThe Hindu Explains {{!}} Why does India need conclusive land titling? \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-hindu-explains-why-does-india-need-conclusive-land-titling/article33891718.ece \|lastJebaraj \|firstPriscilla \|date21 February 2021 \|access-date6 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210221022017/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/the-hindu-explains-why-does-india-need-conclusive-land-titling/article33891718.ece\|archive-date21 February 2021}}</ref> The newly formed TDP led NDA alliance government decided to repeal the act citing the scope for misuse of authority and deviation from the centre's draft bill.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleCabinet gives its nod for repeal of AP Land Titling Act, ratifies new free sand policy \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/cabinet-gives-its-nod-for-repeal-of-ap-land-titling-act-ratifies-new-free-sand-policy/article68410871.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date16 July 2024}}</ref> The Commission on Inclusive and Sustainable Agricultural Development of Andhra Pradesh, chaired by Prof. R. Radhakrishna, estimated the number of tenant farmers at 24.25 lakh in 2014. This consists of 6.29 lakh landless tenants and the rest owning some land. Out of 60.73 lakh hectares under cultivation, 27.15 lakh hectares or 44% was cultivated by tenants. Departmental estimates for 2021 put the number of tenant farmers at about 16 lakh. To identify and serve the needs of tenants, the Crop Cultivator Rights Act (CCRA) of 2019 was brought out. Only 26% of tenants obtained the CCRA or loan eligibility cards as per 2022 data.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleTenant Farmers Study Report 2022 Andhra Pradesh \|publisherRythy Swarajya Vedika \|year2022 \|urlhttps://www.im4change.org/upload/files/Report-AP-TenantFarmersStudy-English-Final%281%29.pdf \|access-date19 July 2024 \|archive-date29 March 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220329075909/https://im4change.org/upload/files/Report-AP-TenantFarmersStudy-English-Final(1).pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Industries manufacturing plant aerial view, Sri City]] -SHAR, Sriharikota]] As per the annual survey of industries 2019–20, the number of factories was 12,582 with 681,224 employees. The top four employment providers are food products (25.48%), non-metallic minerals (11.26%), textiles (9.35%), and pharmaceuticals (8.68%). Gross value added (GVA) contributed by the industrial sector is {{INRConvert\|55035\|c}}, of which food products (18.95%), pharmaceuticals (17.01%), and non-metallic minerals (16.25%) are the top three contributors. From a district perspective, the top three districts were undivided Visakhapatnam, Chittoor, and Krishna.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAnnual survey of industries \|publisherDES, GOAP \|year2020 \|urlhttps://des.ap.gov.in/jsp/social/ASI2019-20.pdf \|access-date=26 May 2023 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> The defence administered Hindustan Shipyard Limitedwerecondensate built the first ship in India in 1948.<ref namehsl>{{Cite news \|last1Bhattacharjee \|first1Sumit \|titleSailing through the 75-year history of shipbuilding in India \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/sailing-through-the-75-year-history-of-shipbuilding-in-india/article66614566.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date14 March 2023\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> The state has 36 big auto players, such as Ashok Leyland, Hero Motors, Isuzu Motors India, and Kia Motors,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://apedb.gov.in/automobile-industry.html \|titleAuto, automobiles & EV \|access-date26 May 2023 \|websiteAPEDB \|archive-date26 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526050349/https://apedb.gov.in/automobile-industry.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The mining sector contributed {{INRConvert\|3390\|c}} in revenue to the state during 2021–22.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p9}} Nearly 225 million barrels of crude oil was produced from Ravva block, in the shallow offshore area of the Krishna Godavari basin during 1994–2011.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRavva Oil and Gas Field \|urlhttps://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/ravva-field/?cf-view \|websiteOffshore technology \|access-date22 August 2024 \|date18 August 2011}}</ref> The state accounted for 0.6% of had and codensate production, and 2.9% of natural gas production of India in 2020–21.{{Sfn\|MOPNG\|2023\|p=30-33}} {{As of\|2023\|06\|20\|post,}} there are 190 science and technology organisations in Andhra Pradesh, including 12 central labs and research institutions.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.indiascienceandtechnology.gov.in/organisations/state-st-organisations/all-st-institution?field_institute_state_tid4449 \|titleList of S&T organisations \|access-date20 June 2023 \|websiteIndia science, technology and innovation \|publisherVigyan Prasar, Department of science and technology, Government of India \|archive-date20 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230620044153/https://www.indiascienceandtechnology.gov.in/organisations/state-st-organisations/all-st-institution?field_institute_state_tid4449 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), known as Sriharikota range (SHAR), on the barrier island of Sriharikota in Tirupati district, is the primary satellite launching station operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.isro.gov.in/SDSC.html \|titleSHAR \|access-date15 May 2024 \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809113906/https://www.isro.gov.in/SDSC.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Services Trade, hotels & restaurants registered the highest growth rate of 16.64%, while public administration, the lowest growth rate of 4.24% for the year 2022–23 at constant 2011–12 prices among the services category.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p29}} The state is ranked third in domestic tourist footfalls for the year 2021, with 93.2 million domestic tourists, which amounts to 13.8% of all domestic tourists in India. A major share of the tourists visit temples in Tirupati, Vijayawada, and Srisailam.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/travel/051222/ap-ranked-3rd-telangana-6th-in-domestic-tourist-footfalls.html \|titleAP ranked 3rd, Telangana 6th in domestic tourist footfalls \|date5 December 2022 \|access-date26 May 2023 \|websiteDeccan Chronicle \|archive-date26 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526090559/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/lifestyle/travel/051222/ap-ranked-3rd-telangana-6th-in-domestic-tourist-footfalls.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The value of information technology exports from the state in 2021–22 was {{INRConvert\|926\|c}}, which is 0.14% of the IT exports from India. Exports have remained below 0.2% in the past five years.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradeshs-share-in-it-exports-is-below-02-says-union-minister/article66702647.ece \|titleAndhra Pradesh's share in IT exports is below 0.2%, says union minister \|date5 April 2023 \|access-date24 May 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date24 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230524120917/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradeshs-share-in-it-exports-is-below-02-says-union-minister/article66702647.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Infrastructure Transport {{Main\|Transport in Andhra Pradesh}} Roads , Vijayawada]] {{As of\|2023\|post,}} the state has a total major road network of {{Convert\|47244.83\|km\|mi\|abbron}}. This comprises {{Convert\|8163.72\|km\|mi\|abbron}} of national highways, {{Convert\|12595.60\|km\|mi\|abbron}} of state highways, and {{convert\|26485.51\|km\|mi\|abbron}} of major district roads.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p168}} In the category of national highways, NH 16, with a highway network of around {{convert\|1000\|km\|mi\|abbron}} in the state, is a part of the Golden Quadrilateral project. Vehicles on the register consist of 1.828 million transport vehicles and 13.7 million non-transport vehicles. In the transport category, goods carriages constitute 53.61%, auto rickshaws 36.21%, and stage carriages 1.14% constitute the top 3 categories. In the non-transport category, motorcycles constitute 89.5%, four-wheelers 7.29%, and cabs 5.96% occupy the top 3 ranks.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p173}} The state government-owned Andhra Pradesh state road transport organisation is the public bus transport provider. It is split into 129 depots across four zones. It has a fleet strength of 11,098 buses and a staff count of 49,544. It operates 1.11 billion kilometres and serves 3.68 million passengers daily as per the socio-economic survey of 2023.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p176}} {{As of\|2023\|post,}} Railways Renigunta was the first among major stations to appear on the railway map of Andhra Pradesh when Madras railway connected it to Madras in 1862.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1Goyal \|first1Shikha \|titleHistory of Indian railways from 1853 to present \|urlhttps://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/history-of-indian-railways-1644394598-1 \|websiteJagranjosh \|access-date22 August 2024 \|date10 February 2022}}</ref> Rajahmundry-Vijag and Viajayawad-Kovvur sections were opened in 1893. Vijayawada-Madras section was started in 1899. It was extended to Howrah in 1900.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVijayawada – Historical Background \|urlhttps://digitalscr.in/books/4.pdf \|websiteDigitalscr \|access-date22 August 2024}}</ref> {{As of\|2022\|post,}} The state has a total broad-gauge railway route of {{cvt\|3969\|km}} with rail density at 24.36&nbsp;km per 1000&nbsp;square kilometres.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleIndian railways year book 2021–22 \|publisherIndian Railways \|year2022 \|pages62 \|urlhttps://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/stat_econ/2023/PDF%20Year%20Book%202021-22-English.pdf \|access-date19 May 2023 \|archive-date18 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230418130808/https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/stat_econ/2023/PDF%20Year%20Book%202021-22-English.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://indianrailways.gov.in/index/index.html \|titleIndian Railway map (searchable) \|access-date30 April 2024 \|websiteIndian Railway \|archive-date30 April 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240430005043/https://indianrailways.gov.in/index/index.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The railway network in Andhra Pradesh is under the South Central railway,<ref name"scr">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang0&id0,1\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170507070031/https://scr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?lang0&id0,1\|url-statuslive\|archive-date7 May 2017\|titleState-wise route kilometerage\|websiteSouth Central Railway\|access-date23 April 2017}}</ref> East Coast railway,<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColorblack&backgroundColorLIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang0&id0,1,1290 \|titleEast coast railway divisions \|access-date24 April 2023 \|websiteEast coast railway \|archive-date28 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240328171216/https://eastcoastrail.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColorblack&backgroundColorLIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang0&id0,1,1290 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> and South Western railway zones.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://swr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColorblack&backgroundColorLIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang0&id0,1,261 \|titleSouth Western Railway – divisions \|access-date24 April 2023 \|websiteSouth Western railway \|archive-date24 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230424131825/https://swr.indianrailways.gov.in/view_section.jsp?fontColorblack&backgroundColorLIGHTSTEELBLUE&lang0&id0,1,261 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> During 2014–2022, 350&nbsp;km of new lines were constructed at a rate of 44&nbsp;km per year in Andhra Pradesh under the South Central railway division. The rate of construction was only 2&nbsp;km per year in the preceding five years.{{Sfn\|IR\|2022\|p5}} The Nadikudi–Srikalahasti line of 308.70&nbsp;km sanctioned at a budget of {{INRConvert\|22.89\|b}} in 2011–12 as a joint project of the centre and state is progressing slowly, with only phase one of 46&nbsp;km between New Piduguralla station and Savalyapuram completed in 2021–22.{{Sfn\|IR\|2022\|p29}} There are three A1 and 23 A-category railway stations in the state, as per the assessment in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleStatement showing category-wise no. of stations\|urlhttp://www.indianrailways.gov.in/StationRedevelopment/AI&ACategoryStns.pdf\|websiteSouth Central Railway\|access-date23 April 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128044328/http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/StationRedevelopment/AI%26ACategoryStns.pdf\|archive-date28 January 2016\|url-statusdead}}</ref> {{Stnlnk\|Visakhapatnam}} was declared the cleanest railway station in the country, as per the assessment in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/vizag-billed-the-cleanest-rail-station/article18478254.ece\|titleVizag billed the cleanest rail station\|date18 May 2017\|workThe Hindu\|access-date4 January 2018\|issn0971-751X\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180104133007/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/vizag-billed-the-cleanest-rail-station/article18478254.ece\|archive-date4 January 2018\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The railway station in Shimiliguda is the second broad gauge railway station at high altitude in the country next to Qazigund in Jammu and Kashmir.<ref>{{Cite news\|last1Bhattacharjee\|first1Sumit\|titleHidden 100 – 58 tunnels. 84 bridges. Welcome to Araku Valley\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/hidden-100-58-tunnels-84-bridges-welcome-to-araku-valley/article2594651.ece\|access-date23 April 2017\|workThe Hindu\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170609115011/http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/hidden-100-58-tunnels-84-bridges-welcome-to-araku-valley/article2594651.ece\|archive-date9 June 2017\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> A new railway zone South Coast railway (SCoR), with headquarters in Visakhapatnam, was announced in 2019, but is yet to be implemented.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid189105\|titleCabinet approves South Coast railway zone\|websitePress Information Bureau\|access-date12 February 2022\|archive-date2 April 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190402144738/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid189105\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleDelays dog new railway zone \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/delays-dog-new-railway-zone/article38051643.ece \|lastB \|firstMadhu Gopal \|date28 December 2021 \|access-date30 April 2024\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211228045510/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/delays-dog-new-railway-zone/article38051643.ece \|archive-date28 December 2021}}</ref> Airports {{See also\|List of airports in Andhra Pradesh}} {{Map/Airports in Andhra Pradesh}} Tirupati Airport was established in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTirupati International Airport \|urlhttps://www.tudaap.in/activity.php?categoryTirupati%20International%20Airport \|websiteTirupati urban development authority \|access-date22 August 2024}}</ref> Visakhapatnam became a part of civil aviation in 1981.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVisakhapatnam Airport Advertising \|urlhttps://www.gingermediagroup.com/visakhapatnam-airport-advertising/ \|websiteGingermediagroup \|access-date22 August 2024}}</ref> Daily flights to Vijayawada were started in 2003.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAir Deccan takes off finally \|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/air-deccan-takes-off-finally/articleshow/227312.cms \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Times of India \|date11 October 2003}}</ref> Apart from these three which are international airports, the state has three domestic airports, namely Rajahmundry, Kadapa, and Kurnool.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p180-183}} A privately owned airport for emergency flights and chartered flights is at Puttaparthi.<ref>{{Cite news \|titlePuttaparthi airport to facilitate emergency landings; security to be beefed up \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/250721/puttaparthi-airport-to-facilitate-emergency-landings-security-to-be-b.html \|access-date10 August 2021 \|workDeccan Chronicle \|date25 July 2021 \|archive-date10 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210810133924/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/in-other-news/250721/puttaparthi-airport-to-facilitate-emergency-landings-security-to-be-b.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Bhogapuram international airport is being constructed with a budget of ₹4,750 crore on an area of 2,300 acres near Visakhapatnam. It is expected to be completed by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleBhogapuram international airport will be ready by 2025, says Andhra Pradesh Industries Minister Gudivada Amarnath \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/bhogapuram-international-airport-will-be-ready-by-2025-says-andhra-pradesh-industries-minister-gudivada-amarnath/article67645263.ece \|date16 December 2023 \|access-date6 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231217015305/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/bhogapuram-international-airport-will-be-ready-by-2025-says-andhra-pradesh-industries-minister-gudivada-amarnath/article67645263.ece\|archive-date17 December 2023}}</ref> Andhra Pradesh saw a 60% increase in domestic air passenger traffic, with 24.74 lakh visitors at its five airports during the 2021–22 fiscal year (up to January 2022), compared to 15.48 lakh in the same period the previous fiscal year.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleA.P. airports see 60% jump in domestic passenger footfall \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-airports-see-60-jump-in-domestic-passenger-footfall/article65246193.ece \|lastBoda \|firstTarun \|date21 March 2022 \|access-date16 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220401101206/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/ap-airports-see-60-jump-in-domestic-passenger-footfall/article65246193.ece\|archive-date1 April 2022}}</ref> Sea ports {{See also\|List of ports and harbours of Andhra Pradesh}} {{Map/Seaports in Andhra Pradesh}} The state has one major port at Visakhapatnam under the administrative control of the central government and 15 notified ports, including three captive ports, under the control of the state government.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|page183}} Visakhapatnam port was the earliest port to be commissioned in 1933.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleVisakhapatnam Port turning 90 on October 7 \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/visakhapatnam-port-turning-90-on-october-7/article67388936.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date6 October 2023}}</ref> Gangavaram port is a deep seaport that can accommodate ocean liners up to 200,000–250,000 DWT.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Patnaik \|first1Santosh \|titleGangavaram port to double capacity soon \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/gangavaram-port-to-double-capacity-soon/article7242475.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date25 May 2015}}</ref> Cargo of 189.21 million tonnes was handled by Gangavaram, Kakinada deepwater, Krishnapatnam, Ravva, Kakinada anchorage, and Visakhapatnam during 2023–34, with a growth of 7.9% over the previous year.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh invests in port-led growth \|urlhttps://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/andhra-pradesh-invests-in-port-led-growth/article68115119.ece \|lastG \|firstNaga Sreedhar \|date28 April 2024 \|access-date16 July 2024 \|workBusiness Line\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240429054625/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/andhra-pradesh-invests-in-port-led-growth/article68115119.ece\|archive-date29 April 2024}}</ref> New sea ports are under construction at Ramayapatnam, Machilipatnam, Mulapeta, and Kakinada.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleWorks apace at seaports and fishing harbours being constructed in Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/works-apace-at-seaports-and-fishing-harbours-being-constructed-in-andhra-pradesh/article67205843.ece \|lastV. \|firstRaghavendra \|date17 August 2023 \|access-date6 May 2024\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230824042832/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/works-apace-at-seaports-and-fishing-harbours-being-constructed-in-andhra-pradesh/article67205843.ece\|archive-date24 August 2023}}</ref> Communication As per socio-economic survey released in January 2023, Andhra Pradesh has {{formatnum:10605}} post offices.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p189}} Bharat sanchar nigam limited (BSNL) operates {{formatnum:1310}} telephone exchanges with 20.6 million landline connections and also has 5.4 million wireless subscribers.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p186}} Airtel, Jio, Vodaphone Idea, and BSNL provide mobile services in the state.<ref name"trai-54/2024"/> {{As of \|2023\|post,}} the number of mobile phone users reached 82 million, while the number of internet subscribers reached 67.1 million in Andhra Pradesh. Mobile network services are available in 15,322 out of 17,328 villages. 5G network connectivity is provided by 16,714 base transfer stations.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMobile towers in Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.rsdebate.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/746437/1/PQ_262_08122023_U704_p275_p276.pdf \|publisherRajya Sabha \|access-date19 August 2024 \|date8 December 2023}}</ref> Several providers including state government owned Andhra Pradesh state fibre net limited operate wireline services supporting internet connectivity, telephony, and Internet Protocol television.<ref name"trai-54/2024">{{Cite book \|titlePress Release No.54/2024 \|date20 August 2024 \|publisherTelecom regulatory authority of India \|locationNew Delhi \|pages16–17 \|urlhttps://trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.54of2024_0.pdf \|access-date21 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh state fiberNet limited is poised for growth, says Goutham Reddy \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/andhra-pradesh-state-fibernet-limited-is-poised-for-growth-says-goutham-reddy/article65381371.ece \|access-date20 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date4 May 2022}}</ref> The AP statewide area network connects 2,164 offices of state administration at 668 locations down to the level of mandal headquarters.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p204}} The network supports both data and video communications. BSNL and the National Knowledge Network multi-purposeCricket link district headquarters with state headquarters with a bandwidth of 34 Mbit/s. Mandal headquarters are connected with a bandwidth of 8 Mbit/s.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p195}} Water The state has 40 major and medium rivers and 40,000 minor irrigation sources. Godavari, Krishna, and Penna are major rivers. The total cultivable area is 19.904 million acres.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/home \|titleHome page \|access-date19 July 2024 \|websiteWater resources department, Government of Andhra Pradesh}}</ref> Major, medium, and minor irrigation projects irrigate 10.172 million acres or 51.1% {{As of \|2015\|lcy}}.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/projects \|titleAndhra Pradesh projects information \|access-date19 July 2024 \|websiteWater resources department, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|archive-date23 February 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240223203420/https://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/projects \|url-statuslive }}</ref>{{cbignore}} Several water projects in the state are facing issues. The Polavaram Project is a multi purpose terminal reservoir project located 42&nbsp;km upstream of Davaleswaram barrage. It is a national project as per the AP Reorganisation Act of 2014. It has a reservoir capacity of 194.6 TMC and is expected to utilise 322.73 TMC of water in a year.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p136}}<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/static/approjects/polavaramnew.html \|titlePolavaram Project \|access-date19 July 2024 \|websiteWater resources department, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|archive-date5 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220705102504/https://irrigationap.cgg.gov.in/wrd/static/approjects/polavaramnew.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref>{{cbignore}} The under-construction project suffered setbacks with damage to its diaphragm wall during the 2022 floods.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/dam-design-review-panel-approves-repairs-to-polavaram-diaphragm-wall-damaged-in-godavari-floods/article66584237.ece \|titleDam design review panel approves repairs to Polavaram diaphragm wall damaged in Godavari floods \|date5 March 2023 \|access-date30 May 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date30 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230530065426/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/dam-design-review-panel-approves-repairs-to-polavaram-diaphragm-wall-damaged-in-godavari-floods/article66584237.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Veligonda Project, taken up to serve needs of Prakasam, Nellore, and Madala districts is progressing slowly.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleExcavation works of Poola Subbaiah Veligonda Project's tunnel two completed in Andhra Pradesh, says official \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/excavation-works-of-poola-subbaiah-veligonda-projects-tunnel-two-completed-in-andhra-pradesh-says-official/article67772746.ece \|date24 January 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|access-date26 March 2024 \|archive-date26 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240326065108/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/excavation-works-of-poola-subbaiah-veligonda-projects-tunnel-two-completed-in-andhra-pradesh-says-official/article67772746.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> The Annamayya project, washed away in the 2021 floods, is set to be redesigned for 787 crores.<ref>{{Cite web \|last1S. \|first1Nagaraja Rao \|titleAndhra Pradesh: Two years on, Annamayya project still awaits design approval \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2023/Nov/19/andhra-pradesh-two-yearson-annamayya-project-still-awaits-design-approval-2634294.html \|workThe New Indian Express \|access-date19 August 2024 \|date19 November 2023}}</ref> Following the bifurcation, disputes with Telangana regarding the allocation of Krishna and Godavari waters continue to dog the state.<ref name"water-sharing">{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/explained-the-telangana-andhra-pradesh-water-dispute/article66880971.ece \|titleExplained : The Telangana- Andhra Pradesh water dispute \|date23 May 2023 \|access-date29 May 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date29 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230529045556/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/telangana/explained-the-telangana-andhra-pradesh-water-dispute/article66880971.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> Power {{Main\|Power sector of Andhra Pradesh}} ]] Thermal, hydel and renewable power plants supply power to the state. The installed capacity share of the state in the public sector generating stations was 7,245 MW. The private sector installed capacity was 9,370 MW, which includes an independent power producer capacity of 1,961 MW. The total installed capacity was 16,615 MW. Peak power demand for the state in 2021–22 was 12,032 MW and per capita consumption was 1,285 kilowatt hours. The energy consumed was 68,972 million units.<ref name"appower">{{Cite book \|titlePower development in Andhra Pradesh (Statistics) 2021–22 \|year2022 \|urlhttps://aptransco.co.in/pds-fy2021-22-final.pdf \|access-date29 April 2024 \|pages1–2 }}{{cbignore}}</ref> Energy consumption increased from 54,555 MU in 2018–19 to 69,113 MU in 2023–24, at a growth rate of 4.8% which is among the lowest in the country. The per capita electricity consumption of AP. Increased by only 123 kWh in the same period when there was an increase of 146 kWh at the national level. The reasons were because of steep tariff increases and re-imposing power cuts as there was a delay in commissioning of the Polavaram hydro-electric power project (960 MW), Sri Damodaram Sanjeevaiah thermal power station (Krishnapatnam) stage-II unit-3 (800 MW) and Dr. Narla Tata Rao thermal power station stage-V unit-8 (800 MW) stations.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleWhite Paper on A.P. power sector reveals ₹1.29 lakh crore burden on govt. \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/white-paper-on-ap-power-sector-reveals-129-lakh-crore-burden-on-govt/article68385541.ece \|lastM. \|firstSambasiva Rao \|date9 July 2024 \|access-date18 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240711015712/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/white-paper-on-ap-power-sector-reveals-129-lakh-crore-burden-on-govt/article68385541.ece\|archive-date11 July 2024}}</ref> Healthcare The health infrastructure consists of 13 district hospitals, 28 sub-district hospitals, and {{formatnum:6049}} urban and rural health centres as of 2019–20. Doorstep healthcare support services are provided through {{formatnum:42060}} Accredited social health activist(ASHA) workers as of July 2019.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleHealth dossier 2021 : Reflections on key health indicators – Andhra Pradesh \|date2021 \|publisherNational health systems resource centre \|locationNew Delhi \|pages6–13 \|urlhttps://nhsrcindia.org/sites/default/files/practice_image/HealthDossier2021/Andhra%20Pradesh.pdf}}</ref> The 108 service provides fast emergency management services by shifting patients to a nearby healthcare facility. The 104 service provides health care services at the doorstep of villages through mobile medical units that visit at least once a month.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/hans/opinion/news-analysis/108-104-totally-dissimilar-services-751732 \|title108 & 104 totally dissimilar services \|date4 July 2022 \|access-date2 June 2023 \|workThe Hans India \|lastVanam \|firstJwala Narasimha Rao \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602063749/https://www.thehansindia.com/hans/opinion/news-analysis/108-104-totally-dissimilar-services-751732 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> All the poor families are covered by the free state health insurance scheme up to a limit of {{INRConvert\|2500000}}. The scheme serves 42.5 million people.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSridhar \|firstG. Naga \|date18 December 2023 \|titleAP increases YSR Aarogyasri free treatment limit to ₹25 lakh \|urlhttps://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/ap-increases-ysr-aarogyasri-free-treatment-limit-to-25-lakh/article67649885.ece \|workBusiness Line\|locationChennai \|access-date30 April 2024\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231219012519/https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/ap-increases-ysr-aarogyasri-free-treatment-limit-to-25-lakh/article67649885.ece\|archive-date19 December 2023}}</ref> The services are provided in government and private hospitals under the network. During 2014–2018, though the nominal mean claim amount of beneficiaries went up significantly, it decreased after accounting for inflation. Mortality rates have significantly decreased, which indicates better outcomes are being achieved at a lower cost.<ref>{{Cite journal \|titleUtilization trends of a government-sponsored health insurance program in South India: 2014 to 2018 \|journalValue in Health Regional Issues \|year2022 \|volume27 \|pages82–89 \|doi10.1016/j.vhri.2021.02.007 \|pmid34844063 \|last1Singh \|first1P. \|last2Powell \|first2A. C. \|s2cid244706313 \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Out of 2,700 private hospitals registered under the state health insurance scheme, 540 (20%) are speciality hospitals. The number of patients treated under the state health insurance scheme increased from 1.2 million in 2022–23 to 1.39 million in 2023–24. whereas the budget remained constant at ₹3,350 crore.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleNo free treatment for Arogyasari patients in Andhra \|urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/no-free-treatment-for-arogyasari-patients-in-andhra-101716321391891.html \|lastApparasu \|firstSrinivasa Rao \|date22 May 2024 \|workHindustan Times \|access-date18 July 2024 \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809114023/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/no-free-treatment-for-arogyasari-patients-in-andhra-101716321391891.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The National family health survey-5 conducted in 2019–21 data provided an insight into the economic and health status of households. Housing, electricity, clean fuel, access to toilets, mobile phone usage, and bank account access were available for more than 85% of households. Piped water facilities were available for only 22% of households. The state health insurance scheme, the employee health scheme, the Rashtriya swasthya bima yojana, the Employees' state insurance scheme, and the Central government health scheme covered 70% of households with at least one member covered.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleNational family health survey (NFHS-5), India, 2019–21: Andhra Pradesh \|lastInternational Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) and ICF \|publisherIIPS \|year2021 \|locationMumbai\|urlhttp://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-5Reports/Andhra_Pradesh.pdf \|access-date2 June 2023 \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602012114/http://rchiips.org/nfhs/NFHS-5Reports/Andhra_Pradesh.pdf \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Banking {{As of \|2023\|03\|31\|post,}} there are 33 private sector banks, 12 public sector banks, three rural banks, three small finance banks, three payment banks, one cooperative bank, and one state financial corporation operating in the state. The total number of branches is 7,881.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleSLBC meeting 223 Data Sheets \|year2023 \|urlhttps://www.slbcap.nic.in/pages/SLBC%20Meetings/Data%20Sheets_223.pdf}}</ref> {{As of \|2022\|09\|post,}} Banks have deposits amounting to {{INRConvert\|435183.49\|c}} and extended credit amounting to {{INRConvert\|628134.9\|c}}, with credit deposit ratio of 144% against Reserve Bank of India norm of 60%. Primary sector advances amounted to 60.13% of total bank credit.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p189}} Till March 2011, the microfinance industry flourished in united Andhra Pradesh with a share of 65% of pan India gross loans. Due to state regulation enacted in 2010, the loan portfolio shrank to 0.8% in Andhra Pradesh as of 31 March 2023. With the court deciding against state regulation, the industry is likely to pick up again.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleWill the Telangana HC ruling change fortunes for Andhra microfinance sector? \|urlhttps://bfsi.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/financial-services/will-the-telangana-hc-ruling-change-fortunes-for-andhra-microfinance-sector/104838751 \|date31 October 2023 \|access-date18 July 2024 \|workThe Economic Times \|archive-date18 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240718145531/https://bfsi.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/financial-services/will-the-telangana-hc-ruling-change-fortunes-for-andhra-microfinance-sector/104838751 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Education {{Main\|Education in Andhra Pradesh\|List of institutions of higher education in Andhra Pradesh}} ]] Primary and secondary school education is imparted by government and private schools, regulated by the school education department of the state.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSchool education department \|urlhttp://rmsaap.nic.in/Notification_TSG_2015.pdf \|websiteRashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan \|publisherSchool Education Department, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|access-date6 June 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160319051231/http://rmsaap.nic.in/Notification_TSG_2015.pdf \|archive-date19 March 2016 \|locationHyderabad \|date26 March 2015}}</ref> The government decided to stop financial aid to aided schools with history dating to 1870s, forcing them to handover the schools with the aided staff to government or become private in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastNandam \|firstNaresh \|date28 September 2021 \|titleOngole : Future of poor students hangs in balance as govt absorbs aided staff \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/ongole-future-of-poor-students-hangs-in-balance-as-govt-absorbs-aided-staff-708426 \|workThe Hans India \|access-date22 March 2024 \|archive-date9 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240309091245/https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/ongole-future-of-poor-students-hangs-in-balance-as-govt-absorbs-aided-staff-708426 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Yallampalli \|first1Vaikuntham \|titleEducation and social change in South India: Andhra, 1880–1920 \|date1982 \|publisherNew era publications \|locationMadras \|page14 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP_U5AAAAMAAJ&q%22aided+schools%22 \|access-date26 August 2024}}</ref> As per Unified district information system for education plus (UDISE+) report of 2021–22, there were a total of {{formatnum:8244647}} students enrolled in {{formatnum:61948}} schools.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleUDISE plus dashboard \|urlhttps://src.udiseplus.gov.in/School/DataDashboard \|websiteDepartment of School education and literacy \|access-date9 August 2024}}{{Cbignore}}</ref> Performance of rural students on reading, arithmetic skills in grades 1–8 declined during 2018–2022 partly attributed to Covid outbreak. As an example, for the reading assessment in Class VIII students, it nosedived 67% in 2022 from over 78% in 2018. However, the student enrolment at government schools improved from 63.2% to 71%.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Rao \|first1Umamaheswar \|title63% class V pupils can't read class II text in AP: ASER 2022 \|urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/visakhapatnam/63-class-v-pupils-cant-read-class-ii-text-in-ap-aser-2022/articleshow/102121592.cms \|access-date26 August 2024 \|workThe Times of India \|date26 July 2023}}</ref> In the March 2024 secondary school certificate (SSC) exam {{Nowrap\|616,615}} students appeared in the regular stream. Parvathipuram-Manyam district achieved the highest pass percentage of 96.37 among districts. The overall pass percentage was 86.69%, an increase of 14.43% over the previous year, with 100% in 2,803 schools.<ref name"ssc2024" >{{Cite news \|title86.69% students pass SSC examinations in Andhra Pradesh, 2,803 schools record 100% results \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/8669-of-students-pass-ssc-examinations-in-andhra-pradesh-2803-schools-record-100-results/article68094695.ece \|lastRajulapudi \|firstSreenivas \|date22 April 2024 \|access-date3 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|url-accesssubscription \|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809114016/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/8669-of-students-pass-ssc-examinations-in-andhra-pradesh-2803-schools-record-100-results/article68094695.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"ssc2023">{{Cite news \|titleGirls outperform boys by over 6% in SSC exams in Andhra Pradesh\|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/girls-outperform-boys-by-over-6-in-ssc-exams-in-andhra-pradesh/article66819882.ece \|access-date17 June 2023 \|date6 May 2023 \|archive-date19 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230519233319/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/girls-outperform-boys-by-over-6-in-ssc-exams-in-andhra-pradesh/article66819882.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> In intermediate (higher secondary) examinations held in March 2024, 393,757 students appeared. The pass percentage was 78%, which is an increase of 7% over the previous year.<ref name"inter2024">{{Cite news \|titleGirls outperform boys in Intermediate Public Examination in Andhra Pradesh \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/girls-outperform-boys-in-intermediate-public-examination-in-andhra-pradesh/article68057354.ece \|lastP. \|firstSujatha Verma \|date12 April 2024 \|access-date3 May 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|url-accesssubscription \|archive-date3 May 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240503061122/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/girls-outperform-boys-in-intermediate-public-examination-in-andhra-pradesh/article68057354.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"inter2023">{{Cite news \|titleGirls dominate boys in AP Intermediate 1 & 2 results \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/education/260423/girls-dominate-boys-in-ap-intermediate-1-2-results.html \|date27 April 2023 \|access-date17 June 2023 \|workDeccan Chronicle \|archive-date9 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230509233151/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/education/260423/girls-dominate-boys-in-ap-intermediate-1-2-results.html \|url-status=live }}</ref> The state initiated education reforms in 2020 by creating six types of schools: satellite foundation schools (pre-primary), foundational schools (pre-primary – class II), foundational school plus (pre-primary – class V), pre-high school (class III – class VII/VIII), high school (class III – class X), and high school plus (class III – class XII).{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p12}} The transition to English-medium education in all government schools was started in the academic year 2020–2021. It is expected to reach completion by 2024–25. Affiliation of 1,000 government schools to the Central Board of Secondary Education in 2022–23 was done as an initial step.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1P. \|first1Sujatha Varma \|titleNew pattern of exam awaits students of CBSE-affiliated government schools in A.P. \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/new-pattern-of-exam-awaits-students-of-cbse-affiliated-government-schools-in-ap/article67379529.ece \|access-date19 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date4 October 2023}}</ref> The state government went ahead with the English medium based on the parents survey despite protests and court cases.<ref name"english-medium-roots">{{Cite news \|urlhttps://thefederal.com/states/south/andhra-pradesh/english-medium-schools-andhra-pradesh/ \|titleAndhra schools' transition from Telugu to English medium has roots in the far past \|date19 May 2022 \|access-date25 April 2023 \|websiteThe federal \|archive-date25 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230425120649/https://thefederal.com/states/south/andhra-pradesh/english-medium-schools-andhra-pradesh/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state initiative is being funded in part by a loan from the World Bank to the tune of $250 million over 2021–2026 through the "Supporting Andhra's learning transformation" project to improve the learning outcomes of children up to class II level.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleProgram appriasal document -SALT \|publisherWorld Bank \|urlhttps://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/149391624240914510/pdf/India-Supporting-Andhras-Learning-Transformation-Operation-Program-for-Results-Project.pdf \|date20 May 2021 \|access-date25 April 2023 \|archive-date25 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230425120651/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/149391624240914510/pdf/India-Supporting-Andhras-Learning-Transformation-Operation-Program-for-Results-Project.pdf \|url-status=live }}</ref> {{As of\|2023\|post,}} there are 169 government-aided degree colleges and 55 private-aided degree colleges in the state. National assessment and accreditation council grades were awarded to 66 government colleges and 48 private-aided colleges. There are 85 government-aided and 175 private polytechnic colleges with a sanctioned strength of 75,906 students.{{Sfn\|DOP\|2023\|p13-14}} In the category of technical education, there are 685 institutions offering diploma, undergraduate, and postgraduate Visakhapatnamthe courses, with an intake of 299,608.<ref>{{cite book \|titleAnnual report 2021-22 \|date2022 \|publisherAICTE \|locationNew Delhi \|page121 \|urlhttps://www.aicte-india.org/sites/default/files/AR/AICTE_Annual%20Report_2022_English.pdf \|access-date26 August 2024}}</ref> The AP state council of higher education organises various entrance tests for different streams and conducts counselling for admissions.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAndhra Pradesh state council of higher education releases schedule of common entrance tests \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-state-council-of-higher-education-releases-schedule-of-common-entrance-tests/article68128933.ece \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date1 May 2024}}</ref> The AP state skill development corporation is set up to support skill development and placement for the educated.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Laxmi \|first1Pranathi \|titleAPSSDC empowers 1.35 lakh youth through skill training \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/241223/apssdc-empowers-135-lakh-youth-through-skill-training.html \|access-date22 August 2024 \|workDeccan Chronicle \|date23 December 2023}}</ref> {{As of\|2021\|post,}} there are a total of 36 universities: three central universities, 23 state public universities, six state private universities, and four deemed universities.{{Sfn\|UGC\|2021\|p100}} Andhra University is the oldest of the universities in the state, established in 1926.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleOld-timers recollect glorious days of AU\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/au-old-timers-recollect-glorious-days/article18237557.ece\|access-date2 May 2017\|workThe Hindu\|archive-date14 February 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210214134019/https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/tp-andhrapradesh/au-old-timers-recollect-glorious-days/article18237557.ece\|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleStatistical profile of universities in Andhra Pradesh\|urlhttp://www.apsche.org/apsche/PDF/STATISTICAL%20PROFILE%20OF%20THE%20UNIVERSITIES.pdf\|websiteAndhra Pradesh State Council of Higher Education\|access-date13 May 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171222052107/http://www.apsche.org/apsche/PDF/STATISTICAL%20PROFILE%20OF%20THE%20UNIVERSITIES.pdf\|archive-date22 December 2017\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The government established Rajiv Gandhi university of knowledge technologies in 2008 to cater to the education needs of the rural youth of the state.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.rgukt.in/home-aboutrgukt.html \|titleRajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies \|publisherRgukt.in \|access-date8 October 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111007142943/http://www.rgukt.in/home-aboutrgukt.html \|archive-date7 October 2011 }}</ref> NTR University of health sciences oversees medical education in 348 affiliated colleges spanning the entire range from traditional medicine to modern medicine.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://hmfw.ap.gov.in/nuhs-org.aspx \|titleDr. N.T.R University of Health Sciences (NUHS) \|access-date9 August 2024 \|websiteDepartment of health, medical and family welfare, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|archive-date27 February 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200227135857/http://hmfw.ap.gov.in/nuhs-org.aspx \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The public universities, including the legacy universities such as Andhra, Sri Venkateswara, and Nagarjuna, are suffering from a severe fund crunch and staff shortage, managing with only 20% of sanctioned full-time staff.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/state-run-varsities-slow-descent-into-oblivion/article66917267.ece \|titleA.P. Spotlight {{!}} The slow descent of state-run varsities into oblivion in Andhra Pradesh \|date2 June 2023 \|access-date2 June 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|lastBhattacharjee \|firstSumit \|archive-date2 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602032058/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/state-run-varsities-slow-descent-into-oblivion/article66917267.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> Koneru Lakshmaiah education foundation university bagged the 50th rank, while Andhra university bagged the 76th rank in the overall category of India rankings for 2023 as per the national institute ranking framework of the union ministry of education in which 2,478 institutions, including 242 institutions from the state, participated.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleNIRF Rankings: only two institutions from Andhra Pradesh figure in top 100 educational institutions \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/nirf-rankings-only-two-institutions-from-andhra-pradesh-figure-in-top-100-educational-institutions/article66934394.ece \|date5 June 2023 \|access-date17 June 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date12 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230612055947/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/nirf-rankings-only-two-institutions-from-andhra-pradesh-figure-in-top-100-educational-institutions/article66934394.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref> The gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education for the age group 18–23 for the state was at 35.2% for the year 2019–20, which comparing favourably with the GER for all of India at 27.1%. With a female GER of 35.3 and a male GER of 38.2, the Gender Parity Index was 0.84. The corresponding ratio for India was 1.01.{{Sfn\|UGC\|2021\|p=93}} There were 510 industrial training institutes (ITI) in 2020–21 in Andhra Pradesh, with 82 under government management and 417 under private management. The total available seats in 2021 were 93,280, out of which 48.90% were filled. In 2020, 10,053 students completed ITI.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleTransforming industrial training institutes \|publisherNiti Ayog \|year2023 \|pages30\|urlhttps://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-02/ITI_Report_02022023.pdf \|access-date17 June 2023 \|archive-date20 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230420214506/https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2023-02/ITI_Report_02022023.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state has 2,510 public libraries, including four regional libraries and 13 district central libraries under government management.<ref>{{Cite journal \|titlePublic library system in Andhra Pradesh: An overview \|journalLibrary Philosophy and Practice \|urlhttps://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article11045&contextlibphilprac \|lastB \|firstDeenadhayalu \|date5 June 2021 \|publisherUniversity of Nebraska – Lincoln \|access-date19 June 2023 \|archive-date5 August 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230805082011/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article11045&contextlibphilprac \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Saraswata Niketanam at Vetapalem in Bapatla district, one of the oldest libraries established under private management in 1918, is losing its attraction as the Internet spreads.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleThis 100-year-old library loses its patrons as Internet spreads reach \|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2018/dec/31/this-100-year-old-library-loses-its-patrons-as-internet-spreads-reach-1918656.html \|date31 December 2018 \|access-date19 June 2023 \|workThe New Indian Express \|archive-date19 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619055648/https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/vijayawada/2018/dec/31/this-100-year-old-library-loses-its-patrons-as-internet-spreads-reach-1918656.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The government is planning to develop digital libraries at the village panchayat level.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleDigital libraries yet to materialise despite funding \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/digital-libraries-yet-to-materialise-despite-funding-769781 \|date19 November 2022 \|access-date19 June 2023 \|workThe Hans India \|archive-date19 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619053620/https://www.thehansindia.com/andhra-pradesh/digital-libraries-yet-to-materialise-despite-funding-769781 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Media The total number of registered newspapers and periodicals in the state for the years 2020–21 was 5,798. There were 1,645 dailies, 817 weeklies, 2,431 monthlies, and 623 fortnightlies. Telugu dailies number 787 with a circulation of 9,911,005, while English dailies account for 103 with a circulation of 1,646,453.<ref name"pin202021-ch9">{{Cite book \|titlePress in India 2020–21 Chapter 9: Press in states and union territories \|publisherRNI \|year2021 \|urlhttps://rni.nic.in/pdf_file/pin2020_21/pin2020_21_eng/Chapter%209.pdf \|access-date27 May 2023 \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528012037/https://rni.nic.in/pdf_file/pin2020_21/pin2020_21_eng/Chapter%209.pdf \|url-statuslive \|page524 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|titleTelugu newspapers and periodicals in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states: A study \|journalInternational Journal of Library and Information Studies \|urlhttps://www.ijlis.org/articles/telugu-newspapers-and-periodicals-in-andhra-pradesh-and-telangana-states-a-study.pdf \|last1Dudekula \|first1Dastagiri \|last2KVN \|first2Rajeswara Rao \|last3Kopparthi \|first3Adisesu \|issue4 \|volume8 \|year2018 \|issn2231-4911 \|access-date19 June 2023 \|archive-date19 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619041411/https://www.ijlis.org/articles/telugu-newspapers-and-periodicals-in-andhra-pradesh-and-telangana-states-a-study.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Eenadu, Sakshi, and Andhra Jyothi are the top three Telugu daily newspapers in terms of circulation in India and are also the top three Telugu news sites.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHighest circulated dailies, weeklies & magazines amongst member publications (across languages) \|urlhttp://www.auditbureau.org/files/JJ%202022%20Highest%20Circulated%20%28across%20languages%29.pdf?_x_tr_slen&_x_tr_tlte&_x_tr_hlte&_x_tr_ptotc&_x_tr_schhttp \|access-date8 March 2023 \|websiteAuditbureau \|archive-date8 April 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230408045534/http://www.auditbureau.org/files/JJ%202022%20Highest%20Circulated%20(across%20languages).pdf?_x_tr_slen&_x_tr_tlte&_x_tr_hlte&_x_tr_ptotc&_x_tr_schhttp \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|titleWebometric analysis of Telugu news paper websites: An evaluative study using Alexa Internet \|journalInternational Journal of Digital Library Services \|last1KT \|first1Naheem \|last2M \|first2Saraswati Rao \|issue2 \|volume7 \|year2017 \|issn2250-1142}}</ref> BBC Telugu news was launched on 2 October 2017.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleBBC to launch Telugu news website \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/BBC-to-launch-Telugu-news-website/article16863732.ece \|date10 December 2016 \|access-date19 June 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date19 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619043902/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/BBC-to-launch-Telugu-news-website/article16863732.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/telugu/india-45719172 \|titleBBC News తెలుగు: ఒక ఏడాది.. కొన్ని అనుభవాలు \|date2 October 2018 \|access-date19 June 2023 \|publisherBBC \|languagete \|archive-date19 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619043902/https://www.bbc.com/telugu/india-45719172 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Several privately owned news media outlets are considered biased towards specific political parties in the state.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/tussle-between-media-houses-turns-into-political-battle-in-andhra-pradesh-ahead-of-assembly-elections-jagan-govt-orders-probe-into-margadarsi-chit-fund-irregularities-targeting-eenadu-media-baron-ramoji-rao-101682535932951.html \|titleAndhra Pradesh: Tussle between media houses takes political colour \|date27 April 2023 \|access-date27 May 2023 \|workHindustan Times \|archive-date27 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230527113836/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/tussle-between-media-houses-turns-into-political-battle-in-andhra-pradesh-ahead-of-assembly-elections-jagan-govt-orders-probe-into-margadarsi-chit-fund-irregularities-targeting-eenadu-media-baron-ramoji-rao-101682535932951.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.telegraphindia.com/india/warning-to-media-by-andhra-pradesh-government-is-it-a-caste-rivalry/cid/1713295 \|titleWarning to media by Andhra Pradesh government: Is it a caste rivalry? \|date21 October 2019 \|access-date27 May 2023 \|websiteThe Telegraph \|archive-date27 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230527113836/https://www.telegraphindia.com/india/warning-to-media-by-andhra-pradesh-government-is-it-a-caste-rivalry/cid/1713295 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> There were 23 news channels, 10 general entertainment channels, two health channels, six religious channels, two other channels, and two cable distribution channels, for a total of 45 channels empanelled by the Andhra Pradesh information and public relations department.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://ipr.ap.nic.in/tv-rates.html \|titleI & PR approved rates towards telecast of TV spots and Scrolls\|access-date27 May 2023 \|websiteIPR, AP Government \|archive-date26 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326000645/https://ipr.ap.nic.in/tv-rates.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> {{As of \|2019\|post,}} Akashvani previously known as All India Radio, operates 3 MW, 17 FM transmitters from 14 locations in the state. It reaches 99% of the area and 99.5% of the population. Akashvani's FM coverage alone reaches 36% of the area and 45% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://akashvani.gov.in/air/custom-includes/stations.pdf \|titleExisting AIR stations \|date1 April 2019 \|access-date4 May 2024 \|websiteAll India Radio \|archive-date22 February 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240222105423/https://akashvani.gov.in/air/custom-includes/stations.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Five private operators run 13 FM stations, with Red FM operating from five locations.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://mib.gov.in/sites/default/files/388%20operational%20channels.pdf \|titleDetails of operational private FM radio stations as on 15.08.2022 \|date15 August 2022 \|access-date4 May 2024 \|websiteMinistry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India \|archive-date16 June 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240616065842/https://mib.gov.in/sites/default/files/388%20operational%20channels.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Sports {{Main\|Sports in Andhra Pradesh}} in Visakhapatnam]] Traditional games played during childhood include Dagudu Mootalu (Hide and seek), Tokkudu Billa, Yedu Penkulata, Vamanaguntalu, Chadarangam (Chess), Puli Joodam, Ashta Chamma, Vaikuntapali (Snakes and ladders), Nalugu Stambalata, and Nalugu ralla aata.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastIndia \|firstThe Hans \|date2 July 2018 \|titleMeet on traditional games concludes \|urlhttps://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Andhra-Pradesh/2018-07-01/Meet-on-traditional-games-concludes/394219 \|access-date7 August 2023 \|workThe Hans India\|archive-date9 August 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240809111049/https://www.thehansindia.com/news/national/null \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Karrasamu (stick fight) is a traditional martial art form of the state. It is a form of self-defence to prevent thefts and robbery in villages. It is a discipline in the national sports, though it is not recognised for the sports quota category of reservations in Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleReviving tradition: Karrasamu returns to Andhra Pradesh's martial arts scene \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/sport/reviving-tradition-karrasamu-returns-to-andhra-pradeshs-martial-arts-scene/article68104887.ece \|lastGanguly \|firstNivedita \|date26 April 2024 \|access-date17 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Kodi Rammurthy Naidu was an strongman, bodybuilder, and wrestler of the state. He was renowned for his strength and physical prowess and for feats performed in 1911 such as stopping two cars using his muscle power and taking an elephant on his chest.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRoy \|firstBasauta Koomar \|date22 January 1918 \|titleThe Strongest Man in the World – Who Doesn't Eat Meat! \|workThe Daily Ardmoreite \|urlhttps://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042303/1918-01-22/ed-1/seq-6/ \|access-date19 July 2023 \|viaChronicling America}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date12 August 2002 \|titleIndian Hercules \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/08/12/stories/2002081200920200.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030505011703/http://thehindu.com/thehindu/mp/2002/08/12/stories/2002081200920200.htm \|archive-date5 May 2003 \|websiteThe Hindu\|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Sports Authority of Andhra Pradesh is the governing body that looks after the infrastructure development, coaching, and administration of sports promotion schemes.<ref>{{Cite news \|last1Boda \|first1Tharun \|titleAim is to make defunct sports arenas available for the public \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/aim-is-to-make-defunct-sports-arenas-available-for-the-public/article66171450.ece \|access-date21 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date25 November 2022}}</ref> Sports authority of India (SAI) operates three SAI Training centres in Andhra Pradesh {{as of\| 2022\|lcy}}.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAnnual report and audited accounts – SAI \|date2022 \|publisherMinistry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Government of India \|page93 \|urlhttps://sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/sai/public/assets/pdfs/annualreports/2021-22/SAI_AR_English_2021-22.pdf \|access-date21 August 2024}}</ref> Dr. YSR Sports School, Putlampalli, Kadapa district was selected for upgradation as Khelo India centre of excellence in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleKhelo India may upgrade the facilities in Kadapa's YSR Sports School \|urlhttps://www.deccanchronicle.com/sports/in-other-news/280621/khelo-india-may-upgrade-the-facilities-in-kadapas-ysr-sports-school.html \|access-date21 August 2024 \|workDeccan Chronicle \|date28 June 2021}}</ref> Andhra Cricket Visakhapatnam District Association cricket Association (ACA-VDCA) stadium in Visakhapatnam is known for hosting international cricket matches.<ref>{{cite news \|titleACA-VDCA Stadium bolsters its reputation as a batters' paradise \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Visakhapatnam/aca-vdca-stadium-bolsters-its-reputation-as-a-batters-paradise/article68025850.ece \|access-date25 August 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|date4 April 2024}}</ref> Pullela Gopichand is a former Indian badminton player. He won the All England Open Badminton Championships in 2001, becoming the second Indian to win after Prakash Padukone.<ref>{{Cite web \|title75 years of independence, 75 iconic moments from Indian sports: No 29 – March 11, 2001: Pullela Gopichand wins All-England Championships \|urlhttps://sportstar.thehindu.com/badminton/75-years-independence-iconic-moments-indian-sports-pullela-gopichand-wins-all-england-championships-march-11-2001/article38506915.ece \|workThe Hindu \|access-date19 August 2024 \|date29 June 2022}}</ref> P. V. Sindhu is one of India's most successful athletes, having won medals in major tournaments like the Olympics and the BWF circuit, including a gold at the 2019 World Championships. She is the first Indian to become a badminton world champion and only the second to win two consecutive Olympic medals.<ref>{{Cite news \|date1 August 2021 \|titlePV Sindhu joins select group of repeat medalists with Tokyo 2020 bronze \|urlhttps://olympics.com/en/featured-news/pv-sindhu-joins-select-group-of-repeat-medalists-with-tokyo-2020-bronze \|access-date1 August 2021 \|publisherInternational Olympic Committee \|archive-date1 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210801170847/https://olympics.com/en/featured-news/pv-sindhu-joins-select-group-of-repeat-medalists-with-tokyo-2020-bronze \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Karnam Malleswari is the first female Indian to win an Olympic medal. She won bronze medal in 69&nbsp;kg weightlifting event at 2000 Olympics games.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastGanguly\|firstMeenakshi\|date27 December 2000 \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2054437%2C00.html \|access-date5 January 2013\|titleConversations: 'I did what I could for my country'\|magazine Time\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130105183659/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0%2C8599%2C2054437%2C00.html \|archive-date5 January 2013 }}</ref> Srikanth Kidambi, a badminton player, is the first Indian to reach the world championships final in 2021 in the men's singles and win a silver medal.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSrikanth Kidambi \|urlhttps://olympics.com/en/athletes/srikanth-kidambi \|publisherInternational Olympic Committee \|access-date28 October 2022 \|archive-date28 October 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221028095843/https://olympics.com/en/athletes/srikanth-kidambi \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state secured 16 medals at the 36th national games held in 2022. It was ranked 21st in the competition.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/national-games-ap-settles-with-16-medals-21st-rank/article66002671.ece \|titleNational games: AP settles with 16 medals, 21st rank \|date12 October 2022 \|access-date28 May 2023 \|websiteThe Hindu \|archive-date28 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230528061533/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/national-games-ap-settles-with-16-medals-21st-rank/article66002671.ece \|url-accesssubscription\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The state sportpersons won 11 medals in Tennis, Archery, Badminton, Athletics, Chess and Cricket disciplines in the 19th Asian games held in China in 2022.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleAsian Games medallists from Andhra Pradesh call on Chief Minister Jagan \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/asian-games-medalists-from-andhra-pradesh-call-on-chief-minister-jagan/article67442583.ece \|lastGVR \|firstSubba Rao \|date20 October 2023 \|workThe Hindu \|access-date16 July 2024 \|archive-date16 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240716102442/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/asian-games-medalists-from-andhra-pradesh-call-on-chief-minister-jagan/article67442583.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The state was ranked at 13th spot in the sixth edition of Khelo India youth games-2023, by winning 27 medals.<ref>{{Cite news \|titleSportspersons from Andhra Pradesh win 27 medals, including 7 gold, in Khelo India Youth Games \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/sportspersons-from-andhra-pradesh-win-27-medals-including-7-gold-in-khelo-india-youth-games/article67797042.ece \|date31 January 2024 \|access-date16 July 2024 \|workThe Hindu \|archive-date16 July 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240716102441/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/sportspersons-from-andhra-pradesh-win-27-medals-including-7-gold-in-khelo-india-youth-games/article67797042.ece \|url-statuslive }}</ref> See also * Outline of Andhra Pradesh * Disputes between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana {{Clear}} Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist}} Bibliography {{Refbegin\|30em}} * {{Cite book \|titleAndhra Pradesh main book \|lastAPTDC \|publisherAndhra Pradesh Tourism \|year2019 \|urlhttps://aptourism.gov.in/media-data/books/Andhra%20Main%20Book%20-%20English.pdf \|access-date17 June 2023 }}{{Cbignore}} * {{Cite book \|titleSacredscape:Temples of Andhra Pradesh \|lastAPTDC \|publisherAndhra Pradesh Tourism \|year2018 \|urlhttps://aptourism.gov.in/media-data/books/Temple%20Book%20-%20English.pdf \|access-date7 August 2024 }}{{Cbignore}} * {{Cite book \|titleAgricultural statistics at a glance 2020–21 Andhra Pradesh \|publisherDES, Government of Andhra Pradesh \|year2021 \|lastDES \|urlhttps://des.ap.gov.in/jsp/social/ASAG2020-21.pdf \|access-date29 April 2024 }}{{cbignore}} * {{Cite book\|titleAP Socio economic survey 2014–15; Chapter 2: Macro economic aggregates\|year2015\|lastDOP\|urlhttp://www.ap.gov.in/socio/chapter_2_Macro_Economic_Aggregates.pdf\|access-date1 July 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150701095229/http://www.ap.gov.in/socio/chapter_2_Macro%20Economic%20Aggregates.pdf\|archive-date=1 July 2015}} * {{Cite book \|titleSocio economic survey 2022–23 \|lastDOP \|publisherGovernment of AP \|year2023 \|urlhttps://apfinance.gov.in/downloads/FINALBOOKSES-2023FINAL.pdf \|access-date24 April 2023 \|archive-date28 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240328171215/https://apfinance.gov.in/downloads/FINALBOOKSES-2023FINAL.pdf \|url-status=dead }} * {{Cite book\|urlhttp://www.indiacode.nic.in/acts2014/6%20of%202014.pdf\|titleThe Andhra Pradesh reorganisation act, 2014\|lastICLD\|year2014\|publisherMinistry of Law and Justice\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924034307/http://www.indiacode.nic.in/acts2014/6%20of%202014.pdf\|archive-date24 September 2015\|access-date=14 July 2015}} * {{Cite book\|titleNew railways New Andhra Pradesh 2014–2022\|year2022\|lastIR\|urlhttps://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/prd/Booklets/STATEWISE_ACHIEVEMENT/2022/Andhra_Pradesh_English.pdf\|access-date19 May 2023\|archive-date13 August 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220813114326/https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/prd/Booklets/STATEWISE_ACHIEVEMENT/2022/Andhra_Pradesh_English.pdf\|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|titleIndian PNG statistics \|lastMOPNG \|publisherMinistry of petroleum and natural gas, India \|year2023 \|urlhttps://mopng.gov.in/files/TableManagements/IPNG-2021-22_L.pdf \|access-date26 May 2023 \|archive-date26 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526043327/https://mopng.gov.in/files/TableManagements/IPNG-2021-22_L.pdf \|url-status=live }} * {{Cite book \|titleAnnual report 2020-21 \|lastUGC \|year2021 \|urlhttps://www.ugc.gov.in/pdfnews/5789724_UGC_AR_2020-21_FNL.pdf \|publisherUGC \|access-date22 May 2023 \|archive-date22 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230522005815/https://www.ugc.gov.in/pdfnews/5789724_UGC_AR_2020-21_FNL.pdf \|url-status=live }} * {{Cite book \| titleMadras in the Olden Time: Being a History of the Presidency from the First Foundation of Fort St. George to the Occupation of Madras by the French (1639–1748)\| lastWheeler\| firstJames Talboys\| year1996\| publisherAsian Educational Services\|isbn8-12-060553-5 }} * {{Cite book \|titleHistory of Modern Andhra \|lastP \|firstRaghunadha Rao \|publisherSterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. \|year1978 \|locationNew Delhi }} * {{Cite book\|lastFaruqui \|firstMunis D. \|chapterAt Empire's End: The Nizam, Hyderabad and Eighteenth-century India \|editor1Richard M. Eaton \|editor2Munis D. Faruqui \|editor3David Gilmartin \|editor4Sunil Kumar \|titleExpanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History: Essays in Honour of John F. Richards \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh0_xhdCScQkC&pgPA1 \|year2013 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1-107-03428-0 \|pages1–38 \|ref{{sfnref\|Faruqui, At Empire's End\|2013}}}}{{Cbignore}} * {{Cite book \|titleA history of Telugu literature \|last1Pandippedi \|first1Chenchiah \|publisherThe association press \|year1928 \|locationCalcutta \|pages42–49 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyoftelugul00chen \|last2Mantripragada \|first2Bhujanga Rao \|chapter=VI Purana yuga, or the age of translation }} * {{Cite book \|titleKandukuri Veeresalingam \|lastD. \|firstAnjaneyulu \|publisherPublications Division \|year1976 \|locationNew Delhi \|pages90 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.210596}} * {{Cite book\|titleDance dialects of India\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dancedialectsofi0000ragi\|url-accessregistration\|authorRagini Devi\|publisherMotilal Bansarsi Dass\|isbn978-81-208-0674-0\|access-date9 June 2014\|year1990}} * {{Cite book \|titleDirectory of museums in India \|editor-lastSeth \|editor-firstManvi \|editor-last2Sadiya \|editor-first2Juhi \|publisherMinistry of culture, Government of India \|year2023 \|pages1–29 \|urlhttps://indianculture.gov.in/flipbook/217293 \|access-date18 June 2023 \|archive-date1 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230601122213/https://indianculture.gov.in/flipbook/217293 \|url-status=live }} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWk4_ICH_g1EC \|titleAncient Indian history and civilisation \|lastSen \|firstSailendra Nath \|publisherNew Age International \|year1999 \|isbn978-81-224-1198-0 \|access-date=29 January 2017 }}{{Cbignore}} * {{Cite book\|lastBhardwaj \|firstD.S. \|titleDomestic Tourism in India\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1VxSfH_hMPkC&pgPA295\|date1 January 1998\|publisherIndus Publishing\|isbn=978-81-7387-078-1}} * {{Cite book \|lastRowland \|givenBenjamin \|titleThe Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain \|publisherPenguin Books \|year1967 \|isbn978-0140561029 \|edition=3}} {{Refend}} External links {{Sister project links}} Government * {{Official website}} General information * {{osmrelation-inline\|2022095}} {{Navboxes\|list= {{Andhra Pradesh}} {{Andhra Pradesh topics}} {{State agencies of Andhra Pradesh}} {{States and union territories of India}} }} {{subject bar\|Geography\|Asia\|India\|auto=1}} {{Authority control}} Category:South India Category:States and union territories of India Category:States and territories established in 1956 Category:1956 establishments in India	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradesh	2025-04-05T18:26:02.527869
2380	Accelerated Graphics Port	{{Short description\|Expansion bus standard}} {{More citations needed\|date=December 2006}} {{Infobox Computer Hardware Bus \| name = AGP \| fullname = Accelerated Graphics Port \| image = File:AGP, PCI, CNR Sockets in PCChips M925LR Motherboard.jpg \| caption = Universal AGP slot (brown, top), 2 PCI 2.2 slots (white beige, middle), and CNR slot (brown, bottom) \| invent-date = {{Start date and age\|1997}} \| invent-name = Intel \| replaces = PCI for graphics \| super-name = PCI Express \| super-date = 2004 \| width = 32 \| style = p \| numdev = One device per slot \| speed = Half-duplex<br />Up to 2133&nbsp;MB/s \| website {{web archive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20031002014501/http://www.intel.com/technology/agp/\|title=intel.com/technology/agp}} }} Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a parallel expansion card standard, designed for attaching a video card to a computer system to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics. It was originally designed as a successor to PCI-type connections for video cards. Since 2004, AGP was progressively phased out in favor of PCI Express (PCIe), which is serial, as opposed to parallel; by mid-2008, PCI Express cards dominated the market and only a few AGP models were available,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://news.softpedia.com/news/AGP-Almost-at-the-End-of-the-Road-87316.shtml \|titleAGP almost at the end, Softpedia \|date5 June 2008 \|access-date15 September 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141023222525/http://news.softpedia.com/news/AGP-Almost-at-the-End-of-the-Road-87316.shtml \|archive-date23 October 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> with GPU manufacturers and add-in board partners eventually dropping support for the interface in favor of PCI Express.{{Anchor\|APERTURE}}Advantages over PCIAGP is a superset of the PCI standard, designed to overcome PCI's limitations in serving the requirements of the era's high-performance graphics cards.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastBy \|date2024-03-03 \|titleA Better Use For The AGP Slot, Decades Later \|urlhttps://hackaday.com/2024/03/03/a-better-use-for-the-agp-slot-decades-later/ \|access-date2024-11-11 \|websiteHackaday \|languageen-US}}</ref> The primary advantage of AGP is that it doesn't share the PCI bus, providing a dedicated, point-to-point pathway between the expansion slot(s) and the motherboard chipset. The direct connection also allows higher clock speeds. The second major change is the use of split transactions, wherein the address and data phases are separated. The card may send many address phases, so the host can process them in order, avoiding any long delays caused by the bus being idle during read operations. Third, PCI bus handshaking is simplified. Unlike PCI bus transactions, whose length is negotiated on a cycle-by-cycle basis using the FRAME# and STOP# signals, AGP transfers are always a multiple of 8&nbsp;bytes long, with the total length included in the request. Further, rather than using the IRDY# and TRDY# signals for each word, data is transferred in blocks of 4&nbsp;clock cycles (32&nbsp;words at AGP 8× speed), and pauses are allowed only between blocks. Finally, AGP allows (mandatory only in AGP 3.0) sideband addressing, meaning that the address and data buses are separated, so the address phase does not use the main address/data (AD) lines at all. This is done by adding an extra 8-bit "SideBand Address" bus, over which the graphics controller can issue new AGP requests while other AGP data is flowing over the main 32 address/data (AD) lines. This results in improved overall AGP data throughput. This great improvement in memory read performance makes it practical for an AGP card to read textures directly from system RAM, while a PCI graphics card must copy it from system RAM to the card's video memory. System memory is made available using the graphics address remapping table (GART), which apportions main memory as needed for texture storage.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sysopt.com/features/mboard/article.php/3549951 \|titleWhat is AGP? \|access-date15 September 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120509222057/http://www.sysopt.com/features/mboard/article.php/3549951 \|archive-date9 May 2012 }}</ref> The maximum amount of system memory available to AGP is defined as the AGP aperture. History The AGP slot first appeared on x86-compatible system boards based on Socket 7 Intel P5 Pentium and Slot 1 P6 Pentium II processors. Intel introduced AGP support with the i440LX Slot 1 chipset on August 26, 1997, and a flood of products followed from all the major system board vendors.<ref nameIntel440LXdata>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.intel.com/design/chipsets/datashts/290564.htm \|titleIntel 440LX AGPset \|access-date15 September 2014}}</ref> The first Socket 7 chipsets to support AGP were the VIA Apollo VP3, SiS 5591/5592, and the ALI Aladdin V. Intel never released an AGP-equipped Socket 7 chipset. FIC demonstrated the first Socket 7 AGP system board in November 1997 as the FIC PA-2012 based on the VIA Apollo VP3 chipset, followed very quickly by the EPoX P55-VP3 also based on the VIA VP3 chipset which was first to market.<ref>{{cite web \|authorLal Shimpi, Anand \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/showdoc.aspx?i155&p1 \|titleChipset Guide \|publisherAnandTech \|dateAugust 1, 1997 \|access-date2015-03-03}}</ref> Early video chipsets featuring AGP support included the Rendition Vérité V2200, 3dfx Voodoo Banshee, Nvidia RIVA 128, 3Dlabs PERMEDIA 2, Intel i740, ATI Rage series, Matrox Millennium II, and S3 ViRGE GX/2. Some early AGP boards used graphics processors built around PCI and were simply bridged to AGP. This resulted in the cards benefiting little from the new bus, with the only improvement used being the 66&nbsp;MHz bus clock, with its resulting doubled bandwidth over PCI, and bus exclusivity. Intel's i740 was explicitly designed to exploit the new AGP feature set; in fact it was designed to texture only from AGP memory, making PCI versions of the board difficult to implement (local board RAM had to emulate AGP memory), though this was eventually accomplished much later in the form of AGP-to-PCI bridges. Microsoft first introduced AGP support into Windows via the USB Supplement patch for OSR2 of Windows 95 in 1997, also known as OSR2.1.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch000145.htm \|titleWhich version of Windows 95 supports AGP? \|access-date15 September 2014}}</ref>{{efn\|After applying the patch, the Windows 95 operating system became Windows 95 version 4.00.950 B.}} The first Windows NT-based operating system to receive AGP support was Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 3, also in 1997. Linux support for AGP-enhanced fast data transfers was first added in 1999 with the implementation of the AGPgart kernel module.Later use With the increasing adoption of PCIe, graphics cards manufacturers continued to produce AGP cards as the standard became obsolete. As GPUs began to be designed to connect to PCIe, an additional PCIe-to-AGP bridge-chip was required to create an AGP-compatible graphics card. The inclusion of a bridge, and the need for a separate AGP card design, incurred additional board costs. The GeForce 6600 and ATI Radeon X800 XL, released during 2004–2005, were the first bridged cards.<ref>Gasior, Geoff. [http://techreport.com/articles.x/7624 Nvidia's GeForce 6600 GT AGP graphics card: Bridging backwards] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011020529/http://techreport.com/articles.x/7624 \|date2007-10-11 }}, Tech Report, November 16, 2004.</ref><ref>Gasior, Geoff. [http://techreport.com/articles.x/8344 ATI's new AGP Radeons: A bridge is born] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071024110508/http://techreport.com/articles.x/8344 \|date2007-10-24 }}, Tech Report, May 20, 2005.</ref> In 2009 AGP cards from Nvidia had a ceiling of the GeForce 7 series. In 2011 DirectX 10-capable AGP cards from AMD vendors (Club 3D, HIS, Sapphire, Jaton, Visiontek, Diamond, etc.) included the Radeon HD 2400, 3450, 3650, 3850, 4350, 4650, and 4670. The HD 5000 AGP series mentioned in the AMD Catalyst software was never available. There were many problems with the AMD Catalyst 11.2 - 11.6 AGP hotfix drivers under Windows 7 with the HD 4000 series AGP video cards;<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://forums.amd.com/game/messageview.cfm?catid279&threadid152471&highlight_keyy&keyword1agp \|titleAMD community forums \|access-date15 September 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111007084211/http://forums.amd.com/game/messageview.cfm?catid279&threadid152471&highlight_keyy&keyword1agp \|archive-date7 October 2011 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> use of 10.12 or 11.1 AGP hotfix drivers is a possible workaround. Several of the vendors listed above make available past versions of the AGP drivers. By 2010, no new motherboard chipsets supported AGP and few new motherboards had AGP slots, however some continued to be produced with older AGP-supporting chipsets. In 2016, Windows 10 version 1607 dropped support for AGP.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAGP support in Windows 10 Anniversary Update (1607)\|urlhttps://answers.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/forum/windows_10-security-winpc/agp-support-in-windows-10-anniversary-update-1607/bfcdf4ba-2c94-4ede-90a8-0bf587f27332?auth1}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?\|dateNovember 2022}} Possible future removal of support for AGP from open-source Linux kernel drivers was considered in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAGP Graphics Card Support Proposed For Removal From Linux Radeon/NVIDIA Drivers \|urlhttps://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?pagenews_item&pxAGP-Radeon-Nouveau-Drop-RFC \|websitePhoronix \|authorMichael Larabel \|date11 May 2020}}</ref>{{update inline\|dateJanuary 2024}} Versions {\| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align: left; margin-left: 1.5em;" \|+ AGP and PCI: 32-bit buses operating at 66 and 33&nbsp;MHz respectively \|- !Specification \|\| Voltage \|\| Clock \|\| Speed \|\| Transfers/<br>clock \|\| Rate (MB/s) \|- \|PCI \|\| 3.3/5&nbsp;V \|\| 33&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}&mdash; \|\| {{0\|000}}1 \|\| {{0}}133 \|- \|PCI 2.1 \|\| 3.3/5&nbsp;V \|\| 33/66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}&mdash; \|\| {{0\|000}}1 \|\| {{0}}133/266 \|- \|AGP 1.0 \|\| 3.3&nbsp;V \|\| 66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}1× \|\| {{0\|000}}1 \|\| {{0}}266 \|- \|AGP 1.0 \|\| 3.3&nbsp;V \|\| 66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}2× \|\| {{0\|000}}2 \|\| {{0}}533 \|- \|AGP 2.0 \|\| 1.5&nbsp;V \|\| 66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}4× \|\| {{0\|000}}4 \|\| 1066 \|- \|AGP 3.0 \|\| 0.8&nbsp;V \|\| 66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}8× \|\| {{0\|000}}8 \|\| 2133 \|- \|AGP 3.5<sup></sup> \|\| 0.8&nbsp;V \|\| 66&nbsp;MHz \|\| {{0}}8× \|\| {{0\|000}}8 \|\| 2133<ref>{{cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9cLFf_1PBnkC&dqagp+2133&pgPT268 \| isbn978-0-13-279698-9 \| titleUpgrading and Repairing Servers \| date24 April 2006 \| publisherPearson Education }}</ref> \|} Intel released "AGP specification 1.0" in 1997.<ref nameagp10/> It specified 3.3&nbsp;V signals and 1× and 2× speeds.<ref nameIntel440LXdata /> Specification 2.0 documented 1.5&nbsp;V signaling, which could be used at 1×, 2× and the additional 4× speed<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?articlearticles/archive/g0801/35x01/04g01.asp \|titleAGP 4×: Faster Data Transfer & Better-Quality Images \|access-date15 September 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071115042348/http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?articlearticles/archive/g0801/35x01/04g01.asp\|archive-date15 November 2007 \|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref nameagp20 /> and 3.0 added 0.8&nbsp;V signaling, which could be operated at 4× and 8× speeds.<ref nameagp30/> (1× and 2× speeds are physically possible, but were not specified.) Available versions are listed in the adjacent table. AGP version 3.5 is only publicly mentioned by Microsoft under Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP), which specifies mandatory supports of extra registers once marked optional under AGP 3.0. Upgraded registers include PCISTS, CAPPTR, NCAPID, AGPSTAT, AGPCMD, NISTAT, NICMD. New required registers include APBASELO, APBASEHI, AGPCTRL, APSIZE, NEPG, GARTLO, GARTHI. There are various physical interfaces (connectors); see the Compatibility section. Official extensions )]] AGP Pro An official extension for cards that required more electrical power, with a longer slot with additional pins for that purpose. AGP Pro cards were usually workstation-class cards used to accelerate professional computer-aided design applications employed in the fields of architecture, machining, engineering, simulations, and similar fields.<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.motherboards.org/files/techspecs/apro_r11a.pdf\| title AGP Pro 1.1a specification}}</ref> 64-bit AGP A 64-bit channel was once proposed as an optional standard for AGP 3.0 in draft documents,<ref>{{cite web \|url http://www.intel.com/technology/agp/downloads/agp8x_v091R_042401.pdf \|title Draft AGP8× Interface Specification Rev. 0.91R \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010613041316/http://www.intel.com/technology/agp/downloads/agp8x_v091R_042401.pdf \|archive-date13 June 2001 \|url-status=dead}}</ref> but it was dropped in the final version of the standard. The standard allows 64-bit transfer for AGP8× reads, writes, and fast writes; 32-bit transfer for PCI operations. Unofficial variations A number of non-standard variations of the AGP interface have been produced by manufacturers. Internal AGP interface ;Ultra-AGP, Ultra-AGPII: It is an internal AGP interface standard used by SiS for the north bridge controllers with integrated graphics. The original version supports same bandwidth as AGP 8×, while Ultra-AGPII has maximum 3.2&nbsp;GB/s bandwidth. PCI-based AGP ports ;AGP Express: Not a true AGP interface, but allows an AGP card to be connected over the legacy PCI bus on a PCI Express motherboard. It is a technology used on motherboards made by ECS, intended to allow an existing AGP card to be used in a new motherboard instead of requiring a PCIe card to be obtained (since the introduction of PCIe graphics cards few motherboards provide AGP slots). An "AGP Express" slot is basically a PCI slot (with twice the electrical power) with an AGP connector. It offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, but provides incomplete support<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ecs.com.tw/ECSWeb/Support/agp.aspx?MenuID0&LanID0 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051216142008/http://www.ecs.com.tw/ECSWeb/Support/agp.aspx?MenuID0&LanID0 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date16 December 2005 \|titleECS Web Site \|access-date15 September 2014 }}</ref> (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance—the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP. ;AGI: The ASRock Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for ASRock motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP support. However, it is not fully compatible with AGP, and several video card chipsets are known not to be supported. ;AGX: The EPoX Advanced Graphics eXtended (AGX) is another proprietary AGP variant with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI. User manuals recommend not using AGP 8× ATI cards with AGX slots. ;XGP: The Biostar Xtreme Graphics Port is another AGP variant, also with the same advantages and disadvantages as AGI and AGX. PCIe based AGP ports ;AGR: The Advanced Graphics Riser is a variation of the AGP port used in some PCIe motherboards made by MSI to offer limited backward compatibility with AGP. It is, effectively, a modified PCIe slot allowing for performance comparable to an AGP 4×/8× slot,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid1806&page2 \|titleMSI K8N Neo3-F Motherboard Review—What's an AGR video slot? \|access-date15 September 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141110101536/http://www.pcstats.com/articleview.cfm?articleid1806&page2 \|archive-date10 November 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> but does not support all AGP cards; the manufacturer published a list of some cards and chipsets that work with the modified slot.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.msi.com.tw/html/products/mainboard/agr/7135agr.pdf \|titleList of cards and chipsets that work with the MSI AGR port \|access-date15 September 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070308180139/http://www.msi.com.tw/html/products/mainboard/agr/7135agr.pdf \|archive-dateMarch 8, 2007 }}</ref> Compatibility AGP cards are backward and forward compatible within limits. 1.5 V-only keyed cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though "Universal" cards exist which will fit into either type of slot. There are also unkeyed "Universal" slots that will accept either type of card. When an AGP Universal card is plugged-into an AGP Universal slot, only the 1.5 V portion of the card is used. Some cards, like Nvidia's GeForce 6 series (except the 6200) or ATI's Radeon X800 series, only have keys for 1.5 V to prevent them from being installed in older mainboards without 1.5 V support. Some of the last modern cards with 3.3 V support were: the Nvidia GeForce FX series (FX 5200, FX 5500, FX 5700, some FX 5800, FX 5900 and some FX 5950), * certain Nvidia GeForce 6 series and 7 series (some 6600, 6800, 7300, 7600, 7800, 7900 and 7950 cards, really uncommon compared to their AGP 1.5v only versions; the GeForce 6200 is the only exception, as it was the most common card with 3.3 V support), * the ATI Radeon 9000 series (Radeon 9500/9700/9800 (R300/R350), but not 9600/9800 (R360/RV360)). Some cards incorrectly have dual notches, and some motherboards incorrectly have fully open slots, allowing a card to be plugged into a slot that does not support the correct signaling voltage, which may damage card or motherboard. Some incorrectly designed older 3.3 V cards have the 1.5 V key. AGP Pro cards will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot. Motherboards equipped with a Universal AGP Pro slot will accept a 1.5 V or 3.3 V card in either the AGP Pro or standard AGP configuration, a Universal AGP card, or a Universal AGP Pro card. There are some proprietary systems incompatible with standard AGP; for example, Apple Power Macintosh computers with the Apple Display Connector (ADC) have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Some cards designed to work with a specific CPU architecture (e.g., PC, Apple) may not work with others due to firmware issues. Mark Allen of Playtools.com has made the following comments regarding practical AGP compatibility for AGP 3.0 and AGP 2.0: {{blockquote\|...&nbsp;nobody makes AGP 3.0 cards, and nobody makes AGP 3.0 motherboards. At least not any manufacturers I can find. Every single video card I could find which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 card was actually a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 card. And every motherboard which claimed to be an AGP 3.0 motherboard turned out to be a universal 1.5V AGP 3.0 motherboard. It makes sense, if you think about it, because if anyone actually shipped a consumer-oriented product which supported only 0.8 volts, they would end up with lots of confused customers and a support nightmare. In the consumer market, you'd have to be crazy to ship a 0.8 volt only product.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Allen\|first1Mark\|titleAGP compatibility for sticklers\|workVideo card information\|urlhttp://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html\|publisherPlayTool.com\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160622083724/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html\|archive-date22 June 2016\|year2006}}</ref>}}Power consumption{{Expand section\|dateOctober 2011}} {\| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align: center; margin-left: 1.5em;" \|+ AGP power provisioning \|- ! Slot Type !! 3.3 V !! 5 V !! 12 V !! 3.3 V Aux !! 1.5 V !! 3.3 V{{Efn\|name"conn-part"\|From the extended part of the AGP connector.}} !! 12 V{{Efn\|name"conn-part"}} !! Total power \|- \|AGP \|\| 6 A \|\| 2 A \|\| 1 A \|\| 0.375 mA \|\| 2 A \|\| - \|\| - \|\| 48.25 W{{Efn\|The AGP Pro specifications imply a maximum of 25&nbsp;W.}} \|- \|AGP Pro110 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 7.6 A \|\| 9.2 A \|\| 50 to 110 W \|- \|AGP Pro50 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 7.6 A \|\| 4.17 A \|\| 25 to 50 W \|} Actual power supplied by an AGP slot depends upon the card used. The maximum current drawn from the various rails is given in the specifications for the various versions. For example, if maximum current is drawn from all supplies and all voltages are at their specified upper limits,<ref name=agp30/>{{rp\|95}} an AGP&nbsp;3.0 slot can supply up to 48.25&nbsp;watts; this figure can be used to specify a power supply conservatively, but in practice a card is unlikely ever to draw more than 40&nbsp;W from the slot, with many using less. AGP Pro provides additional power up to 110&nbsp;W. Many AGP cards had additional power connectors to supply them with more power than the slot could provide. {{Clear}} Protocol An AGP bus is a superset of a 66&nbsp;MHz conventional PCI bus and, immediately after reset, follows the same protocol. The card must act as a PCI target, and optionally may act as a PCI master. (AGP 2.0 added a "fast writes" extension which allows PCI writes from the motherboard to the card to transfer data at higher speed.) After the card is initialized using PCI transactions, AGP transactions are permitted. For these, the card is always the AGP master and the motherboard is always the AGP target. The card queues multiple requests which correspond to the PCI address phase, and the motherboard schedules the corresponding data phases later. An important part of initialization is telling the card the maximum number of outstanding AGP requests which may be queued at a given time. AGP requests are similar to PCI memory read and write requests, but use a different encoding on command lines C/BE[3:0] and are always 8-byte aligned; their starting address and length are always multiples of 8 bytes (64 bits). The three low-order bits of the address are used instead to communicate the length of the request. Whenever the PCI GNT# signal is asserted, granting the bus to the card, three additional status bits ST[2:0] indicate the type of transfer to be performed next. If the bits are <code>0xx</code>, a previously queued AGP transaction's data is to be transferred; if the three bits are <code>111</code>, the card may begin a PCI transaction or (if sideband addressing is not in use) queue a request in-band using PIPE#. AGP command codes Like PCI, each AGP transaction begins with an address phase, communicating an address and 4-bit command code. The possible commands are different from PCI, however: ; 000p: Read : Read 8×(AD[2:0]+1) = 8, 16, 24, ..., 64 bytes. The least significant bit p is 0 for low-priority, 1 for high. ; 001x: (reserved): ; 010p: Write : Write 8×(AD[2:0]+1) = 8&ndash;64 bytes. ; 011x: (reserved): ; 100p: Long read : Read 32×(AD[2:0]+1) = 32, 64, 96, ..., 256 bytes. This is the same as a read request, but the length is multiplied by four. ; 1010: Flush : Force previously written data to memory, for synchronization. This acts as a low-priority read, taking a queue slot and returning 8 bytes of random data to indicate completion. The address and length supplied with this command are ignored. ; 1011: (reserved): ; 1100: Fence : This acts as a memory fence, requiring that all earlier AGP requests complete before any following requests. Ordinarily, for increased performance, AGP uses a very weak consistency model, and allows a later write to pass an earlier read. (E.g. after sending "write 1, write 2, read, write 3, write 4" requests, all to the same address, the read may return any value from 2 to 4. Only returning 1 is forbidden, as writes must complete before following reads.) This operation does not require any queue slots. ; 1101: Dual address cycle : When making a request to an address above 2<sup>32</sup>, this is used to indicate that a second address cycle will follow with additional address bits. This operates like a regular PCI dual address cycle; it is accompanied by the low-order 32 bits of the address (and the length), and the following cycle includes the high 32 address bits and the desired command. The two cycles make one request, and take only one slot in the request queue. This request code is not used with side-band addressing. ; 111x: (reserved): AGP 3.0 dropped high-priority requests and the long read commands, as they were little used. It also mandated side-band addressing, thus dropping the dual address cycle, leaving only four request types: low-priority read (0000), low-priority write (0100), flush (1010) and fence (1100). In-band AGP requests using PIPE# To queue a request in-band, the card must request the bus using the standard PCI REQ# signal, and receive GNT# plus bus status ST[2:0] equal to <code>111</code>. Then, instead of asserting FRAME# to begin a PCI transaction, the card asserts the PIPE# signal while driving the AGP command, address, and length on the C/BE[3:0], AD[31:3] and AD[2:0] lines, respectively. (If the address is 64 bits, a dual address cycle similar to PCI is used.) For every cycle that PIPE# is asserted, the card sends another request without waiting for acknowledgement from the motherboard, up to the configured maximum queue depth. The last cycle is marked by deasserting REQ#, and PIPE# is deasserted on the following idle cycle. Side-band AGP requests using SBA[7:0] If side-band addressing is supported and configured, the PIPE# signal is not used. (And the signal is re-used for another purpose in the AGP 3.0 protocol, which requires side-band addressing.) Instead, requests are broken into 16-bit pieces which are sent as two bytes across the SBA bus. There is no need for the card to ask permission from the motherboard; a new request may be sent at any time as long as the number of outstanding requests is within the configured maximum queue depth. The possible values are: ; <code>0aaa aaaa aaaa alll</code> : Queue a request with the given low-order address bits A[14:3] and length 8×(L[2:0]+1). The command and high-order bits are as previously specified. Any number of requests may be queued by sending only this pattern, as long as the command and higher address bits remain the same. ; <code>10cc ccra aaaa aaaa</code> : Use command C[3:0] and address bits A[23:15] for future requests. (Bit R is reserved.) This does not queue a request, but sets values that will be used in all future queued requests. ; <code>110r aaaa aaaa aaaa</code> : Use address bits A[35:24] for future requests. ; <code>1110 aaaa aaaa aaaa</code> : Use address bits A[47:36] for future requests. ; <code>1111 0xxx</code>, <code>1111 10xx</code>, <code>1111 110x</code> : Reserved, do not use. ; <code>1111 1110</code> : Synchronization pattern used when starting the SBA bus after an idle period.{{r\|agp10\|agp20\|p168\|p2163}} ; <code>1111 1111</code> : No operation; no request. At AGP 1× speed, this may be sent as a single byte and a following 16-bit side-band request started one cycle later. At AGP 2× and higher speeds, all side-band requests, including this NOP, are 16 bits long. Sideband address bytes are sent at the same rate as data transfers, up to 8× the 66&nbsp;MHz basic bus clock. Sideband addressing has the advantage that it mostly eliminates the need for turnaround cycles on the AD bus between transfers, in the usual case when read operations greatly outnumber writes. AGP responses While asserting GNT#, the motherboard may instead indicate via the ST bits that a data phase for a queued request will be performed next. There are four queues: two priorities (low- and high-priority) for each of reads and writes, and each is processed in order. Obviously, the motherboard will attempt to complete high-priority requests first, but there is no limit on the number of low-priority responses which may be delivered while the high-priority request is processed. For each cycle when the GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value <code>00p</code>, a read response of the indicated priority is scheduled to be returned. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the motherboard will assert TRDY# (target ready) and begin transferring the response to the oldest request in the indicated read queue. (Other PCI bus signals like FRAME#, DEVSEL# and IRDY# remain deasserted.) Up to four clock cycles worth of data (16 bytes at AGP 1× or 128 bytes at AGP 8×) are transferred without waiting for acknowledgement from the card. If the response is longer than that, both the card and motherboard must indicate their ability to continue on the third cycle by asserting IRDY# (initiator ready) and TRDY#, respectively. If either one does not, wait states will be inserted until two cycles after they both do. (The value of IRDY# and TRDY# at other times is irrelevant and they are usually deasserted.) The C/BE# byte enable lines may be ignored during read responses, but are held asserted (all bytes valid) by the motherboard. The card may also assert the RBF# (read buffer full) signal to indicate that it is temporarily unable to receive more low-priority read responses. The motherboard will refrain from scheduling any more low-priority read responses. The card must still be able to receive the end of the current response, and the first four-cycle block of the following one if scheduled, plus any high-priority responses it has requested. For each cycle when GNT# is asserted and the status bits have the value <code>01p</code>, write data is scheduled to be sent across the bus. At the next available opportunity (typically the next clock cycle), the card will assert IRDY# (initiator ready) and begin transferring the data portion of the oldest request in the indicated write queue. If the data is longer than four clock cycles, the motherboard will indicate its ability to continue by asserting TRDY# on the third cycle. Unlike reads, there is no provision for the card to delay the write; if it didn't have the data ready to send, it shouldn't have queued the request. The C/BE# lines are used with write data, and may be used by the card to select which bytes should be written to memory. The multiplier in AGP 2×, 4× and 8× indicates the number of data transfers across the bus during each 66&nbsp;MHz clock cycle. Such transfers use source synchronous clocking with a "strobe" signal (AD_STB[0], AD_STB[1], and SB_STB) generated by the data source. AGP 4× adds complementary strobe signals. Because AGP transactions may be as short as two transfers, at AGP 4× and 8× speeds it is possible for a request to complete in the middle of a clock cycle. In such a case, the cycle is padded with dummy data transfers (with the C/BE# byte enable lines held deasserted). Connector pinout The AGP connector contains almost all PCI signals, plus several additions. The connector has 66 contacts on each side, although 4 are removed for each keying notch. Pin&nbsp;1 is closest to the I/O bracket, and the B and A sides are as in the table, looking down at the motherboard connector. Contacts are spaced at 1&nbsp;mm intervals, however they are arranged in two staggered vertical rows so that there is 2&nbsp;mm space between pins in each row. Odd-numbered A-side contacts, and even-numbered B-side contacts are in the lower row (1.0 to 3.5&nbsp;mm from the card edge). The others are in the upper row (3.7 to 6.0&nbsp;mm from the card edge). {\|classwikitable style"text-align:center" \|+ Accelerated Graphics Port connector pinout<ref nameagp10>{{Citation \|urlhttp://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp10.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150503042109/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp10.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-dateMay 3, 2015 \|titleAccelerated Graphics Port Interface Specification Revision 1.0 \|authorIntel \|dateJuly 31, 1996 \|access-date2007-10-18 }}</ref>{{rp\|95}}<ref nameagp20>{{Citation \|urlhttp://www.motherboards.org/files/techspecs/agp20.pdf \|titleAccelerated Graphics Port Interface Specification Revision 2.0 \|authorIntel \|dateMay 4, 1998 \|access-date2014-09-15 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141231081259/http://www.motherboards.org/files/techspecs/agp20.pdf \|archive-dateDecember 31, 2014 \|url-statusdead }}</ref>{{rp\|231–3}}<ref nameagp30>{{Citation \|urlhttp://download.intel.com/support/motherboards/desktop/sb/agp30.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://download.intel.com/support/motherboards/desktop/sb/agp30.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleAGP V3.0 Interface Specification \|authorIntel \|dateSeptember 2002 \|access-date=2011-10-09}}</ref>{{rp\|50}} \|- ! Pin !! Side B !!colspan=2\| Side A !! Comments \|- ! 1 \|style"background:#f69"\| OVERCNT# \|\|style"background:silver" colspan2\| +12&nbsp;V \|\|alignleft\| USB port overcurrent warning \|- ! 2 \|style"background:silver"\| +5&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan2\| TYPEDET# \|\|alignleft\| Pulled low by card to indicate 1.5&nbsp;V (AGP 2.0 4x) ability \|- ! 3 \|style"background:silver"\| +5&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan2\| GC_DET# \|\|alignleft\| Pulled low by card to indicate 0.8&nbsp;V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability \|- ! 4 \|style"background:#9f9"\| USB+ \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan2\| USB− \|\|alignleft\| USB pins for pass through to monitor \|- ! 5 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan2\| Ground \|\|alignleft\| \|- ! 6 \|style"background:#fc6"\| INTB# \|\|style"background:#fc6" colspan2\| INTA# \|\|alignleft\| Interrupt lines (open-drain) \|- ! 7 \|style"background:#66f"\| CLK \|\|style"background:#66f" colspan2\| RST# \|\|alignleft\| 66&nbsp;MHz clock, Bus reset \|- ! 8 \|style"background:#f69"\| REQ# \|\|style"background:#66f" colspan2\| GNT# \|\|alignleft\| Bus request from card, and grant from motherboard \|- ! 9 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:silver" colspan2\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|alignleft\| \|- ! 10 \|style"background:#66f"\| ST[0] \|\|style"background:#66f" colspan2\| ST[1] \|\|alignleft\| AGP status (valid while GNT# low) \|- ! 11 \|style"background:#66f"\| ST[2] \|\|style"background:#66f" colspan2\| MB_DET# \|\|alignleft\| Pulled low by motherboard to indicate 0.8&nbsp;V (AGP 3.0 8x) ability \|- ! 12 \|style"background:#f69"\| RBF# \|\|style"background:#f69"\| PIPE# \|\|style"background:#9f9"\| DBI_HI \|\|alignleft\| Read buffer full, Pipeline request, Data bus inversion[31:16] \|- ! 13 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan2\| Ground \|\|alignleft\| \|- ! 14 \|style"background:#9f9"\| DBI_LO \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan2\| WBF# \|\|alignleft\| Data bus inversion [15:0], Write buffer full \|- ! 15 \|style"background:#f69"\| SBA[0] \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan2\| SBA[1] \|\|rowspan7 align=left\| Sideband address bus \|- ! 16 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|- ! 17 \|style"background:#f69"\| SBA[2] \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan=2\| SBA[3] \|- ! 18 \|style"background:#f69"\| SB_STB \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan=2\| SB_STB# \|- ! 19 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 20 \|style"background:#f69"\| SBA[4] \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan=2\| SBA[5] \|- ! 21 \|style"background:#f69"\| SBA[6] \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan=2\| SBA[7] \|- ! 22 \|style"background:#ff9"\| Reserved \|\|style"background:#ff9" colspan2\| Reserved \|\|rowspan4 align=left\| Key notch for 3.3&nbsp;V AGP cards \|- ! 23 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 24 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V aux \|\|style"background:#ff9" colspan=2\| Reserved \|- ! 25 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|- ! 26 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[31] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan2\| AD[30] \|\|rowspan14 align=left\| Address/data bus (upper half) \|- ! 27 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[29] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[28] \|- ! 28 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|- ! 29 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[27] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[26] \|- ! 30 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[25] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[24] \|- ! 31 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 32 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD_STB[1] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD_STB[1]# \|- ! 33 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[23] \|\|style"background:#f9f" colspan=2\| C/BE[3]# \|- ! 34 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| Vddq \|- ! 35 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[21] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[22] \|- ! 36 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[19] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[20] \|- ! 37 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 38 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[17] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[18] \|- ! 39 \|style"background:#f9f"\| C/BE[2]# \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[16] \|- ! 40 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:silver" colspan2\| Vddq \|\|alignleft\| 3.3 or 1.5&nbsp;V \|- ! 41 \|style"background:#f9f"\| IRDY# \|\|style"background:#f9f" colspan2\| FRAME# \|\|alignleft\| Initiator ready, Transfer in progress \|- ! 42 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V aux \|\|style"background:#ff9" colspan2\| Reserved \|\|rowspan4 align=left\| Key notch for 1.5&nbsp;V AGP cards \|- ! 43 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 44 \|style"background:#ff9"\| Reserved \|\|style"background:#ff9" colspan=2\| Reserved \|- ! 45 \|style"background:silver"\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| +3.3&nbsp;V \|- ! 46 \|style"background:#99f"\| DEVSEL# \|\|style"background:#99f" colspan2\| TRDY# \|\|alignleft\| Target selected, Target ready \|- ! 47 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:#99f" colspan2\| STOP# \|\|alignleft\| Target requests halt \|- ! 48 \|style"background:#f69"\| PERR# \|\|style"background:#fc6" colspan2\| PME# \|\|alignleft\| Parity error, Power management event (optional) \|- ! 49 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan2\| Ground \|\|alignleft\| \|- ! 50 \|style"background:#fc6"\| SERR# \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan2\| PAR \|\|alignleft\| System error, Even parity for (1x) PCI transactions only \|- ! 51 \|style"background:#f9f"\| C/BE[1]# \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan2\| AD[15] \|\|rowspan15 align=left\| Address/data bus (lower half) \|- ! 52 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| Vddq \|- ! 53 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[14] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[13] \|- ! 54 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[12] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[11] \|- ! 55 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 56 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[10] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[9] \|- ! 57 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[8] \|\|style"background:#f9f" colspan=2\| C/BE[0]# \|- ! 58 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| Vddq \|- ! 59 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD_STB[0] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD_STB[0]# \|- ! 60 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[7] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[6] \|- ! 61 \|style"background:#999"\| Ground \|\|style"background:#999" colspan=2\| Ground \|- ! 62 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[5] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[4] \|- ! 63 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[3] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[2] \|- ! 64 \|style"background:silver"\| Vddq \|\|style"background:silver" colspan=2\| Vddq \|- ! 65 \|style"background:#9f9"\| AD[1] \|\|style"background:#9f9" colspan=2\| AD[0] \|- ! 66 \|style"background:#66f"\| Vregcg \|\|style"background:#f69" colspan2\| Vrefgc \|\|alignleft\| I/O reference voltages \|} {\|class=wikitable \|+Legend !style="background:#999"\| Ground pin \| Zero volt reference \|- !style="background:silver"\| Power pin \| Supplies power to the AGP card \|- !style="background:#f69"\| Output pin \| Driven by the AGP card, received by the motherboard \|- !style="background:#f9f"\| Initiator output \| Driven by the master/initiator, received by the target \|- !style="background:#9f9"\|I/O signal \| May be driven by initiator or target, depending on operation \|- !style="background:#99f"\| Target output \| Driven by the target, received by the initiator/master \|- !style="background:#66f"\| Input \| Driven by the motherboard, received by the AGP card \|- !style="background:#fc6"\| Open drain \| May be pulled low and/or sensed by card or motherboard \|- !style="background:#ff9"\| Reserved \| Not presently used, do not connect \|} PCI signals omitted are: * The −12&nbsp;V supply * The third and fourth interrupt requests (INTC#, INTD#) * The JTAG pins (TRST#, TCK, TMS, TDI, TDO) * The SMBus pins (SMBCLK, SMBDAT) * The IDSEL pin; an AGP card connects AD[16] to IDSEL internally * The 64-bit extension (REQ64#, ACK64#) and 66&nbsp;MHz (M66EN) pins * The LOCK# pin for locked transaction support Signals added are: * Data strobes AD_STB[1:0] (and AD_STB[1:0]# in AGP 2.0) * The sideband address bus SBA[7:0] and SB_STB (and SB_STB# in AGP 2.0) * The ST[2:0] status signals * USB+ and USB− (and OVERCNT# in AGP 2.0) * The PIPE# signal (removed in AGP 3.0 for 0.8&nbsp;V signaling) * The RBF# signal * The TYPEDET#, Vregcg and Vreggc pins (AGP 2.0 for 1.5V signaling) * The DBI_HI and DBI_LO signals (AGP 3.0 for 0.8&nbsp;V signaling only) * The GC_DET# and MB_DET# pins (AGP 3.0 for 0.8V signaling) * The WBF# signal (AGP 3.0 fast write extension) See also * List of device bandwidths * Serial Digital Video Out for ADD DVI adapter cards * AGP Inline Memory Module Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061010060709/http://www.agpforum.org/ Archived AGP Implementors Forum] * AGP specifications: [https://web.archive.org/web/20150503042109/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp10.pdf 1.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080920213138/http://www.motherboards.org/files/techspecs/agp20.pdf 2.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20170620060750/https://download.intel.com/support/motherboards/desktop/sb/agp30.pdf 3.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20021003222339/http://www.agpforum.org/downloads/apro_r10.pdf Pro 1.0], [https://web.archive.org/web/20021003222339/http://www.agpforum.org/downloads/apro_r11a.pdf Pro 1.1a] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100330154952/http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/newagp.html AGP Compatibility For Sticklers] * [http://pinouts.ru/Slots/agp_pinout.shtml AGP pinout] * [http://www.motherboards.org/articles/tech-planations/920_4.html AGP expansion slots] * [http://www.playtool.com/pages/agpcompat/agp.html AGP compatibility] (with pictures) * [http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/uagp.mspx Universal Accelerated Graphics Port (UAGP)] * [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/agp.htm How Stuff Works - AGP] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050804000048/http://www.ocfaq.com/article.php/overclocking/vidcard/43 A discussion from 2003 of what AGP aperture is, how it works, and how much memory should be allocated to it.] {{Computer-bus}} Category:Macintosh internals Category:IBM PC compatibles Category:Intel graphics Category:Motherboard expansion slot Category:Peripheral Component Interconnect	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerated_Graphics_Port	2025-04-05T18:26:02.621970
2381	Andreas Aagesen	thumb\|Andreas Aagesen Andreas Aagesen (5 August 1826 – 26 October 1879) was a Danish jurist. Biography Aagesen was educated for the law at Christianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the First Schleswig War, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 Aagesen became a professor of jurisprudence at the University of Copenhagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsting (one of two chambers of the Danish Parliament, the Rigsdagen); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Aagesen was Carl Christian Hall's successor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his research was epoch-making. Bibliography Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871–1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Notes References Attribution This source cites: Johan Henrik Deuntzer, Dansk biografisk leksikon, vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887) (online); Samlede Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1883) External links Obituary Category:1826 births Category:1879 deaths Category:19th-century Danish jurists Category:Members of the Landsting (Denmark) Category:Academic staff of the University of Copenhagen Category:19th-century Danish army officers Category:Rectors of the University of Copenhagen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Aagesen	2025-04-05T18:26:02.645191
2382	Aalen	{{short description\|Place in Baden-Württemberg, Germany}} {{distinguish\|Ahlen}} {{for\|the Norwegian statistician\|Odd Aalen}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2020}} {{Use shortened footnotes\|date=June 2021}} {{Infobox German place \|type = Town \|name = Aalen \|name_local \|image_flag Hissflagge Aalen.svg \|image_coa = DEU Aalen COA.svg \|image_plan = Aalen in AA.svg \|state = Baden-Württemberg \|image_photo = Aalen Joseph.jpg \|imagesize = 250px \|image_caption \|regbzk Stuttgart \|district = Ostalbkreis \|Gemeindeschlüssel = 08136088 \|area = 146.63 \|elevation = 430 \|coordinates {{coord\|48\|50\|N\|10\|6\|E\|formatdms\|display=inline,title}} \|postal_code = 73430–73434 \|area_code = 07361/-66/-67 \|licence = AA \|mayor Frederick Brütting<ref namemayor>[https://www.staatsanzeiger.de/wahl/buergermeisterwahl-aalen-2021/ Oberbürgermeisterwahl Aalen 2021], Staatsanzeiger.</ref> \|leader_term = 2021&ndash;29 \|party = SPD \|website = [http://www.aalen.de/ www.aalen.de] }} Aalen ({{IPA\|de\|ˈaːlən\|-\|Aalen2.ogg}}) is a town located in the eastern part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, about {{convert\|70\|km\|mi}} east of Stuttgart and {{convert\|48\|km\|mi}} north of Ulm. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district and is its largest town. It is also the largest town in the Ostwürttemberg region. Since 1956, Aalen has had the status of Große Kreisstadt (major district town). It is noted for its many half-timbered houses constructed from the 16th century through the 18th century.<ref name=munro/> With an area of 146.63&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, Aalen is ranked 7th in Baden-Württemberg and 2nd within the Government Region of Stuttgart, after Stuttgart. With a population of about 66,000, Aalen is the 15th most-populated settlement in Baden-Württemberg. {{TOC limit\|limit=3}} {{Panorama \| image = Aalbäumle Panorama01.jpg \| height = 200 \| caption = Panoramic view from the Aalbäumle (14. January 2022) }} Geography Situation Aalen is situated on the upper reaches of the river Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Jura which lies to the south and south-east, and close to the hilly landscapes of the Ellwangen Hills to the north and the Welland to the north-west. The west of Aalen's territory is on the foreland of the eastern Swabian Jura, and the north and north-west is on the Swabian-Franconian Forest, both being part of the Swabian Keuper-Lias Plains. The south-west is part of the Albuch, the east is part of the Härtsfeld, these two both being parts of the Swabian Jura.<ref>{{harvnb\|LUBW State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2010}}</ref> The Kocher enters the town's territory from Oberkochen to the south, crosses the district of Unterkochen, then enters the town centre, where the Aal flows into it. The Aal is a small river located only within the town's territory. Next, the Kocher crosses the district of Wasseralfingen, then leaves the town for Hüttlingen. Rivers originating near Aalen are the Rems (near Essingen, west of Aalen) and the Jagst (near Unterschneidheim, east of Aalen), both being tributaries of the Neckar, just like the Kocher. The elevation in the centre of the market square is {{convert\|430\|m\|ft\|spus\|abbron}} relative to Normalhöhennull. The territory's lowest point is at the Lein river near Rodamsdörfle, the highest point is the Grünberg's peak near Unterkochen at {{convert\|733\|m\|ft\|spus\|abbron}}.<ref name"bauer9">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1983\|p9}}</ref> Geology Aalen's territory ranges over all lithostratigraphic groups of the South German Jurassic: Aalen's south and the Flexner massif are on top of the White Jurassic, the town centre is on the Brown Jurassic, and a part of Wasseralfingen is on the Black Jurassic. As a result, the town advertises itself as a "Geologist's Mecca".<ref>{{harvnb\|Sauerborn\|2002}}</ref> Most parts of the territory are on the Opalinuston-Formation (Opalinum Clay Formation) of the Aalenian subdivision of the Jurassic Period, which is named after Aalen.<ref name=munro/> On the Sandberg, the Schnaitberg and the Schradenberg hills, all in the west of Aalen, the Eisensandstein (Iron Sandstone) formation emerges to the surface. On the other hills of the city, sands (Goldshöfer Sande), gravel and residual rubble prevail. The historic centre of Aalen and the other areas in the Kocher valley are founded completely on holocenic floodplain loam (Auelehm) and riverbed gravel that have filled in the valley. Most parts of Dewangen and Fachsenfeld are founded on formations of Jurensismergel (Jurensis Marl), Posidonienschiefer (cf. Posidonia Shale), Amaltheenton (Amalthean Clay), Numismalismergel (Numismalis Marl) and Obtususton (Obtusus Clay, named after Asteroceras obtusum ammonites) moving from south to north, all belonging to the Jurassic and being rich in fossils. They are at last followed by the Trossingen Formation already belonging to the Late Triassic. Until 1939 iron ore was mined on the Braunenberg hill. (see Tiefer Stollen section). Extent of the borough The maximum extent of the town's territory amounts to {{convert\|18\|km\|mi\|spus\|abbron}} in a north–south dimension and {{convert\|25\|km\|mi\|spus\|abbron}} in an east–west dimension. The area is {{convert\|14662.8\|ha\|acre}}, which includes 42.2% {{convert\|6186.2\|ha\|acre\|spus\|abbron}} agriculturally used area and 37.7% {{convert\|5534.9\|ha\|acre\|spus\|abbron}} of forest. 11.5% {{convert\|1692.3\|ha\|acre\|spus\|abbron}} are built up or vacant, 6.4% {{convert\|932.8\|ha\|acre\|spus\|abbron}} is used by traffic infrastructure. Sporting and recreation grounds and parks comprise 1% {{convert\|152.7\|ha\|acre}}, other areas 1.1% {{convert\|163.9\|ha\|acre\|spus\|abbron}}.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} Boroughs Aalen's territory consists of the town centre (Kernstadt) and the municipalities merged from between 1938 (Unterrombach) and 1975 (Wasseralfingen, see mergings section). The municipalities merged in the course of the latest municipal reform of the 1970s are also called Stadtbezirke (quarters or districts), and are Ortschaften ("settlements") in terms of Baden-Württemberg's Gemeindeordnung (municipal code), which means, each of them has its own council elected by its respective residents (Ortschaftsrat) and is presided by a spokesperson (Ortsvorsteher). The town centre itself and the merged former municipalities consist of numerous villages (Teilorte<!-- sic! -->), mostly separated by open ground from each other and having their own independent and long-standing history. Some however have been created as planned communities, which were given proper names, but no well-defined borders. List of villages:<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013a}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! Borough !! class"unsortable" \| Coat of arms !! Area in km<sup>2</sup> !! Residents<br /><small>(1 July 2011)</small> !! class"unsortable" \| Villages \|- \| Town centre \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 30,62 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 34.466<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013b}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013c}}</ref></span> \|Hammerstadt, Hofherrnweiler, Mädle, Mantelhof, Neßlau, Oberrombach, Unterrombach, the latter also known as Weststadt ("West Town") \|- \| Dewangen \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 16,53 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 3.183<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013d}}</ref></span> \|Aushof, Bernhardsdorf, Bronnenhäusle, Degenhof, Dreherhof, Faulherrnhof, Freudenhöfle, Gobühl, Großdölzerhof, Haldenhaus, Hüttenhöfe, Kleindölzerhof, Kohlhöfle, Langenhalde, Lusthof, Neuhof, Rauburr, Reichenbach, Riegelhof, Rodamsdörfle, Rotsold, Schafhof, Schultheißenhöfle, Streithöfle, Tannenhof, Trübenreute \|- \| Ebnat \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 21,16 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 3.327<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013e}}</ref></span> \|Affalterwang, Diepertsbuch, Niesitz \|- \| Fachsenfeld \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 3,95 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 3.605<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013f}}</ref></span> \|Bodenbach, Hangendenbuch, Himmlingsweiler, Mühlhäusle, Scherrenmühle, Waiblingen \|- \| Hofen \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 12,58 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 2.080<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013g}}</ref></span> \|Attenhofen, Fürsitz, Goldshöfe, Heimatsmühle, Oberalfingen, Wagenrain \|- \| Unterkochen \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 21,44 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 4.927<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013h}}</ref></span> \|Birkhöfe, Glashütte, Neukochen, Neuziegelhütte, Stefansweilermühle \|- \| Waldhausen \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 24,38 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 2.335<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013i}}</ref></span> \|Arlesberg, Bernlohe, Beuren, Brastelburg, Geiselwang, Hohenberg, Neubau, Simmisweiler \|- \| Wasseralfingen \| align="center" \| \| style="text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 15,97 \| style"text-align:right; padding-right:2.5em" \| 11.767<span style"position:absolute"><ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013j}}</ref></span> \|Affalterried, Brausenried, Bürgle, Erzhäusle, Heisenberg, Mäderhof, Onatsfeld, Rötenberg, Röthardt, Salchenhof, Treppach, Weidenfeld \|} Spatial planning Aalen forms a Mittelzentrum ("medium-level centre") within the Ostwürttemberg region. Its designated catchment area includes the following municipalities of the central and eastern Ostalbkreis district: Abtsgmünd, Bopfingen, Essingen, Hüttlingen, Kirchheim am Ries, Lauchheim, Neresheim, Oberkochen, Riesbürg and Westhausen, and is interwoven with the catchment area of Nördlingen, situated in Bavaria, {{convert\|30\|km\|mi\|spus\|abbron}} east of Aalen. Climate As Aalen's territory sprawls on escarpments of the Swabian Jura, on the Albuch and the Härtsfeld landscapes, and its elevation has a range of {{convert\|355\|m\|ft\|spus\|abbron}}, the climate varies from district to district. The weather station the following data originate from is located between the town centre and Wasseralfingen at about {{Coord\|48\|51\|02\|N\|10\|05\|44\|E\|nameweather station\|displayinline}} and has been in operation since 1991. The sunshine duration is about 1800 hours per year, which averages 4.93 hours per day. So Aalen is above the German average of 1550 hours per year. However, with 167 days of precipitation, Aalen's region also ranks above the German average of 138. The annual rainfall is {{convert\|807\|mm\|in\|spus\|abbron}}, about the average within Baden-Württemberg.{{citation needed\|date=August 2021}} The annual mean temperature is {{convert\|9.9\|C\|F\|spus\|abbron}}. Here Aalen ranks above the German average of {{convert\|8.2\|C\|F\|spus\|abbron}} and the Baden-Württemberg average of {{convert\|8.1\|C\|F\|spus\|abbron}}. {{Weather box \| location= Aalen \|metric first=Yes \|single line=Yes \| source 1=<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013w}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013}}</ref> <!--Average high temperatures--> \|Jan high C= 2 \|Feb high C= 4 \|Mar high C= 9 \|Apr high C= 14 \|May high C= 18 \|Jun high C= 21 \|Jul high C= 23 \|Aug high C= 23 \|Sep high C= 20 \|Oct high C= 13 \|Nov high C= 7 \|Dec high C= 3 <!--Average low temperatures--> \|Jan low C= -4 \|Feb low C= -3 \|Mar low C= 0 \|Apr low C= 4 \|May low C= 8 \|Jun low C= 11 \|Jul low C= 12 \|Aug low C= 12 \|Sep low C= 9 \|Oct low C= 5 \|Nov low C= 1 \|Dec low C= -2 <!--Mean daily temperature--> <!-- values from de: durchschnittliche Temperatur für den jeweiligen Monat in °C --> \|Jan mean C= 1.2 \|Feb mean C= 2.0 \|Mar mean C= 5.5 \|Apr mean C= 9.4 \|May mean C= 14.3 \|Jun mean C= 17.5 \|Jul mean C= 19.2 \|Aug mean C= 18.9 \|Sep mean C= 14.2 \|Oct mean C= 10.0 \|Nov mean C= 4.6 \|Dec mean C= 1.4 <!--Total Precipitation, this should include rain and snow.--> <!-- values from de: durchschnittliche Niederschlagsmenge für den jeweiligen Monat in mm --> \| Jan precipitation mm = 54.5 \| Feb precipitation mm = 50.8 \| Mar precipitation mm = 74.3 \| Apr precipitation mm = 55.4 \| May precipitation mm = 79.4 \| Jun precipitation mm = 68.7 \| Jul precipitation mm = 87.9 \| Aug precipitation mm = 80.8 \| Sep precipitation mm = 67.6 \| Oct precipitation mm = 72.4 \| Nov precipitation mm = 59.0 \| Dec precipitation mm = 56.1 <!-- durchschnittliche Anzahl täglicher Sonnenstunden für den jeweiligen Monat in h/d --> <!-- values from de: Average monthly sunshine hours, monthly totals are preferred, and will produce colours, but percentages are accepted.--> \|Jan sun= 62 \|Feb sun= 84.75<!-- if the source gives daily hours, please multiply by 28.25, not 28 --> \|Mar sun= 155 \|Apr sun= 180 \|May sun= 217 \|Jun sun= 210 \|Jul sun= 248 \|Aug sun= 217 \|Sep sun= 180 \|Oct sun= 124 \|Nov sun= 60 \|Dec sun= 62 \|year sun<!--\| shjan 2 \| shfeb = 3 \| shmär = 5 \| shapr = 6 \| shmai = 7 \| shjun = 7 \| shjul = 8 \| shaug = 7 \| shsep = 6 \| shokt = 4 \| shnov = 2 \| shdez = 2 --> <!--Average number of rainy days--> <!-- values from de: durchschnittliche Regentage für den jeweiligen Monat in d --> \| Jan rain days = 16 \| Feb rain days = 13 \| Mar rain days = 12 \| Apr rain days = 14 \| May rain days = 14 \| Jun rain days = 15 \| Jul rain days = 15 \| Aug rain days = 14 \| Sep rain days = 14 \| Oct rain days = 12 \| Nov rain days = 15 \| Dec rain days = 13 \|dateJune 2011}} History Civic history First settlements Numerous remains of early civilization have been found in the area. Tools made of flint and traces of Mesolithic human settlement dated between the 8th and 5th millennium BC were found on several sites on the margins of the Kocher and Jagst valleys. On the Schloßbaufeld plateau (appr. {{convert\|650\|by\|350\|m\|ft\|spus\|abbron}}), situated behind Kocherburg castle near Unterkochen, a hill-top settlement was found, with the core being dated to the Bronze Age. In the Appenwang forest near Wasseralfingen, in Goldshöfe, and in Ebnat, tumuli of the Hallstatt culture were found. In Aalen and Wasseralfingen, gold and silver coins left by the Celts were found. The Celts were responsible for the fortifications in the Schloßbaufeld settlement consisting of sectional embankments and a stone wall. Also, Near Heisenberg (Wasseralfingen), a Celtic nemeton has been identified; however, it is no longer readily apparent.<ref name"bauer25">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1983\|p25}}</ref> Roman era After abandoning the Alb Limes (a limes generally following the ridgeline of the Swabian Jura) around 150 AD, Aalen's territory became part of the Roman Empire, in direct vicinity of the then newly erected Rhaetian Limes. The Romans erected a castrum to house the cavalry unit Ala II Flavia milliaria; its remains are known today as Kastell Aalen ("Aalen Roman fort"). The site is west of today's town centre at the bottom of the Schillerhöhe hill. With about 1,000 horsemen and nearly as many grooms, it was the largest fort of auxiliaries along the Rhaetian Limes. There were Civilian settlements adjacent along the south and the east. Around 260 AD, the Romans gave up the fort as they withdrew their presence in unoccupied Germania back to the Rhine and Danube rivers, and the Alamanni took over the region.<ref name"ostalbkreis_315">{{harvnb\|Winter\|1992\|pp315–320}}</ref><ref name"aalen-antike">{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013k}}</ref> Based on 3rd- and 4th-century coins found, the civilian settlement continued to exist for the time being. However, there is no evidence of continued civilization between the Roman era and the Middle Ages.<ref name"bauer25"/> Foundation Based on discovery of alamannic graves, archaeologists have established the 7th century as the origination of Aalen. In the northern and western walls of St. John's church, which is located directly adjacent to the eastern gate of the Roman fort, Roman stones were incorporated. The building that exists today probably dates to the 9th century. The first mention of Aalen was in 839, when emperor Louis the Pious reportedly permitted the Fulda monastery to exchange land with the Hammerstadt village, then known as Hamarstat.<ref name"ostalbkreis_123">{{harvnb\|Winter\|1992\|p123}}</ref> Aalen itself was first mentioned in an inventory list of Ellwangen Abbey, dated ca. 1136, as the village Alon, along with a lower nobleman named Conrad of Aalen. This nobleman probably had his ancestral castle at a site south of today's town centre and was subject first to Ellwangen abbey, later to the House of Hohenstaufen, and eventually to the House of Oettingen. 1426 was the last time a member of that house was mentioned in connection with Aalen. Documents, from the Middle Ages, indicate that the town of Aalen was founded by the Hohenstaufen some time between 1241 and 1246, but at a different location than the earlier village, which was supposedly destroyed in 1388 during the war between the Alliance of Swabian Cities and the Dukes of Bavaria. Later, it is documented that the counts of Oettingen ruled the town in 1340. They are reported to have pawned the town to Count Eberhard II and subsequently to the House of Württemberg in 1358 or 1359 in exchange for an amount of money.<ref name"bauer82">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1983\|p82}}</ref> Imperial City During the war against Württemberg, Emperor Charles IV took the town without a fight after a siege. On 3 December 1360, he declared Aalen an Imperial City, that is, a city or town responsible only to the emperor, a status that made it a quasi-sovereign city-state and that it kept until 1803.<ref>{{harvnb\|Canby\|1984\|p=1}}</ref> In 1377, Aalen joined the Alliance of Swabian Cities, and in 1385, the term civitas appears in the town's seal for the first time. In 1398, Aalen was granted the right to hold markets, and in 1401 Aalen obtained proper jurisdiction. The oldest artistic representation of Aalen was made in 1528. It was made as the basis of a lawsuit between the town and the Counts of Oettingen at the Reichskammergericht in Speyer. It shows Aalen surrounded by walls, towers, and double moats. The layout of the moats, which had an embankment built between them, is recognizable by the present streets named Nördlicher, Östlicher, Südlicher and Westlicher Stadtgraben (Northern, Eastern, Southern and Western Moat respectively). The wall was about {{convert\|6\|m\|ft}} tall, 1518 single paces ({{convert\|990\|m\|ft}}) long and enclosed an area of {{convert\|5.3\|ha\|acre}}. During its early years, the town had two town gates: The Upper or Ellwangen Gate in the east, and St. Martin's gate in the south; however due to frequent floods, St. Martin's gate was bricked up in the 14th century and replaced by the Lower or Gmünd Gate built in the west before 1400. Later, several minor side gates were added. The central street market took place on the Wettegasse (today called Marktplatz, "market square") and the Reichsstädter Straße. So the market district stretched from one gate to the other, however in Aalen it was not straight, but with a 90-degree curve between southern (St. Martin's) gate and eastern (Ellwangen) gate. Around 1500, the civic graveyard was relocated from the town church to St. John's Church,<ref name"bauer82"/> and in 1514, the Vierundzwanziger ("Group of 24") was the first assembly constituted by the citizens. Reformation Delegated by Württemberg's Duke Louis III, on 28 June 1575, nearly 30 years after Martin Luther's death, Jakob Andreae, professor and chancellor of the University of Tübingen, arrived in Aalen. The sermon he gave the following day convinced the mayor, the council, and the citizens to adopt the Reformation in the town. Andreae stayed in Aalen for four weeks to help with the change.<ref name"bauer82"/> This brought along enormous changes, as the council forbade the Roman Catholic priests to celebrate masses and give sermons. However, after victories of the imperial armies at the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the Prince-Provostry of Ellwangen, which still held the right of patronage in Aalen, were able to temporarily bring Catholicism back to Aalen; however after the military successes of the Protestant Union, Protestant church practices were instituted again. Fire of 1634 On the night of 5 September 1634,<ref name GA>{{harvnb\|Geschichtsverein Aalen (Historical Society of Aalen)\|2013}}</ref> two ensigns of the army of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar who were fighting with the Swedes and retreating after the Battle of Nördlingen set fire to two powder carriages, to prevent the war material to fall into Croatian hands and to prevent their advance. The result was a conflagration, that some say destroyed portions of the town. There are differing stories regarding this fire. According to 17th-century accounts, the church and all the buildings, except of the Schwörturm tower, were casualties of the fire, and only nine families survived. 19th century research by Hermann Bauer, Lutheran pastor and local historian, discovered that the 17th-century account is exaggerated, but he does agree that the town church and buildings in a "rather large" semicircle around it were destroyed. The fire also destroyed the town archive housed in an addition to the church, with all of its documents.<ref name"bauer82"/> After the fire, soldiers of both armies went through the town looting.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013a}}</ref> It took nearly 100 years for the town to reach its population of 2,000. French troops marched through Aalen in 1688 during the Nine Years' War; however, unlike other places, they left without leaving severe damages. The French came through again in 1702 during the War of the Spanish Succession and in 1741 during the War of the Austrian Succession,<ref name"bauer82"/> the latter also caused imperial troops to move through in 1743.<ref>{{harvnb\|Bauer\|2012\|p135}}</ref> The town church's tower collapsed in 1765, presumably because proper building techniques were not utilized during the reconstruction after the fire of 1634. The collapsing tower struck two children of the tower watchman who died of their injuries, and destroyed the nave, leaving only the altar cross intact. The remaining walls had to be knocked down due to the damage. Reconstruction began the same year, creating the building that exists today.<ref name="bauer82"/> On 22 November 1749, the so-called Aalen protocol regulating the cohabitation of Lutherans and Roman Catholics in the jointly ruled territory of Oberkochen was signed in Aalen by the Duchy of Württemberg and the Prince-Provostry of Ellwangen. Aalen had been chosen because of its neutral status as a Free Imperial City. Napoleonic era and end of the Imperial City of Aalen During the War of the First Coalition (1796), Aalen was looted.<ref name"bauer82"/> The War of the Second Coalition concluded in 1801 with the signing of the Treaty of Lunéville, which led to the German Mediatisation of 1803 that assigned most Imperial Cities to the neighbouring principalities. Aalen was assigned to the Electorate of Württemberg, which later became the Kingdom of Württemberg, and became seat of the District ("Oberamt") of Aalen. During the War of the Third Coalition, on 6 October 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Aalen, with an army of 40,000. This event, along with Bavarian and Austrian troops moving in some days later, caused miseries that according to the town clerk "no feather could describe".<ref name"bauer145">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1983\|p=145}}</ref> In 1811, the municipality of Unterrombach was formed out of some villages previously belonging to Aalen, some to the Barons of Wöllwarth, and the eastern villages were assigned to the municipality of Unterkochen. In the age of the Napoleonic wars, the town walls were no longer of use, and in the 18th century, with the maintenance of walls, gates and towers becoming more neglected Finally, due to the fact that the funds were lacking, starting in 1800, most towers were demolished, the other buildings followed soon.<ref name"bauer145"/> Industrial Revolution Before the Industrial Revolution, Aalen's economy was shaped by its rural setting. Many citizens were pursuing farming besides their craft, such as tanning. In the mid 19th century, there were twelve tanneries in Aalen, due to the proximity of Ulm, an important sales market. Other crafts that added to the economy were weaving mills, which produced linen and woolen goods, and baking of sweet pastry and gingerbread.<ref name"bauer122">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1983\|p122}}</ref><ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitle Aalen \|volume1 \|page 2 \|short=1}}</ref> In Aalen, industrialisation was a slow process. The first major increase was in the 1840s, when three factories for nails and some other factories emerged.<ref name"bauer122"/> It was the link with the railway network, by the opening of the Rems Railway from Cannstatt to Wasseralfingen in 1861, that brought more industry to Aalen, along with the royal steel mill (later Schwäbische Hüttenwerke) in Wasseralfingen. The Rems Railway's extension to Nördlingen in 1863, the opening of the Brenz Railway in 1864 and of the Upper Jagst Railway in 1866 turned Aalen into a railway hub. Furthermore, between 1901 and its shutdown in 1972, the Härtsfeld Railway connected Aalen with Dillingen an der Donau via Neresheim. Part of becoming a rail hub entailed more jobs based on the rail industry. These included, a maintenance facility, a roundhouse, an administrative office, two track maintenance shops, and a freight station with an industrial branch line. This helped shape Aalen into what today's historians call a "railwayman's town".<ref name"Hafner Stadtführer">{{harvnb\|Hafner\|1989\|p5}}</ref> Starting in 1866, the utilities in town all began to be upgraded. Starting with the Aalen gasworks which were opened and gas lighting was introduced. Then in 1870, a modern water supply system was started and in 1912 the mains electricity. Finally, in 1935, the first electrically powered streetlights were installed.<ref name"bauer122"/> To fight housing shortage during and immediately after World War I, the town set up barracks settlement areas at the Schlauch and Alter Turnplatz grounds. In spite of the industry being crippled by the Great Depression of 1929, the public baths at the Hirschbach creek where modernized, extended and re-opened in 1931.<ref name"Hafner Stadtführer" /> Nazi era In the federal election of 1932, the Nazi Party performed below average in Aalen with 25.8% of votes compared to 33.1% on the national level, thus finishing second to the Centre Party which had 26.6% (11.9% nationwide) of the votes, and ahead of the Social Democratic Party of Germany with 19.8% (20.4%). However, the March 1933 federal elections showed that the sentiment had changed as the Nazi Party received 34.1% (still below German average 43.9% nationwide), but by far the leading vote-getter in Aalen, followed by the Centre party at 26.6% (11.3% nationwide) and the Social Democrats 18.6% (18.3% nationwide).<ref>{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1984\|p273}}</ref> The democratically elected mayor Friedrich Schwarz remained in office until the Nazis removed him from office, in 1934, and replaced him by chairman of the Nazi Party town council head and brewery owner Karl Barth. Karl Barth was a provisional mayor until the more permanent solution of Karl Schübel. In August 1934, the Nazi consumer fair Braune Messe ("brown fair") was held in Aalen.<ref name="Braune Messe">{{harvnb\|Anon\|1934}}</ref> During Nazi rule in Germany, there were many military offices constructed in Aalen, starting with, in 1936, a military district riding and driving school for Wehrkreis V. The Nazis also built an army replenishment office (Heeresverpflegungsamt), a branch arsenal office (Heeresnebenzeugamt) and a branch army ammunitions institute (Heeresnebenmunitionsanstalt). Starting in 1935, mergers of neighbouring towns began. In 1938, the Oberamt was transformed into the Landkreis of Aalen and the municipality of Unterrombach was disbanded. Its territory was mostly added to Aalen, with the exception of Hammerstadt, which was added to the municipality of Dewangen. Forst, Rauental and Vogelsang were added to Essingen (in 1952 the entire former municipality of Unterrombach was merged into Aalen, with the exception of Forst, which is part of Essingen until present). In September 1944, the Wiesendorf concentration camp, a subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof, was constructed nearby. It was designated for between 200 and 300 prisoners who were utilized for forced labor in industrial businesses nearby. Until the camp's dissolution in February 1945, 60 prisoners died.<ref name"Schätzle">{{harvnb\|Schätzle\|1980\|p66}}</ref> Between 1946 and 1957, the camp buildings were torn down; however, its foundations are still in place in house Moltkestraße 44/46. Also, there were several other labour camps which existed where prisoners of war along with women and men from occupied countries occupied by Germany were pooled. The prisoners at these other camps had to work for the arms industry in major businesses like Schwäbische Hüttenwerke and the Alfing Keßler machine factory.<ref name"gedenkstaetten">{{harvnb\|Puvogel\|Stankowski\|Graf\|1995\|p20}}</ref> In the civic hospital, the deaconesses on duty were gradually replaced by National Socialist People's Welfare nurses. Nazi eugenics led to compulsory sterilization of some 200 persons there.<ref name"Einhorn 140">{{harvnb\|Nußbaumer\|2008\|p297}}</ref> Fortunately, Aalen avoided most of the combat activity during World War II. It was only during the last weeks of the war that Aalen became a target of air warfare, which led to the destruction and severe damage of parts of the town, the train station, and other railway installations. A series of air attacks lasting for more than three weeks reached its peak on 17 April 1945, when United States Army Air Forces planes bombed the branch arsenal office and the train station. During this raid, 59 people were killed, more than half of them buried by debris, and more than 500 lost their homes.<ref name"Aalen Luftangriffe">{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013l}}</ref> Also, 33&nbsp;residential buildings, 12&nbsp;other buildings and 2&nbsp;bridges were destroyed, and 163&nbsp;buildings, including 2&nbsp;churches, were damaged.<ref name"bauer145"/> Five days later, the Nazi rulers of Aalen were unseated by the US forces. Post-war era Aalen became part of the State of Baden-Württemberg, upon its creation in 1952. Then, with the Baden-Württemberg territorial reform of 1973, the District of Aalen was merged into the Ostalbkreis district. Subsequently, Aalen became seat of that district, and in 1975, the town's borough attained its present size (see below). The population of Aalen exceeded the limit of 20,000, which was the requirement for to gain the status of Große Kreisstadt ("major district town") in 1946. On 1 August 1947, Aalen was declared Unmittelbare Kreisstadt ("immediate district town"), and with the creation of the Gemeindeordnung (municipal code) of Baden-Württemberg on 1 April 1956, it was declared Große Kreisstadt. Religions On 31 December 2008, 51.1&nbsp;percent of Aalen were members of the Catholic Church, 23.9&nbsp;percent were members of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church. About 25&nbsp;percent belong to other or no religious community or gave no information.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2010}}</ref> The district of Waldhausen was the district with the highest percentage of Roman Catholic inhabitants at 75.6&nbsp;percent, and the central district was the one with the highest percentage of Evangelical-Lutheran inhabitants at 25.6&nbsp;percent, as well as those claiming no religious preference at 32.5&nbsp;percent.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} Protestantism Aalen's population originally was subject to the jus patronatus of Ellwangen Abbey, and thus subject to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Augsburg. With the assistance of the Duke of Württemberg, in 1575, the reformation was implemented in Aalen. Subsequently, Aalen has been a predominantly Protestant town for centuries, with the exception of the years from 1628 until 1632 (see reformation section). Being an Imperial City, Aalen could govern its clerical matters on its own, so Clerics, organists and choir masters were direct subjects to the council, which thus exerted bishop-like power. There was even a proper hymn book for Aalen.<ref name="bauer82"/> After the transition to Württemberg, in 1803, Aalen became seat of a deanery, with the dean church being the Town Church (with the building constructed from 1765 to 1767 and existing until present). Georg Pfäfflin was dean in Aalen (1952–1967). He carried out the parish service with great commitment, built community centers and renovated churches. When he said goodbye to Aalen, the newspaper Schwäbische Post paid tribute to him: A distinguished personality in intellectual life is leaving Aalen. Another notable church in Aalen is St. John's Church, located on the cemetery and refurbished in 1561. As Aalen's population grew in the 20th century, more parishes were founded: St. Mark's parish with its church building of 1967 and St. Martin's parish with its church of 1974. In the borough of Unterrombach, Aalen had implemented the reformation as well, but the community remained a chapel-of-ease of Aalen. A proper church, the Christ Church, was erected in 1912 and a proper parish was established in 1947. In Fachsenfeld, the ruling family of Woellwarth resp. of Leinroden implemented the reformation. A parish church was built in 1591, however with an influx of Catholics in the 18th century, a Catholic majority was established. The other districts of present-day Aalen remained mostly catholic after the reformation, however Wasseralfingen established a Lutheran parish in 1891 and a church, St. Magdalene's Church, in 1893. In Unterkochen, after World War II, a parish was established and a church was built in 1960. All four parishes belong to the deanery of Aalen within the Evangelical-Lutheran Church in Württemberg. Furthermore, in Aalen there are Old Pietistic communities. Catholicism The few Catholics of today's central district were covered by the parish of Unterkochen until the 19th century, a situation which continued for some years even after completion of St. Mary's Church in 1868, which was constructed by Georg Morlok.<ref name="bauer145"/> However, in 1872 Aalen got its proper parish again, and in 1913, a second Catholic church, Salvator's Church, was completed, and in 1969 the Holy Cross Church was also finished. In 1963, a second parish was set up, and in 1972 it got a new Church, the new St. Mary's Church, which has been erected in place of the old St. Mary's church, which had been torn down in 1968. Another church of the second parish was St. Augustine's Church, which was completed in 1970. Finally, in 1976 and 1988, St. Elizabeth's Church and St. Thomas' Church were completed. Furthermore, in 1963, the St. Michael pastoral care office was built. Hofherrnweiler has its own Catholic church, St. Boniface's, since 1904. The villages of Dewangen, Ebnat, Hofen, Waldhausen and Wasseralfingen had remained Catholic after reformation, so old parishes and churches persist there. The Assumption of Mary Church in Dewangen has an early Gothic tower and a newly built nave (1875). Mary's Immaculate Conception Church in Ebnat was constructed in 1723; however the church was first mentioned in 1298. Hofen's Saint George's Church is a fortified church, whose current nave was built between 1762 and 1775.<ref>{{harvnb\|Simla\|2005}}</ref> Alongside the church, the Late Gothic St. Odile's Chapel is standing, whose entrance has the year 1462 engraved upon it. Foundations of prior buildings have been dated to the 11th and 13th century.<ref>{{harvnb\|Simla\|2005a}}</ref> St. Mary's Church of Unterkochen was first mentioned in 1248, and has served the Catholics of Aalen for a long time. Waldhausen's parish church of St. Nicholas was built between 1699 and 1716. Wasseralfingen at first was a chapel of ease for Hofen, but has since had its own chapel, St. Stephen, built. It was presumably built in 1353 and remodeled in 1832. In 1834, a proper parish was established, which built a new St. Stephen's Church. This new building utilized the Romanesque Revival architecture style and was built between 1881 and 1883, and has since remained the parish's landmark. Also, Fachsenfeld received its own church, named Sacred Heart in 1895. All Catholic parishes within Aalen are today incorporated into four pastoral care units within the Ostalb Deanery of the Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart; however these units also comprise some parishes outside of Aalen. Pastoral Care Unit two comprises the parishes of Essingen, Dewangen and Fachsenfeld, unit four comprises Hofen and Wasseralfingen, unit five comprises both parishes of Aalen's centre and Hofherrnweiler, unit five comprises Waldhausen, Ebnat, Oberkochen and Unterkochen.{{clarify\|dateApril 2013}} Other Christian communities In addition to the two major religions within Aalen, there are also free churches and other communities, including the United Methodist Church, the Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the New Apostolic Church. Other religions Until the late 19th century, no Jews were documented within Aalen. In 1886 there were four Jews were living in Aalen, a number that rose to ten in 1900, fell to seven in 1905, and remained so until 1925. Upon the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, seven Jews, including two children, lived in Aalen.<ref name"Juden 1984">{{harvnb\|Bauer\|1984\|pp302–344}}</ref> During the Kristallnacht in 1938, the vitrines of the three Jewish shops in the town were smashed and their proprietors imprisoned for several weeks. After their release, most Aalen Jews emigrated. The last Jews of Aalen, Fanny Kahn, was forcibly resettled to Oberdorf am Ipf, which had a large Jewish community. Today, a street of Aalen is named after her. The Jew Max Pfeffer returned from Brussels to Aalen in 1948 to continue his shop, but emigrated to Italy in 1967.<ref name"Juden 1984"/> In Aalen, there is an Islamic Ditib community, which maintains the D.I.T.I.B. Mosque of Aalen (Central Mosque) located at Ulmer Straße.<ref name"Moscheesuche Ditib">{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013b}}</ref> The mosque's construction started on 30 August 2008. The Islamist Millî Görüş organisation maintains the Fatih Mosque, as well at Ulmer Straße.<ref name"Moscheesuche IGMG">{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013c}}</ref> Mergings The present-day make up of Aalen was created on 21 June 1975 by the unification of the cities of Aalen and Wasseralfingen,<ref namemunro>{{harvnb\|Munro\|1995\|p1}}</ref> with the initial name of Aalen-Wasseralfingen. This annexation made Aalen's territory one third larger than its prior size. On 1 July 1975, the name Aalen was revived. Prior to this merger, the town of Aalen had already annexed the following municipalities: * 1938: Unterrombach * 1 January 1970: Waldhausen * 1 July 1972: Ebnat * 1 January 1973: Dewangen, Fachsenfeld (including the village of Hangendenbach, which was transferred from Abtsgmünd in 1954) and Unterkochen. The merging of Dewangen nearly doubled the territory of Aalen. Population's progression and structure During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Aalen was just a small town with a few hundred inhabitants. The population grew slowly due to numerous wars, famines and epidemics. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century where Aalen's growth accelerated. Whereas in 1803, only 1,932 people inhabited the town, in 1905 it had already increased to 10,442. The number continued to rise and reached 15,890 in 1939. The influx of refugees and ethnic Germans from Germany's former eastern territories after World War II pushed the population to 31,814 in 1961. The merger with Wasseralfingen on 21 June 1975 added 14,597 persons and resulted in a total population of 65,165 people. On 30 June 2005, the population, which was officially determined by the Statistical Office of Baden-Württemberg, was 67,125. The following overview shows how the population figures of the borough were ascertained. Until 1823, the figures are mostly estimates, thereafter census results or official updates by the state statistical office. Starting in 1871, the figures were determined by non-uniform method of tabulation using extrapolation. {\| \| valign="top" \| {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Inhabitants \|----- \| 1634 \|\| align="right" \| 2,000 \|----- \| 1803 \|\| align="right" \| 1,932 \|----- \| 1823 \|\| align="right" \| 2,486 \|----- \| 3 December 1843 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 3,319 \|----- \| 3 December 1855 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 3,720 \|----- \| 3 December 1861 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 4,272 \|----- \| 1 December 1871 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 5,552 \|----- \| 1 December 1880 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 6,659 \|----- \| 1 December 1890 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 7,155 \|----- \| 1 December 1900 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 9,058 \|----- \| 1 December 1905 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 10,442 \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Inhabitants \|----- \| 1 December 1910 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 11,347 \|----- \| 1 December 1916 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 10,655 \|----- \| 5 December 1917 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 10,551 \|----- \| 8 October 1919 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 11,978 \|----- \| 16 June 1925 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 12,171 \|----- \| 16 June 1933 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 12,703 \|----- \| 17 May 1939 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 15,890 \|----- \| 31 December 1945 \|\| align="right" \| 19,552 \|----- \| 29 October 1946 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 21,941 \|----- \| 13 September 1950 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 25,375 \|----- \| 25 September 1956 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 29,360 \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Inhabitants \|----- \| 6 June 1961 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 31,814 \|----- \| 31 December 1965 \|\| align="right" \| 34,373 \|----- \| 27 May 1970 ¹ \|\| align="right" \| 37,366 \|----- \| 31 December 1975 \|\| align="right" \| 64,735 \|----- \| 31 December 1980 \|\| align="right" \| 63,030 \|----- \| 31 December 1985 \|\| align="right" \| 63,195 \|----- \| 31 December 1990 \|\| align="right" \| 64,781 \|----- \| 1994 \|\| align "right" \| 66,330<ref nameCohen>{{harvnb\|Cohen\|1998\|p=1}}</ref> \|----- \| 31 December 1995 \|\| align="right" \| 66,234 \|----- \| 31 December 2000 \|\| align="right" \| 66,373 \|----- \| 31 December 2005 \|\| align="right" \| 67,066 \|----- \| 31 December 2010 \|\| align="right" \| 66,113 \|} \|} <small>¹ Census result</small> On 31 December 2008, Aalen had precisely 66,058 inhabitants, of which 33,579 were female and 32,479 were male. The average age of Aalen's inhabitants rose from 40.5 years in 2000 to 42.4 in 2008.{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} Within the borough, 6,312 foreigners resided, which is 9.56&nbsp;percent. Of them, the largest percentage are from Turkey (38&nbsp;percent of all foreigners), the second largest group are from Italy (13&nbsp;percent), followed by Croatians (6&nbsp;percent) and Serbs (5&nbsp;percent).{{citation needed\|dateAugust 2021}} The number of married residents fell from 32,948 in 1996 to 31,357 in 2007, while the number of divorced residents rose in the same period from 2,625 to 3,859. The number of single residents slightly increased between 1996 and 2004 from 25,902 to 26,268 and fell slightly until 2007 to 26,147. The number of widowed residents fell from 5,036 in 1996 to 4,783 in 2007.{{citation needed\|date=August 2021}} <gallery> File:Durchschnittsalter Aalen.png\|Average age of Aalen's inhabitants File:Familienstand Aalen.png\|Ratio of married inhabitants contrasted to unmarried </gallery> Politics Aalen has arranged a municipal association with Essingen and Hüttlingen. Council Since the local election of 25 May 2014, the town council consists of 51&nbsp;representatives having a term of five years. The seats are distributed as follows on parties and groups (changes refer to the second last election of 2004): {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right" \|+ Town council since 2014 \|- ! Parliamentary group !! Election result !! ± !! Strength !! ± \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| CDU \|style="text-align:center"\| 37,4 % \|style="text-align:center"\| +1,2 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 19 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| −2 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| SPD \|style="text-align:center"\| 22,9 % \|style="text-align:center"\| −0,5 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 11 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| –2 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| Alliance 90/The Greens \|style="text-align:center"\| 15,6 % \|style="text-align:center"\| –0,1 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 8 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| –1 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| Free Voters Aalen \|style="text-align:center"\| 11,5 % \|style="text-align:center"\| +11,5 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 6 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| +6 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| The Left/Pro Aalen \|style="text-align:center"\| 7,3 % \|style="text-align:center"\| –0,3 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 4 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| +1 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| FDP/FW \|style="text-align:center"\| 3,4 % \|style="text-align:center"\| –10,4 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 2 Sitze \|style="text-align:center"\| –5 \|- \|style="text-align:left"\| Active Citizens (Aktive Bürger) \|style="text-align:center"\| 1,9 % \|style="text-align:center"\| −1,5 Pp. \|style="text-align:center"\| 1 Sitz{{0\|e}} \|style="text-align:center"\| 0 \|} Mayors Since 1374, the mayor and the council maintain the government of the town. In the 16th century, the town had two, sometimes three mayors, and in 1552, the council had 13 members. Later, the head of the administration was reorganized several times. In the Württemberg era, the mayor's title was initially called Bürgermeister, then from 1819 it was Schultheiß, and since 1947 it is Oberbürgermeister. The mayor is elected for a term of eight years, and he is chairman and a voting member of the council. He has one deputy with the official title of Erster Bürgermeister ("first mayor") and one with the official title of Bürgermeister ("mayor"). Heads of town in Aalen since 1802 * 1802–{{0\|0000}}: Theodor Betzler * 1812–1819: Ludwig Hölder * 1819–1829: Theodor Betzler * 1829:{{0\|–0000}} Palm * 1829–1848: Philipp Ehmann * 1848–1873: Gustav Oesterlein * 1873–1900: Julius Bausch * 1900–1902: Paul Maier * 1903–1934: Friedrich Schwarz * 1935–1945: Karl Schübel (NSDAP) * 1945–1950: Otto Balluff * 1950–1975: Karl Schübel (independent) * 1976–2005: Ulrich Pfeifle (SPD) * 2005–2013: Martin Gerlach (independent) * 2013–2021: Thilo Rentschler (SPD) * 2021–{{0\|0000}}: Frederick Brütting<ref namemayor/> (SPD) Coat of arms and flag Aalen's coat of arms depicts a black eagle with a red tongue on golden background, having a red shield on its breast with a bent silver eel on it. Eagle and eel were first acknowledged as Aalen's heraldic animals in the seal of 1385, with the eagle representing the town's imperial immediacy.<ref name"bauer9"/> After the territorial reform, it was bestowed again by the Administrative District of Stuttgart on 16 November 1976. The coat of arms' blazon reads: "In gold, the black imperial eagle, with a red breast shield applied to it, therein a bent silver eel" (In Gold der schwarze Reichsadler, belegt mit einem roten Brustschild, darin ein gekrümmter silberner Aal). Aalen's flag is striped in red and white and contains the coat of arms. The origin of the town's name is uncertain. Matthäus Merian (1593–1650) presumed the name to originate from its location at the Kocher river, where "frequently eels are caught", while Aal is German for "eel". Other explanations point to Aalen as the garrison of an ala during the Roman empire, respectively to an abridgement of the Roman name "Aquileia" as a potential name of the Roman fort, a name that nearby Heidenheim an der Brenz bore as well. Another interpretation points to a Celtic word aa meaning "water".<ref name="bauer9"/> {{Clear}} Godparenthood On the occasion of the 1980 Reichsstädter Tage, Aalen took over godparenthood for the more than 3000 ethnic Germans displaced from the Wischau linguistic enclave. 972 of them settled in Aalen in 1946. The "Wischau Linguistic Enclave Society" (Gemeinschaft Wischauer Sprachinsel) regularly organises commemorative meetings in Aalen. Their traditional costumes are stored in the Old Town Hall. Municipal finances According to the 2007 municipal poll by the Baden-Württemberg chapter of the German Taxpayers Federation, municipal tax revenues totalling to 54,755 million Euros (2006) resp. 62,148 million Euros (2007) face the following debts:<ref>{{harvnb\|Taxpayers Association of Germany\|2007}}</ref>{{page needed\|date=July 2014}} * 2006 total: 109.9 million Euros debts (64.639 million of the finance department and 48.508 million of the municipal enterprises and fund assets) * 2007 total: 114.5 million Euros debts (69.448 million of the finance department and 45.052 million of the municipal enterprises and fund assets) Twin towns – sister cities {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Germany}} Aalen is twinned with:<ref>{{cite web \|titlePartnerstädte Aalens\|urlhttps://www.aalen.de/partnerstaedte-aalens.37146.25.htm\|websiteaalen.de\|publisherAalen\|languagede\|access-date2021-02-04}}</ref> {{flagicon\|FRA}} Saint-Lô, France (1978) {{flagicon\|ENG}} Christchurch, United Kingdom (1981) {{flagicon\|HUN}} Tatabánya, Hungary (1987) {{flagicon\|TUR}} Antakya, Turkey (1995); initiated by Ismail Demirtas, who emigrated in 1962 from Turkey to Aalen and was social adviser for foreign employees<ref>{{harvnb\|Press and Information Office of the Federal Government\|2010}}</ref> {{flagicon\|ITA}} Cervia, Italy (2011) {{flagicon\|MOZ}} Vilankulo, Mozambique (2018) The "Twin Towns Society of Aalen" (Städtepartnerschaftsverein Aalen e.&nbsp;V.) promotes friendly relations between Aalen and its twin towns,<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013m}}</ref> which comprises mutual exchanges of sports and cultural clubs, schools and other civic institutions. On the occasion of the Reichsstädter Tage, from 11 until 13 September 2009 the first conference of twin towns was held. Culture and sights Theatre The Theater der Stadt Aalen theatre was founded in 1991 and stages 400 to 500 performances a year.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013n}}</ref> Schubart Literary Award The town endowed the "Schubart Literary Award" (Schubart-Literaturpreis) in 1955 in tribute to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, who spent his childhood and youth in Aalen. It is one of the earliest literary awards in Baden-Württemberg and is awarded biennially to German-language writers whose work coincide with Schubart's "liberal and enlightened reasoning".<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013o}}</ref> It is compensated with 12,000&nbsp;Euros. Music Founded in 1958, the "Music School of the Town of Aalen" today has about 1,500 students taught by 27 music instructors in 30 subjects.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013p}}</ref> In 1977, a symphony orchestra was founded in Aalen, which today is called Aalener Sinfonieorchester, and consists mostly of instructors and students of the music school. It performs three public concerts annually: The "New Year's Concert" in January, the "Symphony Concert" in July and a "Christmas Concert" in December.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013q}}</ref> Beyond that, music festivals regularly take place in Aalen, like the Aalen Jazzfest. The Aalen volunteer fire department has had a marching band since 1952, whose roots date back to 1883. In 1959, the band received its first glockenspiel from TV host Peter Frankenfeld on the occasion of a TV appearance.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013d}}</ref> A famous German rapper, designer and singer, that goes under the name of Cro, was born in Aalen and lived his early years here. Arts The Kunstverein Aalen was founded in 1983 as a non-profit art association and today is located in the Old Town Hall. The institution with more than 400 members focuses on solo and group exhibitions by international artists.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.kunstverein-aalen.de \|titleKunstverein Aalen\|websitekunstverein-aalen.de\|accessdate10 November 2021\|languagede}}</ref> It belongs to the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Kunstvereine (ADKV), an umbrella organization for non-profit art associations.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAbout ADKV \|urlhttps://kunstvereine.de/en/about-adkv \|websitekunstvereine.de \|accessdate10 November 2021 \|languageen}}</ref> Museums and memorial sites Museums In the central district of Aalen, there are two museums: The "Aalen Limes Museum" (Limesmuseum Aalen) is located at the place of the largest Roman cavalry fort north of the Alps until about 200 AD. It opened in 1964.<ref nameEB>{{harvnb\|Hoiberg\|2010\|p2}}</ref> The museum exhibits numerous objects from the Roman era. The ruins of the cavalry fort located beside the museum is open to museum visitors. Every other year, a Roman festival is held in the area of the museum (see below). In the Geological-Paleontological Museum located in the historic town hall, there are more than 1500 fossils from the Swabian Jura, including ammonites, ichthyosaurs and corals, displayed. In the Waldhausen district the Heimatstüble museum of local history has an exhibition on agriculture and rural living. In the Wasseralfingen district, there are two more museums: The Museum Wasseralfingen comprises a local history exhibition and an art gallery including works of Hermann Plock, Helmut Schuster and Sieger Köder. Also, the stove plate collection of the Schwäbische Hüttenwerke steel mill is exhibited, with artists, modellers and the production sequence of a cast plate from design to final product being presented. Memorial sites There is memorial stone at the Schillerlinde tree above Wasseralfingen's ore pit dedicated to four prisoners of the subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp killed there. Also in Wasseralfingen, in the cemetery a memorial with the Polish inscription "To the victims of Hitler" which commemorates the deceased forced labourers buried there.<ref name="gedenkstaetten" /> In 1954, on the Schillerhöhe hill the town erected a bell tower as a memorial to Aalen's victims of both world wars and to the displacement of ethnic Germans. The tower was planned by Emil Leo, the bell was endowed by Carl Schneider. The tower is open on request. Every evening at 18:45 (before 2003: at 19:45), the memorial's bell rings.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2004}}</ref> Buildings Churches The town centre is dominated by the Evangelical-Lutheran St. Nicholas' Church in the heart of the pedestrian area. The church, in its present shape being built between 1765 and 1767, is the only major Late Baroque building in Aalen and is the main church of the Evangelical-Lutheran parish of Aalen. ''St. John's Church'' is located inside of St. John's cemetery in the western centre. The building presumably is from the 9th century and thus is one of Württemberg's oldest existing churches. The interior features frescos from the early 13th century. For other churches in Aalen, see the Religions section. Historic Town Hall with "Spy" The Historic Town Hall was originally built in the 14th century. After the fire of 1634, it was re-constructed in 1636. This building received a clock from Lauterburg,<ref name"bauer82"/> and the Imperial City of Nuremberg donated a Carillon. It features a figurine of the "Spy of Aalen" and historically displayed other figurines, however the latter ones were lost by a fire in 1884. Since then, the Spy resides inside the reconstructed tower and has become a symbol of the town. The building was used as the town hall until 1907. Since 1977, the Geological-Paleontological Museum resides in the Historic Town Hall.<ref name"Citybummel">{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013r}}</ref> According to legend, the citizens of Aalen owe the "Spy of Aalen" (Spion von Aalen) their town having been spared from destruction by the emperor's army: <blockquote>The Imperial City of Aalen was once in quarrel with the emperor, and his army was shortly before the gates to take the town. The people of Aalen got scared and thus dispatched their "most cunning" one out into the enemy's camp to spy out the strength of their troops. Without any digression, he went straight into the middle of the enemy camp, which inescapably led to him being seized and presented to the emperor. When the emperor asked him what he had lost here, he answered in Swabian German: "Don't frighten, high lords, I just want to peek how many cannons and other war things you've got, since I am the spy of Aalen". The emperor laughed upon such a blatancy and acted naïvety, steered him all through the camp and then sent him back home. Soon the emperor withdrew with his army as he thought a town such wise guys reside in deserved being spared.<ref>{{harvnb\|Meier\|2013\|p368}}</ref></blockquote> Old Town Hall The earliest record of the Old Town Hall was in 1575. Its outside wall features the oldest known coat of arms, which is of 1664. Until 1851, the building also housed the Krone-Post hotel, which coincided with being a station of the Thurn und Taxis postal company. It has housed many notable persons. Thus the so-called "Napoleon Window" with its "N" painted on reminds of the stay of French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte in 1805. According to legend, he rammed his head so hard it bled on this window, when he was startled by the noise of his soldiers ridiculing the "Spy of Aalen".<ref name"bauer145"/> The building was used as Aalen's town hall from 1907 until 1975. Today it houses a cabaret café and the stage of the Theatre of the Town of Aalen. The town has adopted the Wischau Linguistic Enclave Society due to their godparenthood and stores their traditional costumes in the building. Bürgerspital The Bürgerspital ("Civic Asylum") is a timber-frame house erected on Spritzenhausplatz ("Fire Engine House Square") in 1702. Until 1873, it was used as civic hospital, then, later as a retirement home. After a comprehensive renovation in 1980 it was turned into a senior citizen's community centre.<ref name"Citybummel"/> Limes-Thermen On a slope of the Langert mountain, south of the town, the Limes-Thermen ("Limes Thermae") hot springs are located. They were built in ancient Roman style and opened in 1985. The health spa is supplied with water about {{convert\|34\|to\|36\|C\|F}}. Market square The market square is the historic hub of Aalen and runs along about {{convert\|150\|m\|ft}} from the town hall in the south to the Historic Town Hall and the Old Town Hall in the north, where it empties into Radgasse alley. Since 1809, it is site of the weekly market on Wednesday and Saturday. About {{convert\|10\|m\|ft}} in front of the Reichsstädter Brunnen fountain at the town hall, the coats of arms of Aalen, its twinned cities and of the Wischau linguistic enclave are paved into the street as mosaic. Market fountain at the market fountain]] In 1705, for the water supply of Aalen a well casing was erected at the northern point of the market square, in front of the Historic Town Hall. It was a present of duke Eberhard Louis. The fountain bore a statue of emperor Joseph&nbsp;I., who was enthroned in 1705 and in 1707 renewed Aalen's Imperial City privileges.<ref name"bauer82"/> The fountain was supplied via a wooden pipe. Excessive water was dissipated through ditches branched from Kocher river. When in the early 1870s Aalen's water network was constructed, the fountain was replaced by a smaller fountain about {{convert\|100\|m\|ft}} distant. In 1975, the old market fountain was re-erected in baroque style. It bears a replica of the emperor's statue, with the original statue exhibited in the new town hall's lobby. The cast iron casing plates depict the 1718 coat of arms of the Duchy of Württemberg and the coats of arms of Aalen and of the merged municipalities. Reichsstädter Brunnen The Reichsstädter Brunnen fountain ("Imperial Civic Fountain") is located in front of the town hall at the southern point of the market square. It was created by sculptor Fritz Nuss in 1977 to commemorate Aalen's time as an Imperial City (1360–1803). On its circumference is a frieze showing bronze figurines illustrating the town's history.<ref name"Citybummel"/> Radgasse The Radgasse ("Wheel Alley") features Aalen's oldest façade. Originally a small pond was on its side. The buildings were erected between 1659 and 1662 for peasants with citizenry privileges and renovated in the mid-1980s. The namesake for the alley was the "Wheel" tavern, which was to be found at the site of today's address Radgasse 15.<ref name"Citybummel"/> Tiefer Stollen The former iron ore pit Wilhelm at Braunenberg hill was converted into the Tiefer Stollen tourist mine in order to remind of the old-day miners' efforts and to maintain it as a memorial of early industrialisation in the Aalen area. It has a mining museum open for visitors, and a mine railway takes visitors deep into the mountain. The Town of Aalen, a sponsorship association, and many citizens volunteered several thousand hours of labour to put the mine into its current state. As far as possible, things were left in the original state. In 1989, a sanitary gallery was established where respiratory diseases are treated within rest cures.{{clarify\|dateApril 2013}} Thus the Aalen village of Röthard, where the gallery is located, was awarded the title of "Place with sanitary gallery service" in 2004.<ref>{{harvnb\|Pfeifle\|2004}}</ref> Observatory The Aalen Observatory was built in 1969 as school observatory for the Schubart Gymnasium. In 2001, it was converted to a public observatory. Since then, it has been managed by the Astronomische Arbeitsgemeinschaft Aalen ("Aalen Astronomical Society"). It is located on Schillerhöhe hill and features two refractive telescopes. They were manufactured by Carl Zeiss AG which has its headquarters in nearby Oberkochen and operates a manufacturing works in Aalen (see below). In the observatory, guided tours and lectures are held regularly. Windpark Waldhausen The Windpark Waldhausen wind farm began operations in early 2007. It consists of seven REpower MM92 wind turbines with a nameplate capacity of 2 MW each.<ref name"windpark_waldhausen">{{harvnb\|Windpark Waldhausen\|2013}}</ref> The hub height of each wind turbine is {{convert\|100\|m\|ft}}, with a rotor diameter of {{convert\|92\|m\|ft}}. Aalbäumle observation tower The {{convert\|26\|m\|ft}} tall Aalbäumle observation tower is built atop Langert mountain. This popular hiking destination was built in 1898 and was remodelled in 1992. It features a good view over Aalen and the Welland region, up to the Rosenstein mountain and Ellwangen. Beneath the tower, an adventure playground and a cabin is located. A flag on the tower signals whether the cabin's restaurant is open. Natural monuments The Baden-Württemberg State Institute for Environment, Measurements and Natural Conservation has laid out six protected landscapes in Aalen (the Swabian Jura escarpment between Lautern and Aalen with adjacent territories, the Swabian Jura escarpment between Unterkochen and Baiershofen, the Hilllands around Hofen, the Kugeltal and Ebnater Tal valleys with parts of Heiligental valley and adjacent territories, Laubachtal valley and Lower Lein Valley with side valleys), two sanctuary forests (Glashütte and Kocher Origin), 65 extensive natural monuments, 30 individual natural monuments and the following two protected areas:<ref>{{harvnb\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013a}}</ref> The {{convert\|24.1\|ha\|acre}} large Dellenhäule protected area between Aalen's Waldhausen district and Neresheim's Elchingen district, created in 1969, is a sheep pasture with juniper and wood pasture of old willow oaks.<ref>{{harvnb\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013b}}</ref> The {{convert\|46.5\|ha\|acre}} large Goldshöfer Sande protected area was established in 2000 and is situated between Aalen's Hofen district and Hüttlingen. The sands on the hill originated from the Early Pleistocene are of geological importance, and the various grove structures offer habitat to severely endangered bird species.<ref>{{harvnb\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013c}}</ref> Sports The football team, VfR Aalen, was founded in 1921 and played in the 2nd German League between 2012 and 2015, after which they were relegated to 3. Liga. Its playing venue is the Scholz-Arena situated in the west of the town, which bore the name Städtisches Waldstadion Aalen ("Civic Forest Stadium of Aalen") until 2008. From 1939 until 1945, the VfR played in the Gauliga Württemberg, then one of several parallel top-ranking soccer leagues of Germany. The KSV Aalen wrestles in the Wrestling Federal League. It was German champion in team wrestling in 2010. Its predecessor, the KSV Germania Aalen disbanded in 2005, was German champion eight times and runner-up five times since 1976. Another Aalen club, the TSV Dewangen, wrestled in the Federal League until 2009. Two American sports, American Football and Baseball, are pursued by the MTV Aalen. Volleyball has been gaining in popularity in Aalen for years. The first men's team of DJK Aalen accomplished qualification for regional league in the season of 2008/09. The Ostalb ski lifts are located south of the town centre, at the northern slope of the Swabian Jura. The skiing area comprises two platter lifts that have a vertical rise of {{convert\|130\|and\|30\|m\|ft}}, with two runs with lengths of {{convert\|800\|and\|1200\|m\|ft}} and a beginners' run.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013s}}</ref> Regular events Reichsstädter Tage Since 1975, Reichsstädter Tage ("Imperial City days") festival is held annually in the town centre on the second weekend in September. It is deemed the largest festival of the Ostwürttemberg region,<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2007}}</ref> and is associated with a shopping Sunday in accordance with the {{Lang\|de\|Ladenschlussgesetz}} code. The festival is also attended by delegations from the twinned cities. On the town hall square, on Sunday an ecumenical service is held. Roman Festival The international Roman Festival (Römertage) are held biannially on the site of the former Roman fort and the modern Limes museum. The festival's ninth event in 2008 was attended by around 11,000 people.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2008}}</ref> Aalen Jazz Festival Annually during the second week of November, the Aalen Jazz Festival brings known and unknown artists to Aalen. It has already featured musicians like Miles Davis, B. B. King, Ray Charles, David Murray, McCoy Tyner, Al Jarreau, Esbjörn Svensson and Albert Mangelsdorff. The festival is complemented by individual concerts in spring and summer, and, including the individual concerts, comprises around 25 concerts with a total of about 13,000 visitors. Economy and infrastructure In 2008 there were 30,008 employees liable to social insurance living in Aalen. 13,946 (46.5&nbsp;percent) were employed in the manufacturing sector, 4,715 (15.7&nbsp;percent) in commerce, catering, hotels and transport, and 11,306 (37.7&nbsp;percent) in other services.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013t}}</ref> Annually 16,000 employees commute to work, with about 9,000 living in the town and commuting out.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013u}}</ref> Altogether in Aalen there are about 4,700 business enterprises, 1,100 of them being registered in the trade register. The others comprise 2,865 small enterprises and 701 craft enterprises.<ref name="Unternehmen und Betriebe">{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2013v}}</ref> In Aalen, metalworking is the predominant industry, along with machine-building. Other industries include optics, paper, information technology, chemicals, textiles,<ref nameEB/> medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, and food.<ref nameCohen/> Notable enterprises include SHW Automotive (originating from the former Schwäbische Hüttenwerke steel mills and a mill of 1671 in Wasseralfingen), the Alfing Kessler engineering works, the precision tools manufacturer MAPAL Dr.&nbsp;Kress, the snow chain manufacturer RUD&nbsp;Ketten&nbsp;Rieger&nbsp;&&nbsp;Dietz and its subsidiary Erlau, the Gesenkschmiede Schneider forging die smithery, the SDZ Druck und Medien media company, the Papierfabrik Palm paper mill, the alarm system manufacturer Telenot, the laser show provider LOBO electronic and the textile finisher Lindenfarb, which all have their seat in Aalen. A branch in Aalen is maintained by optical systems manufacturer Carl Zeiss headquartered in nearby Oberkochen.<ref name"Unternehmen und Betriebe" />Transport Rail Aalen station is a regional railway hub on the Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt–Nördlingen railway from Stuttgart and {{stn\|Nördlingen}}, the Aalen–Ulm railway from Ulm and the Goldshöfe–Crailsheim railway to Crailsheim. Until 1972, the Härtsfeld Railway connected Aalen with Dillingen an der Donau via Neresheim. Other railway stations within the town limits are Hofen (b Aalen), Unterkochen, Wasseralfingen and Goldshöfe station. The Aalen-Erlau stop situated in the south is no longer operational. Aalen station is served at two-hour intervals by trains of Intercity line 61 Karlsruhe–Stuttgart–Aalen–Nuremberg. For regional rail travel, Aalen is served by various lines of the Interregio-Express, Regional-Express and Regionalbahn categories. Since the beginning of 2019, the British company Go-Ahead took over the regional railway business of DB Regio in the region surrounding Aalen. The town also operates the Aalen industrial railway (Industriebahn Aalen), which carries about 250 carloads per year.<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2002}}</ref> Bus Aalen also is a regional hub in the bus network of OstalbMobil, the transport network of the district Aalen is in. The bus lines are operated and serviced by regional companies like OVA and RBS RegioBus Stuttgart. Street The junctions of Aalen/Westhausen and Aalen/Oberkochen connect Aalen with the Autobahn A7 (Würzburg–Füssen). Federal roads (Bundesstraßen) connecting with Aalen are B&nbsp;19 (Würzburg–Ulm), B&nbsp;29 (Waiblingen–Nördlingen) and B&nbsp;290 (Tauberbischofsheim–Westhausen). The Schwäbische Dichterstraße ("Swabian Poets' Route") tourist route established in 1977/78 leads through Aalen. Several bus lines operate within the borough. The Omnibus-Verkehr Aalen company is one of the few in Germany that use double-decker buses, it has done so since 1966.<ref>{{harvnb\|OVA Bus Transport Aalen\|2012}}</ref> A district-wide fare system, OstalbMobil, has been in effect since 2007. Air transport Stuttgart Airport, offering international connections, is about {{convert\|90\|km\|mi}} away, the travel time by train is about 100&nbsp;Minutes. At Aalen-Heidenheim Airport, located {{convert\|15\|km\|mi}} south-east of Aalen, small aircraft are permitted. Gliding airfields nearby are in Heubach and Bartholomä. Bicycle Bicycle routes stretching through Aalen are the Deutscher Limes-Radweg ("German Limes Bicycle Route") and the Kocher-Jagst Bicycle Route. Public facilities Aalen houses an Amtsgericht (local district court), chambers of the Stuttgart Labour Court, a notary's office, a tax office and an employment agency. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district office, of the Aalen Deanery of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church and of the Ostalb deanery of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rottenburg-Stuttgart. The Stuttgart administrative court, the Stuttgart Labour Court and the Ulm Social Welfare Court are in charge for Aalen. Aalen had a civic hospital, which resided in the Bürgerspital building until 1873, then in a building at Alte Heidenheimer Straße. In 1942, the hospital was taken over by the district. The district hospital at the present site of Kälblesrain, known today as Ostalb-Klinikum, was opened in 1955.<ref name"bauer145"/> Media The first local newspaper, Der Bote von Aalen ("The Herald of Aalen"), has been published on Wednesdays and Saturdays since 1837.<ref name"bauer145"/> Currently, local newspapers published in Aalen are the Schwäbische Post, which obtains its supra-regional pages from the Ulm-based Südwestpresse, and the Aalener Nachrichten (erstwhile Aalener Volkszeitung), a local edition of Schwäbische Zeitung in Leutkirch im Allgäu. Two of Germany's biggest Lesezirkels (magazine rental services) are headquartered in Aalen: Brabandt LZ Plus Media and Lesezirkel Portal. Regional event magazines are Xaver, åla, ålakultur. The commercial broadcasters Radio Ton and Radio 7 have studios in Aalen. Education A Latin school was first recorded in Aalen in 1447; it was remodeled in 1616 and also later in various buildings that were all situated near the town church, and continued up through the 19th century. In the course of the reformation, a "German school" was established in tandem, being a predecessor of the latter Volksschule school type. In 1860, the Ritterschule was built as a Volksschule for girls; the building today houses the Pestalozzischule. In 1866, a new building was erected for the Latin school and for the Realschule established in 1840. This building, later known as the Alte Gewerbeschule, was torn down in 1975 to free up land for the new town hall. In 1912, the Parkschule building was opened. It was designed by Paul Bonatz and today houses the Schubart-Gymnasium. The biggest educational institution in the town is the Hochschule Aalen, which was founded in 1962 and focuses on engineering and economics. It is attended by 5000 students on five campuses and employs 129 professors and 130 other lecturers. The town provides three Gymnasiums, four Realschulen, two Förderschulen (special schools), six combined Grundschulen and Hauptschulen and eight standalone Grundschulen. The Ostalbkreis district provides three vocational schools and three additional special schools. Finally, six non-state schools of various types exist. The German Esperanto Library (German: Deutsche Esperanto-Bibliothek, Esperanto: Germana Esperanto-Biblioteko) has been located in the building of the town library since 1989. TV and radio transmission tower The Südwestrundfunk broadcasting company operates the Aalen transmission tower on the Braunenberg hill. The tower was erected in 1956, it is {{convert\|140\|m\|ft}} tall and made of reinforced concrete. Things named after Aalen The following vehicles are named "Aalen": * The Lufthansa Boeing 737-500 D-ABJF * The Deutsche Bahn ICE 3 Tz309 (since 2 June 2008)<ref>{{harvnb\|City of Aalen\|2008a}}</ref> <gallery> File:Lufthansa B737-530 (D-ABJF) landing at London Heathrow Airport.jpg\|Boeing 737-500 "Aalen" File:ICE Aalen.jpg\|ICE "Aalen" at Aalen station </gallery> Notable people , before 1804]] , 1869]] , 1971]] * Johann Christoph von Westerstetten (1563–1637), Prince-bishop of Eichstätt and counter-reformer * Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (1739–1791), poet, organ player, composer and journalist; lived in Aalen as a child and adolescent.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleSchubart, Christian Friedrich Daniel \|volume 24 \|page379 \|short1}}</ref> * Karl Joseph von Hefele (1809–1893), Roman Catholic theologian, clerical historian and bishop.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleHefele, Karl Josef von \|volume 13 \|page200 \|short1}}</ref> * Stephan Jakob Neher (1829–1902), Catholic priest and church historian.<ref>{{CathEncy\|wstitleStephan Jakob Neher \|volume 10 \|page\|last Kirsch \|firstJohann Peter \|author-link Johann Peter Kirsch \|year1913\|short 1}}</ref> * Rudolf Duala Manga Bell (1873–1914), King of Duala<ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleDualla \|volume 8 \|page614 \|short1}}</ref> and resistance leader in the German colony of Kamerun,<ref>{{Cite EB1911 \|wstitleCameroon \|volume 5 \|lastCana \|first F.R. \|author-link\|pages 110-113 \|short=1}}</ref> lived in Aalen from 1891 until 1896. * Karl Wahl (1892–1981), Gauleiter of Gau Swabia, Obergruppenführer * Kurt Jooss (1901–1979), born in Wasseralfingen; dancer, choreographer and dance educator * Georg Elser (1903–1945), opponent of Nazism, worked in 1923 as an apprentice carpenter in Aalen. * August Zehender (1903–1945), SS Brigade Commander and Major General of the Waffen-SS * Bruno Heck (1917–1989), politician (CDU), former minister of the government and CDU secretary general * Hermann Bausinger (1926–2021), cultural scientist * Hans Elsässer (1929–2003), astronomer and founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy * Werner Sobek (born 1953), architect and structural engineer * Gerhard Thiele (born 1953 in Heidenheim), physicist and former astronaut, attended school in Aalen. * Angela Schanelec (born 1962), actress, film director and screenwriter * Ulrich Spiesshofer (born 1964), business executive, former CEO of the ABB Group * Martin Gerlach, (DE Wiki) (born 1965), independent politician, mayor of Aalen (2005–2013) * Steffen Schorn (born 1967), jazz musician & professor at the Hochschule für Musik Nürnberg * Carlo Waibel (born 1990), singer known as Cro, wears a panda mask on stage. Sport * Werner Bickelhaupt (born 1939), football coach, lives in Aalen since 2004, head coach for Swaziland for 3 months in 2003 * Walter Adams (born 1945 in Wasseralfingen), middle-distance runner * Thomas Zander (born 1967), wrestler, world champion in 1994 and silver medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics * Carl-Uwe Steeb (born 1967), retired tennis player * Erol Sabanov (born 1974), former football goalkeeper who played about 300 games * Andreas Beck (born 1987), footballer, immigrated aged 3, grew up in Aalen; played about 475 games and 9 for Germany * Patrick Funk (born 1990), footballer, played about 375 games * Fabio Kaufmann (born 1992), footballer, played over 350 games Honorary citizens * Ruland Ayßlinger, composer * Erwin Rommel (1891–1944), Field Marshal of World War II, grew up in Aalen * Paul Edel<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013e}}</ref> * Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker (1859–1927), founder of the Aalen Historical Society (Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen) and name giver of the Wilhelm Jakob Schweiker Award<ref name = GA/> * Ulrich Pfeifle, Mayor of Aalen from 1976 until 2005 Notes {{reflist\|30em}} References {{refbegin\|2}} * {{cite book \| last Bauer \| first Hermann \| year 2012 \| orig-year 1854 \| title Beschreibung des Oberamts Aalen \|trans-titleDescription of Oberamts Aalen \| chapter 7 \| url https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Beschreibung_des_Oberamts_Aalen/Kapitel_A_7 \| isbn = 978-1236340245 }} * {{cite web \| author Aalen Historical Society \| url http://www.gav-aalen.de/index.php?id6 \| title Im Rückspiegel \| trans-title In the Rear-view Mirror \| publisher Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen [Aalen Historical and Antiquities Club] \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| year 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111074712/http://www.gav-aalen.de/index.php?id6 \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \|year2008 \|publisherCity of Aalen: Department II: Stadtmessungsamt, Municipal Statistical Office \|titleStatistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Aalen 2007/2008 \|trans-titleStatistical Yearbook of Aalen 2007/2008 \|languagede \|urlhttp://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/statistisches_jahrbuch_2007-2008.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110718195757/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/statistisches_jahrbuch_2007-2008.pdf \|archive-date=18 July 2011 }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| url http://www.holidaycheck.de/klima-wetter_Aalen-ebene_oid-id_9059.html \| title Klimainformationen für Aalen \| website holidaycheck.de \| year 2013 \|trans-titleWeather for Aalen \| publisher Hubert Burda Media \|access-date 10 November 2013 \| language = de }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| url http://aa-history.de/AA-30J_Krieg_Text.html \| title Aalen im dreißigjährigen Krieg \|trans-titleAalen in the Thirty Years War \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013a \| publisher aa-history \| website = aa-history.de }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| website moscheesuche.de \| url http://www.moscheesuche.de/moschee/Aalen/DITIB_Moschee_Aalen_Merkez_Camii/13311 \| title Deutschland, Baden-Württemberg, Aalen: D.I.T.I.B. Moschee Aalen (Merkez Camii) – Aalen \| trans-title Baden-Wurttemberg: Germany: Aalen DİTİB Aalen Mosque (Merkez Camii) – Aalen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013b \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111075539/http://www.moscheesuche.de/moschee/Aalen/DITIB_Moschee_Aalen_Merkez_Camii/13311 \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| website moscheesuche.de \| url http://www.moscheesuche.de/moschee/Aalen/Fatih_Moschee/13695 \| title Deutschland, Baden-Württemberg, Aalen: Fatih Moschee – Aalen \| trans-title Germany, Baden-Wuerttemberg, Aalen: Fatih Mosque – Aalen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013c \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111075425/http://www.moscheesuche.de/moschee/Aalen/Fatih_Moschee/13695 \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| website feuerwehr-aalen.de \| url http://feuerwehr-aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id21534&_bereich1598 \| title Herzlich Willkommen beim Spielmannszug Aalen \|trans-titleWelcome to the marching band Aalen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013d }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| title Treff der Eisenbarths \| trans-title Meeting of the Eisenbarths \| website Ellwanger Zeitung \| year 2013e \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| url http://www.eisenbarth-koeln.de/Eisenbarth-Presse.html \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111074653/http://www.eisenbarth-koeln.de/Eisenbarth-Presse.html \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| url http://www.schwaebische.de/archiv-artikel_artikel,-Aalen-feiert-_arid,2098520.html \| title Aalen feiert \|trans-titleAalen Celebrates \| website Schwäbische Zeitung \| year 2007 \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111075320/http://www.schwaebische.de/archiv-artikel_artikel%2C-Aalen-feiert-_arid%2C2098520.html \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite book \| author Anon \| title Braune Messe – Deutsche Woche, Aalen, Württemberg \| language de \|trans-titleBrown Fair – German Week, Aalen, Württemberg \| publisher Stierlen \| year 1934 }}{{author missing}} * {{cite book \| last Bauer \| first Karlheinz \| title Aalen: Geschichte und Kultur zwischen Welland und Härtsfeld \|trans-titleAalen history and culture between Welland and Härtsfeld \| publisher Theiss \| place Stuttgart, Germany \| year 1983 \| isbn 978-3806203219 \| language = de }} * {{cite book \| last Bauer \| first Karlheinz \| editor Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen e.V. \| chapter Die Machtergreifung der NSDAP in Aalen und Umgebung [The Nazi seizure of power in and around Aalen] \| title Aalener Jahrbuch 1984 \|trans-titleAalen Yearbook 1984 \| publisher Theiss \| location Stuttgart, Germany \| year 1984 \| isbn 978-3806204063 \| language = de }} * {{Cite EB1911 \| wstitle Aalen \| volume 1 \|page=2}} * {{cite encyclopedia \| last Canby \| first Courtlandt \| editor-last Carruth \| editor-first Gorton \| encyclopedia The Encyclopedia of Historic Places \| volume I: A-L \| publisher Fact on File Publications \| location New York, NY \| year 1984 \| isbn 0-87196-126-1 \| title Aalen \| url https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofhi0000canb }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/90/Jahresbericht2002_2.pdf \| title 2002 Annual Report \| publisher City of Aalen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2002 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121223071655/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/90/Jahresbericht2002_2.pdf \| archive-date 23 December 2012}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id13580&_bereich6 \| title Bürgerfreundliches Verhalten \|trans-titleCitizen-friendly behavior \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2004 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111090047/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id13580&_bereich6 \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id71087&_bereich1599 \| title Bilder der IX. Internationalen Römertage 2008 \|trans-titlePictures of IX. Romans International Conference \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2008 }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id67980&_bereich6 \| title ICE auf den Namen Aalen getauft \|trans-titleICE Aalen Baptized in the Name of Aalen \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2008a }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id975&_bereich6 \| title Religion \|trans-titleReligion \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| year 2010 \| language de }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id26094&_bereich6 \| title Teilorte von Aalen \| trans-title Places part of Aalen \| website www.aalen.de \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013a \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100917161955/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id26094&_bereich6 \| archive-date 17 September 2010 \| url-status dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1176&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Kernstadt \| trans-title Developing urban core population \| year 2013b \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718060726/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1176&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1177&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Unterrombach/Hofherrnweiler \|trans-titlePopulation development Unterrombach / Hofherrnweiler \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013c \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111124907/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1177&_bereich6 \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1171&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Dewangen \| trans-title Population development Dewangen \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013d \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718060824/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1171&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1178&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Ebnat \|trans-titlePopulation development Ebnat \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013e \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111090036/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1178&_bereich6 \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1172&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Fachsenfeld \| trans-title Population development Facsenfeld \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013f \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061005/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1172&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1174&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Hofen \| trans-title Population development Hofen \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013g \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061221/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1174&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1179&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Unterkochen \| trans-title Population development Unterkochen \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013h \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061246/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1179&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1180&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Waldhausen \| trans-title Population development Waldhausen \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013i \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061551/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1180&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1175&_bereich6 \| title Einwohnerentwicklung Wasseralfingen \| trans-title Population development Wasseralfingen \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013j \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110718061802/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1175&_bereich6 \| archive-date 18 July 2011 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id44429&_bereich6 \| title Das Aalener Stadtgebiet in der Antike \| trans-title The Aalen City in Ancient Times \| publisher aalen.de \| year 2013k \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111080217/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id44429&_bereich6 \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status = dead}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id24630&_bereich6 \| title Stadt gedenkt der Opfer der Luftangriffe \|trans-titleCity commemorates the victims of the air raids \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013l }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id2098&_bereich6 \| title Städtepartnerschaftsverein Aalen e. V. \|trans-titleTwinning association Aalen eV \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013m }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id5491&_bereich6 \| title Theater der Stadt Aalen \|trans-titleTheatre of Aalen \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013n }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id6870&_bereich6 \| title Schubart-Literaturpreis und Schubart-Literaturförderpreis der Stadt Aalen \|trans-titleSchubart Literature Prize and Schubart Literature Prize of the city of Aalen \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013o }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id1189&_bereich6 \| title Musikschule der Stadt Aalen \|trans-titleMusic School of Aalen \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013p }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?_bereich6&id1970 \| title Aalener Sinfonieorchester e. V. \|trans-titleSymphony Aalen eV \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013q }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/Sehenswert.pdf \| title Aalen – Citybummel \|trans-titleAalen – City Stroll \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013r \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111124841/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/Sehenswert.pdf \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web\|authorCity of Aalen \|urlhttp://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id9436&_bereich6 \|titleOstalb-Skilifte Aalen \|trans-titleOstalb Lifts Aalen \|publisheraalen.de \|access-date10 November 2013 \|languagede \|year2013s \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111084501/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id9436&_bereich6 \|archive-date=11 November 2013 }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id2796&_bereich6 \| title Beschäftigte \|trans-titleEmployee \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013t }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id2865&_bereich6 \| title Berufspendler \|trans-titleCommuters \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013u \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111090154/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id2865&_bereich6 \| archive-date = 11 November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id5892&_bereich6 \| title Unternehmen und Betriebe\|trans-titleCompanies and Businesses \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2013v }} * {{cite web \| author City of Aalen \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/1991-2011.pdf \| title Meteorologische Größen in Aalen 1991 – 2011 \| year 2013w \| publisher Town of Aalen \| access-date 2 April 2012 \| language de \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121222162951/http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/media.php/93/1991-2011.pdf \| archive-date 22 December 2012}}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Cohen \| editor-first Saul B. \| encyclopedia The Columbia Gazetteer of the World \| title Aalen \| isbn 0-231-11040-5 \| publisher Columbia University Press \| location New York, NY \| year 1998 }} * {{cite book \| first Eugen \| last Hafner \| title Aalen, Der Stadtführer \|trans-titleAalen, the City Guide \| publisher Konrad Theiss Verlag GmbH & Co. \| year 1989 \| isbn 978-3806205848 \| language de }} * {{cite web \| author Geschichtsverein Aalen (Historical Society of Aalen) \| url http://www.gav-aalen.de/index.php?id14 \| title Preisträger \| trans-title Winners \| publisher Geschichts- und Altertumsverein Aalen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| year 2013 \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111074709/http://www.gav-aalen.de/index.php?id14 \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status = dead }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Hoiberg \| editor-first Dale H. \| encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica \| title Aalen \| edition 15th \| year 2010 \| publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. \| volume I: A-Ak – Bayes \| location Chicago, Illinois \| isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 \| url = https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }} * {{cite web \|publisherLUBW State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg \| title Naturräume Baden-Württembergs \|trans-titleNatural areas in Baden-Württemberg \| language de \| year 2010 \| url https://www.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/documents/10184/388195/naturraeume_baden_wuerttembergs.pdf/1f56a5c3-14b7-406f-9351-fdb0caa614af \|ref={{SfnRef\|LUBW State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2010}} }} * {{cite book \| last Meier \| first Ernst \| title Deutsche Volksmärchen aus Schwaben: Aus dem Munde des Volks Gesammelt und Herausgegeben \|trans-titleGerman folk tales from Swabia: Collected from the Mouths of the People and Issued \| publisher CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform \| location North Charleston, SC \| orig-year 1852 \| language de \| year 2013 \| isbn 978-1482646412 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Munro \| editor-first David \| title Aalen \| encyclopedia The Oxford Dictionary of the World \| year 1995 \| publisher Oxford University Press \| location Oxford, UK \| isbn 0-19-866184-3 \| url = https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00munr }} * {{cite magazine \| last Nußbaumer \| first Wolfgang \| title Licht in ein dunkles Kapitel: 'Aalen in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus 1934-1939' - Schwerpunkt des 'Aalener Jahrbuchs 2006-2008' \| magazine ostalb/einhorn \| volume 35 \|issue 140 \| date December 2008 \| language de \|pages=297–298 }} * {{cite web \| author OVA Bus Transport Aalen \| url http://www.ova.de/80jahre/historie.html \| title Historie \|trans-titleHistory \| website OVA-Omnibus-Verkehr Aalen \| language de \| access-date 24 February 2014 \| year 2012 }} * {{cite web \| last Pfeifle \| first Ulrich \| url http://www.aalen.de/sixcms/detail.php?id21434&_bereich6 \| title Letter from the Mayor \| publisher aalen.de \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2004 }} * {{cite web \|publisherPress and Information Office of the Federal Government \| url http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_914476/Content/DE/Artikel/IB/Artikel/Geschichte/2009-05-19-demirtas.html \| title Wir sind einfach in den Zug gestiegen \| trans-title We just boarded the train \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2010 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110605085827/http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_914476/Content/DE/Artikel/IB/Artikel/Geschichte/2009-05-19-demirtas.html \| archive-date 5 June 2011 \| url-status dead\|ref={{SfnRef\|Press and Information Office of the Federal Government\|2010}} }} * {{cite book \| last1 Puvogel \| first1 Ulrike \| last2 Stankowski \| first2 Martin \| last3 Graf \| first3 Ursula \| title Gedenkstätten für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus: Eine Dokumentation \|trans-titleMemorials to the victims of National Socialism: A Documentary \| volume 1 \| publisher Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung [Federal Agency for Civic Education] \| location Bonn, Germany \| year 1995 \| isbn 978-3893312085 \| language de }} * {{cite web \| last Sauerborn \| first Ulrich \| url http://www.urweltmuseum-aalen.de/aalenium.html \| title Das Aalenium \| trans-title The Aalenian \| publisher Urweltmuseum Aalen \| access-date 9 November 2013 \| language de \| year 2002 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131111074624/http://www.urweltmuseum-aalen.de/aalenium.html \| archive-date 11 November 2013 \| url-status dead}} * {{cite book \| last Schätzle \| first Julius \| title Stationen zur Hölle. Konzentrationslager in Baden und Württemberg 1933–1945 \| edition 2nd \| publisher Röderberg-Verlag \| location Frankfurt \| year 1980 \| isbn 978-3876820354 \| language = de }} * {{cite web\|lastSimla \|firstStefan \|urlhttp://www.kirchengemeinde-hofen.de/oldpage.php?menuID4&pageKirchengeb%26auml%3Bude%20-%20Hofen \|titleKatholische Kirchengemeinde St. Georg Hofen: Kirchengebäude – Hofen \|trans-titleCatholic church St. Georg Mayrhofen: Church buildings – Mayrhofen \|publisherParish of St. Georg Mayrhofen \|access-date10 November 2013 \|languagede \|year2005 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111075352/http://www.kirchengemeinde-hofen.de/oldpage.php?menuID4&pageKirchengeb&auml%3Bude%20-%20Hofen \|archive-date11 November 2013 }} * {{cite web\|lastSimla \|firstStefan \|urlhttp://www.kirchengemeinde-hofen.de/oldpage.php?pageOttilienkapelle \|titleKatholische Kirchengemeinde St. Georg Hofen: Ottilienkapelle \|trans-titleCatholic church St. Georg Mayrhofen: Ottilie Chapel \|publisherParish of St. Georg Mayrhofen \|access-date10 November 2013 \|languagede \|year2005a \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111075450/http://www.kirchengemeinde-hofen.de/oldpage.php?pageOttilienkapelle \|archive-date11 November 2013 }} * {{cite web \|urlhttp://www2.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/public/abt5/klimaatlas_bw/klima/karten/nied/niederschlag_jahr.html \|titlePrecipitation map of Baden-Württemberg \|publisherLandesamt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz: Baden-Württemberg [State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation] \|languagede \|year2013 \|access-date24 February 2014 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111075441/http://www2.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/public/abt5/klimaatlas_bw/klima/karten/nied/niederschlag_jahr.html \|archive-date=11 November 2013 }} * {{cite web \|publisherState Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg \| url http://www.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/servlet/is/11424/ \| title Schutzgebietsverzeichnis -Steckbriefauswahl \| trans-title Reserve List – Profile Section \| language de \| year 2013a \| access-date 24 February 2014 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170729064524/http://www4.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/servlet/is/11424/ \| archive-date 29 July 2017 \| url-status dead\|ref={{SfnRef\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013a}} }} * {{cite web \|publisherState Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg \| url http://rips-dienste.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/rips/ripsservices/apps/naturschutz/schutzgebiete/steckbrief.aspx?id929001000184 \| title 1.023 Dellenhäule \| language de \| year 2013b \| access-date 24 February 2014\|ref{{SfnRef\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013b}} }} * {{cite web \|publisherState Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg \| url http://rips-dienste.lubw.baden-wuerttemberg.de/rips/ripsservices/apps/naturschutz/schutzgebiete/steckbrief.aspx?id929001000029 \| title 1.245 Goldshöfer Sande \| language de\| year 2013c \| access-date 24 February 2014\|ref{{SfnRef\|State Institute for Environment, Measurements, and Nature Conservation Baden-Württemberg\|2013c}} }} * {{cite web \| author Taxpayers Association of Germany \| url http://www.steuerzahler.de/Home/1692b637/index.html \| title Bund der Steuerzahler \| trans-title Confederation of the taxpayers \| publisher Der Steuerzahler \| year 2007 \| access-date 11 November 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131020045946/http://www.steuerzahler.de/Home/1692b637/index.html \| archive-date 20 October 2013 \| url-status dead}}{{page needed\|date=July 2014}} * {{cite web \| author Windpark Waldhausen \| url http://www.windparkwaldhausen.de/content-75-technische_daten.html \| title Technische Daten der Windkraftanlagen in Waldhausen \|trans-titleTechnical Data of Wind Turbines in Waldhausen \| access-date 10 November 2013 \| publisher Windpark Waldhausen \| language de \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081219182017/http://www.windparkwaldhausen.de/content-75-technische_daten.html \| archive-date 19 December 2008 \| url-status live \| year = 2013 }} * {{cite book \| editor-last Winter \| editor-first Diethelm \| title Der Ostalbkreis \|trans-titleThe Ostalb \| publisher K. Theiss \| location Stuttgart, Germany \| isbn 978-3806208917 \| edition 2nd \| year 1992 \| language de \| orig-year = 1978 }} {{refend}} Further reading * {{Citation \|lastHafner \|firstEugen \| titleAalen. Der Stadtführer \| publisherSüddeutsche Verlagsgesellschaft \| placeUlm \| year2001 \| isbn=3-88294-310-6}} * {{Citation \|lastBauer \|firstKarlheinz \| titleAalen \| publisherTheiss \| placeStuttgart \| year1983 \| isbn3-8062-0321-0\|refnone}} External links {{Commons category}} * [https://www.aalen.de/startseite.1.htm Town of Aalen's website] * [http://www.gisserver.de/aalen/start.html Geographical information system of the town of Aalen] (in German) {{Swabian League}} {{Swabian Circle}} {{Free Imperial Cities}} {{Cities and towns in Ostalb (district)}} {{Authority control}} Category:Towns in Baden-Württemberg Category:Ostalbkreis Category:150s establishments in the Roman Empire Category:260s disestablishments in the Roman Empire Category:Populated places established in the 7th century Category:7th-century establishments in Germany Category:States and territories established in 1360 Category:1360s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire Category:1360 establishments in Europe Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1800s Category:1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire Category:Free imperial cities Category:Holocaust locations in Germany	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalen	2025-04-05T18:26:02.755897
2383	Alois Alzheimer	{{short description\|German psychiatrist and neuropathologist (1864–1915)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2021}} {{Infobox medical person \|name = Alois Alzheimer \|image = Alois Alzheimer 003.jpg \|image_size = 190 \|caption = Official Portrait of Alois Alzheimer \|birth_date {{birth date\|1864\|6\|14\|dfy}} \|birth_place = Marktbreit, Bavaria<br />{{small\|(now Marktbreit, Germany)}} \|death_date {{death date and age\|1915\|12\|19\|1864\|6\|14\|dfy}} \|death_place = Breslau, Prussia, German Empire<br />{{small\|(now Wrocław, Poland)}} \|profession = Psychiatrist, physician \|specialism = Neuropathology \|known_for = First published case of "presenile dementia" (Alzheimer's disease) \|spouse {{marriage\|Cecilie Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer\|1894\|1901\|enddied}} \|children = 3 \|education = {{plainlist\| * Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen * Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg * Friedrich Wilhelm University }} \|work_institutions = {{plainlist\| * Institute for the Insane and Epileptic ("Irrenschloss"), Frankfurt * Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich * Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau }} \|signature = Alois Alzheimer signature.svg }} <!--WP:CREDENTIAL: Academic/professional titles (such as "Doctor" or "Professor") and postnominal degree abbreviations (such as "PhD") should not be used--> Alois Alzheimer ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|æ\|l\|t\|s\|h\|aɪ\|m\|ər}} {{respell\|ALTS\|hy\|mər}}, {{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˈ\|ɑː\|l\|t\|s\|-\|,_\|ˈ\|ɔː\|l\|t\|s\|-}} {{respell\|AHLTS\|-\|,_\|AWLTS\|-}},<ref>{{cite EPD\|18\|Alzheimer's disease}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dictionary.com/browse/alzheimer-s "Alzheimer's disease"]. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''.</ref> {{IPA\|de\|ˈaːlɔɪs ˈʔaltshaɪmɐ\|lang}}; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist, neuropathologist and colleague of Emil Kraepelin. He is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin later identified as Alzheimer's disease.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastBerrios\|firstG. E.\|date1 November 1990\|titleAlzheimer's disease: A conceptual history\|journalInternational Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry\|languageen\|volume5\|issue6\|pages355–65\|doi10.1002/gps.930050603\|s2cid145155424\|issn1099-1166}}</ref> Early life and education Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria, on 14 June 1864, the son of Anna Johanna Barbara Sabina and Eduard Román Alzheimer.<ref name"zilka">{{cite journal\|lastZilka\|firstN.\|year2006\|titleThe tangled story of Alois Alzheimer\|urlhttp://bmj.fmed.uniba.sk/2006/107910-02.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://bmj.fmed.uniba.sk/2006/107910-02.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalBratisl Lek Listy\|volume107\|issue9–10\|pages343–45\|pmid17262985\|author2M. Novak\|access-date4 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYKDZ8D-rK7sC&q%22A+Karl+y+Alois+les+sigue+Anna+Johanna%22&pgPA36\|titleAlzheimer. La vida de un médico y la historia de una enfermedad\|first1Konrad\|last1Maurer\|first2Ulrike\|last2Maurer\|year2006\|publisherEdiciones Díaz de Santos\|isbn978-84-7978-758-5}}</ref> His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown.<ref>[http://www.marktbreit.de/kultur_bildung/alzheimer_engl.htm "Alzheimer´s Birthplace"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081221112532/http://www.marktbreit.de/kultur_bildung/alzheimer_engl.htm \|date21 December 2008 }}, marktbreit.de; accessed 14 July 2017.{{in lang\|de}}</ref> The family was devoutly Catholic.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Hippius \|first1Hanns \|last2Neundörfer \|first2Gabriele \|date2003-03-31 \|titleThe discovery of Alzheimer's disease \|journalDialogues in Clinical Neuroscience \|languageen \|volume5 \|issue1 \|pages101–108 \|doi10.31887/DCNS.2003.5.1/hhippius \|issn1958-5969 \|pmc3181715 \|pmid=22034141}}</ref> The Alzheimers moved to Aschaffenburg when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium. After graduating with Abitur in 1883, Alzheimer studied medicine at University of Berlin, University of Tübingen, and University of Würzburg. In his final year at university, he was a member of a fencing fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal\|last1Cipriani\|first1Gabriele\|last2Dolciotti\|first2Cristina\|last3Picchi\|first3Lucia\|last4Bonuccelli\|first4Ubaldo\|year2011\|titleAlzheimer and his disease: a brief history\|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/308726043\|journalNeurological Sciences\|volume32\|issue2\|pages275–79\|doi10.1007/s10072-010-0454-7\|issn1590-1874\|pmid21153601\|s2cid8483005}}</ref> In 1887, Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg as Doctor of Medicine.<ref name":0"/>CareerIn 1888, Alzheimer spent five months assisting mentally ill women before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt, the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for Lunatics and Epileptics). {{Interlanguage link\|Emil Sioli\|lt\|de\|\|WD}}, a noted psychiatrist, was the dean of the asylum. Another neurologist, Franz Nissl, began to work in the same asylum with Alzheimer. Together, they conducted research on the pathology of the nervous system, specifically the normal and pathological anatomy of the cerebral cortex.<ref name":0"/> Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, though he never wrote a book that he could call his own.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Hippius\|first1Hanns\|last2Neundörfer\|first2Gabriele\|dateMarch 2003\|titleThe discovery of Alzheimer's disease\|journalDialogues in Clinical Neuroscience\|volume5\|issue1\|pages101–108\|doi10.31887/DCNS.2003.5.1/hhippius\|issn1294-8322\|pmc3181715\|pmid22034141}}</ref> While at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him.<ref name=":0"/> At the time, Kraepelin was doing clinical research on psychosis in senile patients; Alzheimer, on the other hand, was more interested in the lab work of senile illnesses.<ref name":1">{{Cite journal\|title Researching Dementia in Imperial Germany: Alois Alzheimer and the Economies of Psychiatric Practice\|journalCulture, Medicine and Psychiatry\|issn0165-005X\|pages405–13\|volume31\|issue3\|doi10.1007/s11013-007-9060-4\|pmid 17914665\|firstEric J.\|lastEngstrom\|year 2007\|s2cid46566744}}</ref> They faced many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, formal and informal arrangements were made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers.<ref name":1"/> In 1904, Alzheimer completed his habilitation at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was appointed as a professor in 1908. Afterward, he left Munich for the Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau in 1912, where he accepted a post as professor of psychiatry and director of the Neurologic and Psychiatric Institute. His health deteriorated shortly after his arrival so that he was hospitalized. He died three years later.<ref name=":0" /> Alzheimer is known for having a variety of medical interests including vascular diseases of the brain, early dementia, brain tumors, forensic psychiatry and epilepsy.<ref name":4">{{Cite journal\|titleSign In\|journalAmerican Journal of Alzheimer's Disease\|volume15\|issue4\|pages252–255\|doi10.1177/153331750001500404\|year2000\|last1Lefroy\|first1Richard B.\|s2cid144484516}}</ref>Auguste DeterIn 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community;<ref name":1"/> the Frankfurt asylum was too expensive for her husband. Herr Deter made several requests to have his wife moved to a less expensive facility, but Alzheimer intervened in these requests. Auguste D., as she was known, remained at the Frankfurt asylum, where Alzheimer had made a deal to receive her records and brain upon her death, paying for the remainder of her stay in return.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Yang \|first1Hyun Duk \|display-authorsetal \|titleHistory of Alzheimer's Disease \|journalDementia and Neurocognitive Disorders \|dateDecember 2016 \|volume15 \|issue4 \|pages115–121 \|doi10.12779/dnd.2016.15.4.115 \|pmid30906352 \|pmc6428020 \|url=}}</ref> On 8 April 1906, Auguste Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin's laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the newly developed Bielschowsky stain to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies became identifiers of what is now known as Alzheimer's disease.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.biography.com/people/alois-alzheimer-21216461\|titleAlois Alzheimer\|date2 April 2014\|websiteBiography.com\|access-date19 February 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180323115550/https://www.biography.com/people/alois-alzheimer-21216461\|archive-date23 March 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref> On 3{{nbsp}}November 1906, Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists.<ref name":0"/> The attendees at this lecture seemed uninterested in what he had to say. The lecturer that followed Alzheimer was to speak on the topic of "compulsive masturbation", which the audience of 88 individuals was so eagerly awaiting that they sent Alzheimer away without any questions or comments on his discovery of the pathology of a peculiar case of early-onset dementia.<ref name":0"/><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Benjamin\|first1Sheldon\|last2MacGillivray\|first2Lindsey\|last3Schildkrout\|first3Barbara\|last4Cohen-Oram\|first4Alexis\|last5Lauterbach\|first5Margo D.\|last6Levin\|first6Leonard L.\|date2018-08-24\|titleSix Landmark Case Reports Essential for Neuropsychiatric Literacy\|journalThe Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences\|volume30\|issue4\|pages279–290\|doi10.1176/appi.neuropsych.18020027\|pmid30141725\|issn0895-0172\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Following his presentation, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his presentation; in 1907 he wrote a longer paper detailing the disease and his findings.<ref name":0"/> It became known as Alzheimer's disease in 1910, when Kraepelin named it so in the chapter on "Presenile and Senile Dementia" in the 8th edition of his Handbook of Psychiatry. By 1911, his description of the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US.<ref name"AlzBook"/> Additional case descriptions by Alzheimer and his colleagues continued in the following years, including older patients than the early-onset dementia of Auguste Deter.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastAlzheimer \|firstA. \|date1911-12-01 \|titleüber eigenartige Krankheitsfälle des späteren Alters \|urlhttps://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02866241 \|journalZeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie \|languagede \|volume4 \|issue1 \|pages356–385 \|doi10.1007/BF02866241 \|issn0303-4194}}</ref> Alzheimer eventually conceived "his" disease as mainly characterized clinically by a severe dementia with instrumental symptoms, and pathologically by extended neurofibrillary tangles.<ref name":5">{{Cite journal \|lastVillain \|firstNicolas \|last2Michalon \|first2Robin \|dateNovember 2024 \|titleWhat is Alzheimer's disease? An analysis of nosological perspectives from the 20th and 21st centuries \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ene.16302 \|journalEuropean Journal of Neurology \|languageen \|volume31 \|issue11 \|doi10.1111/ene.16302 \|issn1351-5101 \|pmc11464395 \|pmid38618742}}</ref> He debated fiercely with Oskar Fischer, a German-speaking pathologist from Prague, who instead emphasized on the importance of neuritic plaques and of presbyophrenia<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBerrios \|firstG. E. \|dateMay 1986 \|titlePresbyophrenia: the rise and fall of a concept \|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/abs/presbyophrenia-the-rise-and-fall-of-a-concept/0C1B4AF45DB032E766A24334F92E7E34 \|journalPsychological Medicine \|languageen \|volume16 \|issue2 \|pages267–275 \|doi10.1017/S0033291700009089 \|issn1469-8978}}</ref> as the phenotype.<ref name":5" /> Finally, it must be highlighted that Fischer–Alzheimer's nosological considerations had less impact than Kraepelin's 1910 Textbook of Psychiatry, which distinguished between "Alzheimer's disease" and senile dementia, including presbyophrenia. This textbook had a strong influence on early 20th century research on senile dementia and played a significant role in the classification of dementia in the following decades.<ref name":5" /> Personal life and death In 1894, Alzheimer married Cecilie Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer, with whom he had three children. She died in 1901. In August 1912, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on his way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in July 1912. Most probably a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever led to valvular heart disease, heart failure and kidney failure. He died of heart failure on 19 December 1915 at age 51, in Breslau, Silesia (present-day Wrocław, Poland). His body was buried four days later, next to Cecilie's at the Frankfurt Main Cemetery.<ref name":8"/> Contemporaries American Solomon Carter Fuller gave a report similar to that of Alzheimer at a lecture five months before Alzheimer.<ref name":0"/> Oskar Fischer was a fellow German psychiatrist, twelve years Alzheimer's junior, who reported twelve cases of senile dementia in 1907 around the time that Alzheimer published his short paper summarizing his presentation.<ref name":2">{{Cite journal\|titlePrague: What say you, Alois{{snd}}Should it be 'Alzheimer-Fischer' disease?\|lastStrobel\|firstGabrielle\|journalJournal of Alzheimer's Disease\|volume17\|issue=3}}</ref> Alzheimer and Fischer had different interpretations of the disease, but owing to Alzheimer's short life,<ref name":2"/> they never had the opportunity to meet and discuss their ideas.<ref name":8">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.alzforum.org/news/conference-coverage/tuebingen-man-behind-eponym#article-start\|titleTuebingen: The Man Behind the Eponym\|author<!--Not stated-->\|date16 November 2006\|websitealzforum.org\|publisherAlzforum\|access-date25 January 2017}}</ref>Critics and rediscoveryIn the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer's findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer's notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin.<ref name":3">{{Cite journal\|titleReanalysis of the first case of Alzheimer's disease\|journalEuropean Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience\|issn0940-1334\|pagesS10–13\|volume249\|issue3\|doi10.1007/PL00014167\|pmid10654094\|first1M. B.\|last1Graeber\|first2Parviz\|last2Mehraein\|date1 December 1999\|s2cid9063617}}</ref> Claire O'Brien, meanwhile, hypothesized that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease.<ref name"AlzBook">{{cite book\|author1Maurer K.\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/alzheimerlifeofp00maur\|titleAlzheimer: The Life of a Physician and Career of a Disease\|author2Maurer U.\|publisherColumbia University Press\|year2003\|isbn978-0-231-11896-5\|locationNew York\|url-accessregistration}}</ref> See also * Gaetano Perusini * German inventors and discoverers References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons category}} * {{Internet Archive author\|sname=Alois Alzheimer}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090301211434/http://www.alzheimers-research.org.uk/news/article.php?typeNews&archive1&id=71 Alzheimer's: 100 years on] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120118065913/http://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3445 Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization] * [http://www.yorku.ca/ahp/?p=30 Bibliography of secondary sources] on Alois Alzheimer and Alzheimer's disease, selected from peer-reviewed journals * Graeber Manuel B. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081219054825/http://www.ibro.info/media/pdf/si-his-pdf-pdf9.pdf "Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915)"], International Brain Research Organization {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Alzheimer, Alois}} Category:1864 births Category:1915 deaths Category:People from Marktbreit Category:Physicians from the Kingdom of Bavaria Category:German neuroscientists Category:German Roman Catholics Category:Alzheimer's disease Category:German psychiatrists Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery Category:Academic staff of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich Category:Academic staff of the University of Breslau Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni Category:University of Tübingen alumni Category:University of Würzburg alumni Category:Neuropathologists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Alzheimer	2025-04-05T18:26:02.789484
2384	Aedile	{{Short description\|Office of the Roman Republic}} {{Politics of the Roman Republic}} Aedile ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|iː\|d\|aɪ\|l}} {{respell\|EE\|dyle}}, {{langx\|la\|aedīlis}} {{IPA\|la\|ae̯ˈdiːlɪs\|}}, from {{lang\|la\|aedes}}, "temple edifice") was an elected office of the Roman Republic. Based in Rome, the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings ({{lang\|la\|aedēs}}) and regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order and duties to ensure the city of Rome was well supplied and its civil infrastructure well maintained, akin to modern local government. There were two pairs of aediles: the first were the "plebeian aediles" (Latin: aediles plebis) and possession of this office was limited to plebeians; the other two were "curule aediles" (Latin: aediles curules), open to both plebeians and patricians, in alternating years. An aedilis curulis was classified as a magister curulis. The office of the aedilis was generally held by young men intending to follow the cursus honorum to high political office, traditionally after their quaestorship but before their praetorship. It was not a compulsory part of the cursus, and hence a former quaestor could be elected to the praetorship without having held the position of aedile. However, it was an advantageous position to hold because it demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service, as well as giving him the opportunity to hold public festivals and games, an excellent way to increase his name recognition and popularity. History of the office Plebeian aediles The plebeian aediles were created in the same year as the tribune of the plebs (494 BC). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they guarded the rights of the plebeians with respect to their headquarters, the Temple of Ceres. Subsequently, they assumed responsibility for maintenance of the city's buildings as a whole.<ref>McCullough, 938</ref> Their duties at first were simply ministerial. They were the assistants to the tribunes in whatever matters that the tribunes might entrust to them, although most matters with which they were entrusted were of minimal importance. Around 446 BC, they were given the authority to care for the decrees of the Senate. When a senatus consultum was passed, it would be transcribed into a document and deposited in the public treasury, the Aerarium. They were given this power because the consuls, who had held this power before, arbitrarily suppressed and altered the documents.<ref name"Liv. III.55">Liv. III.55</ref> They also maintained the acts of the Plebeian Council (People's Assembly), the "plebiscites". Plebiscites, once passed, were also transcribed into a physical document for storage. While their powers grew over time, it is not always easy to distinguish the difference between their powers, and those of the censors. Occasionally, if a censor was unable to carry out one of his tasks, an aedile would perform the task instead.Curule aedilesAccording to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations in 367 BC, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the plebeian aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two curule aediles were appointed—at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either—at the Tribal Assembly under the presidency of the consul.<ref name"EB1911"/> Curule aediles, as formal magistrates, held certain honors that plebeian aediles (who were not technically magistrates), did not hold. Besides having the right to sit on a curule seat (sella curulis) and to wear a toga praetexta, the curule aediles also held the power to issue edicts (jus edicendi). These edicts often pertained to matters such as the regulation of the public markets, or what we might call "economic regulation".<ref>Cic. Verr. V.14</ref> Livy suggests, perhaps incorrectly, that both curule as well as plebeian Aediles were sacrosanct.<ref name"Liv. III.55"/> Although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical.<ref name"EB1911"/> Within five days after the beginning of their terms, the four aediles (two plebeian, two curule) were required to determine, by lot or by agreement among themselves, what parts of the city each should hold jurisdiction over.<ref>Tabula Heracleensis, ed. Alessio Simmacho Mazzocchi</ref> Differences between the two There was a distinction between the two sets of aediles when it came to public festivals. Some festivals were plebeian in nature, and thus were under the superintendence of plebeian aediles.<ref>Liv. XXXI.56</ref> Other festivals were supervised exclusively by the curule aediles,<ref>Liv. XXXI.50</ref> and it was often with these festivals that the aediles would spend lavishly. This was often done to secure voters' support in future elections. Because aediles were not reimbursed for public expenditures, most individuals seeking the office were independently wealthy. Since this office was a stepping stone to higher office and the Senate, it helped to ensure that only wealthy individuals (mostly landowners) would win election to high office. These extravagant expenditures began shortly after the end of Second Punic War, and increased as the spoils returned from Rome's new eastern conquests. Even the decadence of the emperors rarely surpassed that of the aediles under the Republic, as could have been seen during Julius Caesar's aedileship.<ref>Plut. Caesar, 5</ref> Election to the office Plebeian aediles and Curule aediles were elected by the Tribal Assembly.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAncient Rome - Roman Senate, Republic, and Law of Twelve Tables {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome/The-Senate \|access-date2023-06-27 \|websitewww.britannica.com \|languageen \|quoteThe tribal assembly (comitia tributa) was a nonmilitary civilian assembly. It accordingly met within the city inside the pomerium and elected magistrates who did not exercise imperium (plebeian tribunes, plebeian aediles, and quaestors).}}</ref> Since the plebeian aediles were elected by the plebeians rather than by all of the people of Rome (plebeians as well as patricians), they were not technically magistrates. Before the passage of the Lex Villia Annalis, individuals could run for the aedileship by the time they turned twenty-seven. After the passage of this law in 180 BC, a higher age was set, probably thirty-six.<ref>Livy, XL.44</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Evans \|first1Richard J. \|last2Kleijwegt \|first2Marc \|date1992 \|titleDid the Romans like Young Men? A Study of the Lex Villia Annalis: Causes and Effects \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/20188706 \|journalZeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik \|volume92 \|page182 \|jstor20188706 \|issn0084-5388}}</ref> By the 1st century BC, aediles were elected in July, and took office on the first day in January. Powers of the office Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads: (1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions and the registration of meretrices. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of grain for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g., at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement.<ref name"EB1911"/>Under the EmpireIn 44 BC, Julius Caesar added two plebeian aediles called cereales, whose special duty was the care of the cereal (grain) supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its judicial functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of an urban prefect.<ref name"EB1911"/> Augustus took for himself its powers over various religious duties. By stripping it of its powers over temples, he effectively destroyed the office, by taking from it its original function. After this point, few people were willing to hold such a powerless office, and Augustus was even known to compel individuals into holding the office. He accomplished this by randomly selecting former tribunes and quaestors for the office.<ref>Dio Cassius LV.24</ref> Future emperors would continue to dilute the power of the office by transferring its powers to newly created offices. However, the office did retain some powers over licentiousness and disorder, in particular over the baths and brothels, as well as the registration of prostitutes.<ref>Tacitus Annales, II.85</ref> In the 3rd century, it disappeared altogether.<ref name="EB1911"/> Under the Empire, Roman colonies and cities often had officials with powers similar to those of the republican aediles, although their powers widely varied. It seems as though they were usually chosen annually.<ref>De Aedil. Col, &c. Otto. Lips. 1732</ref> Modern day {{norefs\|section\|date=January 2025}} Examples of modern use of the term "edil" include: Portugal, where the county mayor can still be referred to as edil (e.g. 'O edil de Coimbra', meaning 'the mayor of Coimbra'), a form of reference used also in Brazil. Romania, where the term edit is used for a mayor (e.g. 'Edil al Bucureștiului', meaning 'mayor of Bucharest'). Spain (and Latin America), where the members of municipal councils are called concejales or ediles. Shakespeare In his play Coriolanus, Shakespeare references the aediles. However, they are minor characters, and their chief role is to serve as policemen.<ref> {{cite book \|last=Shakespeare \|first=William \|title=The Tragedies of William Shakespeare \|year=1994 \|publisher=Random House, Inc. \|isbn=0-679-60129-5 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tragediesofwilli00will/page/1266 1266] \|url-access=registration \|url=https://archive.org/details/tragediesofwilli00will/page/1266 }}</ref> References {{Reflist\|30em\|refs<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911\|inline1 \|wstitleAedile \|volume1 \|page244}} This cites: Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) * Hoffmann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) * Göll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum Imperio (1860) * Labatut, Les Édiles et les moeurs (1868) * Marquardt-Mommsen, Handbuch der römischen Altertümer, ii. (1888) * Soltau, Die ursprüngliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn, 1882).</ref> }} Books {{cite book\|authorBerry, Joanne\|year2007\|titleThe Complete Pompeii\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfazpAAAAMAAJ\|publisherThames and Hudson\|isbn=978-0-500-05150-4}} {{cite book\|authorBoatwright, Mary T., Daniel J. Gargola, Richard J.A. Talbert\|year2006\|titleA Brief History of the Romans\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idH_kYAQAAMAAJ\|url-accessregistration\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-518714-4}} *{{cite book\|authorBrennan, Brain\|year2012\|titleHerculaneum: A Sourcebook\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRZXruAAACAAJ\|url-accessregistration\|publisherAncient History Seminars\|isbn978-0-9756963-3-0}} {{Ancient Rome topics}} {{Authority control}} Category:Cursus honorum Category:Ancient Roman occupations Category:Ancient Roman titles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aedile	2025-04-05T18:26:02.815097
2386	American Airlines	{{Short description\|Airline of the United States}} {{About\|the US-based airline named "American Airlines"\|its parent company\|American Airlines Group\|a full list of all US-based airlines\|List of airlines of the United States}} {{Use American English\|date=May 2023}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=May 2023}} {{Infobox airline \| airline = American Airlines, Inc. \| logo = American Airlines logo 2013.svg \| image = American Airlines 787-9 (2-1 crop).jpg \| caption = A Boeing 787-9 of American Airlines \| IATA AA<ref name"chavprofile">{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines \|urlhttp://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/airline/AA \|access-dateDecember 27, 2016 \|websitech-aviation \|archive-dateDecember 24, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161224014655/http://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/airline/AA \|url-status=live}}</ref> \| ICAO AAL<ref name"chavprofile" /> \| callsign AMERICAN<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 15, 2015 \|title7340.2F with Change 1 and Change 2 and Change 3 \|urlhttp://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/7340_2F_Bsc_w_Chgs_1-3_Contractions.pdf \|access-dateDecember 27, 2016 \|publisherFederal Aviation Administration\|locationWashington \|pages3–1–18 \|archive-dateFebruary 3, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170203160048/https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Order/7340_2F_Bsc_w_Chgs_1-3_Contractions.pdf \|url-status=live}}</ref> \| founded {{start date and age\|1926\|04\|15}}<br />(as American Airways, Inc.)<ref name"foundation">{{Cite web \|date2015 \|titleHistory of American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/history-of-american-airlines.jsp \|access-dateJune 30, 2015 \|publisherAmerican Airlines Group\|locationFort Worth \|archive-dateMarch 15, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170315182814/https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/history-of-american-airlines.jsp \|url-status=live}}</ref> \| commenced = {{start date and age\|1936\|06\|25}} \| aoc AALA025A<ref name"faa_aoc">{{Cite web \|dateMay 12, 2015 \|titleAirline Certificate Information – Detail View \|urlhttp://av-info.faa.gov/detail.asp?DSGN_CODEAALA&OPER_FAR121&OPER_NAMEAMERICAN+AIRLINES+INC+AND%2FOR+US+AIRWAYS+INC \|publisherFederal Aviation Administration\|locationWashington\|quoteCertificate Number AALA025A \|access-dateMay 15, 2015 \|archive-dateJuly 13, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713203943/http://av-info.faa.gov/detail.asp?DSGN_CODEAALA&OPER_FAR121&OPER_NAMEAMERICAN+AIRLINES+INC+AND%2FOR+US+AIRWAYS+INC \|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| hubs {{ubl\|classnowrap \| Charlotte \| Chicago–O'Hare \| Dallas/Fort Worth \| Los Angeles \| Miami \| New York–JFK \| New York–LaGuardia \| Philadelphia \| Phoenix–Sky Harbor \| Washington–National}} \| frequent_flyer = AAdvantage \| alliance = Oneworld \| fleet_size = 985 \| destinations 353<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines \|urlhttps://www.ch-aviation.com/portal/airline/AA \|access-dateMay 2, 2024 \|websitech-aviation \|languageen}}</ref> \| parent = American Airlines Group \| headquarters Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.<ref nameHQaddress>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/corporate-structure.jsp\|titleCorporate structure\|publisherAmerican Airlines\|access-dateMarch 22, 2022\|quoteLocation 1 Skyview Drive Fort Worth, TX 76155\|archive-dateJune 6, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160606191337/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aboutUs/corporateInformation/facts/structure.jsp\|url-statuslive}}</ref> \| key_people {{ubl\|classnowrap \| Robert Isom (CEO) \| Greg Smith (chairman)}} \| revenue {{increase}} {{US$\|49.6B\|linkyes}} (2024)<ref name"2024 results">{{cite news\|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/node/42651/html#i97ea9bde6c344339ae3e563bc73e11c6_115\|title2024 AAL Annual Report (10K)\|date19 February 2025\|website=American Airlines}}</ref> \| operating_income {{decrease}} {{US$\|2.6 billion}} (2024)<ref name"2024 results" /> \| net_income {{increase}} {{US$\|.8bn}} (2024)<ref name"2024 results" /> \| assets {{decrease}} {{US$\|61.8bn}} (2024)<ref name"2024 results" /> \| equity {{increase}} {{US$\|-5.0bn}} (2024)<ref name"2024 results" /> \| num_employees <!-- 133,300-28,860 -->103,440 (2024)<ref name="2024 results" /> \| website = [https://www.aa.com/ aa.com] \| notes = }} American Airlines, Inc. is a major airline in the United States headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, within the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, and is the largest airline in the world in terms of passengers carried and daily flights.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Ranabhat \|first1Sharad \|titleThe World’s Largest Global Airlines in April 2024 \|urlhttps://www.airwaysmag.com/new-post/largest-airlines-april \|websiteAirwaysMag \|access-date14 February 2025 \|locationDallas \|date12 May 2024}}</ref> American, along with its regional subsidiaries and contractors operating under the brand name American Eagle, operate an extensive international and domestic network with almost 6,800 flights per day to nearly 350 destinations in 48 countries.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group − About us − American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/american-airlines-group.jsp \|access-dateFebruary 22, 2018 \|websiteAa.com \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801115036/https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/american-airlines-group.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateSeptember 12, 2012 \|titleAmerican Air signs deal to contract out some flying to SkyWest \|urlhttps://news.yahoo.com/american-air-signs-deal-contract-flying-skywest-165209289.html?_esi1 \|access-dateOctober 3, 2012 \|websiteThe Associated \|publisherYahoo! News \|archive-dateMarch 19, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130319122027/http://news.yahoo.com/american-air-signs-deal-contract-flying-skywest-165209289.html?_esi1 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The airline is also a founding member of the Oneworld alliance, one of the world's three major airline alliances. American Airlines and American Eagle operate out of ten hubs, with Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) being the largest. The airline serves more than 200 million passengers annually, and averages more than 500,000 daily. {{As of\|2024}}, the company employs 103,440 staff members. History {{Main\|History of American Airlines}} "Flagship" American's chief aircraft type during the World War II period]] American Airlines was started in 1930 as a union of more than eighty small airlines.<ref name"ap">{{Cite news \|last1Koenig \|first1David \|last2Bomkamp \|first2Samantha \|dateNovember 29, 2011 \|titleAmerican Airlines parent seeks Ch. 11 protection \|workThe Seattle Times \|agency\|urlhttps://www.seattletimes.com/business/american-airlines-parent-seeks-ch-11-protection/ \|url-statuslive \|access-date2023-12-28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111204004443/https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gqSFH2Ou81RHegJYXJtAeU9CkyhA?docIdc6952820f230470692fc37e00d9d2d36 \|archive-dateDecember 4, 2011}}</ref> The two organizations from which American Airlines originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first created in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation. This, in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system and was renamed American Airlines. The airline fully developed its international business between 1970 and 2000. It purchased Trans World Airlines in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleTWA to be bought by American - Jan. 10, 2001 \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2001/01/10/deals/amr_twa/ \|access-dateNovember 14, 2019 \|websitemoney.cnn.com \|archive-dateDecember 5, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181205164658/https://money.cnn.com/2001/01/10/deals/amr_twa/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> American had a direct role in the development of the Douglas DC-3, which resulted from a marathon telephone call from American Airlines CEO C. R. Smith to Douglas Aircraft Company founder Donald Wills Douglas Sr., when Smith persuaded a reluctant Douglas to design a sleeper aircraft based on the DC-2 to replace American's Curtiss Condor II biplanes. (The existing DC-2's cabin was {{convert\|66\|in\|m}} wide, too narrow for side-by-side berths.) Douglas agreed to proceed with development only after Smith informed him of American Airline's intention to purchase 20 aircraft. The prototype DST (Douglas Sleeper Transport) first flew on December 17, 1935, the 32nd anniversary of the Wright Brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Its cabin was {{convert\|92\|in\|m\|abbron}} wide, and a version with 21 seats instead of the 14–16 sleeping berths of the DST was given the designation DC-3. There was no prototype DC-3; the first DC-3 built followed seven DSTs off the production line and was delivered to American Airlines.<ref>Pearcy, Arthur. Douglas DC-3 Survivors, Volume 1. Bourne End, Bucks, UK: Aston Publications, 1987. {{ISBN\|0-946627-13-4}}, p. 17</ref> American Airlines inaugurated passenger service on June 26, 1936, with simultaneous flights from Newark, New Jersey, and Chicago, Illinois.<ref>Holden, Henry. [http://www.dc3history.org/douglasdc3.html "DC-3 History"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100927084841/http://dc3history.org/douglasdc3.html \|date=September 27, 2010}}. dc3history.org. Retrieved October 7, 2010.</ref> American also had a direct role in the development of the DC-10, which resulted from a specification from American Airlines to manufacturers in 1966 to offer a widebody aircraft that was smaller than the Boeing 747, but capable of flying similar long-range routes from airports with shorter runways. McDonnell Douglas responded with the DC-10 trijet shortly after the two companies' merger.<ref nameWaddington_p06>Waddington 2000, pp. 6–18.</ref> On February 19, 1968, the president of American Airlines, George A. Spater, and James S. McDonnell of McDonnell Douglas announced American's intention to acquire the DC-10. American Airlines ordered 25 DC-10s in its first order.<ref>Endres 1998, p. 16.</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?idYd0yAAAAIBAJ&sjid0lwDAAAAIBAJ&pg7174,6365434&dqairbus&hlen "American Orders 25 'Airbus' Jets"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211104142745/https://news.google.com/newspapers?idYd0yAAAAIBAJ&sjid0lwDAAAAIBAJ&pg7174,6365434&dqairbus&hlen \|date=November 4, 2021}} St. Petersburg Times, September 14, 2011.</ref> The DC-10 made its first flight on August 29, 1970,<ref>Endres 1998, pp. 25–26.</ref> and received its type certificate from the FAA on July 29, 1971.<ref>Endres 1998, p. 28.</ref> On August 5, 1971, the DC-10 entered commercial service with American Airlines on a round-trip flight between Los Angeles and Chicago.<ref>Endres 1998, p. 52.</ref> In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, American Airlines' parent company, the AMR Corporation, filed for bankruptcy protection. In 2013, American Airlines merged with US Airways but kept the American Airlines name, as it was the better-recognized brand internationally; the combination of the two airlines resulted in the creation of the largest airline in the United States, and ultimately the world.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines – American company \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Airlines \|websiteBritannica.com \|access-dateNovember 2, 2016 \|archive-dateNovember 4, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161104034030/https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Airlines \|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2023, the company was added to the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://markets.ft.com/data/announce/detail?dockey1330-8992919en-0VAVKNQJAAF84L4CREVPMF412T\|titleAmerican Airlines Named to Dow Jones Sustainability World Index – Company Announcement - FT.com\|websitemarkets.ft.com}}</ref> Network Destinations {{As of\|2024\|09}}, American Airlines flies (or has flown) to the following destinations: {\| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" \|- ! Country or Territory ! City ! Airport ! Notes ! class="unsortable" \| Refs \|- \|American Samoa\|\|Pago Pago\|\|Pago Pago International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Antigua and Barbuda\|\|St. John's\|\|V. C. Bird International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Argentina\|\|Buenos Aires\|\|Ministro Pistarini International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Córdoba\|\|Ingeniero Aeronáutico Ambrosio L.V. Taravella International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web\|last1Schlappig\|first1Ben\|date2019-12-06\|titleAmerican Airlines Cuts Cordoba, Argentina Route\|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-cordoba-argentina/\|access-date2021-11-22\|websiteOne Mile at a Time\|language=en-US}}</ref> \|- \|Aruba\|\|Oranjestad\|\|Queen Beatrix International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Australia\|\|Brisbane\|\|Brisbane Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2024/Bound-for-Brisbane-American-Airlines-to-fly-Down-Under-next-winter-NET-RTS-02/default.aspx\|titleBound for Brisbane: American Airlines to fly Down Under next winter\|websiteAmerican Airlines Newsroom\|dateFebruary 1, 2024\|access-dateFebruary 1, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aeroroutes.com/eng/240205-aanw24bne\|titleAmerican Airlines Adds Dallas/Ft. Worth – Brisbane From late-Oct 2024\|websiteAeroRoutes\|date5 February 2024\|access-date=5 February 2024}}</ref> \|- \|Sydney\|\|Sydney Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"SYD_resumes">{{cite web \|urlhttp://australianaviation.com.au/2015/06/american-to-operate-syd-lax-qantas-returns-to-sfo/\|titleAmerican American Airlines to operate SYD-LAX, Qantas returning to SFO\|websiteAustralian Aviation\|date=June 10, 2015}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Bahamas\|\|Nassau\|\|Lynden Pindling International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Freeport\|\|Freeport International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Barbados\|\|Bridgetown\|\|Grantley Adams International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Belgium\|\|Brussels\|\|Brussels Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"EuroCuts">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/268803/american-adds-new-international-routes-in-s17/ \|titleAmerican adds new International routes in S17 \|firstJim \|lastLiu \|websiteRoutesonline \|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd. \|date=September 11, 2016}}</ref> \|- \|Belize\|\|Belize City\|\|Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Bermuda\|\|Hamilton\|\|L.F. Wade International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Bolivia\|\|La Paz\|\|El Alto International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/american-to-drop-la-paz-in-july-446234/\|titleAmerican Airlines will drop La Paz in Bolivia from its network beginning 4 July, in response to insufficient market demand.\|lastYeo\|firstGhim-Lay\|websiteFlightGlobal\|publisherDVV Media International Limited\|dateFebruary 26, 2018\|access-dateNovember 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Santa Cruz de la Sierra\|\|Viru Viru International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2019/07/30/american-airlines-ends-flights-to-bolivia/\|titleAmerican Airlines ends flights to Bolivia\|lastCurley\|firstRobert\|websiteBusiness Traveller\|publisherPanacea Media Limited\|dateJuly 30, 2019\|access-date=November 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Bonaire\|\|Kralendijk\|\|Flamingo International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/276251/american-adds-miami-bonaire-service-from-june-2018/\|titleAmerican adds Miami – Bonaire service from June 2018 \|firstJim \|lastLiu \|websiteRoutesonline \|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd. \|date=December 17, 2017}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"11"\|Brazil\|\|Belo Horizonte\|\|Tancredo Neves International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Brasília\|\|Brasília International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"2020change"/> \|- \|Campinas\|\|Viracopos International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Curitiba\|\|Afonso Pena International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/251429/american-airlines-miami-brazil-service-changes-from-feb-2016/\|titleAmerican Airlines Miami – Brazil Service Changes from Feb 2016\|websiteRoutesonline\|publisherInforma Markets\|dateOctober 14, 2015\|access-date=November 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Fortaleza\|\|Pinto Martins International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Manaus\|\|Eduardo Gomes International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.aviacionline.com/2021/07/american-airlines-stops-flying-between-miami-and-manaus-indefinitely/ \| titleAmerican Airlines stops flying between Miami and Manaus indefinitely \| dateJuly 28, 2021 }}</ref> \|- \|Porto Alegre\|\|Salgado Filho International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/253565/american-airlines-ends-porto-alegre-service-in-early-march-2016/\|titleAmerican Airlines Ends Porto Alegre Service in early-March 2016\|websiteRoutesonline\|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd.\|dateMarch 1, 2016\|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref> \|- \|Recife\|\|Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"TripAdvisor">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowTopic-g294280-i1045-k9394535-American_Air_cancels_Miami_to_Salvador_and_Recife_routes-Brazil.html \|title American Air cancels Miami to Salvador and Recife routes\|publisherTripAdvisor\|dateMarch 30, 2016\|access-date=July 31, 2018}}</ref> \|- \|Rio de Janeiro\|\|Rio de Janeiro/Galeão International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Salvador da Bahia\|\|Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"TripAdvisor"/> \|- \|São Paulo\|\|São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"4"\|Canada\|\|Calgary\|\|Calgary International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Montreal\|\|Montréal–Trudeau International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Toronto\|\|Toronto Pearson International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Vancouver\|\|Vancouver International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Cayman Islands\|\|George Town\|\|Owen Roberts International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Chile\|\|Santiago\|\|Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"3"\|China\|\|rowspan"2"\|Beijing\|\|Beijing Capital International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Beijing Daxing International Airport\|\|{{Terminated\|Suspended}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"AA moves to new Beijing Airport">{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.businesstravelnews.com/Global/American-to-Shift-to-New-Beijing-Airport\|title American to Shift to New Beijing Airport\| date=October 9, 2020 }}</ref> \|- \|Shanghai\|\|Shanghai Pudong International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| <ref name="American Airlines Announces Summer Schedule Changes to Match Reduced Customer Demand Related to COVID-19"/> \|- \|rowspan"7"\|Colombia\|\|Barranquilla\|\|Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Bogotá\|\|El Dorado International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Cali\|\|Alfonso Bonilla Aragón International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Cartagena\|\|Rafael Núñez International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Medellín\|\|José María Córdova International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Pereira\|\|Matecaña International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San Andres\|\|Gustavo Rojas Pinilla International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Costa Rica\|\|Liberia\|\|Guanacaste Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|San José\|\|Juan Santamaría International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Croatia\|\|Dubrovnik\|\|Dubrovnik Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"2020change">{{cite press release\|urlhttp://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2020/American-Airlines-Resets-International-Network-for-Remainder-of-2020-Through-Summer-2021-OPS-DIS-07/\|titleAmerican Airlines Resets International Network for Remainder of 2020 Through Summer 2021\|dateJuly 1, 2020\|access-dateJuly 10, 2020}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"6"\|Cuba\|\|Camagüey\|\|Ignacio Agramonte International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"aacubajune15">{{cite news \|lastLiu \|firstJim \|dateJune 15, 2016 \|titleAmerican Airlines Details Planned Cuba Schedule from Sep 2016 \|urlhttp://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/267465/american-airlines-details-planned-cuba-schedule-from-sep-2016/ \|access-dateJune 15, 2016}}</ref><ref name"Cuba2022">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aviacionline.com/2022/05/biden-administration-resumes-flights-to-cuban-cities-besides-havana/\|titleBiden administration resumes flights to Cuban cities besides Havana\|lastDíaz\|firstPablo\|websiteAviacionline\|date=May 16, 2022}}</ref> \|- \|Havana\|\|José Martí International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.dailynews.com/business/20150818/american-airlines-to-fly-from-lax-to-cuba\|titleAmerican Airlines to fly from LAX to Cuba\|workdailynews.com\|access-dateSeptember 14, 2016\|dateAugust 18, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/268801/american-plans-late-nov-2016-havana-launch/\|titleAmerican plans late-Nov 2016 Havana launch\|lastLiu\|firstJim\|websiteRoutesonline\|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd.\|access-date11 September 2016}}</ref> \|- \|Holguín\|\|Frank País Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"aacubajune15"/><ref name"Cuba2019">{{cite web \|lastGámez Torres \|firstNora \|date25 October 2019 \|titleThe Trump administration will end commercial flights to nine destinations in Cuba \|urlhttps://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/cuba/article236658748.html \|access-date25 October 2019 \|websiteMiami Herald}}</ref><ref name"Cuba2022"/> \|- \|Santa Clara\|\|Abel Santamaría Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"aacubajune15"/><ref name"Cuba2019"/><ref name="Cuba2022"/> \|- \|Santiago de Cuba\|\|Antonio Maceo Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/280889/american-schedules-additional-international-routes-in-s19/\|title American schedules additional international routes in S19 \|websiteRoutesonline \|publisherUBM (UK) Ltd. \|date8 October 2018}}</ref><ref name"Cuba2019"/><ref name="Cuba2022"/> \|- \|Varadero\|\|Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"aacubajune15"/><ref name"Cuba2019"/><ref name="Cuba2022"/> \|- \|Curaçao\|\|Willemstad\|\|Curaçao International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Czech Republic\|\|Prague\|\|Václav Havel Airport Prague\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"Budapest and Prague">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.philly.com/philly/business/transportation/american-airlines-to-begin-nonstop-flights-from-phl-to-budapest-prague-next-summer-20170816.html\|titleAmerican Airlines to begin nonstop flights from PHL to Budapest and Prague and restore a daily nonstop flight to Zurich\|lastLoyd\|firstLinda\|websiteThe Philadelphia Inquirer\|dateAugust 16, 2017}}</ref><ref name="OMAAT"/> \|- \|Denmark\|\|Copenhagen\|\|Copenhagen Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"auto1">{{cite web\|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/news/new-american-airlines-international-routes/\|titleAmerican Airlines launching new transatlantic routes\|publisherOne Mile At A Time\|date17 August 2023}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web \|titleMore for 2024: American Airlines adds new routes and destinations to see the world next summer \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2023/More-for-2024-American-Airlines-adds-new-routes-and-destinations-to-see-the-world-next-summer-NET-RTS-08/ \|access-date2023-09-05 \|websitenews.aa.com \|language=en-US}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"5"\|Dominican Republic\|\|La Romana\|\|La Romana International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Puerto Plata\|\|Gregorio Luperón International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Punta Cana\|\|Punta Cana International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Santiago de los Caballeros\|\|Cibao International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Santo Domingo\|\|Las Américas International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Ecuador\|\|Guayaquil\|\|José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Quito\|\|Mariscal Sucre International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|El Salvador\|\|San Salvador\|\|El Salvador International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Finland\|\|Helsinki\|\|Helsinki Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|rowspan"3"\|France\|\|rowspan"2"\|Paris\|\|Charles de Gaulle Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Orly Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Nice\|\|Côte d'Azur Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"auto1"/><ref name":0" /> \|- \|rowspan"4"\|Germany\|\|Berlin\|\|Berlin Tegel Airport\|\|{{Terminated\|Airport Closed}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Düsseldorf\|\|Düsseldorf Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"EuroCuts"/> \|- \|Frankfurt\|\|Frankfurt Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Munich\|\|Munich Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Greece\|\|Athens\|\|Athens International Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Grenada\|\|St. George's\|\|Maurice Bishop International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Guadeloupe\|\|Pointe-à-Pitre\|\|Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Guatemala\|\|Guatemala City\|\|La Aurora International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Guyana\|\|Georgetown\|\|Cheddi Jagan International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.caribjournal.com/.../american-airlines-planning-guyana-launch-november\|titleAmerican Airlines Planning Guyana Launch in November\|publisherCaribbean Journal\|date31 May 2018}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Haiti\|\|Cap-Haïtien\|\|Hugo Chávez International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"aa">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.haitiinnovation.org/american-airlines-offer-daily-direct-flights-cap-haïtien\|titleAmerican Airlines to offer daily direct flights to Cap-Haitian\|lastSchaaf\|firstBryan\|publisherHaiti Innovation\|access-dateApril 1, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines reduces service to Haiti, cancels Miami-Cap-Haïtien route \|urlhttps://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article243930267.html \|websiteMiami Herald \|date2020-07-01 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210722035334/https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article243930267.html \|archive-date2021-07-22 \|url-statuslive \|last1Charles \|first1Jacqueline}}</ref> \|- \|Port-au-Prince\|\|Toussaint Louverture International Airport (Suspended)\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"3"\|Honduras\|\|Roatán\|\|Juan Manuel Gálvez International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttp://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2013/American-Airlines-Begins-Nonstop-Service-Between-DallasFt-Worth-and-Roatan-Honduras-Increases-Service-Between-Miami-and-Roatan/default.aspx\|titleAmerican Airlines Begins Nonstop Service Between Dallas/Ft. Worth and Roatan, Honduras; Increases Service Between Miami and Roatan\|websiteAmerican Airlines Newsroom\|dateNovember 23, 2013\|access-dateNovember 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|San Pedro Sula\|\|La Mesa International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Tegucigalpa\|\|Comayagua International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Hong Kong\|\|Hong Kong\|\|Hong Kong International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"American Airlines Announces Summer Schedule Changes to Match Reduced Customer Demand Related to COVID-19">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2020/American-Airlines-Announces-Summer-Schedule-Changes-to-Match-Reduced-Customer-Demand-Related-to-COVID-19-OPS-DIS-04/default.aspx \|titleAmerican Airlines Announces Summer Schedule Changes to Match Reduced Customer Demand Related to COVID-19 \|access-dateApril 11, 2020 \|archive-dateApril 10, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200410224131/http://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2020/American-Airlines-Announces-Summer-Schedule-Changes-to-Match-Reduced-Customer-Demand-Related-to-COVID-19-OPS-DIS-04/default.aspx \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news\| url https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/american-airlines-reduce-international-flights-due-boeing-delays-wsj-2021-12-09/\| title American Airlines plans to reduce international flights next summer\| newspaper Reuters\| date 9 December 2021\| last1 Singh\| first1 Rajesh Kumar\| last2 Shepardson\| first2 David}}</ref> \|- \|Hungary\|\|Budapest\|\|Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\| <ref name"2020change"/> \|- \|Iceland\|\|Reykjavík\|\|Keflavík International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAmerican Airlines plans A321neo Philadelphia – Reykjavik service from June 2021\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/291191/american-airlines-plans-a321neo-philadelphia-reykjavik-service-from-june-2021/\|access-date2021-11-22\|websiteRoutes\|languageen-GB}}</ref><ref name"OMAAT">{{cite web \|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-slashes-philadelphia-transatlantic-routes/\|titleAmerican Slashes Philadelphia Transatlantic Routes\|websiteOne Mile at a Time\|date=December 20, 2020}}</ref> \|- \|India\|\|Delhi\|\|Indira Gandhi International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web\|last1Schlappig\|first1Ben\|date2021-08-29\|titleAmerican Airlines' New York To Delhi Route: Upgraded To 777-300ER\|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-new-york-delhi-route/\|access-date2021-11-22\|websiteOne Mile at a Time\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|titleAmerican Airlines Uses Partnerships to Grow Its Network, Offer Customers More Choice, and Provide a Premier Travel Experience in the Northeast\|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2021/American-Airlines-Uses-Partnerships-to-Grow-Its-Network-Offer-Customers-More-Choice-and-Provide-a-Premier-Travel-Experience-in-the-Northeast-NET-ALP-04/default.aspx\|access-date2021-11-22\|websitenews.aa.com\|language=en-US}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Ireland\|\|Dublin\|\|Dublin Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"AA">{{cite press release\|urlhttp://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/american-airlines-adjusts-international-winter-schedule-269425731.html\|titleAmerican Airlines Adjusts International Winter Schedule\|publisherPR Newswire Association LLC\|access-dateJuly 23, 2016}}</ref> \|- \|Shannon\|\|Shannon Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"AA"/> \|- \|Israel\|\|Tel Aviv\|\|David Ben Gurion International Airport\|\|{{perhaps\|Suspended}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines won't fly to Israel again until at least September 2025\|urlhttps://www.jta.org/2024/11/04/israel/american-airlines-wont-fly-to-israel-again-until-at-least-september-2025\|websiteJewish Telegraphic Agency \|dateNovember 4, 2024\|access-dateNovember 5, 2024}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"5"\|Italy\|\|Bologna\|\|Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/285806/american-airlines-s20-long-haul-changes-as-of-11aug19/?highlightAmerican%20Bologna\|titleAmerican Airlines S20 Long-Haul changes as of 11AUG19\|firstJim\|lastLiu\|websiteRoutesOnline\|date=August 11, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Milan\|\|Milan Malpensa Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name="American Airlines Announces Summer Schedule Changes to Match Reduced Customer Demand Related to COVID-19"/> \|- \|Naples\|\|Naples International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"auto1"/><ref name":0" /> \|- \|Rome\|\|Rome Fiumicino Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Venice\|\|Venice Marco Polo Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"AA"/><ref name=":0" /> \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Jamaica\|\|Kingston\|\|Norman Manley International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Montego Bay\|\|Sangster International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"5"\|Japan\|\|rowspan"2"\|Nagoya\|\|Chubu Centrair International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2005-10-01/business/0510010145_1_american-airlines-northwest-airlines-mary-frances-fagan\|titleAmerican Airlines to end flights to Nagoya, Japan\|firstMark\|lastSkertic\|publisherChicago Tribune\|dateOctober 1, 2005\|access-dateJuly 31, 2018\|archive-dateJanuary 10, 2014\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140110093426/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2005-10-01/business/0510010145_1_american-airlines-northwest-airlines-mary-frances-fagan\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \|- \|Komaki Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Osaka\|\|Kansai International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Tokyo\|\|Haneda Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-launch-service-between-los-angeles-and-tokyo\|titleAmerican Airlines To Launch Service Between Los Angeles And Tokyo Haneda In February 2016\|websiteAmerican Airlines Investor Relations\|dateNovember 4, 2015\|access-dateNovember 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Narita International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Martinique\|\|Fort-de-France\|\|Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|rowspan"11"\|Mexico\|\|Cancún\|\|Cancún International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Cozumel\|\|Cozumel International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Guadalajara\|\|Guadalajara International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Mexico City\|\|Mexico City International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Morelia\|\|General Francisco Mujica International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|León\|\|Bajío International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Oaxaca\|\|Oaxaca International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Puebla\|\|Puebla International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Puerto Vallarta\|\|Licenciado Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San José del Cabo\|\|Los Cabos International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Zihuatanejo\|\|Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo International Airport\|\|\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Netherlands\|\|Amsterdam\|\|Amsterdam Airport Schiphol\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|New Zealand\|\|Auckland\|\|Auckland Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Christchurch\|\|Christchurch Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Nicaragua\|\|Managua\|\|Augusto C. Sandino International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Panama\|\|Panama City\|\|Tocumen International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Paraguay\|\|Asunción\|\|Silvio Pettirossi International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Peru\|\|Lima\|\|Jorge Chávez International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Cuzco\|\|Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Portugal\|\|Lisbon\|\|Lisbon Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Qatar\|\|Doha\|\|Hamad International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web \|titleConnecting Customers to the Middle East and Beyond, American Airlines Announces Service to Doha, Qatar \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2021/Connecting-Customers-to-the-Middle-East-and-Beyond-American-Airlines-Announces-Service-to-Doha-Qatar-NET-ALP-12/default.aspx \|websiteAmerican Airlines Newsroom \|access-date17 January 2022 \|date=9 December 2021}}</ref> \|- \|Russia\|\|Moscow\|\|Domodedovo International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.kontinent.org/american-airlines-to-begin-service-from-chicago-to-moscow-2ytjs\|titleAmerican Airlines To Begin Service From Chicago To Moscow\|websiteНовый Континент\|publisherКОНТИНЕНТ 4U\|dateJune 13, 2008}}</ref> \|- \|Saint Kitts and Nevis\|\|Basseterre\|\|Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Saint Lucia\|\|Vieux Fort\|\|Hewanorra International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\|\|Kingstown\|\|Argyle International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.travelpulse.com/news/airlines/american-airlines-expands-st-vincent-service.html\|titleAmerican Airlines Expands St. Vincent Service\|firstBrian\|lastMajor\|websiteTravelPulse\|publisherNorthstar Travel Media, LLC\|dateJune 5, 2019\|access-dateNovember 9, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Sint Maarten\|\|Philipsburg\|\|Princess Juliana International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|South Korea\|\|Seoul\|\|Incheon International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite press release\|urlhttp://dfwairport.mediaroom.com/American-Airlines-Launches-New-Daily-Nonstop-Service-from-DFW-Airport-to-Seoul-South-Korea\|titleAmerican Airlines Launches New Daily Nonstop Service from DFW Airport to Seoul, South Korea\|websiteDFW Airport News Releases\|publisherDFW International Airport\|dateMay 9, 2013\|access-dateNovember 9, 2019\|archive-dateNovember 9, 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191109091213/http://dfwairport.mediaroom.com/American-Airlines-Launches-New-Daily-Nonstop-Service-from-DFW-Airport-to-Seoul-South-Korea\|url-status=dead}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Spain\|\|Barcelona\|\|Josep Tarradellas Barcelona–El Prat Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\|<ref name":0" /> \|- \|Madrid\|\|Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Suriname\|\|Paramaribo\|\|Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.local10.com/news/local/2021/09/07/american-airlines-flying-5-times-a-week-from-miami-to-suriname/ \| titleAmerican Airlines starts flying five times a week from Miami to Suriname \| dateSeptember 7, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://bes-reporter.com/american-airlines-drops-suriname-again-as-destination/ \| titleAmerican Airlines drops Suriname again as destination - \| date=December 7, 2022 }}</ref> \|- \|Sweden\|\|Stockholm\|\|Stockholm Arlanda Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Switzerland\|\|Zürich\|\|Zurich Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Trinidad and Tobago\|\|Port of Spain\|\|Piarco International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Turks and Caicos Islands\|\|Providenciales\|\|Providenciales International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"7"\|United Kingdom\|\|Birmingham\|\|Birmingham Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name="EuroCuts"/> \|- \|Edinburgh\|\|Edinburgh Airport\|\|{{Coming soon\|Resumes May 23, 2025}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Glasgow\|\|Glasgow Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAmerican S19 Long-haul changes as of 04JAN19\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/282315/american-s19-long-haul-changes-as-of-04jan19/\|access-date2021-11-22\|websiteRoutes\|languageen-GB}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"3"\|London\|\|Gatwick Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Heathrow Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Stansted Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Manchester\|\|Manchester Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"OMAAT"/> \|- \|rowspan"4"\|United States (Alabama)\|\|Birmingham\|\|Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Huntsville\|\|Huntsville International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Mobile\|\|Mobile Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Montgomery\|\|Montgomery Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Alaska)\|\|Anchorage\|\|Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Fairbanks\|\|Fairbanks International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"ktuu.com">{{Cite web\|lastCordova\|firstGilbert\|titleAmerican Airlines adding three new routes to Alaska, including first-time flights to Fairbanks\|urlhttps://www.alaskasnewssource.com/content/news/American-Airlines-adding-three-new-routes-to-Alaska-including-first-time-flights-to-Fairbanks-558690231.html\|access-date2021-11-22\|websitewww.alaskasnewssource.com\|dateAugust 29, 2019 \|languageen}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"3"\|United States (Arizona)\|\|Phoenix\|\|Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Tucson\|\|Tucson International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Yuma\|\|Yuma International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Arkansas)\|\|Bentonville\|\|Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"12"\|United States (California)\|\|Burbank\|\|Hollywood Burbank Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Fresno\|\|Fresno Yosemite International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Los Angeles\|\|Los Angeles International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Oakland\|\|Oakland International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAmerican Airlines ends Oakland service\|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/29/breaking-news/291586/american-airlines-ends-oakland-service/\|access-date2021-11-22\|websiteRoutes\|dateJune 2, 2020 \|language=en-GB}}</ref> \|- \|Ontario\|\|Ontario International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Palm Springs\|\|Palm Springs International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Sacramento\|\|Sacramento International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San Diego\|\|San Diego International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San Francisco\|\|San Francisco International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San Jose\|\|San Jose Mineta International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Santa Ana\|\|John Wayne Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Santa Barbara\|\|Santa Barbara Municipal Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"6"\|United States (Colorado)\|\|Colorado Springs\|\|Colorado Springs Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|Denver\|\|Denver International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Stapleton International Airport\|\|{{Terminated\|Airport Closed}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Eagle/Vail\|\|Eagle County Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Hayden/Steamboat Springs\|\|Yampa Valley Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Montrose\|\|Montrose Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Connecticut)\|\|Hartford\|\|Bradley International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (District of Columbia)\|\|rowspan"2"\|Washington, D.C.\|\|Dulles International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \| rowspan"9" \|United States (Florida)\|\|Fort Lauderdale\|\|Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Fort Myers\|\|Southwest Florida International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Jacksonville\|\|Jacksonville International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Miami\|\|Miami International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Orlando\|\|Orlando International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Sarasota\|\|Sarasota–Bradenton International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Pensacola\|\|Pensacola International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Tampa\|\|Tampa International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|West Palm Beach\|\|Palm Beach International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Georgia)\|\|Atlanta\|\|Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"4"\|United States (Hawaii)\|\|Honolulu\|\|Daniel K. Inouye International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Kahului\|\|Kahului Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Kailua-Kona\|\|Kona International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Lihue\|\|Lihue Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Idaho)\|\|Boise\|\|Boise Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Illinois)\|\|Chicago\|\|O'Hare International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|United States (Indiana)\|\|Indianapolis\|\|Indianapolis International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Iowa)\|\|Des Moines\|\|Des Moines International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Kansas)\|\|Wichita\|\|Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Kentucky)\|\|Louisville\|\|Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Louisiana)\|\|Baton Rouge\|\|Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|New Orleans\|\|Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Maine)\|\|Portland\|\|Portland International Jetport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Maryland)\|\|Baltimore\|\|Baltimore/Washington International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Massachusetts)\|\|Boston\|\|Logan International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Worcester\|\|Worcester Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Michigan)\|\|Detroit\|\|Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Minnesota)\|\|Minneapolis\|\|Minneapolis−Saint Paul International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Mississippi)\|\| Jackson\|\|Jackson–Medgar Wiley Evers International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Gulfport\|\|Gulfport–Biloxi International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Missouri)\|\|Kansas City\|\|Kansas City International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|St. Louis\|\|St. Louis Lambert International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Montana)\|\|Bozeman\|\|Bozeman Yellowstone International Airport\|\|\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Missoula\|\|Missoula International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Nebraska)\|\|Omaha\|\|Eppley Airfield\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Nevada)\|\|Las Vegas\|\|Harry Reid International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Reno\|\|Reno–Tahoe International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (New Hampshire)\|\|Manchester\|\|Manchester-Boston Regional Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (New Jersey)\|\|Newark\|\|Newark Liberty International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (New Mexico)\|\|Albuquerque\|\|Albuquerque International Sunport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Santa Fe\|\|Santa Fe Municipal Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \| rowspan"7" \|United States (New York)\|\|Albany\|\|Albany International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Buffalo\|\|Buffalo Niagara International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|New York City\|\|John F. Kennedy International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|LaGuardia Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Rochester\|\|Greater Rochester International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Syracuse\|\|Syracuse Hancock International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Watertown\|\|Watertown International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"4"\|United States (North Carolina)\|\|Charlotte\|\|Charlotte Douglas International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Greensboro\|\|Piedmont Triad International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Raleigh\|\|Raleigh–Durham International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Wilmington\|\|Wilmington International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (North Dakota)\|\|Bismarck\|\|Bismarck Municipal Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Fargo\|\|Hector International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"6"\|United States (Ohio)\|\|Akron\|\|Akron–Canton Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Cincinnati/Covington\|\|Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Cleveland\|\|Cleveland Hopkins International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Columbus\|\|John Glenn Columbus International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Dayton\|\|Dayton International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Toledo\|\|Toledo Express Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Oklahoma)\|\|Oklahoma City\|\|Will Rogers World Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Tulsa\|\|Tulsa International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Oregon)\|\|Portland\|\|Portland International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Redmond\|\|Redmond Municipal Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"4"\|United States (Pennsylvania)\|\|Harrisburg\|\|Harrisburg International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Philadelphia\|\|Philadelphia International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Wyoming Valley\|\|Wilkes-Barre/Scranton International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Pittsburgh\|\|Pittsburgh International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"3"\|United States (Puerto Rico)\|\|Aguadilla\|\|\|Rafael Hernández Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"auto">{{cite web \| urlhttp://www.departedflights.com/AAMIAhub.html \| title=AAMIAhub }}</ref> \|- \|Ponce\|\|Mercedita Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"auto"/> \|- \|San Juan\|\|Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Rhode Island)\|\|Providence\|\|Rhode Island T. F. Green International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (South Carolina)\|\|Charleston\|\|Charleston International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"3"\|United States (Tennessee)\|\|Knoxville\|\|McGhee Tyson Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Memphis\|\|Memphis International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Nashville\|\|Nashville International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"6"\|United States (Texas)\|\|Austin\|\|Austin–Bergstrom International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Dallas\|\|Dallas Fort Worth International Airport\|\|{{Airline hub}}\|\|align=center\| \|- \|El Paso\|\|El Paso International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|Houston\|\|George Bush Intercontinental Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|McAllen\|\|McAllen Miller International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|San Antonio\|\|San Antonio International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (U.S. Virgin Islands)\|\|Saint Croix\|\|Henry E. Rohlsen Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Saint Thomas\|\|Cyril E. King Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Utah)\|\|Salt Lake City\|\|Salt Lake City International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Virginia)\|\|Norfolk\|\|Norfolk International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Richmond\|\|Richmond International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|rowspan"2"\|United States (Washington)\|\|Seattle\|\|Seattle–Tacoma International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|align=center\| \|- \|Spokane\|\|Spokane International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Wisconsin)\|\|Milwaukee\|\|Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport\|\|aligncenter\| \|\|aligncenter\| \|- \|United States (Wyoming)\|\|Jackson\|\|Jackson Hole Airport\|\|\|\|align=center\| \|- \|Uruguay\|\|Montevideo\|\|Carrasco International Airport\|\|{{Airline seasonal}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web \|last1Liu \|first1Jim \|titleAmerican Airlines NS20 International Long-Haul changes as of 10MAR20 \|urlhttps://www.routesonline.com/news/38/airlineroute/290245/american-airlines-ns20-international-long-haul-changes-as-of-10mar20/ \|websiteRoutesonline \|access-date=12 March 2020}}</ref> \|- \|rowspan"3"\|Venezuela\|\|Caracas\|\|Simón Bolívar International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://miami.cbslocal.com/2019/03/15/american-airlines-stops-flights-to-venezuela/\|titleAmerican Airlines Stops Flights To Venezuela\|websiteCBS Miami\|publisher CBS Broadcasting Inc.\|dateMarch 15, 2019}}</ref><ref name"AA VEN">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/venezuela/article227901139.html\|titleAmerican Airlines stops flying to Venezuela\|lastDolven\|firstTaylor\|websiteMiami Herald\|dateMarch 15, 2019}}</ref> \|- \|Maracaibo\|\|La Chinita International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|<ref name"AA VEN"/> \|- \|Valencia\|\|Arturo Michelena International Airport\|\|{{Terminated}}\|\|aligncenter\|{{citation needed\|dateSeptember 2020}} \|} Hubs .]] American currently operates ten hubs.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNewsroom – Multimedia – Fact Sheets \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/multimedia/fact-sheets/default.aspx \|publisherAmerican Airlines Group\|locationFort Worth\|access-dateMarch 7, 2025 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240526094909/https://news.aa.com/multimedia/fact-sheets/default.aspx \|archive-date=May 26, 2024}}</ref> * Charlotte: American's hub for the southeastern United States and secondary Caribbean gateway. * Chicago–O'Hare: American's hub for the Midwest. * Dallas/Fort Worth: American's hub for the southern United States and largest hub overall. * Los Angeles: American's hub for the West Coast and secondary transpacific gateway. * Miami: American's primary Latin American and Caribbean hub. * New York–JFK: American's secondary transatlantic hub mainly serves destinations with high demand from local New York traffic. * New York–LaGuardia: American's New York hub for domestic flights with a few exceptions. * Philadelphia: American's primary transatlantic hub. * Phoenix–Sky Harbor: American's southwestern hub. * Washington–National: American's hub for the capital of the United States. Alliance and codeshare agreements American Airlines is a member of the Oneworld alliance and has codeshares with the following airlines:<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePartner airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/partner-airlines.jsp \|access-dateJanuary 28, 2025 \|archive-dateApril 6, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200406235533/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/partner-airlines.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref> {{Div col\|colwidth=20em}} * Aer Lingus * Air Tahiti Nui * Alaska Airlines * British Airways * Cape Air * Cathay Pacific * China Southern Airlines * Etihad Airways * Finnair * Fiji Airways * Gol Linhas Aéreas Inteligentes * Hawaiian Airlines * Iberia Airlines * IndiGo * Japan Airlines * JetSmart * LAM Mozambique Airlines * Malaysia Airlines * Philippine Airlines<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aeroroutes.com/eng/231204-aaprcodeshare\|titleAmerican Airlines Begins Philippine Airlines Codeshare From mid-Dec 2023\|publisherAeroRoutes\|dateDecember 4, 2023}}</ref> * Qantas * Qatar Airways * Royal Air Maroc * Royal Jordanian * Silver Airways * SriLankan Airlines {{div col end}} Joint ventures In addition to the above codeshares, American Airlines has entered into three joint ventures.<ref name"Business agreements">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/american-airlines-group.jsp \|titleAbout us, American Airlines Group, Business Agreements, Joint Business Agreement \|websiteaa.com \|access-dateNovember 18, 2021 \|archive-dateAugust 1, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801115036/https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/american-airlines-group.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Atlantic Joint Business American Airlines is a vital member of the Oneworld Atlantic joint venture on flights across the North Atlantic with European carriers British Airways, Finnair, and Iberia. Aer Lingus, which shares ownership with British Airways and Iberia, has received regulatory approval to join this joint venture.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAer Lingus and American Airlines expand codeshare agreement \|urlhttps://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2023/11/05/aer-lingus-and-american-airlines-expand-codeshare-agreement/ \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websiteBusiness Traveller \|languageen-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleDOT approves Aer Lingus addition to Oneworld transatlantic joint venture \|urlhttps://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2020/12/23/dot-approves-aer-lingus-addition-to-oneworld-transatlantic-joint-venture/ \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websiteBusiness Traveller \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Itineraries including flights operated by Oneworld partner Alaska Airlines are sold as part of itineraries in this JV, but Alaska is not a part of the JV.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAirways \|firstBritish \|titleATLANTIC JOINT BUSINESS PARTNERS ANNOUNCE NEW ROUTES BETWEEN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA FOR SUMMER 2022 \|urlhttps://mediacentre.britishairways.com/pressrelease/details/13601 \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websitemediacentre.britishairways.com \|languageen}}</ref> Pacific Joint Business American Airlines has a joint venture with fellow Oneworld member Japan Airlines for flights across the Pacific.<ref name":3">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.jal.co.jp/en/inter/route/pjb/ \|titleJapan Airlines and American Airlines Joint Service \|websitejal.co.jp \|access-dateFebruary 14, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 9, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190509042627/http://www.jal.co.jp/en/inter/route/pjb/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Combined, the airlines offer 16 daily flights to 9 cities between Japan and the United States with connections possible on Japan Airlines beyond Japan, and on American Airlines throughout North America, Latin America, and the Caribbean.<ref name":3" /> American Airlines has received approval to add additional service between John F. Kennedy International Airport and Haneda Airport in Tokyo, making it the only US airline flying between New York City and Tokyo and the joint venture the leader in frequencies offered between New York City and Tokyo's primary airport.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastVillamizar \|firstHelwing \|date2024-01-27 \|titleAmerican Obtains Tentative Approval for JFK-Tokyo Haneda Nonstop Service \|urlhttps://airwaysmag.com/american-tentative-approval-jfk-haneda-nonstop/ \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websiteAirways \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Gets Tentative Approval for New York-JFK to Tokyo Flights \|urlhttps://aeroxplorer.com/articles/american-airlines-gets-tentative-approval-for-new-york-jfk-to-tokyo-flights.php \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websiteaeroxplorer.com \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstSeth \|date2024-01-27 \|titleAmerican snags slots for JFK-Haneda service \|urlhttps://paxex.aero/american-airlines-jfk-haneda-slots/ \|access-date2024-01-28 \|websitePaxEx.Aero \|languageen-US}}</ref> Australia and New Zealand Joint Business In 2019, American Airlines received regulatory approval to enter into a joint business relationship with Qantas covering flights between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States.<ref>{{cite news \|dateJuly 19, 2019 \|titleAmerican Airlines and Qantas Receive Final Approval to Form Joint Business \|workAmerican Airlines \|publisher\|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2019/American-Airlines-and-Qantas-Receive-Final-Approval-to-Form-Joint-Business/ \|url-statuslive \|access-date2023-12-28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210808105548/https://www.cnet.com/news/american-airlines-and-qantas-gain-approval-to-form-joint-venture/ \|archive-dateAugust 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastShepardson \|firstDavid \|dateJuly 20, 2019 \|titleAmerican Airlines-Qantas joint venture wins final U.S. approval \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN1UE2FD/ \|websiteReuters}}</ref> Fleet <!-- This section is an excerpt of the introduction of the American Airlines fleet page. Please do not add a fleet table to this section. Detailed fleet information is covered in the posted American Airlines fleet page.--> {{Excerpt\|American Airlines fleet\|hatyes}} Cabins ;Flagship First ]] Flagship First is American's international and transcontinental first class product. It is offered only on Boeing 777-300ERs and select Airbus A321s, which American designates "A321T". The seats are fully lie-flat and offer direct aisle access with only one on each side of the aisle in each row.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSchlappig \|firstBen \|dateDecember 29, 2014 \|titleAA International First Class Review \|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-bother-international-first-class/ \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websiteOne Mile at a Time \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011311/https://onemileatatime.com/american-bother-international-first-class/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> As with the airline's other premium cabins, Flagship First offers wider food and beverage options, larger seats, and lounge access at certain airports.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMartin \|firstHugo \|titleAmerican Airlines' new lounge for elite fliers at LAX includes a Bloody Mary bar \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/la-fi-travel-briefcase-aa-lounge-20180112-story.html \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websitechicagotribune.com \|dateJanuary 12, 2018 \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011312/https://www.chicagotribune.com/la-fi-travel-briefcase-aa-lounge-20180112-story.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> American offers domestic Flagship First service on transcontinental routes between New York–JFK and Los Angeles, New York–JFK and San Francisco, New York-JFK and Santa Ana, Boston and Los Angeles, and Miami and Los Angeles, as well as on the standard domestic route between New York-JFK and Boston.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSeatGuru Seat Map American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.seatguru.com/airlines/American_Airlines/American_Airlines_Airbus_A321_new.php \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websitewww.seatguru.com \|archive-dateMay 8, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210508142908/https://seatguru.com/airlines/American_Airlines/American_Airlines_Airbus_A321_new.php \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The airline will debut new Flagship Suite premium seats and a revamped aircraft interior for its long-haul fleet with fresh deliveries of its Airbus A321XLR and Boeing 787-9 aircraft, beginning in 2024.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Introduces New Flagship Suite® Seats \|urlhttps://jetlinemarvel.net/american-airlines-introduces-new-flagship-suite-seats/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220927140608/https://jetlinemarvel.net/american-airlines-introduces-new-flagship-suite-seats/ \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2022 \|websiteWeb Archive \|dateSeptember 21, 2022 \|access-dateSeptember 21, 2022}}</ref> ;Flagship Business ]] Flagship Business is American's international and transcontinental business class product. It is offered on all Boeing 777-200ERs, Boeing 777-300ERs, Boeing 787-8s, and Boeing 787-9s, as well as select Airbus A321s. All Flagship Business seats are fully lie-flat.<ref name":1">{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Planes, Fleet and Seat Maps \|urlhttps://www.seatguru.com/airlines/American_Airlines/fleetinfo.php \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websitewww.seatguru.com \|archive-dateAugust 15, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160815154751/http://www.seatguru.com/airlines/American_Airlines/fleetinfo.php \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The amenities in Flagship Business include complimentary alcoholic/non-alcoholic beverages, multi-course meals, and lounge access. ;First and Business ]] First class is the highest class of service on domestically configured aircraft. When such aircraft are used on international services this cabin is branded as business class. Seats range from {{convert\|19\|-\|21\|in\|cm}} in width and have {{convert\|37\|-\|42\|in\|cm}} of pitch.<ref name":1" /> Dining options include complimentary alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages on all flights as well as standard economy snack offerings, enhanced snack basket selections on flights over {{convert\|500\|mi\|km}}, and meals on flights {{convert\|900\|mi\|km}} or longer.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePremium dining − Travel information − American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/travel-info/experience/dining/premium-dining.jsp \|access-dateMarch 6, 2022 \|websitewww.aa.com \|archive-dateMarch 6, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220306204722/https://www.aa.com/i18n/travel-info/experience/dining/premium-dining.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref> ;{{visible anchor\|Premium Economy}} Premium Economy is American's economy plus product. It is offered on all widebody aircraft. The cabin debuted on the airline's Boeing 787-9s in late 2016<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|lastDwyer-Lindgren \|firstJeremy \|titleNow flying on American: Real international-style premium economy seats \|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2016/10/17/now-flying-american-real-international-style-premium-economy-seats/91961866/ \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websiteUSA Today \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011309/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/todayinthesky/2016/10/17/now-flying-american-real-international-style-premium-economy-seats/91961866/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and is also available on Boeing 777-200s and -300s, and Boeing 787-8s. Premium Economy seats are wider than seats in the main cabin (American's economy cabin) and provide more amenities: Premium Economy customers get two free checked bags, priority boarding, and enhanced food and drink service, including free alcohol. This product made American Airlines the first U.S. carrier to offer a four-cabin aircraft.<ref name=":1" /> ;Main Cabin ]] Main Cabin (economy class) is American's economy product found on all mainline and regional aircraft in its fleet. Seats range from {{convert\|17\|-\|18.5\|in\|cm}} in width and have {{convert\|30\|-\|32\|in\|cm}} of pitch. American markets several rows within the main cabin immediately behind Main Cabin Extra as "Main Cabin Preferred", which requires an extra charge to select for those without status.<ref name=":1" /> ;{{visible anchor\|Main Cabin Extra}} Main Cabin Extra seats are located in the front few rows and exit rows of the economy cabin on all aircraft and have additional pitch, complimentary alcoholic beverages and boarding one group ahead of the main cabin.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSchlappig \|firstBen \|dateMarch 7, 2020 \|titleReview: American Airlines Main Cabin Extra 737 \|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-main-cabin-extra-review/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011310/https://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-main-cabin-extra-review/ \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websiteOne Mile at a Time}}</ref> It is available on all of the mainline fleet and American Eagle aircraft.<ref name=":1" /> ; Basic Economy American also offers Basic Economy, the airline's lowest main cabin fare on many routes. Basic Economy consists of a Main Cabin ticket with numerous restrictions, including waiting until check-in for a seat assignment, no upgrades or refunds, and boarding in the last group.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMartín \|firstHugo \|dateFebruary 25, 2017 \|titleUnited and American Airlines to board basic economy passengers last \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-travel-briefcase-basic-economy-20170225-story.html \|access-dateApril 26, 2021 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011311/https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-travel-briefcase-basic-economy-20170225-story.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Originally Basic Economy passengers could only carry a personal item. Later, American revised their Basic Economy policies to allow for a carry-on bag.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastZumbach \|firstLauren \|titleAmerican Airlines will let basic economy passengers travel with carry-on bags \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-biz-american-airlines-basic-economy-carry-on-bags-20180726-story.html \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websitechicagotribune.com \|dateJuly 26, 2018 \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427011314/https://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-biz-american-airlines-basic-economy-carry-on-bags-20180726-story.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2017, American announced it would add more seats to some of its Boeing 737 MAX 8 jets and reduce overall legroom in the basic economy class. The last three rows were to lose {{convert\|2\|in\|cm}}, going from the current {{convert\|31\|to\|29\|in\|cm}}. The remainder of the main cabin was to have {{convert\|30\|in\|cm}} of legroom. This "Project Oasis" seating configuration has since been expanded to all 737 MAX 8s as well as standard Boeing 737-800 and non-transcontinental Airbus A321 jets. New Airbus A321neo jets have been delivered with the same configuration. This configuration has been considered unpopular with passengers, especially American's frequent flyers, as the new seats have less padding, less legroom, and no seatback entertainment.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastOstrower \|firstJon \|dateMay 3, 2017 \|titleAmerican Airlines is cutting more legroom in economy class \|workCNN Money \|publisherCable News Network \|urlhttps://money.cnn.com/2017/05/02/news/companies/american-airlines-legroom/index.html \|access-dateJanuary 28, 2019 \|archive-dateJanuary 29, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190129010303/https://money.cnn.com/2017/05/02/news/companies/american-airlines-legroom/index.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://viewfromthewing.com/american-airlines-president-squeezing-more-seats-into-boeing-737s-is-a-real-success/ \| titleAmerican Airlines President: Squeezing More Seats into Boeing 737s is "A Real Success" \| dateDecember 24, 2019 }}</ref> Reward programs AAdvantage {{Main\|AAdvantage}} AAdvantage is the frequent flyer program for American Airlines. It was launched on May 1, 1981, and remains the largest frequent flyer program, with over 115 million members as of 2021.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2021/AAdvantage-Celebrates-40-Years-of-Loyalty-Innovation-AADV-04/default.aspx\|titleAAdvantage Celebrates 40 Years of Loyalty Innovation\|websitenews.aa.com\|access-dateMarch 26, 2023}}</ref> Miles accumulated in the program allow members to redeem tickets, upgrade service class, or obtain free or discounted car rentals, hotel stays, merchandise, or other products and services through partners. The most active members, based on the accumulation of Loyalty Points with American Airlines, are designated AAdvantage Gold, AAdvantage Platinum, AAdvantage Platinum Pro, and AAdvantage Executive Platinum elite members, with privileges such as separate check-in, priority upgrade, and standby processing, or free upgrades. AAdvantage status corresponds with Oneworld status levels allowing elites to receive reciprocal benefits from American's Oneworld partner airlines.<ref>[http://www.aa.com/aa/i18nForward.do?p/AAdvantage/partners/airlines/oneWorld.jsp#elite oneworld Alliance] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081220083602/http://www.aa.com/aa/i18nForward.do?p%2FAAdvantage%2Fpartners%2Fairlines%2FoneWorld.jsp#elite \|dateDecember 20, 2008}}. Aa.com (October 1, 2010). Retrieved on November 4, 2010.</ref>{{Better source needed\|date=January 2019}} AAdvantage co-branded credit cards are also available and offer other benefits. The cards are issued by CitiCards, a subsidiary of Citigroup, Barclaycard, and Bilt card in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAAdvantage credit cards − AAdvantage program − American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp \|access-dateJune 26, 2021 \|websitewww.aa.com \|archive-dateJune 26, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210626080647/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref> by several banks including Butterfield Bank and Scotiabank in the Caribbean,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleButterfield / AAdvantage MasterCard - Benefits - American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localeen_BM \|access-dateJune 26, 2021 \|websitewww.aa.com \|archive-dateJune 26, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210626080645/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localeen_BM \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleScotiabank / AAdvantage cards - Benefits - American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localeen_BB \|access-dateJune 26, 2021 \|websitewww.aa.com \|archive-dateJune 26, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210626080647/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localeen_BB \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and by Banco Santander in Brazil.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCartões de crédito AAdvantage no Brasil – Programa AAdvantage – American Airlines \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localept_BR \|access-dateJune 26, 2021 \|websitewww.aa.com \|archive-dateJune 26, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210626080646/https://www.aa.com/i18n/aadvantage-program/miles/partners/credit-card/aadvantage-credit-cards.jsp?localept_BR \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In December 2024, it was announced that American would be cutting ties with Barclays and would instead be rolling members into its partnership with Citigroup starting in 2026.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-12-06 \|titleAmerican Airlines Is Dropping Barclays from its Credit Card Program \|urlhttps://www.travelmarketreport.com/air/articles/american-airlines-is-dropping-barclays-from-its-credit-card-program \|access-date2024-12-06 \|website=www.travelmarketreport.com}}</ref> AAdvantage allows one-way redemption, starting at 7,500 miles.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines AAdvantage Points \|urlhttps://travel.usnews.com/rankings/travel-rewards/airline-rewards/american-airlines-aadvantage-points/ \|access-dateApril 26, 2021 \|websiteU.S. News & World Report \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427013614/https://travel.usnews.com/rankings/travel-rewards/airline-rewards/american-airlines-aadvantage-points/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Admirals Club The Admirals Club was conceived by AA president C.R. Smith as a marketing promotion shortly after he was made an honorary Texas Ranger. Inspired by the Kentucky colonels and other honorary title designations, Smith decided to make particularly valued passengers "admirals" of the "Flagship fleet" (AA called its aircraft "Flagships" at the time).<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLi \|firstLucy \|titleUltimate Guide to Admirals Club \|urlhttp://www.loungebuddy.com/admirals-club-ultimate-guide/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906212847/http://www.loungebuddy.com/admirals-club-ultimate-guide/ \|archive-dateSeptember 6, 2015 \|access-dateJuly 20, 2015 \|websiteLoungeBuddy \|publisherLoungeBuddy, Inc}}</ref>{{Better source needed\|dateJanuary 2019}} The list of admirals included many celebrities, politicians, and other VIPs, as well as more "ordinary" customers who had been particularly loyal to the airline.{{citation needed\|date=January 2019}} There was no physical Admirals Club until shortly after the opening of LaGuardia Airport. During the airport's construction, New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia had an upper-level lounge for press conferences and business meetings. At one such press conference, he noted that the entire terminal was being offered for lease to airline tenants; after a reporter asked whether the lounge would be leased as well, LaGuardia replied that it would, and a vice president of AA immediately offered to lease the premises. The airline then procured a liquor license and began operating the lounge as the "Admirals Club" in 1939.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTurell \|firstClaire \|dateMarch 18, 2019 \|titleThe Admirals Club guide \|urlhttps://blog.blacklane.com/travel/airports/the-admirals-club-guide/#:~:textThe%20club%20was%20created%20by,marketed%20using%20a%20nautical%20theme. \|access-dateJuly 4, 2020 \|websiteBlacklane Blog \|archive-dateJuly 4, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200704161457/https://blog.blacklane.com/travel/airports/the-admirals-club-guide/#:~:textThe%20club%20was%20created%20by,marketed%20using%20a%20nautical%20theme. \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The second Admirals Club opened at Washington National Airport. Because it was illegal to sell alcohol in Virginia at the time, the club contained refrigerators for the use of its members so they could store their liquor at the airport.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAirlines \|firstAmerican \|dateMarch 22, 2024 \|titleAdmirals Club History \|urlhttps://www.flyertalk.com/forum/american-airlines-aadvantage/983238-admirals-club-history-logo-name.html#:~:textThe%20airline's%20second%20club%20was,stored%20bottles%20for%20its%20members. \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20141022180530/http://www.aa.com/i18n/amrcorp/corporateInformation/facts/admiralshistory.jsp#selection-957.0-957.21 \|archive-dateOctober 22, 2014 \|access-dateMarch 22, 2024 \|websiteFlyerTalk}}</ref> For many years, membership in the Admirals Club (and most other airline lounges) was by the airline's invitation. After a passenger sued for discrimination,<ref name"timeac">{{Cite news \|dateJuly 15, 1966 \|titleToward Equality for VIPs \|magazineTime \|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836046,00.html?iidchix-sphere \|url-statusdead \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090114112519/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C836046%2C00.html?iidchix-sphere \|archive-dateJanuary 14, 2009}}</ref> the club switched to a paid membership program in 1974.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Bongartz \|first1Roy \|titleThanks to One Stubborn Man, Everyone Can Be an Airport V.I.P. \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/17/archives/thanks-to-one-stubborn-man-everyone-can-be-an-airport-vip-the.html \|access-dateDecember 12, 2021 \|workThe New York Times \|dateMarch 17, 1974 \|page1, § 10 \|archive-dateDecember 12, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212203314/https://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/17/archives/thanks-to-one-stubborn-man-everyone-can-be-an-airport-vip-the.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>American Airlines, Inc., 64 C.A.B. [https://books.google.com/books?idgS85AAAAIAAJ&q%22admirals+club%22&pgPA566 555] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211212203314/https://books.google.com/books?idgS85AAAAIAAJ&pgPA566&lpgPA566&dq%22civil+aeronautics+board%22+%22admirals+club%22&sourcebl&otsxINAvo4Ynw&sigACfU3U2955h9tnuR4U1B5f5MXbiAyYw1xw&hlen&saX&ved2ahUKEwj2k5rYiN_0AhUHmHIEHR2LD1EQ6AF6BAgZEAM#vonepage&q%22admirals%20club%22&ffalse \|dateDecember 12, 2021}} (1974).</ref> Flagship Lounge Though affiliated with the Admirals Club and staffed by many of the same employees, the Flagship Lounge is a separate lounge designed explicitly for customers flying in first class and business class on international flights and transcontinental domestic flights.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastSatchell \|firstArlene \|dateNovember 16, 2017 \|titleAmerican's Flagship Lounge at MIA opens Tuesday for first-class, business travelers \|urlhttps://www.sun-sentinel.com/business/fl-bz-mia-new-american-flagship-lounge-20171116-story.html \|access-dateMay 14, 2019 \|websiteSun-Sentinel \|archive-dateMay 14, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190514225738/https://www.sun-sentinel.com/business/fl-bz-mia-new-american-flagship-lounge-20171116-story.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for American Airlines are (as of the financial year ending 31 December):<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines - Corporate News \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/multimedia/fact-sheets/default.aspx#gallery1-1 \|access-date23 March 2025 \|website=AA}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right;" ! !Net income<br>(US$ m){{Efn\|Airline group\|name=group}} !Number of<br>employees<br>(FTE, k){{Efn\|Mainline\|name=airline}} !Passenger<br>enplanements<br>(m){{Efn\|name=group}} !Passenger<br>load factor<br>(%){{Efn\|name=group}} !Fleet size{{Efn\|name=airline}} !References \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2015 \|7,610 \|99 \|201 \|83.0 \|946 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Reports 2015 Full Year Profit \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2016/American-Airlines-Group-Reports-Record-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-Profit/default.aspx \|access-dateOctober 14, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2016 \|2,676 \|101 \|198 \|81.7 \|930 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Reports 2016 Full Year Profit \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2017/American-Airlines-Group-Reports-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-Profit/default.aspx \|access-dateOctober 14, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2017 \|1,919 \|103 \|194 \|81.9 \|948 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2017 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-group-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-2 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2018 \|1,412 \|102 \|203 \|82.0 \|956 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2018 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-group-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-3 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2019 \|1,686 \|104 \|215 \|84.6 \|942 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2019 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-group-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-4 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \|2020 \|<span style="color:red;">−8,885</span> \|78 \|95 \|64.1 \|855 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2020 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-2020 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \|2021 \|<span style="color:red;">−1,993</span> \|97 \|165 \|75.3 \|865 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2021 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-2021 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \|2022 \|127 \|102 \|199 \|82.9 \|925 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Reports Full-Year 2022 Financial Results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-2022 \|access-dateOctober 12, 2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \|2023 \|822 \|103 \|210 \|83.5 \|965 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 25, 2024 \|titleAmerican Airlines reports fourth-quarter and full-year 2023 financial results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/news-releases/news-release-details/american-airlines-reports-fourth-quarter-and-full-year-2023 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|- \|2024 \|846 \|103 \|226 \|84.9 \|977 \|<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 25, 2025 \|titleAmerican Airlines reports fourth-quarter and full-year 2023 financial results \|urlhttps://americanairlines.gcs-web.com/node/42651/html\|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> \|} Ownership and structure American Airlines, Inc., is publicly traded through its parent company, American Airlines Group Inc., under NASDAQ: AAL {{NASDAQ\|AAL}}, with a market capitalization of about $11 billion as of 2024, and is included in the S&P 500 index.<ref name=":0" /> American Eagle is a network of six regional carriers that operate under a codeshare and service agreement with American, operating flights to destinations in the United States, Canada, the Caribbean, and Mexico. Three of these carriers are independent, and three are subsidiaries of American Airlines Group: Envoy Air Inc., Piedmont Airlines, Inc., and PSA Airlines Inc.<ref name":0" /> Headquarters American Airlines is headquartered across several buildings in Fort Worth, Texas that it calls the "Robert L. Crandall Campus" in honor of former president and CEO Robert Crandall. The {{convert\|1700000\|sqft\|adjon}}, five-building office complex called was designed by Pelli Clarke Pelli Architects.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAmerican Airlines Robert L. Crandall Campus\|urlhttps://corpsbest.com/american-airlines-corporate-office/\|access-dateDecember 2, 2021\|websiteCorps Best American Airlines Corporate Office LLC\|archive-dateDecember 24, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211224025736/https://corpsbest.com/american-airlines-corporate-office/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The campus is located on 300 acres, adjacent to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, American's fortress hub.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastArnold \|firstKyle \|dateSeptember 23, 2019 \|titleAmerican Airlines unveils new $350 million headquarters in Fort Worth \|urlhttps://www.dallasnews.com/business/local-companies/2019/09/23/american-airlines-unveils-new-350-million-headquarters-in-fort-worth/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211202163434/https://www.dallasnews.com/business/local-companies/2019/09/23/american-airlines-unveils-new-350-million-headquarters-in-fort-worth/ \|archive-dateDecember 2, 2021 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|website=The Dallas Morning News}}</ref> Before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City.<ref>World Airline Directory. Flight International. March 20, 1975. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1975/1975%20-%200536.html "472"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101203194144/http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1975/1975%20-%200536.html \|dateDecember 3, 2010}}.</ref><ref>[http://gonyc.about.com/od/manhattan/l/bl_gramercy.htm "Flatiron / Gramercy / Murray Hill / Union Square: Manhattan Neighborhood Map"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101123060307/http://gonyc.about.com/od/manhattan/l/bl_gramercy.htm \|dateNovember 23, 2010}} About.com. Retrieved January 25, 2009.</ref> In 1979, American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, which affected up to 1,300 jobs. Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a "betrayal" of New York City.<ref>Sterba, James P. [https://www.nytimes.com/1978/11/16/archives/american-will-shift-headquarters-from-manhattan-to-dallas-airport.html "American Will Shift Headquarters From Manhattan to Dallas Airport; Big Economies Predicted"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180430062740/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/11/16/archives/american-will-shift-headquarters-from-manhattan-to-dallas-airport.html \|dateApril 30, 2018}} The New York Times. Thursday November 16, 1978. Page A1. Retrieved August 27, 2009.</ref> American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas.<ref name"FortWorthHQFinished">[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id9ZYTAAAAIBAJ&sjid5gUEAAAAIBAJ&pg3054,25513&dqamerican-airlines+new+headquarters "American Airlines Finishes Moving into Headquarters Monday"]. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140907151857/http://news.google.com/newspapers?id9ZYTAAAAIBAJ&sjid5gUEAAAAIBAJ&pg3054,25513&dqamerican-airlines+new+headquarters \|dateSeptember 7, 2014}} Associated Press at Ocala Star-Banner. January 16, 1983. 6A. Google News 4 of 62. Retrieved August 27, 2009.</ref><!--January 16, 1983 is a Sunday, so January 17 would be a Monday--> On January 17, 1983, the airline finished moving into a $150&nbsp;million (${{inflation\|USD\|150,000,000\|1983\|r-6\|fmtc}} when adjusted for inflation), {{convert\|550000\|sqft\|adjon}} facility in Fort Worth; $147&nbsp;million (about ${{inflation\|USD\|147,000,000\|1983\|r-6\|fmtc}} when adjusted for inflation) in Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport bonds financed the headquarters. The airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility.<ref name="FortWorthHQFinished" /> Following the merger of US Airways and American Airlines, the new company consolidated its corporate headquarters in Fort Worth, abandoning the US Airways headquarters in Phoenix, AZ. As of 2015, American Airlines is the corporation with the most significant presence in Fort Worth.<ref name"BrownSteveHQ">{{Cite news \|lastHethcock \|firstBill \|dateOctober 22, 2015 \|titleAmerican Airlines will build new headquarters in Fort Worth \|workbizjournals.com \|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/dallas/news/2015/10/22/american-airlines-will-build-new-four-building-hq.html \|access-date2023-12-28}}</ref> In 2015, American announced it would build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016, and occupancy was completed in September 2019.<ref name"OwensWhitelyDouglas">{{Cite news \|dateOctober 22, 2015 \|titleAmerican to build new headquarters in Fort Worth \|workWFAA \|urlhttps://www.wfaa.com/article/news/american-to-build-new-headquarters-in-fort-worth/287-27442074 \|url-statuslive \|access-date2023-12-28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151024221818/http://www.wfaa.com/story/news/2015/10/22/american-to-build-new-headquarters-in-fort-worth/74395434/ \|archive-dateOctober 24, 2015}}</ref> The airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building.<ref nameBrownSteveHQ /> It will be located on a {{convert\|41\|acre\|ha\|adjon}} property adjacent to the airline's flight academy and conference and training center, west of Texas State Highway 360, {{convert\|2\|mi\|km}}<ref nameOwensWhitelyDouglas /> west from the current headquarters. The airline will lease {{convert\|300\|acre\|ha}} from Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport, and this area will include the headquarters.<ref nameBrownSteveHQ /> Construction of the new headquarters began after the demolition of the Sabre facility, previously on the site.<ref nameOwensWhitelyDouglas /> The airline considered developing a new headquarters in Irving, Texas, on the old Texas Stadium site, before deciding to keep the headquarters in Fort Worth.<ref nameBrownSteveHQ /> Corporate identity Logo In 1931, an American employee, Goodrich Murphy designed the AA logo as an entry in a logo contest. The eagle in the logo was copied from a Scottish hotel brochure.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|titleTales From an Era When Airlines Knew Good Design \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/2015/05/tales-era-airlines-knew-good-design/ \|magazineWired \|access-dateMay 22, 2015 \|archive-dateJune 27, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180627203949/https://www.wired.com/2015/05/tales-era-airlines-knew-good-design/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The logo was redesigned by Massimo Vignelli in 1967.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVignelli Associates About the AA Logo \|urlhttp://www.vignelli.com/home/identity/aa.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201175513/http://vignelli.com/home/identity/aa.html \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2017 \|access-dateDecember 2, 2011 \|websiteVignelli.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastJames \|firstNancy \|date2023-12-26 \|titleAmerican Airlines Vs Delta: Seating, Dining, Loyalty Programs And More \|urlhttps://airlinespolicy.com/blog/american-airlines-vs-delta/ \|access-date2023-12-28 \|website}}</ref> Thirty years later, in 1997, American Airlines was able to make its logo Internet-compatible by buying the domain AA.com. AA is also American's two-letter IATA airline designator.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCurrent Airline Members \|urlhttps://www.iata.org/about/members/Pages/airline-list.aspx?Alltrue \|access-dateFebruary 5, 2019 \|websiteIata.org \|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207015424/https://www.iata.org/about/members/Pages/airline-list.aspx?Alltrue \|url-status=live}}</ref> On January 17, 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign with FutureBrand dubbed "A New American". This included a new logo, which includes elements of the 1967 logo.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWilson \|firstMark \|dateJanuary 22, 2013 \|titleAmerican Airlines Rebrands Itself, And America Along With It \|urlhttps://www.fastcompany.com/1671677/american-airlines-rebrands-itself-and-america-along-with-it \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websiteFast Company \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427013612/https://www.fastcompany.com/1671677/american-airlines-rebrands-itself-and-america-along-with-it \|url-statuslive}}</ref> American Airlines faced difficulty obtaining copyright registration for their 2013 logo. On June 3, 2016, American Airlines sought to register it with the United States Copyright Office,<ref name"US Copyright Office Ruling">{{Cite web \|lastZaller Rowland \|firstCatherine \|dateJanuary 8, 2018 \|titleRe: Second Request for Reconsideration for Refusal to Register American Airlines Flight Symbol; Correspondence ID: 1-28H4ZFK; SR#: 1-3537494381 \|urlhttps://www.copyright.gov/rulings-filings/review-board/docs/american-airlines-flight-symbol.pdf \|access-dateJanuary 26, 2018 \|websiteCopyright.gov \|publisherUnited States Copyright Office \|archive-dateJanuary 27, 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180127084157/https://www.copyright.gov/rulings-filings/review-board/docs/american-airlines-flight-symbol.pdf \|url-statuslive}}</ref> but in October of that year, the Copyright Office ruled that the logo was ineligible for copyright protection, as it did not pass the threshold of originality, and was thus in the public domain.<ref name"US Copyright Office Ruling" /> American requested that the Copyright Office reconsider. Still, on January 8, 2018, the Copyright Office affirmed its initial determination.<ref name"US Copyright Office Ruling" /><ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 25, 2018 \|titleUS Copyright Office Says What We're All Thinking: American Airlines Lacks Creativity – One Mile at a Time \|urlhttps://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-copyright/ \|websiteOne Mile at a Time \|access-dateJune 9, 2020 \|archive-dateJuly 25, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725050129/https://onemileatatime.com/american-airlines-copyright/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> After American Airlines submitted additional materials, the Copyright Office reversed its decision on December 7, 2018, and ruled that the logo contained enough creativity to merit copyright protection.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 7, 2018 \|titleRe: Registration Decision Regarding American Airlines Flight Symbol; Correspondence ID 1-28H4ZFK; SR 1-3537494381 \|urlhttps://www.copyright.gov/rulings-filings/review-board/docs/american-airlines.pdf \|access-dateJune 23, 2019 \|publisherUnited States Copyright Office \|archive-dateApril 28, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200428001552/https://www.copyright.gov/rulings-filings/review-board/docs/american-airlines.pdf \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Aircraft livery American's early liveries varied widely, but a standard livery was adopted in the 1930s, featuring an eagle painted on the fuselage.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 17, 2013 \|titleAmerican Airlines Unveils New Logo and Livery \|urlhttp://www.airlinesanddestinations.com/aircraft/american-airlines-unveils-new-logo-and-livery/ \|access-dateJuly 26, 2017 \|websiteAirlines and Destinations \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201043653/http://www.airlinesanddestinations.com/aircraft/american-airlines-unveils-new-logo-and-livery/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> The eagle became a symbol of the company and inspired the name of American Eagle Airlines. Propeller aircraft featured an international orange lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.<ref>"Boeing 707 Jet Airliner Non-Stop Service between New York City and Los Angeles", Boeing Magazine 30 (1958), 66.</ref> In the late 1960s, American commissioned designer Massimo Vignelli to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage and a simple "AA" logo, without an eagle, on the tail; instead, Vignelli created a highly stylized eagle, which remained the company's logo until January 16, 2013.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateJanuary 17, 2013 \|titleWhy Is American Airlines Changing Its Stripes? \|urlhttps://www.cntraveler.com/stories/2013-01-17/thoughts-on-the-new-american-airlines-logo \|access-dateMay 15, 2022 \|websiteCondé Nast Traveler \|archive-dateOctober 28, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201028104832/https://www.cntraveler.com/stories/2013-01-17/thoughts-on-the-new-american-airlines-logo \|url-statuslive}}</ref> in May 2012]] On January 17, 2013, American unveiled a new livery.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 17, 2013 \|titleAmerican Airlines unveils new logo, livery \|workChicago Tribune \|urlhttp://www.chicagotribune.com/business/breaking/chi-american-airlines-livery-20130117,0,198977.story \|url-statusdead \|access-dateJanuary 17, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130217030650/http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/breaking/chi-american-airlines-livery-20130117,0,198977.story \|archive-dateFebruary 17, 2013}}</ref> Before then, American had been the only major U.S. airline to leave most of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. This was because C. R. Smith would not say he liked painted aircraft and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Robert "Bob" Crandall later justified the distinctive natural metal finish by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving fuel costs.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateOctober 8, 2008 \|titleDelta, Air Canada Among Carriers Weighing Benefit of Paint Stripping \|urlhttp://industry.bnet.com/travel/1000148/paint-vs-bare-metal-on-airplanes/ \|access-dateDecember 2, 2011 \|websiteIndustry.bnet.com \|archive-dateDecember 12, 2008 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081212161241/http://industry.bnet.com/travel/1000148/paint-vs-bare-metal-on-airplanes/ \|url-statusdead}}</ref> In January 2013, American launched a new rebranding and marketing campaign dubbed "The New American." In addition to a new logo, American Airlines introduced a new livery for its fleet. The airline calls the new livery and branding "a clean and modern update".<ref name"autogenerated1">{{Cite web \|titleBecoming a new American \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/newamerican?anchorLocationHomePageHero1&reportedTitleBecoming%20a%20new%20American&reportedPosition0&urlundefined&_localeen_US&repositoryNameundefined&repositoryIdundefined \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131008174901/https://www.aa.com/newamerican?anchorLocationHomePageHero1&reportedTitleBecoming%20a%20new%20American&reportedPosition0&urlundefined&_localeen_US&repositoryNameundefined&repositoryIdundefined \|archive-dateOctober 8, 2013 \|access-dateMarch 6, 2013 \|websiteAmerican Airlines}}</ref> The current design features an abstract American flag on the tail, along with a silver-painted fuselage, as a throw-back to the old livery. The new design was painted by Leading Edge Aviation Services in California.<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|dateJanuary 13, 2013 \|titleAmerican Airlines Debuts New, Modern Look \|urlhttps://news.aa.com/news/news-details/2013/American-Airlines-Debuts-New-Modern-Look/default.aspx \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130310095631/http://www.star-telegram.com/2013/01/17/4556563/american-airlines-shows-off-new.html \|archive-dateMarch 10, 2013 \|access-dateJanuary 29, 2014 \|websiteAmerican Airlines Newsroom}}</ref> Doug Parker, the incoming CEO, indicated that the new livery could be short-lived, stating that "[the] only reason this is an issue now is that they just did it right in the middle [of the merger], which kind of makes it confusing, so that allows us, actually, to decide if we are going to do something different because we have so many airplanes to paint".<ref>King, Eric. (March 28, 2013) [http://www.nbcdfw.com/news/business/American-Airlines-New-Livery-Soon-Could-Become-Its-Old-Look-200532901.html American Airline's New Livery Soon Could Become Its Old Look \| NBC 5 Dallas–Fort Worth] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130330075843/http://www.nbcdfw.com/news/business/American-Airlines-New-Livery-Soon-Could-Become-Its-Old-Look-200532901.html \|dateMarch 30, 2013}}. Nbcdfw.com. Retrieved on July 18, 2013.</ref> The current logo and livery have had mixed criticism, with Design Shack editor Joshua Johnson writing that they "boldly and proudly communicate the concepts of American pride and freedom wrapped into a shape that instantly makes you think about an airplane",<ref name"designshackliverypraise">{{Cite web \|lastJohnson \|firstJoshua \|dateJanuary 23, 2013 \|titleCheck Out the New American Airlines Logo \|urlhttps://designshack.net/articles/graphics/check-out-the-new-american-airlines-logo/ \|access-dateJune 11, 2019 \|websiteDesign Shack \|archive-dateApril 20, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160420044250/http://designshack.net/articles/graphics/check-out-the-new-american-airlines-logo \|url-statuslive}}</ref> and [http://www.askthepilot.com/ AskThePilot.com] author Patrick Smith describing the logo as a linoleum knife poking through a shower curtain'.<ref name"patricksmithcriticism">{{Cite web \|lastSmith \|firstPatrick \|dateJanuary 6, 2014 \|titleThe New American Airlines Livery \|urlhttp://www.askthepilot.com/american-to-keep-new-livery/ \|access-dateJune 11, 2019 \|websiteAskThePilot.com \|archive-dateJuly 7, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190707062047/http://www.askthepilot.com/american-to-keep-new-livery/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Later in January 2013, Bloomberg asked the designer of the 1968 American Airlines logo (Massimo Vignelli) on his opinion over the rebranding.<ref name"vignelliqna">{{Cite news \|lastMayo \|firstKeenan \|dateJanuary 19, 2013 \|titleQ&A: Original American Airlines Designer Massimo Vignelli on the Redesigned Logo \|workBloomberg.com \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|formatWeb \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-01-18/q-and-a-original-american-airlines-designer-massimo-vignelli-on-the-redesigned-logo \|access-dateAugust 7, 2019 \|archive-dateAugust 7, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190807044438/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-01-18/q-and-a-original-american-airlines-designer-massimo-vignelli-on-the-redesigned-logo \|url-status=live}}</ref> in June 2013]] In the end, American let their employees decide the new livery's fate. On an internal website for employees, American posted two options, one the new livery and one a modified version of the old livery. All of the American Airlines Group employees (including US Airways and other affiliates) were able to vote.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMaxon \|firstTerry \|dateDecember 16, 2013 \|titleDoug Parker to let American Airlines employees decide whether to keep the new AA tail \|urlhttps://www.dallasnews.com/business/airlines/2013/12/16/doug-parker-to-let-american-airlines-employees-decide-whether-to-keep-the-new-aa-tail/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201040755/https://www.dallasnews.com/business/airlines/2013/12/16/doug-parker-to-let-american-airlines-employees-decide-whether-to-keep-the-new-aa-tail \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2017 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websiteDallas News}}</ref> American ultimately decided to keep the new look. Parker announced that American would keep a US Airways and America West heritage aircraft in the fleet, with plans to add a heritage TWA aircraft and a heritage American plane with the old livery.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHeinz \|firstFrank \|dateJanuary 2, 2014 \|titleAmerican Airlines Employees Vote to Keep New Livery \|urlhttp://www.nbcdfw.com/news/business/American-Airlines-Employees-Vote-to-Keep-New-Livery-238487381.html \|access-dateJuly 26, 2017 \|websiteNBC \|archive-dateDecember 1, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171201182345/https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/business/American-Airlines-Employees-Vote-to-Keep-New-Livery-238487381.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> As of September 2019, American has heritage aircraft for Piedmont, PSA, America West, US Airways, Reno Air, TWA, and AirCal in their fleet.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastYerman \|firstJordan \|dateDecember 3, 2015 \|title[PHOTOS] Heritage Livery Flies Again in American Airlines' Retro Rollout \|urlhttps://apex.aero/articles/heritage-livery-flies-again-in-american-airlines-retro-rollout/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190805065052/https://apex.aero/2015/12/03/heritage-livery-flies-again-american-airlines-retro-rollout \|archive-dateAugust 5, 2019 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websiteAPEX}}</ref> They also have two AA branded heritage 737-800 aircraft, an AstroJet N905NN,<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEwing \|firstRyan \|dateJune 5, 2017 \|titlePhotos: American Rolls out New AstroJet-Themed Boeing 737-800 \|urlhttps://airlinegeeks.com/2017/06/05/photos-american-rolls-out-new-astrojet-themed-boeing-737-800/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190930034925/https://airlinegeeks.com/2017/06/05/photos-american-rolls-out-new-astrojet-themed-boeing-737-800/ \|archive-dateSeptember 30, 2019 \|access-date2023-12-28 \|websiteAirlineGeeks.com}}</ref> and the polished aluminum livery used from 1967 to 2013, N921NN.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEwing \|firstRyan \|dateDecember 14, 2017 \|titleAmerican Quietly Adds Polished Aluminum Retro Livery to a Boeing 737-800 \|urlhttps://airlinegeeks.com/2017/12/14/american-quietly-adds-new-polished-aluminum-retro-livery-to-a-boeing-737-800/ \|access-dateSeptember 30, 2019 \|websiteAirlineGeeks.com \|archive-dateJuly 9, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190709173457/https://airlinegeeks.com/2017/12/14/american-quietly-adds-new-polished-aluminum-retro-livery-to-a-boeing-737-800/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Customer Service American, both before and after the merger with US Airways, has consistently performed poorly in rankings. The Wall Street Journal's annual airline rankings have ranked American as the worst or second-worst U.S. carrier for ten of the past twelve years, and in the bottom three of U.S. Airlines for at least the past twelve years. The airline has persistently performed poorly in the areas of losing checked luggage and bumping passengers due to oversold flights.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Best and Worst Airlines of 2022 \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/best-worst-us-airlines-flights-cancellations-delays-baggage-11673982171 \|websiteThe Wall Street Journal \|dateJanuary 18, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230419142459/https://www.wsj.com/articles/best-worst-us-airlines-flights-cancellations-delays-baggage-11673982171 \|archive-dateApril 19, 2023 \|url-statuslive \|last1Gilbertson \|first1Dawn \|last2Pohle \|first2Allison}}</ref> Worker relations The main representatives of key groups of employees are: * The Allied Pilots Association is an in-house union which represents the nearly 15,000 American Airlines pilots; it was created in 1963 after the pilots left the Air Line Pilots Association (ALPA).<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.alliedpilots.org/Public/AboutAPA/Background/background.asp \|titleAirlines Pilot Association\|access-dateFebruary 5, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030412224816/https://www.alliedpilots.org/Public/AboutAPA/Background/background.asp\|archive-dateApril 12, 2003}}</ref> However the majority of American Eagle pilots are ALPA members.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleEnvoy Air – ALPA \|urlhttp://www.alpa.org/en/about-alpa/our-pilot-groups/pilot-groups/envoy \|access-dateOctober 26, 2016 \|websitealpa.org \|archive-dateOctober 26, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161026164637/http://www.alpa.org/en/about-alpa/our-pilot-groups/pilot-groups/envoy \|url-statuslive}}</ref> * The Association of Professional Flight Attendants represents American Airlines flight attendants, including former USAirways flight attendants.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateDecember 18, 2014 \|titleAmerican Airlines flight attendants to get bigger pay raises after all \|urlhttps://www.dallasnews.com/business/airlines/2014/12/19/american-airlines-flight-attendants-to-get-bigger-pay-raises-after-all/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160420161155/http://www.dallasnews.com/business/airline-industry/20141218-american-airlines-flight-attendants-to-get-bigger-pay-raises-after-all.ece \|archive-dateApril 20, 2016 \|access-date2023-12-29 \|websiteThe Dallas Morning News}}</ref> * Flight attendants at wholly owned regional carriers (Envoy, Piedmont, and PSA) are all represented by [http://www.afacwa.org/ Association of Flight Attendants – Communications Workers of America] (AFA-CWA). US Airways flight attendants were active members of AFA-CWA before the merger, and they are honorary lifetime members. AFA-CWA is the largest flight attendant union in the industry.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastJosephs \|firstLeslie \|dateNovember 1, 2019 \|titleLargest US flight attendant union targets Delta cabin crews \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/01/largest-us-flight-attendant-union-starts-membership-drive-at-delta.html \|access-dateApril 27, 2021 \|websiteCNBC \|archive-dateApril 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210427013612/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/01/largest-us-flight-attendant-union-starts-membership-drive-at-delta.html \|url-statuslive}}</ref> * The Transport Workers Union-International Association of Machinists alliance (TWU-IAM) represents the majority of American Airlines employed fleet service agents, mechanics, and other ground workers.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican CEO says contract proposals to ground workers to have "double-digit" pay increases \|urlhttp://www.star-telegram.com/news/business/aviation/sky-talk-blog/article36302475.html \|access-dateSeptember 17, 2016 \|websiteStar-telegram.com \|archive-dateJuly 28, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160728073023/http://www.star-telegram.com/news/business/aviation/sky-talk-blog/article36302475.html \|url-status=live}}</ref> * American's customer service and gate employees belong to the Communications Workers of America/International Brotherhood of Teamsters Passenger Service Association.<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|dateNovember 30, 2015 \|titleAmerican Airlines customer service and gate agents approve new labor contract \|urlhttps://www.dallasnews.com/business/airlines/2015/11/30/american-airlines-customer-service-and-gate-agents-approve-new-labor-contract/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160420161153/http://aviationblog.dallasnews.com/2015/11/american-airlines-gate-agents-approve-a-new-labor-contract.html/ \|archive-dateApril 20, 2016 \|access-date2023-12-29 \|websiteThe Dallas Morning News}}</ref> * PAFCA-AAL represents the nearly 550 FAA-certificated Aircraft Dispatchers and Operations Specialists at American Airlines. This specialized group, many of whom are licensed pilots, former Air Traffic Control personnel, and military airmen share equal responsibility with the Pilot-in-Command for the safe conduct of each the flight.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePAFCA – AAL – PAFCA American Airlines, AAL PAFCA \|urlhttps://www.pafca-aal.org/ \|access-date2024-08-12 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Subsidiary companies Sky Chefs In 1942, American Airlines established Sky Chefs, a wholly-owned subsidiary, as a catering company to serve their fleet.<ref name"chefsolutions">{{cite encyclopedia \|titleChef Solutions, Inc. \|viaEncyclopedia.com \|encyclopediaInternational Directory of Company Histories \|urlhttps://www.encyclopedia.com/books/politics-and-business-magazines/chef-solutions-inc }}</ref> In 1986, Sky Chefs was sold to Toronto-based Onex Capital Corporation for $170 million.<ref name"chefsolutions"/><ref>{{cite news \|dateJanuary 15, 1986 \|titleSky Chefs' Sale \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/15/business/sky-chefs-sale.html \|workThe New York Times \|agencyReuters }}</ref> {{citation needed span \|textSky Chefs became a subsidiary of Onex Food Services Inc.<ref name"jones">{{cite book \|titleFlight Catering \|editor1-firstPeter \|editor1-lastJones \|pages30–31 \|year2004 \|locationOxford \|publisherElsevier \|isbn9781136402906 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idf14Lh9jTPx0C&pgPA30 }}</ref>\|dateFebruary 2024}} Since 2001, it has been fully owned by the LSG Group.<ref name"times2001">{{cite news \|dateMarch 30, 2001 \|titleCOMPANY NEWS; LUFTHANSA TO ACQUIRE A STAKE IN SKY CHEFS CATERING\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/30/business/company-news-lufthansa-to-acquire-a-stake-in-sky-chefs-catering.html \|workThe New York Times \|agencyBloomberg News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleLufthansa takes over Sky Chefs \|workThe Caterer \|dateJune 14, 2001 \|urlhttps://www.thecaterer.com/archive/lufthansa-takes-over-sky-chefs}}</ref>Flagship Hotels / Americana HotelsIn the late-1960s, American Airlines established the Flagship Hotels chain as a subsidiary of Sky Chefs. On July 21, 1972, American Airlines leased four hotels from the Loews Corporation, three of them branded as Americana Hotels, for a period of thirty years. American merged the hotels with their Flagship Hotels, and rebranded the entire chain as Americana Hotels.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastBedingfield\|firstRobert E.\|dateJuly 21, 1972\|titleAmerican Airlines in Loews Hotel Pact\|languageen-US\|workThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1972/07/21/archives/american-airlines-in-loews-hotel-pact-pact-with-loews-is-set-by.html\|access-dateAugust 28, 2021\|issn0362-4331}}</ref> In 1980, American Airlines sold Americana Hotels to Bass Brothers Enterprises of Fort Worth, Texas.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-01-18-8501040382-story.html \| titleChairman of Americana Hotels Steps Down \| websiteChicago Tribune \| dateJanuary 18, 1985 }}</ref> Concerns and conflicts Environmental violations Between October 1993 to July 1998, American Airlines was repeatedly cited for using high-sulfur fuel in motor vehicles at 10 major airports around the country, a violation of the Clean Air Act.<ref name"epa">{{Cite web \|dateJuly 19, 1999 \|titleAmerican Airlines Will Make Clean Air Improvements at Logan Airport Reports to EPA the Use of Illegal High Sulfur Fuel in Motor Vehicles \|urlhttps://www.epa.gov/archive/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/39f02567ac865e25852574b9005e90e8.html \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070707175156/http://epa.gov/ne/pr/1999/072099b.html \|archive-dateJuly 7, 2007 \|access-date2023-12-29 \|websiteUnited States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> Lifetime AAirpass {{Main\|AAirpass}} In 1981, as a means of creating revenue in a period of loss-making, American Airlines offered a lifetime pass of unlimited travel for the initial cost of $250,000.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateApril 7, 2018 \|titleThe men who took 10,000 flights \|urlhttps://thehustle.co/aairpass-american-airlines-250k-lifetime-ticket/ \|access-dateMay 15, 2022 \|websiteThe Hustle \|archive-dateJune 2, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220602175824/https://thehustle.co/aairpass-american-airlines-250k-lifetime-ticket/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastRothstein \|firstCaroline \|dateJuly 22, 2019 \|titleThe Man with the Golden Airline Ticket \|urlhttps://www.narratively.com/p/the-man-with-the-golden-airline-ticket \|access-date2024-09-18 \|websiteNarratively \|languageen}}</ref> This entitled the pass holder to fly anywhere in the world. Twenty-eight were sold. However, after some time, the airline realized they were making losses on the tickets, with the ticketholders costing them up to $1 million each. Ticketholders were booking large numbers of flights with some ticketholders flying interstate for lunch or flying to London multiple times a month. AA raised the cost of the lifetime pass to $3 million, and then finally stopped offering it in 2003. AA then used litigation to cancel two of the lifetime offers, saying the passes "had been terminated due to fraudulent activity".<ref name"pass">{{Cite web \|dateMay 13, 2012 \|title'Free'quent flier has wings clipped after American Airlines takes away his unlimited pass \|urlhttps://nypost.com/2012/05/13/freequent-flier-has-wings-clipped-after-american-airlines-takes-away-his-unlimited-pass/ \|access-dateOctober 20, 2019 \|publisherNew York Post \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190927054252/https://nypost.com/2012/05/13/freequent-flier-has-wings-clipped-after-american-airlines-takes-away-his-unlimited-pass/ \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Cabin fume events * In 1988, on American Airlines Flight 132's approach into Nashville, flight attendants notified the cockpit that there was smoke in the cabin. The flight crew in the cockpit ignored the warning, as on a prior flight, a fume event had occurred due to a problem with the auxiliary power unit. However, the smoke on Flight 132 was caused by improperly packaged hazardous materials. According to the NTSB inquiry, the cockpit crew persistently refused to acknowledge that there was a serious threat to the aircraft or the passengers, even after they were told that the floor was becoming soft and passengers had to be reseated. As a result, the aircraft was not evacuated immediately on landing, exposing the crew and passengers to the threat of smoke and fire longer than necessary.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Chute \|first1Rebecca D. \|last2Wiener \|first2Earl L. \|year1996 \|titleCockpit-cabin communication: II. Shall we tell the pilots? \|urlhttps://psycnet.apa.org/record/1996-06083-001 \|journalThe International Journal of Aviation Psychology \|volume6 \|issue3 \|pages211–231 \|doi10.1207/s15327108ijap0603_1 \|pmid11540138 \|s2cid11191665 \|access-date2023-12-29\|issn1050-8414}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastCross \|firstJamie \|titleSources of friction \|workAeroSafety World \|volume7.online \|date2012 \|pages32–35 \|urlhttp://flightsafety.org/asw/jul12/asw_jul12_p32-35.pdf \|access-dateFebruary 23, 2019 \|viaFlightsafety.org \|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207020259/http://flightsafety.org/asw/jul12/asw_jul12_p32-35.pdf \|url-statuslive}}</ref> * On April 11, 2007, toxic smoke and oil fumes leaked into the aircraft cabin as American Airlines Flight 843 taxied to the gate. A flight attendant who was present in the cabin subsequently filed a lawsuit against Boeing, stating that she was diagnosed with neurotoxic disorder due to her exposure to the fumes, which caused her to experience memory loss, tremors, and severe headaches. She settled with the company in 2011.<ref>{{cite web \|url-statuslive \|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna44777304 \|titleBoeing suit settlement stirs jetliner air safety debate \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190211014132/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44777304/ns/travel-news/t/boeing-suit-settlement-stirs-jetliner-air-safety-debate#.XFqZYVUzaUk \|archive-dateFebruary 11, 2019 \|websiteNBC News \|dateOctober 6, 2011 \|first1Jim \|last1=Gold }}</ref> * In 2009, Mike Holland, deputy chairman for radiation and environmental issues at the Allied Pilots Association and an American Airlines pilot, said that the pilot union had started alerting pilots of the danger of contaminated bleed air, including contacting crew members that the union thinks were exposed to contamination based on maintenance records and pilot logs.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastNassauer \|firstSarah \|dateJuly 30, 2009 \|titleUp in the Air: New Worries About 'Fume Events' on Planes \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204900904574302293012711628 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|access-date2023-12-29 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190412095911/https://zembla.bnnvara.nl/pdf/wsj_fume_events.pdf \|archive-date=April 12, 2019}}</ref> * In a January 2017 incident on American Airlines Flight 1896, seven flight attendants were hospitalized after a strange odor was detected in the cabin. The Airbus A330 involved subsequently underwent a "thorough maintenance inspection", having been involved in three fume events in three months.<ref>{{cite web \|url-statuslive \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/fume-incident-hospitalises-american-airlines-crew-and-raises-questions-over-safety-of-cabin-air/ \|title'Fume event' hospitalises American Airlines crew in latest incident concerning cabin air \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207022642/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/news/fume-incident-hospitalises-american-airlines-crew-and-raises-questions-over-safety-of-cabin-air/ \|archive-dateFebruary 7, 2019 \|websiteThe Telegraph \|dateJanuary 4, 2017 \|first1 Gavin \|last1Haines \|url-accesssubscription }}</ref><ref>"[https://abcnews.go.com/US/american-airlines-jet-suffers-fume-incident-months-flight/story?id44535862 American Airlines Jet Has 3rd Fume Incident in 3 Months, 7 Flight Attendants Transported to Hospital and Released]", ABC News, January 3, 2017. {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207015115/https://abcnews.go.com/US/american-airlines-jet-suffers-fume-incident-months-flight/story?id44535862 \|dateFebruary 7, 2019}}.</ref> * In August 2018, American Airlines flight attendants picketed in front of the Fort Worth company headquarters over a change in sick day policy, complaining that exposure to ill passengers, toxic uniforms, toxic cabin air, radiation exposure, and other issues were causing them to be sick.<ref>[https://www.businessinsider.com/american-airlines-flight-attendants-protest-sick-policy-toxic-uniform-2018-8 American Airlines flight attendants are gearing up for battle over the company's 'punitive' new attendance policy] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190207015924/https://www.businessinsider.com/american-airlines-flight-attendants-protest-sick-policy-toxic-uniform-2018-8 \|dateFebruary 7, 2019}}, Business Insider, August 31, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.bizjournals.com/chicago/news/2018/08/29/american-airlines-flight-attendants-to-picket.html American Airlines flight attendants to picket headquarters Thursday] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806010016/https://www.bizjournals.com/chicago/news/2018/08/29/american-airlines-flight-attendants-to-picket.html \|dateAugust 6, 2020}}, August 29, 2018, Chicago Business Journal</ref> * In January 2019, two pilots and three flight attendants on Flight 1897 from Philadelphia to Fort Lauderdale were hospitalized following complaints of a strange odor.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2019/01/10/american-airlines-crew-sickened-philadelphia-florida-flight/2537776002/ American Airlines pilots, flight attendants fall ill on Philadelphia to Florida flight] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190125183310/https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2019/01/10/american-airlines-crew-sickened-philadelphia-florida-flight/2537776002/ \|dateJanuary 25, 2019}}, USA Today, January 11, 2019</ref><ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/travel/american-airlines-staffers-florida-airport-odor Five American Airlines staffers hospitalized after noticing 'odor' on plane] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190125084129/https://www.foxnews.com/travel/american-airlines-staffers-florida-airport-odor \|dateJanuary 25, 2019}}, Fox News, January 10, 2019</ref> Discrimination complaints On October 24, 2017, the NAACP issued a travel advisory for American Airlines urging African Americans to "exercise caution" when traveling with the airline. The NAACP issued the advisory after four incidents. In one incident, a black woman was moved from first class to coach while her white traveling companion was allowed to remain in first class. In another incident, a black man was forced to give up his seats after being confronted by two unruly white passengers.<ref name"PBS20171025">[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/the-naacp-issues-travel-advisory-for-american-airlines-warning-black-passengers-of-disturbing-incidents The NAACP issues travel advisory for American Airlines, warning black passengers of 'disturbing incidents'] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190125183330/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/the-naacp-issues-travel-advisory-for-american-airlines-warning-black-passengers-of-disturbing-incidents \|dateJanuary 25, 2019}}, PBS, October 25, 2017</ref> According to the NAACP, while they did receive complaints on other airlines, most of their complaints in the year before their advisory were on American Airlines.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2017/10/25/naacp-most-complaints-american-airlines-what-can-brands-learn/800300001/ NAACP: Most complaints about American Airlines. What can brands learn?] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190125193149/https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2017/10/25/naacp-most-complaints-american-airlines-what-can-brands-learn/800300001/ \|dateJanuary 25, 2019}}, USA Today, October 25, 2017</ref> In July 2018, the NAACP lifted their travel advisory saying that American has made improvements to mitigate discrimination and unsafe treatment of African Americans.<ref name"PBS20180717">[https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/naacp-lifts-travel-advisory-against-american-airlines NAACP lifts travel advisory against American Airlines] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190125183334/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/naacp-lifts-travel-advisory-against-american-airlines \|dateJanuary 25, 2019}}, PBS, July 17, 2018</ref> Accidents and incidents <!-- This section is an excerpt of the first paragraphs of the List of American Airlines accidents and incidents page. --> {{Excerpt\|List of American Airlines accidents and incidents\|hatyes}}Carbon footprintAmerican Airlines reported total CO2e emissions (direct and indirect) for the twelve months ending December 31, 2020, at 20,092 Kt (-21,347 /-51.5% y-o-y).<ref name"American Airlines Group Inc. Total CO2e emissions for 2020Q4">{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Inc.'s ESG Datasheet for 2020Q4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101824/https://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021}} [https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20%2b%20Scope%202/2020Q4/12 Alt URL] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101823/https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20+%20Scope%202/2020Q4/12 \|dateNovember 13, 2021}}</ref> The company aims to achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleNet zero carbon emissions by 2050 \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/sustainability.jsp \|access-dateNovember 13, 2021 \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101825/https://www.aa.com/i18n/customer-service/about-us/sustainability.jsp \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In November 2023, American Airlines purchased the first carbon credit contract (for 10,000 metric tons of {{CO2}} sequestered at $100 per ton) from Graphyte, a carbon removal startup company invested in by Breakthrough Energy that compresses sawdust, tree bark, rice hulls, plant stalks, and other agricultural waste into biomass bricks wrapped in a polymer barrier to prevent decomposition that are stored underground.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Ballard\|first1Ed\|last2Ramkumar\|first2Amrith\|dateNovember 28, 2023\|titleThe Newest Airline Climate Solution? Burying Sawdust\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|publisherNews Corp\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/us-news/climate-environment/sustainable-airline-sawdust-climate-6e2b40c5\|access-dateNovember 28, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release\|titleGraphyte signs first carbon removal purchase agreement with American Airlines 10,000 tons of carbon dioxide removal will be delivered using new Carbon Casting technology\|dateNovember 28, 2023\|publisherPR Newswire\|urlhttps://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/graphyte-signs-first-carbon-removal-purchase-agreement-with-american-airlines-10-000-tons-of-carbon-dioxide-removal-will-be-delivered-using-new-carbon-casting-technology-301996421.html\|access-date=November 28, 2023}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable" \|+ American Airline's annual total CO2e emissions - Location-based scope 1 + scope 2 (in kilotonnes) \|- ! Dec 2016 !! Dec 2017 !! Dec 2018 !! Dec 2019 !! Dec 2020 \|- \| 39,254<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Inc.'s ESG Datasheet for 2020Q4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101824/https://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021}} [https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20%2b%20Scope%202/2016Q4/12 Alt URL] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101828/https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20+%20Scope%202/2016Q4/12 \|dateNovember 13, 2021}}</ref> \|\| 39,388<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Inc.'s ESG Datasheet for 2020Q4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101824/https://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021}} [https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20%2b%20Scope%202/2017Q4/12 Alt URL] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101825/https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20+%20Scope%202/2017Q4/12 \|dateNovember 13, 2021}}</ref> \|\| 40,604<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Inc.'s ESG Datasheet for 2020Q4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101824/https://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021}} [https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20%2b%20Scope%202/2018Q4/12 Alt URL] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101823/https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20+%20Scope%202/2018Q4/12 \|dateNovember 13, 2021}}</ref> \|\| 41,439<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAmerican Airlines Group Inc.'s ESG Datasheet for 2020Q4 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101824/https://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|urlhttps://www.aa.com/content/images/customer-service/about-us/corporate-governance/aag-2020-environmental-data.pdf \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2021}} [https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20%2b%20Scope%202/2019Q4/12 Alt URL] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211113101827/https://analytics.exerica.com/App/Name/American%20Airlines%20Group%20Inc./Total%20CO2e%20Emissions%20-%20Location-Based%20Scope%201%20+%20Scope%202/2019Q4/12 \|dateNovember 13, 2021}}</ref> \|\| 20,092<ref name="American Airlines Group Inc. Total CO2e emissions for 2020Q4"/> \|} See also * AAirpass * Air transportation in the United States * List of airlines of the United States * List of airports in the United States * US Airways, which merged with American Airlines in 2015 Notes and references Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Further reading {{refbegin\|33em}} * {{Cite book \|lastBedwell \|firstDon \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43762553 \|titleSilverbird: the American Airlines story \|publisherAirways International \|year1999 \|isbn0-9653993-6-2 \|locationSandpoint, Idaho \|oclc43762553 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095120/https://www.worldcat.org/title/silverbird-the-american-airlines-story/oclc/43762553 \|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book \|lastCapozzi \|firstJohn M. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/40986912 \|titleA spirit of greatness: stories from the employees of American Airlines \|publisherJMC Pub. Services \|date<!--1998-->2001 \|isbn0-9656410-3-1 \|edition1st \|locationFairfield, Conn. \|oclc40986912 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095111/https://www.worldcat.org/title/spirit-of-greatness-stories-from-the-employees-of-american-airlines/oclc/40986912 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|lastCasey \|firstAlbert V. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32430679 \|titleCasey's law: if something can go right, it should \|publisherArcade Pub \|year1997 \|isbn1-55970-307-5 \|edition1st \|locationNew York \|oclc32430679 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095150/https://www.worldcat.org/title/caseys-law-if-something-can-go-right-it-should/oclc/32430679 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|lastEndres \|firstGünter \|titleMcDonnell Douglas DC-10 \|locationSt. Paul, Minnesota \|publisherMBI Publishing Company \|year1998 \|isbn=0-7603-0617-6}} * {{Cite book \|lastForty \|firstSimon \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39542166 \|titleAmerican Airlines \|publisherPlymouth Press \|year1997 \|isbn1-882663-21-7 \|locationVergennes, VT \|oclc39542166 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095130/https://www.worldcat.org/title/american-airlines/oclc/39542166 \|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book \|lastHieger \|firstLinda H. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/682191394 \|titleWith wings of silver and gold: the history and uniforms of American Airlines stewardesses/flight attendants \|date2010 \|isbn978-1-60458-271-0 \|locationUnited States \|oclc682191394 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095113/https://www.worldcat.org/title/with-wings-of-silver-and-gold-the-history-and-uniforms-of-american-airlines-stewardessesflight-attendants/oclc/682191394 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|lastReed \|firstDan \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27173065 \|titleThe American eagle: the ascent of Bob Crandall and American Airlines \|publisherSt. Martin's Press \|year1993 \|isbn0-312-08696-2 \|edition1st \|locationNew York \|oclc27173065 \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095132/https://www.worldcat.org/title/american-eagle-the-ascent-of-bob-crandall-and-american-airlines/oclc/27173065 \|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book \|lastSerling \|firstRobert J. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12107802 \|titleEagle: the story of American Airlines \|publisherSt. Martin's/Marek \|year1985 \|isbn0-312-22453-2 \|edition1st \|locationNew York \|oclc12107802 \|url-accessregistration \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095119/https://www.worldcat.org/title/eagle-the-story-of-american-airlines/oclc/12107802 \|url-status=live}} * {{Cite book \|lastWaddington \|firstTerry \|titleMcDonnell Douglas DC-10 \|locationMiami, Florida \|publisherWorld Transport Press \|year2000 \|isbn=1-892437-04-X}} * {{Cite book \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/769042340 \|titleInternational directory of company histories. Vol. 27. \|publisherSt. James Press \|year1999 \|isbn978-1-55862-668-3 \|locationDetroit, Mich. \|oclc769042340 \|url-accessregistration \|access-dateOctober 1, 2021 \|archive-dateJune 25, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220625095134/https://www.worldcat.org/title/international-directory-of-company-histories-vol-27/oclc/769042340 \|url-statuslive}} {{refend}} External links * {{Official website}} * [https://www.aavacations.com Official American Airlines Vacations website] {{American Airlines}} {{Airlines of the United States}} {{Navboxes \|list = {{American Airlines Group}} {{Oneworld}} {{Airlines for America}} {{IATA members\|americas}} {{Legacy carrier}} }} {{Subject bar\|United States\|Texas\|Companies\|Aviation\|voyAmerican Airlines\|auto1\|commonscatAmerican Airlines\|commonsyes\|nyes\|dQ32396}} {{Authority control}} Category:1934 establishments in the United States Category:Airlines based in Texas Category:Airlines established in 1934 Category:Airlines for America members Category:American Airlines Group Category:American companies established in 1934 Category:Aviation in Arizona Category:Companies based in Fort Worth, Texas Category:Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2011	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Airlines	2025-04-05T18:26:02.982087
2388	Antidepressant	{{Short description\|Class of medication used to treat depression and other conditions}} {{cs1 config\|modecs1\|name-list-stylevanc\|display-authors=6}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2023}} {{Infobox drug class \| Pronounce \| Synonyms <!-- Class identifiers --> \| Use = Depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and addiction \| ATC_prefix = N06A \| Mode_of_action \| Mechanism_of_actionVaries \| Biological_target \| Chemical_classVaries <!-- Clinical data --> \| Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com\|drug-class\|antidepressants}} \| MedlinePlus = antidepressants \| Consumer_Reports = antidepressants \| medicinenet = antidepressants \| rxlist = 100734 <!-- External links --> \| MeshID = D000928 }} venlafaxine, a typical example of an antidepressant.]] Antidepressants are a class of medications used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and addiction.<ref name"Jennings2018">{{cite book\|vauthorsJennings L\|titleClinical Psychopharmacology for Neurologists\|chapterAntidepressants\|date2018\|publisherSpringer\|isbn978-3-319-74602-9\|veditorsGrossberg GT, Kinsella LJ\|pages45–71\|doi10.1007/978-3-319-74604-3_4}}</ref> Common side effects of antidepressants include dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, akathisia,<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsGhaemi SN\|titleClinical Psychopharmacology: Principles and Practice\|date2019\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|isbn9780199995486\|page90}}</ref> sexual dysfunction,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHealy D, Le Noury J, Mangin D\|titleEnduring sexual dysfunction after treatment with antidepressants, 5α-reductase inhibitors and isotretinoin: 300 cases\|journalThe International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine\|volume29\|issue3–4\|pages125–134\|dateMay 2018\|pmid29733030\|pmc6004900\|doi10.3233/JRS-180744}}</ref><ref name"Bahrick">{{cite journal\|doi10.2174/1874350100801010042\|titlePersistence of Sexual Dysfunction Side Effects after Discontinuation of Antidepressant Medications: Emerging Evidence\|journalThe Open Psychology Journal\|volume1\|pages42–50\|year2008\|vauthorsBahrick AS\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsTaylor MJ, Rudkin L, Bullemor-Day P, Lubin J, Chukwujekwu C, Hawton K\|titleStrategies for managing sexual dysfunction induced by antidepressant medication\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume5\|issue5\|pagesCD003382\|dateMay 2013\|pmid23728643\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD003382.pub3\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKennedy SH, Rizvi S\|titleSexual dysfunction, depression, and the impact of antidepressants\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume29\|issue2\|pages157–164\|dateApril 2009\|pmid19512977\|doi10.1097/jcp.0b013e31819c76e9\|s2cid739831}}</ref><ref>[https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/other/new-product-information-wording-extracts-prac-recommendations-signals-adopted-13-16-may-2019-prac_en.pdf Serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRI); selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) – Persistent sexual dysfunction after drug withdrawal ](EPITT no 19277), 11 June 20191, EMA/PRAC/265221/2019, Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee (PRAC)</ref> and emotional blunting.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSansone RA, Sansone LA\|titleSSRI-Induced Indifference\|journalPsychiatry\|volume7\|issue10\|pages14–18\|dateOctober 2010\|pmid21103140\|pmc2989833}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|publisherHarvard Health Publishing\|titleIs your antidepressant making life a little too blah?\|urlhttps://www.health.harvard.edu/depression/is-your-antidepressant-making-life-a-little-too-blah\|access-date25 February 2021\|date8 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleHalf of Patients on Antidepressants Experience Emotional Blunting\|urlhttps://www.hcplive.com/view/half-of-patients-on-antidepressants-experience-emotional-blunting\|access-date25 February 2021\|websiteHCPLive\|date19 June 2017}}</ref> There is an increased risk of suicidal thinking and behavior when taken by children, adolescents, and young adults.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM173233.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM173233.pdf\|archive-date9 October 2022\|url-statuslive\|titleRevisions to Product Labeling\|publisherFDA\|access-date10 November 2018}}</ref> Discontinuation syndrome, which resembles recurrent depression in the case of the SSRI class, may occur after stopping the intake of any antidepressant<ref name"Wil2015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWilson E, Lader M\|titleA review of the management of antidepressant discontinuation symptoms\|journalTherapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology\|volume5\|issue6\|pages357–368\|dateDecember 2015\|pmid26834969\|pmc4722507\|doi10.1177/2045125315612334}}</ref><ref name"Gab2017">{{cite journal\|vauthorsGabriel M, Sharma V\|titleAntidepressant discontinuation syndrome\|journalCMAJ\|volume189\|issue21\|pagesE747\|dateMay 2017\|pmid28554948\|pmc5449237\|doi10.1503/cmaj.160991}}</ref> Research regarding the effectiveness of antidepressants for depression in adults is controversial and has found both benefits<ref name"BarthKriston2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBarth M, Kriston L, Klostermann S, Barbui C, Cipriani A, Linde K\|titleEfficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and adverse events: meta-regression and mediation analysis of placebo-controlled trials\|journalThe British Journal of Psychiatry\|volume208\|issue2\|pages114–119\|dateFebruary 2016\|pmid26834168\|doi10.1192/bjp.bp.114.150136\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> and drawbacks.<ref name"BMJ2019">{{cite journal\|vauthorsJakobsen JC, Gluud C, Kirsch I\|titleShould antidepressants be used for major depressive disorder?\|journalBMJ Evidence-Based Medicine\|volume25\|issue4\|pages130\|dateAugust 2020\|pmid31554608\|pmc7418603\|doi10.1136/bmjebm-2019-111238\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Meanwhile, evidence of benefit in children and adolescents is unclear,<ref name"CiprianiZhou2016">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCipriani A, Zhou X, Del Giovane C, Hetrick SE, Qin B, Whittington C, Coghill D, Zhang Y, Hazell P, Leucht S, Cuijpers P, Pu J, Cohen D, Ravindran AV, Liu Y, Michael KD, Yang L, Liu L, Xie P\|dateAugust 2016\|titleComparative efficacy and tolerability of antidepressants for major depressive disorder in children and adolescents: a network meta-analysis\|journalLancet\|volume388\|issue10047\|pages881–890\|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30385-3\|pmid27289172\|quoteWhen considering the risk-benefit profile of antidepressants in the acute treatment of major depressive disorder, these drugs do not seem to offer a clear advantage for children and adolescents. All antidepressants were more efficacious than a placebo in adults with major depressive disorder\|s2cid19728203\|hdl11380/1279478\|urlhttps://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:e0b5ae23-d562-4348-94b8-84f70b7812c5\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSafer DJ, Zito JM\|titleShort- and Long-Term Antidepressant Clinical Trials for Major Depressive Disorder in Youth: Findings and Concerns\|journalFrontiers in Psychiatry\|volume10\|pages705\|date2019\|pmid31681028\|pmc6797591\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00705\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> even though antidepressant use has considerably increased in children and adolescents in the 2000s.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP\|titleEditorial: Antidepressant Prescriptions in Children and Adolescents\|journalFrontiers in Psychiatry\|volume11\|pages600283\|date2020\|pmid33192742\|pmc7661954\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2020.600283\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> While a 2018 study found that the 21 most commonly prescribed antidepressant medications were slightly more effective than placebos for the short-term (acute) treatments of adults with major depressive disorder,<ref name"NIHR-2018">{{cite journal\|date3 April 2018\|titleThe most effective antidepressants for adults revealed in major review\|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/the-most-effective-antidepressants-for-adults-revealed-in-major-review\|journalNIHR Evidence\|typePlain English summary\|publisherNational Institute for Health and Care Research\|doi10.3310/signal-00580}}</ref><ref name"CiprianiFurukawa2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, Chaimani A, Atkinson LZ, Ogawa Y, Leucht S, Ruhe HG, Turner EH, Higgins JP, Egger M, Takeshima N, Hayasaka Y, Imai H, Shinohara K, Tajika A, Ioannidis JP, Geddes JR\|dateApril 2018\|titleComparative efficacy and acceptability of twenty-one antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis\|journalLancet\|volume391\|issue10128\|pages1357–1366\|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32802-7\|pmc5889788\|pmid29477251}}</ref> other research has found that the placebo effect may account for most or all of the drugs' observed efficacy.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKirsch I\|titleAntidepressants and the Placebo Effect\|journalZeitschrift für Psychologie\|volume222\|issue3\|pages128–134\|dateJanuary 2014\|pmid25279271\|pmc4172306\|doi10.1027/2151-2604/a000176}}</ref><ref name"TurnerRosenthal2008">{{cite journal\|vauthorsTurner EH, Rosenthal R\|titleEfficacy of antidepressants\|journalThe BMJ\|volume336\|issue7643\|pages516–517\|dateMarch 2008\|pmid18319297\|pmc2265347\|doi10.1136/bmj.39510.531597.80}}</ref> Research on the effectiveness of antidepressants is generally done on people who have severe symptoms,<ref>{{cite book\|author1National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK)\|urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK63748\|titleDepression: The Treatment and Management of Depression in Adults\|date2010\|publisherBritish Psychological Society\|isbn978-1-904671-85-5\|editionUpdated\|seriesNational Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Guidance\|pmid22132433}}{{page needed\|dateAugust 2020}}</ref> a population that exhibits much weaker placebo responses,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT\|dateFebruary 2008\|titleInitial severity and antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration\|journalPLOS Medicine\|volume5\|issue2\|pagese45\|doi10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045\|pmc2253608\|pmid18303940\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> meaning that the results may not be extrapolated to the general population that has not (or has not yet) been diagnosed with anxiety or depression.<ref name"CiprianiFurukawa2018" /> {{TOC limit}} Medical uses Antidepressants are prescribed to treat major depressive disorder (MDD), anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and some addictions. Antidepressants are often used in combination with one another.<ref name="Jennings2018"/> Despite its longstanding prominence in pharmaceutical advertising, the idea that low serotonin levels cause depression is not supported by scientific evidence.<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsWhitaker R, Cosgrove L\|date23 April 2015\|titlePsychiatry Under the Influence: Institutional Corruption, Social Injury, and Prescriptions for Reform\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan US\|urlhttps://play.google.com/store/books/details?idQYwEogEACAAJ\|isbn9781137506924}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA\|journalMolecular Psychiatry\|titleThe serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence\|pages3243–3256\|date20 July 2022\|volume28\|issue8\|issn1359-4184\|doi10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0\|pmid35854107\|pmc10618090\|s2cid250646781\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|vauthorsGhaemi N\|year2022\|titleHas the Serotonin Hypothesis Been Debunked?\|urlhttps://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mood-swings/202210/has-the-serotonin-hypothesis-been-debunked\|access-date2 May 2023}}</ref> Proponents of the monoamine hypothesis of depression recommend choosing an antidepressant which impacts the most prominent symptoms. Under this practice, for example, a person with MDD who is also anxious or irritable would be treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, while a person suffering from loss of energy and enjoyment of life would take a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor.<ref name"pmid18494537">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNutt DJ\|titleRelationship of neurotransmitters to the symptoms of major depressive disorder\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume69\|issuesuppl E1\|pages4–7\|date30 April 2008\|pmid18494537\|urlhttp://www.psychiatrist.com/jcp/article/pages/2008/v69e01/v69e0101.aspx\|archive-date3 August 2020\|access-date3 August 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200803182514/http://www.psychiatrist.com/JCP/article/Pages/2008/v69e01/v69e0101.aspx\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Major depressive disorderThe UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)'s 2022 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, "unless that is the person's preference".<ref name"NIHCE-2022">{{cite web\|date29 June 2022\|titleDepression in adults: treatment and management\|urlhttps://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng222/chapter/recommendations\|websiteNational Institute for Health and Care Excellence}}</ref> The guidelines recommended that antidepressant treatment be considered: * For people with a history of moderate or severe depression. * For people with mild depression that has been present for an extended period. * As a first-line treatment for moderate to severe depression. * As a second-line treatment for mild depression that persists after other interventions. The guidelines further note that in most cases, antidepressants should be used in combination with psychosocial interventions and should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse and that SSRIs are typically better tolerated than other antidepressants.<ref name="NIHCE-2022" /> American Psychiatric Association (APA) treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment be individually tailored based on factors including the severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and the person's preference. Options may include antidepressants, psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), or light therapy. The APA recommends antidepressant medication as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and that should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned.<ref>{{cite web\|authorWork Group on Major Depressive Disorder\|urlhttps://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/mdd.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/mdd.pdf\|archive-date9 October 2022\|url-statuslive\|titlePractice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients With Major Depressive Disorder\|editionThird\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Association\|date=October 2010}}</ref> Reviews of antidepressants generally find that they benefit adults with depression.<ref name"CiprianiFurukawa2018"/><ref name"BarthKriston2018"/> On the other hand, some contend that most studies on antidepressant medication are confounded by several biases: the lack of an active placebo, which means that many people in the placebo arm of a double-blind study may deduce that they are not getting any true treatment, thus destroying double-blindness; a short follow up after termination of treatment; non-systematic recording of adverse effects; very strict exclusion criteria in samples of patients; studies being paid for by the industry; selective publication of results. This means that the small beneficial effects that are found may not be statistically significant.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Kirsch I\|titleEmpirically derived criteria cast doubt on the clinical significance of antidepressant-placebo differences\|journalContemporary Clinical Trials\|volume43\|pages60–62\|dateJuly 2015\|pmid25979317\|doi10.1016/j.cct.2015.05.005\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth\|publisherBasic Books\|date2010\|vauthorsKirsch I\|pages[https://archive.org/details/emperorsnewdrugs0000kirs/page/80 80]\|isbn978-0-465-02016-4\|title-linkThe Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAntonuccio DO, Burns DD, Danton WG\|date2002\|titleAntidepressants: a triumph of marketing over science?\|journalPrevention and Treatment\|volume5\|doi10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.525c}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAntonuccio DO, Danton WG, DeNelsky GY, Greenberg RP, Gordon JS\|titleRaising questions about antidepressants\|journalPsychotherapy and Psychosomatics\|volume68\|issue1\|pages3–14\|date1999\|pmid9873236\|doi10.1159/000012304\|s2cid13524296}}</ref><ref name=BMJ2019/> Among the 21 most commonly prescribed antidepressants, the most effective and well-tolerated are escitalopram, paroxetine, sertraline, agomelatine, and mirtazapine.<ref name"NIHR-2018" /><ref name"CiprianiFurukawa2018" /> For children and adolescents with moderate to severe depressive disorder, some evidence suggests fluoxetine (either with or without cognitive behavioral therapy) is the best treatment, but more research is needed to be certain.<ref name"Evidence-2020">{{cite journal\|date12 October 2020\|titleProzac may be the best treatment for young people with depression – but more research is needed\|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/prozac-may-be-the-best-treatment-for-young-people-with-depression-but-more-research-is-needed/\|journalNIHR Evidence\|typePlain English summary\|publisherNational Institute for Health and Care Research\|doi10.3310/alert_41917\|s2cid242952585}}</ref><ref name"Zhou-2020">{{cite journal\|vauthorsZhou X, Teng T, Zhang Y, Del Giovane C, Furukawa TA, Weisz JR, Li X, Cuijpers P, Coghill D, Xiang Y, Hetrick SE, Leucht S, Qin M, Barth J, Ravindran AV, Yang L, Curry J, Fan L, Silva SG, Cipriani A, Xie P\|titleComparative efficacy and acceptability of antidepressants, psychotherapies, and their combination for acute treatment of children and adolescents with depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis\|journalThe Lancet. Psychiatry\|volume7\|issue7\|pages581–601\|dateJuly 2020\|pmid32563306\|pmc7303954\|doi10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30137-1}}</ref><ref name"Boaden-2020">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBoaden K, Tomlinson A, Cortese S, Cipriani A\|titleAntidepressants in Children and Adolescents: Meta-Review of Efficacy, Tolerability and Suicidality in Acute Treatment\|journalFrontiers in Psychiatry\|volume11\|pages717\|date2 September 2020\|pmid32982805\|pmc7493620\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00717\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"Hetrick-2021">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHetrick SE, McKenzie JE, Bailey AP, Sharma V, Moller CI, Badcock PB, Cox GR, Merry SN, Meader N\|titleNew generation antidepressants for depression in children and adolescents: a network meta-analysis\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2021\|issue5\|pagesCD013674\|dateMay 2021\|pmid34029378\|pmc8143444\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD013674.pub2\|collaborationCochrane Common Mental Disorders Group}}</ref> Sertraline, escitalopram, and duloxetine may also help reduce symptoms.<ref name"Hetrick-2021" /> A 2023 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for major depressive disorder found that the medications provided only small or doubtful benefits in terms of quality of life.<ref name"pmid36905396">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWiesinger T, Kremer S, Bschor T, Baethge C\|titleAntidepressants and Quality of Life in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder – Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Double-blind, Placebo-controlled RCTs\|journalActa Psychiatr Scand\|volume147\|issue6\|pages545–560\|dateMarch 2023\|pmid36905396\|doi10.1111/acps.13541\|s2cid257438412\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Likewise, a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for major depressive disorder in children and adolescents found small improvements in quality of life.<ref name"pmid35508443">{{cite journal\|vauthorsTeng T, Zhang Z, Yin B, Guo T, Wang X, Hu J, Ran X, Dai Q, Zhou X\|titleEffect of antidepressants on functioning and quality of life outcomes in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalTransl Psychiatry\|volume12\|issue1\|pages183\|dateMay 2022\|pmid35508443\|pmc9068747\|doi10.1038/s41398-022-01951-9}}</ref> Quality of life as an outcome measure is often selectively reported in trials of antidepressants.<ref name"Paludan-Müller 2021">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPaludan-Müller AS, Sharma T, Rasmussen K, Gøtzsche PC\|titleExtensive selective reporting of quality of life in clinical study reports and publications of placebo-controlled trials of antidepressants\|journalInt J Risk Saf Med\|volume32\|issue2\|pages87–99\|dateMay 2021\|pmid33044196\|doi10.3233/JRS-200051\|s2cid222299860}}</ref> Anxiety disorders For children and adolescents, fluvoxamine and escitalopram are effective in treating a range of anxiety disorders.<ref name"NIHR-2022">{{cite journal\|date3 November 2022\|titleAntidepressants for children and teenagers: what works for anxiety and depression?\|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/collection/antidepressants-for-children-and-teenagers-what-works-anxiety-depression/\|journalNIHR Evidence\|typePlain English summary\|publisherNational Institute for Health and Care Research\|doi10.3310/nihrevidence_53342\|s2cid253347210}}</ref><ref name"Boaden-2020" /><ref name"Correll-2021">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCorrell CU, Cortese S, Croatto G, Monaco F, Krinitski D, Arrondo G, Ostinelli EG, Zangani C, Fornaro M, Estradé A, Fusar-Poli P, Carvalho AF, Solmi M\|dateJune 2021\|titleEfficacy and acceptability of pharmacological, psychosocial, and brain stimulation interventions in children and adolescents with mental disorders: an umbrella review\|journalWorld Psychiatry\|volume20\|issue2\|pages244–275\|doi10.1002/wps.20881\|pmc8129843\|pmid34002501}}</ref> Fluoxetine, sertraline, and paroxetine can also help with managing various forms of anxiety in children and adolescents.<ref name"NIHR-2022" /><ref name"Boaden-2020" /><ref name"Correll-2021" /> Meta-analyses of published and unpublished trials have found that antidepressants have a placebo-subtracted effect size (standardized mean difference or SMD) in the treatment of anxiety disorders of around 0.3, which equates to a small improvement and is roughly the same magnitude of benefit as their effectiveness in the treatment of depression.<ref name"pmid31249537" /> The effect size (SMD) for improvement with placebo in trials of antidepressants for anxiety disorders is approximately 1.0, which is a large improvement in terms of effect size definitions.<ref name"pmid31573058">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLi F, Nasir M, Olten B, Bloch MH\|titleMeta-Analysis of Placebo Response in Adult Antidepressant Trials\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume33\|issue10\|pages971–980\|dateOctober 2019\|pmid31573058\|doi10.1007/s40263-019-00662-y\|s2cid203609845}}</ref> In relation to this, most of the benefit of antidepressants for anxiety disorders is attributable to placebo responses rather than to the effects of the antidepressants themselves.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"pmid31573058" /> Generalized anxiety disorder Antidepressants are recommended by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) that has failed to respond to conservative measures such as education and self-help activities. GAD is a common disorder in which the central feature is excessively worrying about numerous events. Key symptoms include excessive anxiety about events and issues going on around them and difficulty controlling worrisome thoughts that persists for at least 6 months. Antidepressants provide a modest to moderate reduction in anxiety in GAD.<ref name"urlwww.nice.org.uk">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13314/52599/52599.pdf\|authorNational Collaborating Centre for Mental Health and the National Collaborating Centre for Primary Care\|titleGeneralised anxiety disorder and panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) in adults\|workNICE clinical guideline 113\|dateJanuary 2011\|access-date20 February 2013\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121021044157/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13314/52599/52599.pdf\|archive-date21 October 2012}}</ref> The efficacy of different antidepressants is similar.<ref name"urlwww.nice.org.uk" />Social anxiety disorderSome antidepressants are used as a treatment for social anxiety disorder, but their efficacy is not entirely convincing, as only a small proportion of antidepressants showed some effectiveness for this condition. Paroxetine was the first drug to be FDA-approved for this disorder. Its efficacy is considered beneficial, although not everyone responds favorably to the drug. Sertraline and fluvoxamine extended-release were later approved for it as well, while escitalopram is used off-label with acceptable efficiency. However, there is not enough evidence to support Citalopram for treating social anxiety disorder, and fluoxetine was no better than a placebo in clinical trials. SSRIs are used as a first-line treatment for social anxiety, but they do not work for everyone. One alternative would be venlafaxine, an SNRI, which has shown benefits for social phobia in five clinical trials against a placebo, while the other SNRIs are not considered particularly useful for this disorder as many of them did not undergo testing for it. {{As of\|2008}}, it is unclear if duloxetine and desvenlafaxine can provide benefits for people with social anxiety. However, another class of antidepressants called MAOIs are considered effective for social anxiety, but they come with many unwanted side effects and are rarely used. Phenelzine was shown to be a good treatment option, but its use is limited by dietary restrictions. Moclobemide is a RIMA and showed mixed results, but still received approval in some European countries for social anxiety disorder. TCA antidepressants, such as clomipramine and imipramine, are not considered effective for this anxiety disorder in particular. This leaves out SSRIs such as paroxetine, sertraline, and fluvoxamine CR as acceptable and tolerated treatment options for this disorder.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsCanton J, Scott KM, Glue P\|titleOptimal treatment of social phobia: systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalNeuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment\|volume8\|pages203–215\|dateMay 2012\|pmid22665997\|pmc3363138\|doi10.2147/NDT.S23317\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHansen RA, Gaynes BN, Gartlehner G, Moore CG, Tiwari R, Lohr KN\|titleEfficacy and tolerability of second-generation antidepressants in social anxiety disorder\|journalInternational Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume23\|issue3\|pages170–179\|dateMay 2008\|pmid18408531\|pmc2657552\|doi10.1097/YIC.0b013e3282f4224a}}</ref>Obsessive–compulsive disorderSSRIs are a second-line treatment for adult obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) with mild functional impairment, and a first-line treatment for those with moderate or severe impairment.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSoomro GM, Altman D, Rajagopal S, Oakley-Browne M\|dateJanuary 2008\|titleSelective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) versus placebo for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2008\|issue1\|pagesCD001765\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD001765.pub3\|pmc7025764\|pmid18253995}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsFineberg NA, Brown A, Reghunandanan S, Pampaloni I\|dateSeptember 2012\|titleEvidence-based pharmacotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder\|journalThe International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology\|volume15\|issue8\|pages1173–1191\|doi10.1017/S1461145711001829\|pmid22226028\|doi-accessfree\|hdl2299/216\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleParoxetine prescribing information\|urlhttps://www.apotex.com/us/en/products/downloads/pil/paxil_irtb_ins.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150219055046/https://www.apotex.com/us/en/products/downloads/pil/paxil_irtb_ins.pdf\|archive-date19 February 2015\|access-date30 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleSertraline prescribing information\|urlhttp://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/019839s070,020990s032lbl.pdf\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150616011817/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/019839s070,020990s032lbl.pdf\|archive-date16 June 2015\|access-date=30 January 2015}}</ref> In children, SSRIs are considered as a second-line therapy in those with moderate-to-severe impairment, with close monitoring for psychiatric adverse effects.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg031niceguideline.pdf\|titleObsessive-compulsive disorder\|workClinical Guideline 31\|publisherThe National Institute for Health and Care Excellence\|dateNovember 2005\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206033654/https://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg031niceguideline.pdf\|archive-date6 December 2008}}</ref> Sertraline and fluoxetine are effective in treating OCD for children and adolescents.<ref name"NIHR-2022" /><ref name"Boaden-2020" /><ref name="Correll-2021" /> Clomipramine, a TCA drug, is considered effective and useful for OCD. However, it is used as a second-line treatment because it is less well-tolerated than SSRIs. Despite this, it has not shown superiority to fluvoxamine in trials. All SSRIs can be used effectively for OCD. SNRI use may also be attempted, though no SNRIs have been approved for the treatment of OCD. Despite these treatment options, many patients remain symptomatic after initiating the medication, and less than half achieve remission.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKellner M\|titleDrug treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder\|journalDialogues in Clinical Neuroscience\|volume12\|issue2\|pages187–197\|dateJune 2010\|pmid20623923\|pmc3181958\|doi10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.2/mkellner}}</ref> Placebo responses are a large component of the benefit of antidepressants in the treatment of depression and anxiety.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"pmid31573058" /> However, placebo responses with antidepressants are lower in magnitude in the treatment of OCD compared to depression and anxiety.<ref name"pmid31573058" /><ref name"pmid28477500">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSugarman MA, Kirsch I, Huppert JD\|titleObsessive-compulsive disorder has a reduced placebo (and antidepressant) response compared to other anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis\|journalJ Affect Disord\|volume218\|pages217–226\|dateAugust 2017\|pmid28477500\|doi10.1016/j.jad.2017.04.068}}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis found placebo improvement effect sizes (SMD) of about 1.2 for depression, 1.0 for anxiety disorders, and 0.6 for OCD with antidepressants.<ref name"pmid31573058" /> Post–traumatic stress disorder Antidepressants are one of the treatment options for PTSD. However, their efficacy is not well established. Paroxetine and sertraline have been FDA approved for the treatment of PTSD. Paroxetine has slightly higher response and remission rates than sertraline for this condition. However, neither drug is considered very helpful for a broad patient demographic. Fluoxetine and venlafaxine are used off-label. Fluoxetine has produced unsatisfactory mixed results. Venlafaxine showed response rates of 78%, which is significantly higher than what paroxetine and sertraline achieved. However, it did not address as many symptoms of PTSD as paroxetine and sertraline, in part due to the fact that venlafaxine is an SNRI. This class of drugs inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine, which may cause anxiety in some patients. Fluvoxamine, escitalopram, and citalopram were not well-tested for this disorder. MAOIs, while some of them may be helpful, are not used much because of their unwanted side effects. This leaves paroxetine and sertraline as acceptable treatment options for some people, although more effective antidepressants are needed.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAlexander W\|titlePharmacotherapy for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Combat Veterans: Focus on Antidepressants and Atypical Antipsychotic Agents\|journalP & T\|volume37\|issue1\|pages32–38\|dateJanuary 2012\|pmid22346334\|pmc3278188}}</ref> Panic disorder Panic disorder is treated relatively well with medications compared to other disorders. Several classes of antidepressants have shown efficacy for this disorder, with SSRIs and SNRIs used first-line. Paroxetine, sertraline, and fluoxetine are FDA-approved for panic disorder, while fluvoxamine, escitalopram, and citalopram are also considered effective for them. SNRI venlafaxine is also approved for this condition. Unlike social anxiety and PTSD, some TCAs antidepressants, like clomipramine and imipramine, have shown efficacy for panic disorder. Moreover, the MAOI phenelzine is also considered useful. Panic disorder has many drugs for its treatment. However, the starting dose must be lower than the one used for major depressive disorder because people have reported an increase in anxiety as a result of starting the medication. In conclusion, while panic disorder's treatment options seem acceptable and useful for this condition, many people are still symptomatic after treatment with residual symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBighelli I, Castellazzi M, Cipriani A, Girlanda F, Guaiana G, Koesters M, Turrini G, Furukawa TA, Barbui C\|titleAntidepressants versus placebo for panic disorder in adults\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2018\|issue4\|pagesCD010676\|dateApril 2018\|pmid29620793\|pmc6494573\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD010676.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBighelli I, Trespidi C, Castellazzi M, Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Girlanda F, Guaiana G, Koesters M, Barbui C\|titleAntidepressants and benzodiazepines for panic disorder in adults\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2016\|issue9\|pagesCD011567\|dateSeptember 2016\|pmid27618521\|pmc6457579\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD011567.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAndrisano C, Chiesa A, Serretti A\|titleNewer antidepressants and panic disorder: a meta-analysis\|journalInternational Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume28\|issue1\|pages33–45\|dateJanuary 2013\|pmid23111544\|doi10.1097/YIC.0b013e32835a5d2e\|s2cid24967691\|doi-accessfree}}</ref>Eating disordersAntidepressants are recommended as an alternative or additional first step to self-help programs in the treatment of bulimia nervosa.<ref name"urlwww.nice.org.uk2">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG9FullGuideline.pdf\|titleEating disorders in over 8s: management\|date28 January 2004\|workClinical guideline [CG9]\|publisherNational Institute for Health Care Excellence (NICE)\|locationUnited Kingdom\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140327055429/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG9FullGuideline.pdf\|archive-date27 March 2014}}</ref> SSRIs (fluoxetine in particular) are preferred over other antidepressants due to their acceptability, tolerability, and superior reduction of symptoms in short-term trials. Long-term efficacy remains poorly characterized. Bupropion is not recommended for the treatment of eating disorders, due to an increased risk of seizure.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a695033.html\|titleBupropion: MedlinePlus Drug Information\|access-date24 May 2016\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160508110157/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a695033.html\|archive-date=8 May 2016}}</ref> Similar recommendations apply to binge eating disorder.<ref name"urlwww.nice.org.uk2" /> SSRIs provide short-term reductions in binge eating behavior, but have not been associated with significant weight loss.<ref name"urlNational Guideline Clearinghouse \| Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders.">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.guidelines.gov/content.aspx?id9318+\|workNational Guideline Clearinghouse\|publisherAgency for Healthcare Research and Quality\|titlePractice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525135033/http://www.guidelines.gov/content.aspx?id9318+\|archive-date25 May 2013\|date5 July 2018}}</ref> Clinical trials have generated mostly negative results for the use of SSRIs in the treatment of anorexia nervosa.<ref name"pmid21414249">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFlament MF, Bissada H, Spettigue W\|titleEvidence-based pharmacotherapy of eating disorders\|journalInt. J. Neuropsychopharmacol.\|volume15\|issue2\|pages189–207\|dateMarch 2012\|pmid21414249\|doi10.1017/S1461145711000381\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Treatment guidelines from the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE)<ref name"urlwww.nice.org.uk2" /> recommend against the use of SSRIs in this disorder. Those from the American Psychiatric Association (APA) note that SSRIs confer no advantage regarding weight gain, but may be used for the treatment of co-existing depressive, anxiety, or obsessive–compulsive disorders.<ref name"urlNational Guideline Clearinghouse \| Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders." />PainFibromyalgiaA 2012 meta-analysis concluded that antidepressant treatment favorably affects pain, health-related quality of life, depression, and sleep in fibromyalgia syndrome. Tricyclics appear to be the most effective class, with moderate effects on pain and sleep, and small effects on fatigue and health-related quality of life. The fraction of people experiencing a 30% pain reduction on tricyclics was 48%, versus 28% on placebo. For SSRIs and SNRIs, the fractions of people experiencing a 30% pain reduction were 36% (20% in the placebo comparator arms) and 42% (32% in the corresponding placebo comparator arms) respectively. Discontinuation of treatment due to side effects was common.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHäuser W, Wolfe F, Tölle T, Uçeyler N, Sommer C\|s2cid207301478\|titleThe role of antidepressants in the management of fibromyalgia syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume26\|issue4\|pages297–307\|dateApril 2012\|pmid22452526\|doi10.2165/11598970-000000000-00000}}</ref> Antidepressants including amitriptyline, fluoxetine, duloxetine, milnacipran, moclobemide, and pirlindole are recommended by the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) for the treatment of fibromyalgia based on "limited evidence".<ref name"pmid17644548">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCarville SF, Arendt-Nielsen L, Arendt-Nielsen S, Bliddal H, Blotman F, Branco JC, Buskila D, Da Silva JA, Danneskiold-Samsøe B, Dincer F, Henriksson C, Henriksson KG, Kosek E, Longley K, McCarthy GM, Perrot S, Puszczewicz M, Sarzi-Puttini P, Silman A, Späth M, Choy EH\|titleEULAR evidence-based recommendations for the management of fibromyalgia syndrome\|journalAnnals of the Rheumatic Diseases\|volume67\|issue4\|pages536–541\|dateApril 2008\|pmid17644548\|doi10.1136/ard.2007.071522\|s2cid12121672\|doi-accessfree\|hdl2434/664614\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref>Neuropathic painA 2014 meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found the antidepressant duloxetine to be effective for the treatment of pain resulting from diabetic neuropathy.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLunn MP, Hughes RA, Wiffen PJ\|titleDuloxetine for treating painful neuropathy, chronic pain or fibromyalgia\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume1\|issue1\|pagesCD007115\|dateJanuary 2014\|pmid24385423\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD007115.pub3\|pmc10711341}}</ref> The same group reviewed data for amitriptyline in the treatment of neuropathic pain and found limited useful randomized clinical trial data. They concluded that the long history of successful use in the community for the treatment of fibromyalgia and neuropathic pain justified its continued use.<ref name"Moore2015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoore RA, Derry S, Aldington D, Cole P, Wiffen PJ\|titleAmitriptyline for neuropathic pain in adults\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|issue7\|pagesCD008242\|dateJuly 2015\|volume2015\|pmid26146793\|pmc6447238\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008242.pub3}}</ref> The group was concerned about the potential overestimation of the amount of pain relief provided by amitriptyline, and highlighted that only a small number of people will experience significant pain relief by taking this medication.<ref nameMoore2015 />Other usesAntidepressants may be modestly helpful for treating people who have both depression and alcohol dependence, however, the evidence supporting this association is of low quality.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAgabio R, Trogu E, Pani PP\|titleAntidepressants for the treatment of people with co-occurring depression and alcohol dependence\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2018\|issue4\|pagesCD008581\|dateApril 2018\|pmid29688573\|pmc6494437\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008581.pub2}}</ref> Bupropion is used to help people stop smoking. Antidepressants are also used to control some symptoms of narcolepsy.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Narcolepsy-Information-Page\|titleNarcolepsy Information Page\|date27 March 2019\|websiteNational Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke\|access-date11 April 2020}}</ref> Antidepressants may be used to relieve pain in people with active rheumatoid arthritis. However, further research is required.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRichards BL, Whittle SL, Buchbinder R\|titleAntidepressants for pain management in rheumatoid arthritis\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|issue11\|pagesCD008920\|dateNovember 2011\|pmid22071859\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008920.pub2}}</ref> Antidepressants have been shown to be superior to placebo in treating depression in individuals with physical illness, although reporting bias may have exaggerated this finding.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRayner L, Price A, Evans A, Valsraj K, Higginson IJ, Hotopf M\|titleAntidepressants for depression in physically ill people\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|issue3\|pagesCD007503\|dateMarch 2010\|pmid20238354\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD007503.pub2}}</ref> Antidepressants have been shown to improve some parts of cognitive functioning for depressed users, such as memory, attention, and processing speed.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsPrado CE, Watt S, Crowe SF\|titleA meta-analysis of the effects of antidepressants on cognitive functioning in depressed and non-depressed samples\|journalNeuropsychology Review\|volume28\|issue1\|pages32–72\|dateMarch 2018\|pmid29446012\|doi=10.1007/s11065-018-9369-5}}</ref> Certain antidepressants acting as serotonin 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> receptor antagonists, such as trazodone and mirtazapine, have been used as hallucinogen antidotes or "trip killers" to block the effects of serotonergic psychedelics like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).<ref name"HalmanKongSarris2024">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHalman A, Kong G, Sarris J, Perkins D\|titleDrug-drug interactions involving classic psychedelics: A systematic review\|journalJ Psychopharmacol\|volume38\|issue1\|pages3–18\|dateJanuary 2024\|pmid37982394\|pmc10851641\|doi10.1177/02698811231211219}}</ref><ref name"YatesMelon2024">{{cite journal\|vauthorsYates G, Melon E\|titleTrip-killers: a concerning practice associated with psychedelic drug use\|journalEmerg Med J\|volume41\|issue2\|pages112–113\|dateJanuary 2024\|pmid38123961\|doi10.1136/emermed-2023-213377}}</ref><ref name"Suran2024">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSuran M\|titleStudy Finds Hundreds of Reddit Posts on "Trip-Killers" for Psychedelic Drugs\|journalJAMA\|volume331\|issue8\|pages632–634\|dateFebruary 2024\|pmid38294772\|doi10.1001/jama.2023.28257}}</ref>Limitations and strategiesAmong individuals treated with a given antidepressant, between 30% and 50% do not show a response.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBaghai TC, Möller HJ, Rupprecht R\|titleRecent progress in pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options of major depression\|journalCurrent Pharmaceutical Design\|volume12\|issue4\|pages503–515\|year2006\|pmid16472142\|doi10.2174/138161206775474422}}</ref><ref name"SSRIswitch">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRuhé HG, Huyser J, Swinkels JA, Schene AH\|titleSwitching antidepressants after a first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in major depressive disorder: a systematic review\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume67\|issue12\|pages1836–1855\|dateDecember 2006\|pmid17194261\|doi10.4088/JCP.v67n1203\|urlhttp://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/02f0/a7fcfd218854147e6c3e52c3f213ab2d95e4.pdf\|url-statusdead\|s2cid9758110\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190216221042/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/02f0/a7fcfd218854147e6c3e52c3f213ab2d95e4.pdf\|archive-date16 February 2019}}</ref> Approximately one-third of people achieve a full remission, one-third experience a response, and one-third are non-responders. Partial remission is characterized by the presence of poorly defined residual symptoms. These symptoms typically include depressed mood, anxiety, sleep disturbance, fatigue, and diminished interest or pleasure. It is currently unclear which factors predict partial remission. However, it is clear that residual symptoms are powerful predictors of relapse, with relapse rates three to six&nbsp;times higher in people with residual symptoms than in those, who experience full remission.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsTranter R, O'Donovan C, Chandarana P, Kennedy S\|titlePrevalence and outcome of partial remission in depression\|journalJournal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience\|volume27\|issue4\|pages241–247\|dateJuly 2002\|pmid12174733\|pmc161658}}</ref> In addition, antidepressant drugs tend to lose efficacy throughout long-term maintenance therapy.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsByrne SE, Rothschild AJ\|titleLoss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume59\|issue6\|pages279–288\|dateJune 1998\|pmid9671339\|doi10.4088/JCP.v59n0602}}</ref> According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, less than one-third of Americans taking one antidepressant medication have seen a mental health professional in the previous year.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAntidepressant Use in Persons Aged 12 and Over: United States, 2005–2008\|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db76.htm\|websitecdc.gov\|access-date4 February 2016\|publisherCenters for Disease Control and Prevention\|seriesProducts – Data Briefs – Number 76 – October 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160204212849/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db76.htm\|archive-date4 February 2016}}</ref> Several strategies are used in clinical practice to try to overcome these limits and variations.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsMischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Kizilbash L, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M\|titleStrategies for managing depression refractory to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment: a survey of clinicians\|journalCanadian Journal of Psychiatry\|volume45\|issue5\|pages476–481\|dateJune 2000\|pmid10900529\|doi10.1177/070674370004500509\|s2cid12904378}}</ref> They include switching medication, augmentation, and combination. There is controversy amongst researchers regarding the efficacy and risk-benefit ratio of antidepressants.<ref name"Wilson2018">{{cite news\|vauthorsWilson C\|titleNobody can agree about antidepressants. Here's what you need to know\|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23931980-100-nobody-can-agree-about-antidepressants-heres-what-you-need-to-know/\|access-date23 January 2023\|workNew Scientist\|publisherNew Scientist Ltd\|date2 October 2018}}</ref><ref name"Warren2020">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWarren JB\|titleThe trouble with antidepressants: why the evidence overplays evidence and underplays risks—an essay by John B Warren\|journalThe BMJ\|date2020\|volume370\|pagem3200\|doi10.1136/bmj.m3200\|pmid32883743\|s2cid221468976}}</ref> Although antidepressants consistently out-perform a placebo in meta-analyses, the difference is modest and it is not clear that their statistical superiority results in clinical efficacy.<ref name"CiprianiFurukawa2018" /><ref name"pmid35918097" /><ref name"pmid30386270" /><ref name"McCormack2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMcCormack J, Korownyk C\|titleEffectiveness of antidepressants\|journalThe BMJ\|date2018\|volume360\|pagek1073\|doi10.1136/bmj.k1073\|pmid29523598\|s2cid3925654}}</ref> The aggregate effect of antidepressants typically results in changes below the threshold of clinical significance on depression rating scales.<ref name"pmid31554608" /><ref name"pmid25979317" /> Proponents of antidepressants counter that the most common scale, the HDRS, is not suitable for assessing drug action, that the threshold for clinical significance is arbitrary, and that antidepressants consistently result in significantly raised scores on the mood item of the scale.<ref name"Pariante2022">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPariante CM\|titleDepression is both psychosocial and biological; antidepressants are both effective and in need of improvement; psychiatrists are both caring human beings and doctors who prescribe medications. Can we all agree on this? a commentary on 'Read & Moncrieff – depression: why drugs and electricity are not the answer'\|journalPsychological Medicine\|date2022\|volume52\|issue8\|pages1411–1413\|doi10.1017/S0033291722000770\|pmid35362404\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Assessments of antidepressants using alternative, more sensitive scales, such as the MADRS, do not result in marked difference from the HDRS and likewise only find a marginal clinical benefit.<ref name"pmid32101579" /> Another hypothesis proposed to explain the poor performance of antidepressants in clinical trials is a high treatment response heterogeneity. Some patients, that differ strongly in their response to antidepressants, could influence the average response, while the heterogeneity could itself be obscured by the averaging. Studies have not supported this hypothesis, but it is very difficult to measure treatment effect heterogeneity.<ref name"Luedtke2021">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLuedtke A, Kessler RC\|titleNew Directions in Research on Heterogeneity of Treatment Effects for Major Depression\|journalJAMA Psychiatry\|date2021\|volume78\|issue5\|pages478–480\|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.4489\|pmid33595616\|s2cid231944660}}</ref> Poor and complex clinical trial design might also account for the small effects seen for antidepressants.<ref name"Khan2015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKhan A, Brown WA\|titleAntidepressants versus placebo in major depression: an overview\|journalWorld Psychiatry\|date2015\|volume14\|issue3\|pages294–300\|doi10.1002/wps.20241\|pmid26407778\|pmc4592645}}</ref><ref name"Nutt2008">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNutt DJ, Malizia AL\|titleWhy does the world have such a 'down' on antidepressants?\|journalJournal of Psychopharmacology\|date2008\|volume22\|issue3\|pages223–226\|doi10.1177/0269881108091877\|pmid18541622\|s2cid45965987\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The randomized controlled trials used to approve drugs are short, and may not capture the full effect of antidepressants.<ref name"Nutt2008" /> Additionally, the placebo effect might be inflated in these trials by frequent clinical consultation, lowering the comparative performance of antidepressants.<ref name"Nutt2008" /> Critics agree that current clinical trials are poorly-designed, which limits the knowledge on antidepressants.<ref name"Boesen2021">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBoesen K, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP\|titleEMA and FDA psychiatric drug trial guidelines: assessment of guideline development and trial design recommendations\|journalEpidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences\|date2021\|volume30\|pagee35\|doi10.1017/S2045796021000147\|pmid33926608\|pmc8157504}}</ref> More naturalistic studies, such as STARD, have produced results, which suggest that antidepressants may be less effective in clinical practice than in randomized controlled trials.<ref name"Read2022" /><ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsGiraldi T\|titleUnhappiness, sadness and 'depression'\|date2017\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|locationLondon, UK\|isbn978-3-319-57657-2\|pages=108–110}}</ref> Critics of antidepressants maintain that the superiority of antidepressants over placebo is the result of systemic flaws in clinical trials and the research literature.<ref name"Read2022">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRead J, Moncrieff J\|titleDepression: why drugs and electricity are not the answer\|journalPsychological Medicine\|date2022\|volume52\|issue8\|pages1401–1410\|doi10.1017/S0033291721005031\|pmid35100527\|s2cid246442707\|urlhttps://repository.uel.ac.uk/download/0fd9663377e02e8033e12c27844d65b5e918406de4d7c7baca5031a8e8ba4c5a/408146/Read%20and%20Moncrieff%20Psych%20Med%20ROAR.pdf}}</ref><ref name"pmid31554608" /> Trials conducted with industry involvement tend to produce more favorable results, and accordingly many of the trials included in meta-analyses are at high risk of bias.<ref name"pmid31248914" /><ref name"pmid31554608" /> Additionally, meta-analyses co-authored by industry employees find more favorable results for antidepressants.<ref name"pmid31554608" /> The results of antidepressant trials are significantly more likely to be published if they are favorable, and unfavorable results are very often left unpublished or misreported, a phenomenon called publication bias or selective publication.<ref name"Turner2008">{{cite journal\|vauthorsTurner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R\|titleSelective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy\|journalThe New England Journal of Medicine\|date2008\|volume358\|issue3\|pages252–260\|doi10.1056/NEJMsa065779\|pmid18199864\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Although this issue has diminished with time, it remains an obstacle to accurately assessing the efficacy of antidepressants.<ref name"Turner2022">{{cite journal\|vauthorsTurner EH, Cipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, de Vries YA\|titleSelective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy: Updated comparisons and meta-analyses of newer versus older trials\|journalPLOS Medicine\|date2022\|volume19\|issue1\|pagee1003886\|doi10.1371/journal.pmed.1003886\|pmid35045113\|pmc8769343\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Misreporting of clinical trial outcomes and of serious adverse events, such as suicide, is common.<ref name"Hughes2014">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHughes S, Cohen D, Jaggi R\|titleDifferences in reporting serious adverse events in industry sponsored clinical trial registries and journal articles on antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs: a cross-sectional study\|journalBMJ Open\|date2014\|volume4\|issue7\|pagee005535\|doi10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005535\|pmid25009136\|pmc4091397}}</ref><ref name"pmid31248914" /><ref name"Hengartner2022" /> Ghostwriting of antidepressant trials is widespread, a practice in which prominent researchers, or so-called key opinion leaders, attach their names to studies actually written by pharmaceutical company employees or consultants.<ref name"Hengartner2022" /> A particular concern is that the psychoactive effects of antidepressants may lead to the unblinding of participants or researchers, enhancing the placebo effect and biasing results.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"Kirsch2014" /><ref name"pmid31248914" /> Some have therefore maintained that antidepressants may only be active placebos.<ref name"Read2022" /><ref name"pmid31554608" /> When these and other flaws in the research literature are not taken into account, meta-analyses may find inflated results on the basis of poor evidence.<ref name="pmid31248914" /> Critics contend that antidepressants have not been proven sufficiently effective by RCTs or in clinical practice and that the widespread use of antidepressants is not evidence-based.<ref name"Read2022" /><ref name"pmid31554608" /> They also note that adverse effects, including withdrawal difficulties, are likely underreported, skewing clinicians' ability to make risk-benefit judgements.<ref name"Warren2020" /><ref name"Sharma2016">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSharma T, Guski LS, Freund N, Gøtzsche PC\|titleSuicidality and aggression during antidepressant treatment: systematic review and meta-analyses based on clinical study reports\|journalThe BMJ\|date2016\|volume352\|pagesi65\|doi10.1136/bmj.i65\|pmid26819231\|pmc4729837}}</ref><ref name"Bielefeldt2016">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBielefeldt AØ, Danborg PB, Gøtzsche PC\|titlePrecursors to suicidality and violence on antidepressants: systematic review of trials in adult healthy volunteers\|journalJournal of the Royal Society of Medicine\|date2016\|volume109\|issue10\|pages381–392\|doi10.1177/0141076816666805\|pmid27729596\|pmc5066537}}</ref><ref name"Read2022" /> Accordingly, they believe antidepressants are overused, particularly for non-severe depression and conditions in which they are not indicated.<ref name"Warren2020" /><ref name"Fava2014">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFava GA\|titleRational use of antidepressant drugs\|journalPsychotherapy and Psychosomatics\|date2014\|volume83\|issue4\|pages197–204\|doi10.1159/000362803\|pmid24969962\|s2cid32506580\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Critics charge that the widespread use and public acceptance of antidepressants is the result of pharmaceutical advertising, research manipulation, and misinformation.<ref name"pmid16268734" /><ref name"LacasseLeo2015" /><ref name"Lacasse2005" /><ref name"AngHorowitzMoncrieff2022" /> Current mainstream psychiatric opinion recognizes the limitations of antidepressants but recommends their use in adults with more severe depression as a first-line treatment.<ref name"nrdp2016">{{cite journal\|vauthorsOtte C, Gold SM, Penninx BW, Pariante CM, Etkin A, Fava M, Mohr DC, Schatzburg AF\|titleMajor depressive disorder\|journalNature Reviews Disease Primers\|date2016\|volume2\|page16065\|doi10.1038/nrdp.2016.65\|pmid27629598\|s2cid4047310\|urlhttps://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/major-depressive-disorder(c382ec52-8506-4d39-9b77-cf86d64ad446).html}}</ref><ref name"NICE2022">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKendrick T, Pilling S, Mavranezouli I, Megnin-Viggars O, Ruane C, Eadon H, Kapur N\|titleManagement of depression in adults: summary of updated NICE guidance\|journalThe BMJ\|date2022\|volume378\|pageo1557\|doi10.1136/bmj.o1557\|pmid35858703\|s2cid250644758\|urlhttps://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10152602/}}</ref> Switching antidepressants {{See also\|Treatment-resistant depression#Switching antidepressants}} The American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline advises that where no response is achieved within the following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant, switch to an antidepressant in the same class, and then to a different class. A 2006 meta-analysis review found wide variation in the findings of prior studies: for people who had failed to respond to an SSRI antidepressant, between 12% and 86% showed a response to a new drug. However, the more antidepressants an individual had previously tried, the less likely they were to benefit from a new antidepressant trial.<ref name"SSRIswitch" /> However, a later meta-analysis found no difference between switching to a new drug and staying on the old medication: although 34% of treatment-resistant people responded when switched to the new drug, 40% responded without being switched.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBschor T, Baethge C\|titleNo evidence for switching the antidepressant: Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs of a common therapeutic strategy\|journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica\|volume121\|issue3\|pages174–9\|year2010\|pmid19703121\|doi10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01458.x\|s2cid8341512}}</ref>Augmentation and combinationFor a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) guidelines suggest augmentation or adding a drug from a different class. These include lithium and thyroid augmentation, dopamine agonists, sex steroids, NRIs, glucocorticoid-specific agents, or the newer anticonvulsants.<ref name"augment">{{cite journal\|vauthorsDeBattista C, Lembke A\|s2cid25499899\|titleUpdate on augmentation of antidepressant response in resistant depression\|journalCurrent Psychiatry Reports\|volume7\|issue6\|pages435–40\|year2005\|pmid16318821\|doi10.1007/s11920-005-0064-x}}</ref> A combination strategy involves adding another antidepressant, usually from a different class to affect other mechanisms. Although this may be used in clinical practice, there is little evidence for the relative efficacy or adverse effects of this strategy.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLam RW, Wan DD, Cohen NL, Kennedy SH\|titleCombining Antidepressants for Treatment-Resistant Depression\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume63\|issue8\|pages685–93\|year2002\|pmid12197448\|doi10.4088/JCP.v63n0805}}</ref> Other tests conducted include the use of psychostimulants as an augmentation therapy. Several studies have shown the efficacy of combining modafinil for treatment-resistant people. It has been used to help combat SSRI-associated fatigue.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsGoss AJ, Kaser M, Costafreda SG, Sahakian BJ, Fu CH\|s2cid13911763\|titleModafinil augmentation therapy in unipolar and bipolar depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume74\|issue11\|pages1101–7\|year2013\|pmid24330897\|doi10.4088/JCP.13r08560\|urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/754c/e4bb94f6be37d53b562ffe90fcec9a17073b.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200215045012/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/754c/e4bb94f6be37d53b562ffe90fcec9a17073b.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date15 February 2020}}</ref>Long-term use and stoppingThe effects of antidepressants typically do not continue once the course of medication ends. This results in a high rate of relapse. In 2003, a meta-analysis found that 18% of people who had responded to an antidepressant relapsed while still taking it, compared to 41% whose antidepressant was switched for a placebo.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsGeddes JR, Carney SM, Davies C, Furukawa TA, Kupfer DJ, Frank E, Goodwin GM\|s2cid20198748\|titleRelapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: A systematic review\|journalThe Lancet\|volume361\|issue9358\|pages653–61\|year2003\|pmid12606176\|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12599-8}}</ref> A gradual loss of therapeutic benefit occurs in a minority of people during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsTargum SD\|titleIdentification and treatment of antidepressant tachyphylaxis\|journalInnovations in Clinical Neuroscience\|volume11\|issue3–4\|pages24–28\|dateMarch 2014\|pmid24800130\|pmc4008298}}</ref><ref name"fava">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFava GA, Offidani E\|titleThe mechanisms of tolerance in antidepressant action\|journalProgress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry\|volume35\|issue7\|pages1593–1602\|dateAugust 2011\|pmid20728491\|doi10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.07.026\|s2cid207409469}}</ref> A strategy involving the use of pharmacotherapy in the treatment of the acute episode, followed by psychotherapy in its residual phase, has been suggested by some studies.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsFava GA, Park SK, Sonino N\|titleTreatment of recurrent depression\|journalExpert Review of Neurotherapeutics\|volume6\|issue11\|pages1735–1740\|dateNovember 2006\|pmid17144786\|doi10.1586/14737175.6.11.1735\|s2cid22808803}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsPetersen TJ\|titleEnhancing the efficacy of antidepressants with psychotherapy\|journalJournal of Psychopharmacology\|volume20\|issue3 Suppl\|pages19–28\|dateMay 2006\|pmid16644768\|doi10.1177/1359786806064314\|s2cid23649861}}</ref> For patients who wish to stop their antidepressants, engaging in brief psychological interventions such as Preventive Cognitive Therapy<ref>{{cite web\|titleVoorkom Depressie – Preventieve Cognitieve Therapie\|urlhttps://www.voorkomdepressie.nl/\|websitevoorkomdepressie.nl}}</ref> or mindfulness-based cognitive therapy while tapering down has been found to diminish the risk for relapse.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBreedvelt JJ, Warren FC, Segal Z, Kuyken W, Bockting CL\|titleContinuation of Antidepressants vs Sequential Psychological Interventions to Prevent Relapse in Depression: An Individual Participant Data Meta-analysis\|journalJAMA Psychiatry\|volume78\|issue8\|pages868–875\|dateAugust 2021\|pmid34009273\|pmc8135055\|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.0823}}</ref>Adverse effectsAntidepressants can cause various adverse effects, depending on the individual and the drug in question.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.webmd.com/depression/features/coping-with-side-effects-of-depression-treatment\|titleCoping With Side Effects of Depression Treatment\|vauthorsAllen A\|websiteWebMD\|access-date4 February 2019}}</ref> Almost any medication involved with serotonin regulation has the potential to cause serotonin toxicity (also known as serotonin syndrome) – an excess of serotonin that can induce mania, restlessness, agitation, emotional lability, insomnia, and confusion as its primary symptoms.<ref name"pmid12771076">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBirmes P, Coppin D, Schmitt L, Lauque D\|titleSerotonin syndrome: a brief review\|journalCMAJ\|volume168\|issue11\|pages1439–1442\|dateMay 2003\|pmid12771076\|pmc155963}}</ref><ref name"pmid15784664">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBoyer EW, Shannon M\|titleThe serotonin syndrome\|journalThe New England Journal of Medicine\|volume352\|issue11\|pages1112–1120\|dateMarch 2005\|pmid15784664\|doi10.1056/NEJMra041867\|urlhttp://toxicology.ucsd.edu/art%203%20serotonin%20syndrome.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130618053344/http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/art%203%20serotonin%20syndrome.pdf\|archive-date18 June 2013}}</ref> Although the condition is serious, it is not particularly common, generally only appearing at high doses or while on other medications. Assuming proper medical intervention has been taken (within about 24&nbsp;hours) it is rarely fatal.<ref name"pmid10941349">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMason PJ, Morris VA, Balcezak TJ\|titleSerotonin syndrome. Presentation of 2 cases and review of the literature\|journalMedicine\|volume79\|issue4\|pages201–209\|dateJuly 2000\|pmid10941349\|doi10.1097/00005792-200007000-00001\|s2cid41036864\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid10818648">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSampson E, Warner JP\|titleSerotonin syndrome: potentially fatal but difficult to recognize\|journalThe British Journal of General Practice\|volume49\|issue448\|pages867–868\|dateNovember 1999\|pmid10818648\|pmc1313553}}</ref> Antidepressants appear to increase the risk of diabetes by about 1.3-fold.<ref name"Salvi 2017">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSalvi V, Grua I, Cerveri G, Mencacci C, Barone-Adesi F\|titleThe risk of new-onset diabetes in antidepressant users – A systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalPLOS ONE\|volume12\|issue7\|pagese0182088\|date31 July 2017\|pmid28759599\|pmc5536271\|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0182088\|quoteIn our meta-analysis we found an association between exposure to ADs and new-onset diabetes, with a relative risk of 1.27. When we restricted the analysis to the studies to high NOS score the association between ADs and diabetes was even stronger. The results are in line with those from two previous meta-analyses that reported a 1.5-fold increase of diabetes among AD users.\|doi-accessfree\|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1282088S}}</ref> MAOIs tend to have pronounced (sometimes fatal) interactions with a wide variety of medications and over-the-counter drugs. If taken with foods that contain very high levels of tyramine (e.g., mature cheese, cured meats, or yeast extracts), they may cause a potentially lethal hypertensive crisis. At lower doses, the person may only experience a headache due to an increase in blood pressure.<ref name"pmid19742203">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSathyanarayana Rao TS, Yeragani VK\|titleHypertensive crisis and cheese\|journalIndian J Psychiatry\|volume51\|issue1\|pages65–6\|year2009\|pmid19742203\|pmc2738414\|doi10.4103/0019-5545.44910\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> In response to these adverse effects, a different type of MAOI, the class of reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), has been developed. The primary advantage of RIMAs is that they do not require the person to follow a special diet while being purportedly effective as SSRIs and tricyclics in treating depressive disorders.<ref name"pmid7717091">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPaykel ES\|titleClinical efficacy of reversible and selective inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A in major depression\|journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum\|volume386\|pages22–27\|year1995\|pmid7717091\|doi10.1111/j.1600-0447.1995.tb05920.x\|s2cid20488192}}</ref> Tricyclics and SSRI can cause the so-called drug-induced QT prolongation, especially in older adults;<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRochester MP, Kane AM, Linnebur SA, Fixen DR\|titleEvaluating the risk of QTc prolongation associated with antidepressant use in older adults: a review of the evidence\|journalTherapeutic Advances in Drug Safety\|volume9\|issue6\|pages297–308\|dateJune 2018\|pmid29854391\|pmc5971403\|doi10.1177/2042098618772979}}</ref> this condition can degenerate into a specific type of abnormal heart rhythm called Torsades de points, which can potentially lead to sudden cardiac arrest.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsAyad RF, Assar MD, Simpson L, Garner JB, Schussler JM\|titleCauses and management of drug-induced long QT syndrome\|journalProceedings\|volume23\|issue3\|pages250–255\|dateJuly 2010\|pmid20671821\|pmc2900977\|doi10.1080/08998280.2010.11928628}}</ref> Some antidepressants are also believed to increase thoughts of suicidal ideation. Antidepressants have been associated with an increased risk of dementia in older adults.<ref name"pmid37834986">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWang GH, Li P, Wang Y, Guo J, Wilson DL, Lo-Ciganic WH\|titleAssociation between Antidepressants and Dementia Risk in Older Adults with Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis\|journalJ Clin Med\|volume12\|issue19\|dateOctober 2023\|page6342\|pmid37834986\|doi10.3390/jcm12196342\|pmc10573169\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Researchers have developed a tool that allows people to rate their concern about common side effects of antidepressants. The tool ranks potential treatment options in a visual display that highlights the drugs with side effects of least concern to an individual.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsPillinger T, Howes OD, Correll CU, Leucht S, Huhn M, Schneider-Thoma J, Gaughran F, Jauhar S, McGuire PK, Taylor DM, Young AH, McCutcheon RA\|titleAntidepressant and antipsychotic side-effects and personalised prescribing: a systematic review and digital tool development\|journalThe Lancet. Psychiatry\|volume10\|issue11\|pages860–876\|dateNovember 2023\|pmid37774723\|pmc10878984\|doi10.1016/s2215-0366(23)00262-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|date5 September 2024\|titleHow to choose the right antidepressant or antipsychotic\|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/how-to-choose-the-right-antidepressant-or-antipsychotic/\|journalNIHR Evidence}}</ref> Pregnancy SSRI use in pregnancy has been associated with a variety of risks with varying degrees of proof of causation. As depression is independently associated with negative pregnancy outcomes, determining the extent to which observed associations between antidepressant use and specific adverse outcomes reflect a causative relationship has been difficult in some cases.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorMalm H\|s2cid22875385\|titlePrenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and infant outcome\|journalTher Drug Monit\|volume34\|issue6\|pages607–14\|dateDecember 2012\|pmid23042258\|doi10.1097/FTD.0b013e31826d07ea}}</ref> In other cases, the attribution of adverse outcomes to antidepressant exposure seems fairly clear. SSRI use in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion of about 1.7-fold,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRahimi R, Nikfar S, Abdollahi M\|titlePregnancy outcomes following exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a meta-analysis of clinical trials\|journalReproductive Toxicology\|volume22\|issue4\|pages571–575\|year2006\|pmid16720091\|doi10.1016/j.reprotox.2006.03.019\|bibcode2006RepTx..22..571R }}</ref><ref name"pmid23351929">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNikfar S, Rahimi R, Hendoiee N, Abdollahi M\|titleIncreasing the risk of spontaneous abortion and major malformations in newborns following use of serotonin reuptake inhibitors during pregnancy: A systematic review and updated meta-analysis\|journalDARU Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences\|volume20\|issue1\|pages75\|year2012\|pmid23351929\|pmc3556001\|doi10.1186/2008-2231-20-75\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHuang H, Coleman S, Bridge JA, Yonkers K, Katon W\|titleA meta-analysis of the relationship between antidepressant use in pregnancy and the risk of preterm birth and low birth weight\|journalGeneral Hospital Psychiatry\|volume36\|issue1\|pages13–8\|year2014\|pmid24094568\|pmc3877723\|doi10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.08.002}}</ref> A systematic review of the risk of major birth defects in antidepressant-exposed pregnancies found a small increase (3% to 24%) in the risk of major malformations and a risk of cardiovascular birth defects that did not differ from non-exposed pregnancies.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsEinarson TR, Kennedy D, Einarson A\|titleDo findings differ across research design? The case of antidepressant use in pregnancy and malformations\|journalJ Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol\|volume19\|issue2\|pagese334–48\|year2012\|pmid22946124\|urlhttps://jptcp.com/index.php/jptcp/article/view/428}}</ref> A study of fluoxetine-exposed pregnancies found a 12% increase in the risk of major malformations that did not reach statistical significance.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRiggin L, Frankel Z, Moretti M, Pupco A, Koren G\|titleThe fetal safety of fluoxetine: a systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalJ Obstet Gynaecol Can\|volume35\|issue4\|pages362–9\|dateApril 2013\|pmid23660045\|doi10.1016/S1701-2163(15)30965-8\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Other studies have found an increased risk of cardiovascular birth defects among depressed mothers not undergoing SSRI treatment, suggesting the possibility of ascertainment bias, e.g. that worried mothers may pursue more aggressive testing of their infants.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKoren G, Nordeng HM\|titleSelective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and malformations: case closed?\|journalSemin Fetal Neonatal Med\|volume18\|issue1\|pages19–22\|dateFebruary 2013\|pmid23228547\|doi10.1016/j.siny.2012.10.004}}</ref> Another study found no increase in cardiovascular birth defects and a 27% increased risk of major malformations in SSRI exposed pregnancies.<ref namepmid23351929/> The FDA advises for the risk of birth defects with the use of paroxetine<ref>{{cite press release\|publisherU.S. Food and Drug Administration\|titleFDA Advising of Risk of Birth Defects with Paxil\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2005/ucm108527.htm\|access-date29 November 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203022919/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2005/ucm108527.htm\|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref> and the MAOI should be avoided. A 2013 systematic review and meta-analysis found that antidepressant use during pregnancy was statistically significantly associated with some pregnancy outcomes, such as gestational age and preterm birth, but not with other outcomes. The same review cautioned that because differences between the exposed and unexposed groups were small, it was doubtful whether they were clinically significant.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRoss LE, Grigoriadis S, Mamisashvili L, Vonderporten EH, Roerecke M, Rehm J, Dennis CL, Koren G, Steiner M, Mousmanis P, Cheung A\|titleSelected pregnancy and delivery outcomes after exposure to antidepressant medication: a systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalJAMA Psychiatry\|volume70\|issue4\|pages436–443\|dateApril 2013\|pmid23446732\|doi10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.684\|s2cid2065578}}</ref> A neonate (infant less than 28&nbsp;days old) may experience a withdrawal syndrome from abrupt discontinuation of the antidepressant at birth. Antidepressants can be present in varying amounts in breast milk, but their effects on infants are currently unknown.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLanza di Scalea T, Wisner KL\|titleAntidepressant Medication Use During Breastfeeding\|journalClinical Obstetrics and Gynecology\|volume52\|issue3\|pages483–97\|year2009\|pmid19661763\|pmc2902256\|doi10.1097/GRF.0b013e3181b52bd6}}</ref> Moreover, SSRIs inhibit nitric oxide synthesis, which plays an important role in setting the vascular tone. Several studies have pointed to an increased risk of prematurity associated with SSRI use, and this association may be due to an increased risk of pre-eclampsia during pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSivagnanam G\|titleAntidepressants\|journalJournal of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics\|year2012\|volume3\|issue3\|pages287–288\|doi10.1177/0976500X20120302\|s2cid248110770\|id{{ProQuest\|1033762996}}\|urlhttp://www.jpharmacol.com/text.asp?2012%2F3%2F3%2F287%2F99452\|access-date21 March 2013\|archive-date1 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180701165032/http://www.jpharmacol.com/text.asp?2012%2F3%2F3%2F287%2F99452\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Antidepressant-induced maniaAnother possible problem with antidepressants is the chance of antidepressant-induced mania or hypomania in people with or without a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Many cases of bipolar depression are very similar to those of unipolar depression. Therefore, the person can be misdiagnosed with unipolar depression and be given antidepressants. Studies have shown that antidepressant-induced mania can occur in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsGoldberg JF, Truman CJ\|titleAntidepressant-induced mania: An overview of current controversies\|journalBipolar Disorders\|volume5\|issue6\|pages407–20\|year2003\|pmid14636364\|doi10.1046/j.1399-5618.2003.00067.x}}</ref> For bipolar depression, antidepressants (most frequently SSRIs) can exacerbate or trigger symptoms of hypomania and mania.<ref name"pmid9387089">{{cite journal\|authorBenazzi F\|titleAntidepressant-associated hypomania in outpatient depression: a 203-case study in private practice\|journalJ Affect Disord\|volume46\|issue1\|pages73–7\|year1997\|pmid9387089\|doi10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00082-7}}</ref> Bupropion has been associated with a lower risk of mood switch than other antidepressants.<ref name"pmid37119556">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBarbuti M, Menculini G, Verdolini N, Pacchiarotti I, Kotzalidis GD, Tortorella A, Vieta E, Perugi G\|titleA systematic review of manic/hypomanic and depressive switches in patients with bipolar disorder in naturalistic settings: The role of antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs\|journalEur Neuropsychopharmacol\|volume73\|pages1–15\|dateApril 2023\|pmid37119556\|doi10.1016/j.euroneuro.2023.04.013\|s2cid258334982\|hdl2445/210406\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Suicide {{Main\|Antidepressants and suicide risk}} Studies have shown that the use of antidepressants is correlated with an increased risk of suicidal behavior and thinking (suicidality) in those aged under 25 years old.<ref name"StoneETAL" /> This problem has been serious enough to warrant government intervention by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to warn of the increased risk of suicidality during antidepressant treatment.<ref name"pmid17485726">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFriedman RA, Leon AC\|titleExpanding the black box – depression, antidepressants, and the risk of suicide\|journalN. Engl. J. Med.\|volume356\|issue23\|pages2343–6\|year2007\|pmid17485726\|doi10.1056/NEJMp078015\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> According to the FDA, the heightened risk of suicidality occurs within the first one to two months of treatment.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/informationbydrugclass/ucm096273\|titleAntidepressant Use in Children, Adolescents, and Adults\|websiteFood and Drug Administration\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161219143824/https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM096273\|archive-date19 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm088660.pdf%E2%80%8E\|titleFDA Medication Guide for Antidepressants\|websiteFood and Drug Administration\|access-date5 June 2014\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140818020916/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm088660.pdf%E2%80%8E\|archive-date18 August 2014}}</ref> The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) places the excess risk in the "early stages of treatment".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG90NICEguideline.pdf\|titleDepression in adults: recognition and management\|workClinical guideline [CG90]\|publisherThe National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)\|date28 October 2009\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018055710/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG90NICEguideline.pdf\|archive-date18 October 2012}}</ref> A meta-analysis suggests that the relationship between antidepressant use and suicidal behavior or thoughts is age-dependent.<ref name"StoneETAL" /> Compared with placebo, the use of antidepressants is associated with an increase in suicidal behavior or thoughts among those 25 years old or younger (OR1.62). A review of RCTs and epidemiological studies by Healy and Whitaker found an increase in suicidal acts by a factor of 2.4.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleAntidepressants and suicide: risk-benefit conundrums\|journalJournal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience\|year2003\|vauthorsHealy D, Whitaker C\|volume28\|issue5\|pages331–337\|pmid14517576\|pmc193979}}</ref> There is no effect or possibly a mild protective effect among those aged 25 to 64 (OR0.79). Antidepressant treatment has a protective effect against suicidality among those aged 65 and over (OR0.37).<ref name"StoneETAL">{{cite journal\|vauthorsStone M, Laughren T, Jones ML, Levenson M, Holland PC, Hughes A, Hammad TA, Temple R, Rochester G\|titleRisk of suicidality in clinical trials of antidepressants in adults: analysis of proprietary data submitted to US Food and Drug Administration\|journalThe BMJ\|volume339\|pagesb2880\|year2009\|pmid19671933\|pmc2725270\|doi10.1136/bmj.b2880}}</ref><ref name"dhintrev">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHealy D, Aldred G\|s2cid6599566\|year2005\|titleAntidepressant drug use and the risk of suicide\|urlhttp://www.davidhealy.org.php53-23.dfw1-1.websitetestlink.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2005-Healy-Aldred-Antidepressants-and-Suicide1.pdf\|journalInternational Review of Psychiatry\|volume17\|issue3\|pages163–172\|doi10.1080/09540260500071624\|pmid16194787\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131021043728/http://www.davidhealy.org.php53-23.dfw1-1.websitetestlink.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/2005-Healy-Aldred-Antidepressants-and-Suicide1.pdf\|archive-date21 October 2013}}</ref>Sexual dysfunctionSexual side effects are also common with SSRIs, such as loss of sexual drive, failure to reach orgasm, and erectile dysfunction.<ref>{{cite book\|veditorsGrant JE, Potenza MN\|titleThe Oxford handbook of impulse control disorders\|year2012\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationOxford\|isbn978-0-19-538971-5}}</ref> Although usually reversible, these sexual side-effects can, in rare cases, continue after the drug has been completely withdrawn.<ref name"pmid18173768">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCsoka AB, Csoka A, Bahrick A, Mehtonen OP\|titlePersistent sexual dysfunction after discontinuation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors\|journalThe Journal of Sexual Medicine\|volume5\|issue1\|pages227–233\|dateJanuary 2008\|pmid18173768\|doi10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00630.x\|s2cid15471717}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHealy D, Le Noury J, Mangin D\|titleEnduring sexual dysfunction after treatment with antidepressants, 5α-reductase inhibitors and isotretinoin: 300 cases\|journalThe International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine\|volume29\|issue3–4\|pages125–134\|date4 June 2018\|pmid29733030\|pmc6004900\|doi10.3233/JRS-180744}}</ref> In a study of 1,022 outpatients, overall sexual dysfunction with all antidepressants averaged 59.1%<ref name"pmid11229449">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMontejo AL, Llorca G, Izquierdo JA, Rico-Villademoros F\|titleIncidence of sexual dysfunction associated with antidepressant agents: a prospective multicenter study of 1022 outpatients. Spanish Working Group for the Study of Psychotropic-Related Sexual Dysfunction\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume62\|issueSuppl 3\|pages10–21\|year2001\|pmid11229449}}</ref> with SSRI values between 57% and 73%, mirtazapine 24%, nefazodone 8%, amineptine 7%, and moclobemide 4%. Moclobemide, a selective reversible MAO-A inhibitor, does not cause sexual dysfunction<ref name"pmid19440080">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSerretti A, Chiesa A\|titleTreatment-emergent sexual dysfunction related to antidepressants: a meta-analysis\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume29\|issue3\|pages259–266\|dateJune 2009\|pmid19440080\|doi10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181a5233f\|s2cid1663570}}</ref> and can lead to an improvement in all aspects of sexual function.<ref name"pmid9696909">{{cite journal\|vauthorsChebili S, Abaoub A, Mezouane B, Le Goff JF\|title[Antidepressants and sexual stimulation: the correlation]\|languagefr\|journalL'Encephale\|volume24\|issue3\|pages180–184\|year1998\|pmid9696909}}</ref> Biochemical mechanisms suggested as causative include increased serotonin, particularly affecting 5-HT<sub>2</sub> and 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors; decreased dopamine; decreased norepinephrine; blockade of cholinergic and α<sub>1</sub>adrenergic receptors; inhibition of nitric oxide synthetase; and elevation of prolactin levels.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKeltner NL, McAfee KM, Taylor CL\|titleBiological Perspectives\|journalPerspectives in Psychiatric Care\|volume38\|issue3\|pages111–6\|year2009\|pmid12385082\|doi10.1111/j.1744-6163.2002.tb00665.x\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Mirtazapine is reported to have fewer sexual side effects, most likely because it antagonizes 5-HT<sub>2</sub> and 5-HT<sub>3</sub> receptors and may, in some cases, reverse sexual dysfunction induced by SSRIs by the same mechanism.<ref name"pmid18278806">{{cite journal\|vauthorsOzmenler NK, Karlidere T, Bozkurt A, Yetkin S, Doruk A, Sutcigil L, Cansever A, Uzun O, Ozgen F, Ozsahin A\|s2cid39616771\|titleMirtazapine augmentation in depressed patients with sexual dysfunction due to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors\|journalHum Psychopharmacol\|volume23\|issue4\|pages321–6\|year2008\|pmid18278806\|doi=10.1002/hup.929}}</ref> Bupropion, a weak NDRI and nicotinic antagonist, may be useful in treating reduced libido as a result of SSRI treatment.<ref name"Schwasinger-Schmidt2018">{{cite book\|vauthorsSchwasinger-Schmidt TE, Macaluso M\|titleAntidepressants\|chapterOther Antidepressants\|seriesHandbook of Experimental Pharmacology\|volume250\|pages325–355\|date8 September 2018\|pmid30194544\|doi10.1007/164_2018_167\|isbn978-3-030-10948-6}}</ref>Emotional bluntingCertain antidepressants may cause emotional blunting, characterized by a reduced intensity of both positive and negative emotions as well as symptoms of apathy, indifference, and amotivation.<ref name"pmid34908941">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMarazziti D, Mucci F, Tripodi B, Carbone MG, Muscarella A, Falaschi V, Baroni S\|titleEmotional Blunting, Cognitive Impairment, Bone Fractures, and Bleeding as Possible Side Effects of Long-Term Use of SSRIs\|journalClin Neuropsychiatry\|volume16\|issue2\|pages75–85\|dateApril 2019\|pmid34908941\|pmc8650205}}</ref><ref name"pmid34970173">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMa H, Cai M, Wang H\|titleEmotional Blunting in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder: A Brief Non-systematic Review of Current Research\|journalFront Psychiatry\|volume12\|pages792960\|date2021\|pmid34970173\|pmc8712545\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2021.792960\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid15330228">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBarnhart WJ, Makela EH, Latocha MJ\|titleSSRI-induced apathy syndrome: a clinical review\|journalJ Psychiatr Pract\|volume10\|issue3\|pages196–9\|dateMay 2004\|pmid15330228\|doi10.1097/00131746-200405000-00010\|s2cid26935586}}</ref><ref name"pmid21103140">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSansone RA, Sansone LA\|titleSSRI-Induced Indifference\|journalPsychiatry (Edgmont)\|volume7\|issue10\|pages14–8\|dateOctober 2010\|pmid21103140\|pmc2989833}}</ref><ref name"pmid19721109">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPrice J, Cole V, Goodwin GM\|titleEmotional side-effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: qualitative study\|journalBr J Psychiatry\|volume195\|issue3\|pages211–7\|dateSeptember 2009\|pmid19721109\|doi10.1192/bjp.bp.108.051110\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid28628765">{{cite journal\|vauthorsGoodwin GM, Price J, De Bodinat C, Laredo J\|titleEmotional blunting with antidepressant treatments: A survey among depressed patients\|journalJ Affect Disord\|volume221\|pages31–35\|dateOctober 2017\|pmid28628765\|doi10.1016/j.jad.2017.05.048\|s2cid3755520\|urlhttps://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:8a7067a3-7b21-481f-ac80-32f1929d3ff7}}</ref><ref name"pmid29866014">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRead J, Williams J\|titleAdverse Effects of Antidepressants Reported by a Large International Cohort: Emotional Blunting, Suicidality, and Withdrawal Effects\|journalCurr Drug Saf\|volume13\|issue3\|pages176–186\|date2018\|pmid29866014\|doi10.2174/1574886313666180605095130\|s2cid46934452\|urlhttp://roar.uel.ac.uk/7564/1/7564.pdf}}</ref><ref name"pmid35346413">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCamino S, Strejilevich SA, Godoy A, Smith J, Szmulewicz A\|titleAre all antidepressants the same? The consumer has a point\|journalPsychol Med\|volume53\|issue9\|pages4004–4011\|dateMarch 2022\|pmid35346413\|doi10.1017/S0033291722000678\|s2cid247777403}}</ref><ref name"pmid11436958">{{cite journal\|vauthorsGarland EJ, Baerg EA\|titleAmotivational syndrome associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in children and adolescents\|journalJ Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol\|volume11\|issue2\|pages181–6\|date2001\|pmid11436958\|doi10.1089/104454601750284090}}</ref> It may be experienced as either beneficial or detrimental depending on the situation.<ref name"pmid26407780">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoncrieff J\|titleAntidepressants: misnamed and misrepresented\|journalWorld Psychiatry\|volume14\|issue3\|pages302–3\|dateOctober 2015\|pmid26407780\|pmc4592647\|doi10.1002/wps.20243}}</ref> This side effect has been particularly associated with serotonergic antidepressants like SSRIs and SNRIs but may be less with atypical antidepressants like bupropion, agomelatine, and vortioxetine.<ref name"pmid34970173" /><ref name"pmid35346413" /><ref name"pmid23823799">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCorruble E, de Bodinat C, Belaïdi C, Goodwin GM\|titleEfficacy of Aomelatine and Escitalopram on depression, subjective sleep and emotional experiences in patients with major depressive disorder: a 24-wk randomized, controlled, double-blind trial\|journalInt J Neuropsychopharmacol\|volume16\|issue10\|pages2219–34\|dateNovember 2013\|pmid23823799\|doi10.1017/S1461145713000679\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid33516560">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFagiolini A, Florea I, Loft H, Christensen MC\|titleEffectiveness of Vortioxetine on Emotional Blunting in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder with inadequate response to SSRI/SNRI treatment\|journalJ Affect Disord\|volume283\|pages472–479\|dateMarch 2021\|pmid33516560\|doi10.1016/j.jad.2020.11.106\|s2cid228877905\|doi-accessfree\|hdl11365/1137950\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Higher doses of antidepressants seem to be more likely to produce emotional blunting than lower doses.<ref name"pmid34970173" /> Emotional blunting can be decreased by reducing dosage, discontinuing the medication, or switching to a different antidepressant that may have less propensity for causing this side effect.<ref name"pmid34970173" />Changes in weightChanges in appetite or weight are common among antidepressants but are largely drug-dependent and related to which neurotransmitters they affect. Mirtazapine and paroxetine, for example, may be associated with weight gain and/or increased appetite,<ref name"Stimmel">{{cite journal\|vauthorsStimmel GL, Dopheide JA, Stahl SM\|titleMirtazapine: An antidepressant with noradrenergic and specific serotonergic effects\|journalPharmacotherapy\|volume17\|issue1\|pages10–21\|year1997\|pmid9017762\|doi10.1002/j.1875-9114.1997.tb03674.x\|s2cid2454536\|urlhttps://accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1875-9114.1997.tb03674.x\|access-date17 January 2020\|archive-date25 May 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210525180455/https://accpjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1875-9114.1997.tb03674.x\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titlemirtazapine (Rx) – Remeron, Remeron SolTab\|websiteMedscape\|publisherWebMD\|access-date19 November 2013\|urlhttp://reference.medscape.com/drug/remeron-soltab-mirtazapine-342966\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029200106/http://reference.medscape.com/drug/remeron-soltab-mirtazapine-342966\|archive-date29 October 2013}}</ref><ref name"autogenerated1032">{{cite journal\|authorPapakostas GI\|titleTolerability of modern antidepressants\|journalJ Clin Psychiatry\|volume69\|issueSuppl E1\|pages8–13\|year2008\|pmid18494538}}</ref> while others (such as bupropion and venlafaxine) achieve the opposite effect.<ref name"Bupropion weight">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLi Z, Maglione M, Tu W, Mojica W, Arterburn D, Shugarman LR, Hilton L, Suttorp M, Solomon V, Shekelle PG, Morton SC\|s2cid6964051\|titleMeta-analysis: pharmacologic treatment of obesity\|journalAnn. Intern. Med.\|volume142\|issue7\|pages532–46\|dateApril 2005\|pmid15809465\|doi10.7326/0003-4819-142-7-200504050-00012\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|year2006\|titleEffexor Medicines Data Sheet\|publisherWyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc\|urlhttp://www.wyeth.com/content/showlabeling.asp?id99\|access-date17 September 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060917025654/http://www.wyeth.com/content/ShowLabeling.asp?id99\|archive-date17 September 2006}}</ref> The antihistaminic properties of certain TCA- and TeCA-class antidepressants have been shown to contribute to the common side effects of increased appetite and weight gain associated with these classes of medication. Bone loss A 2021 nationwide cohort study in South Korea observed a link between SSRI use and bone loss, particularly in recent users. The study also stressed the need of further research to better understand these effects.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsKang S, Han M, Park CI, Jung I, Kim EH, Boo YJ, Kang JI, Kim SJ\|titleUse of serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of subsequent bone loss in a nationwide population-based cohort study\|journalScientific Reports\|volume11\|issue1\|pages13461\|dateJune 2021\|pmid34188108\|pmc8241982\|doi10.1038/s41598-021-92821-9\|bibcode2021NatSR..1113461K}}</ref> A 2012 review found that SSRIs along with tricyclic antidepressants were associated with a significant increase in the risk of osteoporotic fractures, peaking in the months after initiation, and moving back towards baseline during the year after treatment was stopped. These effects exhibited a dose–response relationship within SSRIs which varied between different drugs of that class.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRizzoli R, Cooper C, Reginster JY, Abrahamsen B, Adachi JD, Brandi ML, Bruyère O, Compston J, Ducy P, Ferrari S, Harvey NC, Kanis JA, Karsenty G, Laslop A, Rabenda V, Vestergaard P\|titleAntidepressant medications and osteoporosis\|journalBone\|volume51\|issue3\|pages606–613\|dateSeptember 2012\|pmid22659406\|doi10.1016/j.bone.2012.05.018}}</ref> A 2018 meta-analysis of 11 small studies found a reduction in bone density of the lumbar spine in SSRI users which affected older people the most.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsZhou C, Fang L, Chen Y, Zhong J, Wang H, Xie P\|titleEffect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors on bone mineral density: a systematic review and meta-analysis\|journalOsteoporosis International\|volume29\|issue6\|pages1243–1251\|dateJune 2018\|pmid29435621\|doi10.1007/s00198-018-4413-0\|s2cid23313396}}</ref> Risk of death A 2017 meta-analysis found that antidepressants were associated with a significantly increased risk of death (+33%) and new cardiovascular complications (+14%) in the general population.<ref name"pmid28903117">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMaslej MM, Bolker BM, Russell MJ, Eaton K, Durisko Z, Hollon SD, Swanson GM, Thomson JA, Mulsant BH, Andrews PW\|titleThe Mortality and Myocardial Effects of Antidepressants Are Moderated by Preexisting Cardiovascular Disease: A Meta-Analysis\|journalPsychother Psychosom\|volume86\|issue5\|pages268–282\|date2017\|pmid28903117\|doi10.1159/000477940\|s2cid4830115}}</ref> Conversely, risks were not greater in people with existing cardiovascular disease.<ref name"pmid28903117" /> Discontinuation syndrome {{Main\|Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome}} Antidepressant discontinuation syndrome, also called antidepressant withdrawal syndrome, is a condition that can occur following the interruption, reduction, or discontinuation of antidepressant medication.<ref nameWar2006/> The symptoms may include flu-like symptoms, trouble sleeping, nausea, poor balance, sensory changes, and anxiety.<ref nameWar2006/><ref nameGab2017/><ref name"Dav2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsDavies J, Read J\|titleA systematic review into the incidence, severity and duration of antidepressant withdrawal effects: Are guidelines evidence-based?\|journalAddictive Behaviors\|volume97\|pages111–121\|dateOctober 2019\|pmid30292574\|doi10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.08.027\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The problem usually begins within three days and may last for several months.<ref nameWar2006/><ref nameDav2018/> Rarely psychosis may occur.<ref nameWar2006/> <!-- Risk factors and diagnosis --> A discontinuation syndrome can occur after stopping any antidepressant including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs).<ref nameWar2006/><ref nameGab2017/> The risk is greater among those who have taken the medication for longer and when the medication in question has a short half-life.<ref nameWar2006/> The underlying reason for its occurrence is unclear.<ref nameWar2006/> The diagnosis is based on the symptoms.<ref name=War2006/> <!-- Prevention and treatment --> Methods of prevention include gradually decreasing the dose among those who wish to stop, though it is possible for symptoms to occur with tapering.<ref nameWar2006/><ref nameWil2015/><ref nameDav2018 /> Treatment may include restarting the medication and slowly decreasing the dose.<ref nameWar2006/> People may also be switched to the long-acting antidepressant fluoxetine, which can then be gradually decreased.<ref name=Wil2015/> <!-- Epidemiology and prognosis --> Approximately 20–50% of people who suddenly stop an antidepressant develop an antidepressant discontinuation syndrome.<ref name"War2006">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWarner CH, Bobo W, Warner C, Reid S, Rachal J\|titleAntidepressant discontinuation syndrome\|journalAmerican Family Physician\|volume74\|issue3\|pages449–456\|dateAugust 2006\|pmid16913164}}</ref><ref nameGab2017/><ref nameDav2018 /> The condition is generally not serious.<ref nameWar2006/> Though about half of people with symptoms describe them as severe.<ref nameDav2018/> Some restart antidepressants due to the severity of the symptoms.<ref nameDav2018/> Pharmacology {{Main\|Pharmacology of antidepressants}} Antidepressants act via a large number of different mechanisms of action.<ref name"Fasipe2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFasipe O\|titleNeuropharmacological classification of antidepressant agents based on their mechanisms of action\|journalArchives of Medicine and Health Sciences\|date2018\|volume6\|issue1\|page81\|issn2321-4848\|doi10.4103/amhs.amhs_7_18\|s2cid81878024\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid35714379">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNaguy A, Alamiri B\|titleAntidepressants-A Misnomer? Clinical Impressionism or Scientific Empiricism?\|journalPrim Care Companion CNS Disord\|volume24\|issue3\|dateJune 2022\|pmid35714379\|doi10.4088/PCC.21br03084\|s2cid249652271}}</ref><ref name"Stahl2020">{{cite book\|vauthorsStahl SM\|date19 November 2020\|titlePrescriber's Guide: Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-1-108-92602-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideyFGEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> This includes serotonin reuptake inhibition (SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, vilazodone, vortioxetine), norepinephrine reuptake inhibition (NRIs, SNRIs, TCAs), dopamine reuptake inhibition (bupropion, amineptine, nomifensine), direct modulation of monoamine receptors (vilazodone, vortioxetine, SARIs, agomelatine, TCAs, TeCAs, antipsychotics), monoamine oxidase inhibition (MAOIs), and NMDA receptor antagonism (ketamine, esketamine, dextromethorphan), among others (e.g., brexanolone, tianeptine).<ref name"Fasipe2018" /><ref name"pmid35714379" /><ref name"Stahl2020" /> Some antidepressants also have additional actions, like sigma receptor modulation (certain SSRIs, TCAs, dextromethorphan) and antagonism of histamine H<sub>1</sub> and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (TCAs, TeCAs).<ref name"BolandKeller2008">{{cite book\|titlePsychiatry\|vauthorsBoland RJ, Keller MB\|chapterAntidepressants\|date8 August 2008\|pages2123–2160\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd\|doi10.1002/9780470515167.ch101\|isbn9780470515167}}</ref><ref name="Stahl2020" /> {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:small;" \|+ Mechanisms of action of major antidepressant classes<ref name"Fasipe2018" /><ref name"ParkShen2023">{{cite book\|last1Park\|first1Seon-Cheol\|last2Shen\|first2Winston Wu-Dien\|titleTasman's Psychiatry\|chapterMedication for Depression: Monoamine Enhancers and Esketamine (Antidepressants)\|publisherSpringer International Publishing\|publication-placeCham\|year2023\|isbn978-3-030-42825-9\|doi10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_133-1\|pages1–53}}</ref> \|- ! Class !! Action(s) !! Examples !! Introduced \|- \| Opioids (mostly no longer used)<ref name"SaxenaBodkin2019">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSaxena PP, Bodkin JA\|titleOpioidergic Agents as Antidepressants: Rationale and Promise\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume33\|issue1\|pages9–16\|dateJanuary 2019\|pmid30430396\|doi10.1007/s40263-018-0584-7}}</ref><ref name"NishioLindsleyBender2024">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNishio Y, Lindsley CW, Bender AM\|titleClassics in Chemical Neuroscience: Tianeptine\|journalACS Chem Neurosci\|dateOctober 2024\|volume15 \|issue21 \|pages3863–3873 \|pmid39382192\|doi10.1021/acschemneuro.4c00519\|doi-accessfree\|pmc11587517}}</ref> \|\| μ-Opioid receptor agonism \|\| Codeine • Heroin • Morphine • Opium • Tianeptine (1983) \|\| 1800s \|- \| Amphetamine psychostimulants (mostly no longer used)<ref name"Rasmussen2006" /><ref name"Ciccarone2011">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCiccarone D\|titleStimulant abuse: pharmacology, cocaine, methamphetamine, treatment, attempts at pharmacotherapy\|journalPrim Care\|volume38\|issue1\|pages41–58\|dateMarch 2011\|pmid21356420\|pmc3056348\|doi10.1016/j.pop.2010.11.004\|quoteIn 1919, Japanese chemist Akira Ogata, as part of his effort to prove the structure of ephedrine, reported the synthesis of the closely related compound we now call methamphetamine, and this result was described in the Western literature (Amatsu & Kubota, 1913; Lee, 2011; Ogata, 1920). [...] As a result, when competitors began to consider emulating SKF’s success in the late 1930s, they turned to methamphetamine, which had nearly indistinguishable effects but—because its synthesis together with its pharmacological characteristics was published before 1920—was free from patent encumbrance. [...] In any event, by 1940 Benzedrine Sulfate had achieved medical acclaim and quickly growing sales as an antidepressant effective for milder forms of the condition, both in the United States and the United Kingdom. In Germany, the Temmler drug firm quickly copied SKF, marketing methamphetamine (again, unprotected by patents) tablets under the Pervitin brand, with claims that it restored "joy in work" in cases of mild depression around 1938 (Rasmussen, 2006; Steinkamp, 2006).}}</ref><ref name"Rasmussen2015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRasmussen N\|titleAmphetamine-Type Stimulants: The Early History of Their Medical and Non-Medical Uses\|journalInt Rev Neurobiol\|volume120\|pages9–25\|date2015\|pmid26070751\|doi10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.001}}</ref><ref name"HealSmithGosden2013">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHeal DJ, Smith SL, Gosden J, Nutt DJ\|titleAmphetamine, past and present--a pharmacological and clinical perspective\|journalJ Psychopharmacol\|volume27\|issue6\|pages479–496\|dateJune 2013\|pmid23539642\|pmc3666194\|doi=10.1177/0269881113482532}}</ref> \|\| Norepinephrine release induction • Dopamine release induction \|\| Amphetamine • Dextroamphetamine • Methamphetamine \|\| 1930s \|- \| Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) \|\| Monoamine oxidase inhibition • Other actions in some cases \|\| Iproniazid • Isocarboxazid • Isoniazid • Moclobemide (1989) • Nialamide • Phenelzine • Selegiline (1977/2006) • Tranylcypromine \|\| 1950s \|- \| Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptor antagonism • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonism • Other actions \|\| Amitriptyline • Butriptyline • Clomipramine • Desipramine • Dosulepin (dothiepin) • Doxepin • Imipramine • Iprindole • Lofepramine • Nortriptyline • Protriptyline • Trimipramine \|\| 1950s \|- \| Tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs) \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptor antagonism • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonism • Other actions \|\| Amoxapine • Maprotiline • Mianserin • Mirtazapine • Setiptiline \|\| 1970s \|- \| Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) \|\| Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition \|\| Atomoxetine (off-label) • Teniloxazine • Reboxetine • Viloxazine \|\| 1970s \|- \| Norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) \|\| Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Dopamine reuptake inhibition \|\| Amineptine • Bupropion • Methylphenidate (off-label) • Nomifensine \|\| 1970s \|- \| Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) \|\| Serotonin receptor antagonism • Adrenergic receptor antagonism • Weak monoamine reuptake inhibition • Other actions \|\| Etoperidone • Nefazodone • Trazodone \|\| 1980s \|- \| Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition \|\| Citalopram • Escitalopram • Fluoxetine • Fluvoxamine • Indalpine • Paroxetine • Sertraline • Zimelidine \|\| 1980s \|- \| Serotonin 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor agonists (azapirones) \|\| Serotonin 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonism • Other actions \|\| Buspirone (off-label) • Gepirone • Tandospirone \|\| 1980s \|- \| Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition \|\| Desvenlafaxine • Duloxetine • Levomilnacipran • Milnacipran (off-label) • Venlafaxine \|\| 1990s \|- \| Serotonin modulators and stimulators (SMSs) \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Serotonin receptor modulation \|\| Vilazodone • Vortioxetine \|\| 2000s \|- \| Atypical antipsychotics \|\| Serotonin receptor modulation • Dopamine receptor modulation • Other actions \|\| Amisulpride • Aripiprazole • Brexpiprazole • Lumateperone • Lurasidone • Olanzapine • Quetiapine • Risperidone (off-label) • Sulpiride \|\| 2000s \|- \| NMDA receptor antagonists \|\| NMDA receptor antagonism • Possibly other actions \|\| Dextromethorphan/bupropion • Esketamine • Ketamine (off-label) \|\| 2010s \|- \| Neurosteroid-type GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor positive allosteric modulators \|\| GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor positive allosteric modulation \|\| Brexanolone • Zuranolone \|\| 2010s \|- \| Serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitors \|\| Serotonin reuptake inhibition • Norepinephrine reuptake inhibition • Dopamine reuptake inhibition \|\| Toludesvenlafaxine \|\| 2020s \|- \| Other agents \|\| Various/mixed actions \|\| α-Methyltryptamine • Ademetionine (SAMe) • Agomelatine • <small>D</small>-Phenylalanine • Etryptamine • Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort) Indeloxazine • Lithium (off-label) • Medifoxamine • Opipramol • Oxaflozane • Oxitriptan (5-HTP) • Pivagabine • Thyroid hormone (off-label) • Tiazesim • Tofenacin • Tryptophan \|\| Various \|- class="sortbottom" \| colspan"4" style"width: 1px; background-color:#eaecf0; text-align: center;" \| Notes: (1) Opioids and amphetamines largely ceased being used by the 1950s with the introduction of modern antidepressants. (2) Some antidepressants can also have alternative classifications, such as mirtazapine being a "noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant" (NaSSA) or moclobemide being a "reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A" (RIMA). (3) See list of antidepressants for a complete list of approved/marketed antidepressants. (4) See list of investigational antidepressants for an extensive list of modern investigational antidepressants (including discontinued agents). \|} The earliest and most widely known scientific theory of antidepressant action is the monoamine hypothesis, which can be traced back to the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name"GG">{{cite book\|veditorsBrunton LL, Chabner B, Knollmann BC\|titleGoodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics\|year2011\|publisherMcGraw-Hill Professional\|isbn978-0-07-162442-8\|edition12th\|locationNew York\|title-linkGoodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics}}{{update inline\|dateJanuary 2018}}</ref><ref name"pmid12953623">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBaumeister AA, Hawkins MF, Uzelac SM\|titleThe myth of reserpine-induced depression: role in the historical development of the monoamine hypothesis\|journalJ Hist Neurosci\|volume12\|issue2\|pages207–20\|dateJune 2003\|pmid12953623\|doi10.1076/jhin.12.2.207.15535\|s2cid42407412}}</ref> This theory states that depression is due to an imbalance, most often a deficiency, of the monoamine neurotransmitters, namely serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine.<ref name"GG" /><ref name"pmid12953623" /> However, serotonin in particular has been implicated, as in the serotonin hypothesis of depression.<ref name"pmid35854107" /> The monoamine hypothesis was originally proposed based on observations that reserpine, a drug which depletes the monoamine neurotransmitters, produced depressive effects in people,<ref name"pmid12953623" /> and that certain hydrazine antituberculosis agents like iproniazid, which prevent the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters, produced apparent antidepressant effects.<ref nameGG /> Most currently marketed antidepressants, which are monoaminergic in their actions, are theoretically consistent with the monoamine hypothesis.<ref nameGG /> Despite the widespread nature of the monoamine hypothesis, it has a number of limitations: for one, all monoaminergic antidepressants have a delayed onset of action of at least a week; and secondly, many people with depression do not respond to monoaminergic antidepressants.<ref name"Infl">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMaes M, Yirmyia R, Noraberg J, Brene S, Hibbeln J, Perini G, Kubera M, Bob P, Lerer B, Maj M\|s2cid4564675\|titleThe inflammatory & neurodegenerative (I&ND) hypothesis of depression: leads for future research and new drug developments in depression\|journalMetabolic Brain Disease\|volume24\|issue1\|pages27–53\|dateMarch 2009\|pmid19085093\|doi10.1007/s11011-008-9118-1\|hdl11577/2380064\|hdl-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"glut">{{cite journal\|author-link1Gerard Sanacora\|vauthorsSanacora G, Treccani G, Popoli M\|titleTowards a glutamate hypothesis of depression: an emerging frontier of neuropsychopharmacology for mood disorders\|journalNeuropharmacology\|volume62\|issue1\|pages63–77\|dateJanuary 2012\|pmid21827775\|doi10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.07.036\|pmc3205453}}</ref> A number of alternative hypotheses have been proposed, including hypotheses involving glutamate, neurogenesis, epigenetics, cortisol hypersecretion, and inflammation, among others.<ref nameInfl /><ref nameglut /><ref name"Epig">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMenke A, Klengel T, Binder EB\|titleEpigenetics, depression and antidepressant treatment\|journalCurrent Pharmaceutical Design\|volume18\|issue36\|pages5879–5889\|year2012\|pmid22681167\|doi10.2174/138161212803523590}}</ref><ref name"Epig2">{{cite journal\|vauthorsVialou V, Feng J, Robison AJ, Nestler EJ\|titleEpigenetic mechanisms of depression and antidepressant action\|journalAnnual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology\|volume53\|issue1\|pages59–87\|dateJanuary 2013\|pmid23020296\|doi10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010611-134540\|pmc=3711377}}</ref> In 2022, a major systematic umbrella review by Joanna Moncrieff and colleagues showed that the serotonin theory of depression was not supported by evidence from a wide variety of areas.<ref name"pmid35854107">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Cooper RE, Stockmann T, Amendola S, Hengartner MP, Horowitz MA\|titleThe serotonin theory of depression: a systematic umbrella review of the evidence\|journalMol Psychiatry\|volume28\|issue8\|pages3243–3256\|dateJuly 2022\|pmid35854107\|doi10.1038/s41380-022-01661-0\|pmc10618090\|s2cid250646781\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> The authors concluded that there is no association between serotonin and depression, and that there is no evidence that strongly supports the theory that depression is caused by low serotonin activity or concentrations.<ref name"pmid35854107" /> Other literature had described the lack of support for the theory previously.<ref name"pmid16268734">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLacasse JR, Leo J\|titleSerotonin and depression: a disconnect between the advertisements and the scientific literature\|journalPLOS Med\|volume2\|issue12\|pagese392\|dateDecember 2005\|pmid16268734\|pmc1277931\|doi10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"LacasseLeo2015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLacasse JR, Leo J\|titleAntidepressants and the Chemical Imbalance Theory of Depression: A Reflection and Update on the Discourse\|journalThe Behavior Therapist\|volume38\|issue7\|pages206–213\|dateOctober 2015\|urlhttp://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_migr_csw_faculty_publications-0084}}</ref><ref name"AngHorowitzMoncrieff2022" /> In many of the expert responses to the review, it was stated that the monoamine hypothesis had already long been abandoned by psychiatry.<ref name"ScienceMediaCentre2022">{{cite web\|vauthorsKnudsen GM, Bloomfield M, Nutt D, Cowen P, de Picker L, Young A, Curtis D, ((Royal College of Psychiatrists))\|titleExpert reaction to a review paper on the 'Serotonin Theory of Depression'\|publisherScience Media Centre\|urlhttps://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert-reaction-to-a-review-paper-on-the-serotonin-theory-of-depression/\|access-date28 August 2022}}</ref><ref name"MadInAmerica2022">{{cite web\|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Horowitz M\|date28 July 2022\|titleResponse to Criticism of Our Serotonin Paper\|websiteMad in America\|urlhttps://www.madinamerica.com/2022/07/response-criticism-serotonin-paper/\|access-date28 August 2022}}</ref> This is in spite of about 90% of the general public in Western countries believing the theory to be true and many in the field of psychiatry continuing to promote the theory up to recent times.<ref name"MadInAmerica2022" /><ref name"AngHorowitzMoncrieff2022" /> In addition to the serotonin umbrella review, reviews have found that reserpine, a drug that depletes the monoamine neurotransmitters—including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine—shows no consistent evidence of producing depressive effects.<ref name"pmid12953623" /><ref name"pmid36000248">{{cite journal\|vauthorsStrawbridge R, Javed RR, Cave J, Jauhar S, Young AH\|titleThe effects of reserpine on depression: A systematic review\|journalJ Psychopharmacol\|volume37\|issue3\|pages248–260\|dateAugust 2022\|pmid36000248\|doi10.1177/02698811221115762\|pmc10076328\|s2cid251765916}}</ref> Instead, findings of reserpine and mood are highly mixed, with similar proportions of studies finding that it has no influence on mood, produces depressive effects, or actually has antidepressant effects.<ref name"pmid36000248" /> In relation to this, the general monoamine hypothesis, as opposed to only the serotonin theory of depression, likewise does not appear to be well-supported by evidence.<ref name"pmid12953623" /><ref name"pmid36000248" /><ref name"AngHorowitzMoncrieff2022" /> The serotonin and monoamine hypotheses of depression have been heavily promoted by the pharmaceutical industry (e.g., in advertisements) and by the psychiatric profession at large despite the lack of evidence in support of them.<ref name"pmid16268734" /><ref name"LacasseLeo2015" /><ref name"pmid12953623" /><ref name"LeoLacasse2007">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLeo J, Lacasse JR\|titleThe Media and the Chemical Imbalance Theory of Depression\|journalSociety\|date28 November 2007\|volume45\|issue1\|pages35–45\|issn0147-2011\|eissn1936-4725\|doi10.1007/s12115-007-9047-3\|s2cid2176245\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"AngHorowitzMoncrieff2022">{{cite journal\|vauthorsAng B, Horowitz M, Moncrieff J\|titleIs the chemical imbalance an 'urban legend'? An exploration of the status of the serotonin theory of depression in the scientific literature\|journalSSM – Mental Health\|dateDecember 2022\|volume2\|page100098\|issn2666-5603\|doi10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100098\|s2cid248246338\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"Lacasse2005">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLacasse JR\|titleConsumer Advertising of Psychiatric Medications Biases the Public Against Nonpharmacological Treatment\|journalEthical Human Psychology and Psychiatry\|dateSeptember 2005\|volume7\|issue3\|pages175–179\|issn1559-4343\|eissn1938-9000\|doi10.1891/1559-4343.7.3.175\|pmid16604742\|s2cid14133908}}</ref> In the case of the pharmaceutical industry, this can be attributed to obvious financial incentives, with the theory creating a bias against non-pharmacological treatments for depression.<ref name"Lacasse2005" /><ref name"pmid16268734" /><ref name"LacasseLeo2015" /><ref name"pmid12953623" /> An alternative theory for antidepressant action proposed by certain academics such as Irving Kirsch and Joanna Moncrieff is that they work largely or entirely via placebo mechanisms.<ref name"pmid31249537">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKirsch I\|titlePlacebo Effect in the Treatment of Depression and Anxiety\|journalFront Psychiatry\|volume10\|pages407\|date2019\|pmid31249537\|pmc6584108\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00407\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"Kirsch2014">{{cite book\|titlePlacebo\|vauthorsKirsch I\|chapterThe Emperor's New Drugs: Medication and Placebo in the Treatment of Depression\|seriesHandbook of Experimental Pharmacology\|date2014\|volume225\|pages291–303\|publisherSpringer Berlin Heidelberg\|issn0171-2004\|eissn1865-0325\|doi10.1007/978-3-662-44519-8_16\|pmid25304538\|isbn978-3-662-44518-1}}</ref><ref name"Kirsch2010">{{cite book\|vauthorsKirsch I\|date26 January 2010\|titleThe Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth\|publisherBasic Books\|isbn978-0-465-02104-8\|oclc1037471689\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwk-OxcTKyi4C}}</ref><ref name"pmid35100527">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRead J, Moncrieff J\|titleDepression: why drugs and electricity are not the answer\|journalPsychol Med\|volume52\|issue8\|pages1401–1410\|dateJune 2022\|pmid35100527\|doi10.1017/S0033291721005031\|s2cid246442707\|urlhttps://repository.uel.ac.uk/download/0fd9663377e02e8033e12c27844d65b5e918406de4d7c7baca5031a8e8ba4c5a/408146/Read%20and%20Moncrieff%20Psych%20Med%20ROAR.pdf}}</ref> This is supported by meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of antidepressants for depression, which consistently show that placebo groups in trials improve about 80 to 90% as much as antidepressant groups on average<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"HengartnerPlöderl2018">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP, Plöderl M\|titleFalse Beliefs in Academic Psychiatry: The Case of Antidepressant Drugs\|journalEthical Human Psychology and Psychiatry\|dateJuly 2018\|volume20\|issue1\|pages6–16\|issn1559-4343\|eissn1938-9000\|doi10.1891/1559-4343.20.1.6\|s2cid149608377}}</ref> and that antidepressants are only marginally more effective for depression than placebos.<ref name"pmid31248914">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMunkholm K, Paludan-Müller AS, Boesen K\|titleConsidering the methodological limitations in the evidence base of antidepressants for depression: a reanalysis of a network meta-analysis\|journalBMJ Open\|volume9\|issue6\|pagese024886\|dateJune 2019\|pmid31248914\|pmc6597641\|doi10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024886}}</ref><ref name"pmid32101579">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP, Jakobsen JC, Sørensen A, Plöderl M\|titleEfficacy of new-generation antidepressants assessed with the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale, the gold standard clinician rating scale: A meta-analysis of randomised placebo-controlled trials\|journalPLOS ONE\|volume15\|issue2\|pagese0229381\|date2020\|pmid32101579\|pmc7043778\|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0229381\|bibcode2020PLoSO..1529381H\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid29477251">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCipriani A, Furukawa TA, Salanti G, Chaimani A, Atkinson LZ, Ogawa Y, Leucht S, Ruhe HG, Turner EH, Higgins JP, Egger M, Takeshima N, Hayasaka Y, Imai H, Shinohara K, Tajika A, Ioannidis JP, Geddes JR\|titleComparative efficacy and acceptability of 21 antidepressant drugs for the acute treatment of adults with major depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis\|journalLancet\|volume391\|issue10128\|pages1357–1366\|dateApril 2018\|pmid29477251\|pmc5889788\|doi10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32802-7}}</ref><ref name"pmid35918097">{{cite journal\|vauthorsStone MB, Yaseen ZS, Miller BJ, Richardville K, Kalaria SN, Kirsch I\|titleResponse to acute monotherapy for major depressive disorder in randomized, placebo controlled trials submitted to the US Food and Drug Administration: individual participant data analysis\|journalThe BMJ\|volume378\|pagese067606\|dateAugust 2022\|pmid35918097\|pmc9344377\|doi10.1136/bmj-2021-067606}}</ref><ref name"pmid30386270" /> The difference between antidepressants and placebo corresponds to an effect size (SMD) of about 0.3, which in turn equates to about a 2- to 3-point additional improvement on the 0–52-point (HRSD) and 0–60-point (MADRS) depression rating scales used in trials.<ref name"pmid31248914" /><ref name"pmid32101579" /><ref name"pmid29477251" /><ref name"pmid35918097" /><ref name"pmid30386270" /> Differences in effectiveness between different antidepressants are small and not clinically meaningful.<ref name"pmid36638223">{{cite journal\|vauthorsChen EG, Oliver AK, Raz A\|titleIrving Kirsch opens a window on antidepressant medications\|journalAm J Clin Hypn\|volume65\|issue3\|pages223–240\|dateJanuary 2023\|pmid36638223\|doi10.1080/00029157.2022.2121678\|s2cid255775806}}</ref><ref name"pmid29477251" /> The small advantage of antidepressants over placebo is often statistically significant and is the basis for their regulatory approval, but is sufficiently modest that its clinical significance is doubtful.<ref name"pmid25979317">{{cite journal\|vauthorsMoncrieff J, Kirsch I\|titleEmpirically derived criteria cast doubt on the clinical significance of antidepressant-placebo differences\|journalContemp Clin Trials\|volume43\|pages60–2\|dateJuly 2015\|pmid25979317\|doi10.1016/j.cct.2015.05.005\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"pmid33593736">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP, Plöderl M\|titleEstimates of the minimal important difference to evaluate the clinical significance of antidepressants in the acute treatment of moderate-to-severe depression\|journalBMJ Evid Based Med\|volume27\|issue2\|pages69–73\|dateApril 2022\|pmid33593736\|doi10.1136/bmjebm-2020-111600\|s2cid231939760}}</ref><ref name"pmid32101579" /><ref name"pmid30386270">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP, Plöderl M\|titleStatistically Significant Antidepressant-Placebo Differences on Subjective Symptom-Rating Scales Do Not Prove That the Drugs Work: Effect Size and Method Bias Matter!\|journalFront Psychiatry\|volume9\|pages517\|date2018\|pmid30386270\|pmc6199395\|doi10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00517\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Moreover, the small advantage of antidepressants over placebo may simply be a methodological artifact caused by unblinding due to the psychoactive effects and side effects of antidepressants, in turn resulting in enhanced placebo effects and apparent antidepressant efficacy.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"pmid30386270" /><ref name"Kirsch2014" /> Placebos have been found to modify the activity of several brain regions and to increase levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways.<ref name"pmid35078210">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHuneke NT, Aslan IH, Fagan H, Phillips N, Tanna R, Cortese S, Garner M, Baldwin DS\|titleFunctional Neuroimaging Correlates of Placebo Response in Patients With Depressive or Anxiety Disorders: A Systematic Review\|journalInt J Neuropsychopharmacol\|volume25\|issue6\|pages433–447\|dateJune 2022\|pmid35078210\|pmc9211006\|doi10.1093/ijnp/pyac009}}</ref><ref name"pmid36006479">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBrietzke C, Cesario JC, Hettinga FJ, Pires FO\|titleThe reward for placebos: mechanisms underpinning placebo-induced effects on motor performance\|journalEur J Appl Physiol\|volume122\|issue11\|pages2321–2329\|dateAugust 2022\|pmid36006479\|doi10.1007/s00421-022-05029-8\|s2cid251809051\|urlhttps://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/49965/1/Brietzke%20et%20al.%202022%20The%20reward%20of%20placebo_R1.pdf}}</ref><ref name"pmid15874901">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFricchione G, Stefano GB\|titlePlacebo neural systems: nitric oxide, morphine and the dopamine brain reward and motivation circuitries\|journalMed Sci Monit\|volume11\|issue5\|pagesMS54–65\|dateMay 2005\|pmid15874901}}</ref> It has been argued by Kirsch that although antidepressants may be used efficaciously for depression as active placebos, they are limited by significant pharmacological side effects and risks, and therefore non-pharmacological therapies, such as psychotherapy and lifestyle changes, which can have similar efficacy to antidepressants but do not have their adverse effects, ought to be preferred as treatments in people with depression.<ref name"pmid31554608">{{cite journal\|vauthorsJakobsen JC, Gluud C, Kirsch I\|titleShould antidepressants be used for major depressive disorder?\|journalBMJ Evid Based Med\|volume25\|issue4\|pages130\|dateAugust 2020\|pmid31554608\|pmc7418603\|doi=10.1136/bmjebm-2019-111238}}</ref> The placebo response, or the improvement in scores in the placebo group in clinical trials, is not only due to the placebo effect, but is also due to other phenomena such as spontaneous remission and regression to the mean.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"pmid30975717" /> Depression tends to have an episodic course, with people eventually recovering even with no medical intervention, and people tend to seek treatment, as well as enroll in clinical trials, when they are feeling their worst.<ref name"Hengartner2022">{{cite book\|vauthorsHengartner MP\|titleEvidence-biased Antidepressant Prescription\|date2022\|publisherSpringer International Publishing\|doi10.1007/978-3-030-82587-4\|isbn978-3-030-82586-7\|s2cid245017942}}</ref><ref name"pmid30975717" /> In meta-analyses of trials of depression therapies, Kirsch estimated based on improvement in untreated waiting-list controls that spontaneous remission and regression to the mean only account for about 25% of the improvement in depression scores with antidepressant therapy.<ref name"pmid31249537" /><ref name"pmid22860015">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKhan A, Faucett J, Lichtenberg P, Kirsch I, Brown WA\|titleA systematic review of comparative efficacy of treatments and controls for depression\|journalPLOS ONE\|volume7\|issue7\|pagese41778\|date2012\|pmid22860015\|pmc3408478\|doi10.1371/journal.pone.0041778\|bibcode2012PLoSO...741778K\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"KirschSapirstein1998">{{cite journal\|authorKirsch, I.\|author2Sapirstein, G\|titleListening to Prozac but hearing placebo: A meta-analysis of antidepressant medication\|journalPrevention and Treatment\|volume1\|issue2\|date26 June 1998\|pagesArticle 0002a\|doi10.1037/1522-3736.1.1.12a\|urlhttp://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume1/pre0010002a.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19980715085305/http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume1/pre0010002a.html\|archive-date15 July 1998}}</ref><ref name"pmid20170046">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKirsch I\|titleAntidepressants and the placebo response\|journalEpidemiol Psychiatr Soc\|volume18\|issue4\|pages318–22\|date2009\|pmid20170046\|doi10.1017/s1121189x00000282\|s2cid2166423}}</ref><ref name"Hengartner2022" /> However, another academic, Michael P. Hengartner, has argued and presented evidence that spontaneous remission and regression to the mean might actually account for most of the improvement in depression scores with antidepressants, and that the substantial placebo effect observed in clinical trials might largely be a methodological artifact.<ref name"pmid30975717">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHengartner MP\|titleIs there a genuine placebo effect in acute depression treatments? A reassessment of regression to the mean and spontaneous remission\|journalBMJ Evid Based Med\|volume25\|issue2\|pages46–48\|dateApril 2020\|pmid30975717\|doi10.1136/bmjebm-2019-111161\|s2cid109941636}}</ref> This suggests that antidepressants may be associated with much less genuine treatment benefit, whether due to the placebo effect or to the antidepressant itself, than has been traditionally assumed.<ref name"pmid30975717" /> It has been proposed that psychedelics used for therapeutic purposes may act as active "super placebos".<ref name"DupuisVeissière2022">{{cite journal \| vauthors Dupuis D, Veissière S \| title Culture, context, and ethics in the therapeutic use of hallucinogens: Psychedelics as active super-placebos? \| journal Transcult Psychiatry \| volume 59 \| issue 5 \| pages 571–578 \| date October 2022 \| pmid 36263513 \| doi 10.1177/13634615221131465 \| url }}</ref><ref name"vanElkYaden2022">{{cite journal \| vauthors van Elk M, Yaden DB \| title Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: A critical review \| journal Neurosci Biobehav Rev \| volume 140 \| issue \| pages 104793 \| date September 2022 \| pmid 35878791 \| doi 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793 \| url \| quote In addition, the strong prior expectations that many people have about psychedelics directly contribute to the psychedelic experience and as a consequence it has been suggested that psychedelics may act as a ‘super-placebo’ (Hartogsohn, 2016). Specifically, strong prior expectations (e.g., that a specific intervention will likely trigger a mystical experience) will increase the likelihood of having e.g., a mystical-type experience (Maij et al., 2019), and this placebo-effect is further boosted by the psychedelic-induced suggestibility. \| hdl 1887/3515020 \| hdl-access free }}</ref>Types{{See also\|List of antidepressants}}Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]] Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are believed to increase the extracellular level of the neurotransmitter serotonin by limiting its reabsorption into the presynaptic cell, increasing the level of serotonin in the synaptic cleft available to bind to the postsynaptic receptor. They have varying degrees of selectivity for the other monoamine transporters, with pure SSRIs having only weak affinity for the norepinephrine and dopamine transporters. SSRIs are the most widely prescribed antidepressants in many countries.<ref name"PRESCORN2004">{{cite book\|vauthorsPreskorn SH, Ross R, Stanga CY\|chapterSelective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsO_hArhCxwMC&pgPA241\|veditorsPreskorn SH, Feighner HP, Stanga CY, Ross R\|titleAntidepressants: Past, Present and Future\|publisherSpringer\|locationBerlin\|year2004\|pages241–62\|isbn978-3-540-43054-4}}</ref> The efficacy of SSRIs in mild or moderate cases of depression has been disputed.<ref name"JAMA2010">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFournier JC, DeRubeis RJ, Hollon SD, Dimidjian S, Amsterdam JD, Shelton RC, Fawcett J\|titleAntidepressant drug effects and depression severity: a patient-level meta-analysis\|journalJAMA\|volume303\|issue1\|pages47–53\|dateJanuary 2010\|pmid20051569\|pmc3712503\|doi10.1001/jama.2009.1943}}</ref><ref name"Kramer">{{cite news\|vauthorsKramer P\|titleIn Defense of Antidepressants\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/opinion/sunday/10antidepressants.html\|access-date13 July 2011\|newspaperThe New York Times\|date7 September 2011\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110712053223/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/10/opinion/sunday/10antidepressants.html\|archive-date12 July 2011}}</ref><ref name"Pies">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPies R\|titleAntidepressants work, sort of—our system of care does not\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume30\|issue2\|pages101–104\|dateApril 2010\|pmid20520282\|doi10.1097/JCP.0b013e3181d52dea\|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/890741}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsPies RW\|titleAntidepressants: Conundrums and Complexities of Efficacy Studies\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume36\|issue1\|pages1–4\|dateFebruary 2016\|pmid26658086\|doi10.1097/jcp.0000000000000455\|s2cid28469650\|urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/890747}}</ref> Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (Effexor), an SNRI]] Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are potent inhibitors of the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are known to play an important role in mood. SNRIs can be contrasted with the more widely used selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which act mostly upon serotonin alone. The human serotonin transporter (SERT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET) are membrane proteins that are responsible for the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Balanced dual inhibition of monoamine reuptake may offer advantages over other antidepressants drugs by treating a wider range of symptoms.<ref name"pmid19740668">{{cite journal\|vauthorsCashman JR, Ghirmai S\|titleInhibition of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake and inhibition of phosphodiesterase by multi-target inhibitors as potential agents for depression\|journalBioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry\|volume17\|issue19\|pages6890–6897\|dateOctober 2009\|pmid19740668\|doi10.1016/j.bmc.2009.08.025}}</ref> SNRIs are sometimes also used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), chronic neuropathic pain, and fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS), and for the relief of menopausal symptoms. Serotonin modulators and stimulators Serotonin modulator and stimulators (SMSs), sometimes referred to more simply as "serotonin modulators", are a type of drug with a multimodal action specific to the serotonin neurotransmitter system. To be precise, SMSs simultaneously modulate one or more serotonin receptors and inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. The term was coined in reference to the mechanism of action of the serotonergic antidepressant vortioxetine, which acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI), a partial agonist of the 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor, and antagonist of the 5-HT<sub>3</sub> and 5-HT<sub>7</sub> receptors.<ref name"pmid24391391">{{cite journal\|authorGoldenberg MM\|titlePharmaceutical approval update\|journalP T\|volume38\|issue11\|pages705–7\|dateNovember 2013\|pmid24391391\|pmc3875258}}</ref><ref name"AmerPharmAssoc2013">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pharmacist.com/vortioxetine-atypical-antidepressant\|authorAmerican Pharmacists Association\|titleVortioxetine: Atypical antidepressant\|year2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151120095834/http://www.pharmacist.com/vortioxetine-atypical-antidepressant\|archive-date20 November 2015}}</ref><ref name"LATimes2013">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-fda-approval-antidepressant-20130930-story.html\|titleFDA approves a new antidepressant: Brintellix\|websiteLos Angeles Times\|year2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151120162327/http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-fda-approval-antidepressant-20130930-story.html\|archive-date20 November 2015}}</ref> However, it can also technically be applied to vilazodone, which is an antidepressant as well and acts as an SRI and 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> receptor partial agonist.<ref name"pmid15740724">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHughes ZA, Starr KR, Langmead CJ, etal\|titleNeurochemical evaluation of the novel 5-HT1A receptor partial agonist/serotonin reuptake inhibitor, vilazodone\|journalEuropean Journal of Pharmacology\|volume510\|issue1–2\|pages49–57\|dateMarch 2005\|pmid15740724\|doi10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.01.018}}</ref> An alternative term is serotonin partial agonist/reuptake inhibitor (SPARI), which can be applied only to vilazodone.<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsStahl SM\|otherswith illustrations by Muntner N\|titleStahl's essential psychopharmacology : neuroscientific basis and practical application\|date2013\|publisherCambridge University Press\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-1107686465\|edition4th}}</ref> Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors Serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs) while mainly used as antidepressants are also anxiolytics and hypnotics. They act by antagonizing serotonin receptors such as 5-HT<sub>2A</sub> and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. Additionally, most also act as α<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptor antagonists. The majority of the currently marketed SARIs belong to the phenylpiperazine class of compounds. They include trazodone and nefazodone. Tricyclic antidepressants The majority of the tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) act primarily as serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) by blocking the serotonin transporter (SERT) and the norepinephrine transporter (NET), respectively, which results in an elevation of the synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters, and therefore an enhancement of neurotransmission.<ref name"pmid9537821">{{cite journal\|vauthorsTatsumi M, Groshan K, Blakely RD, Richelson E\|titlePharmacological profile of antidepressants and related compounds at human monoamine transporters\|journalEur J Pharmacol\|volume340\|issue2–3\|pages249–258\|year1997\|pmid9537821\|doi10.1016/S0014-2999(97)01393-9}}</ref><ref name"pmid17471183">{{cite journal\|authorGillman PK\|titleTricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated\|journalBritish Journal of Pharmacology\|volume151\|issue6\|pages737–48\|dateJuly 2007\|pmid17471183\|pmc2014120\|doi10.1038/sj.bjp.0707253}}</ref> Notably, with the sole exception of amineptine, the TCAs have weak affinity for the dopamine transporter (DAT), and therefore have low efficacy as dopamine reuptake inhibitors (DRIs).<ref name"pmid9537821" /> Although TCAs are sometimes prescribed for depressive disorders, they have been largely replaced in clinical use in most parts of the world by newer antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs). Adverse effects have been found to be of a similar level between TCAs and SSRIs.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsTrindade E, Menon D, Topfer LA, Coloma C\|titleAdverse effects associated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis\|journalCMAJ\|volume159\|issue10\|pages1245–1252\|dateNovember 1998\|pmid9861221\|pmc1229819}}</ref>Tetracyclic antidepressantsTetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs) are a class of antidepressants that were first introduced in the 1970s. They are named after their chemical structure, which contains four rings of atoms, and are closely related to tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), which contain three rings of atoms.Monoamine oxidase inhibitorsMonoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are chemicals that inhibit the activity of the monoamine oxidase enzyme family. They have a long history of use as medications prescribed for the treatment of depression. They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression.<ref>{{cite journal\|urlhttp://www.psychiatrictimes.com/major-depressive-disorder/atypical-depression-21st-century-diagnostic-and-treatment-issues\|titleAtypical Depression in the 21st Century: Diagnostic and Treatment Issues\|journalPsychiatric Times\|access-date23 November 2013\|authorCristancho, Mario\|date20 November 2012\|volume28\|issue1\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131202224433/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/major-depressive-disorder/atypical-depression-21st-century-diagnostic-and-treatment-issues\|archive-date2 December 2013}}</ref> They are also used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and several other disorders. Because of potentially lethal dietary and drug interactions, MAOIs have historically been reserved as a last line of treatment, used only when other classes of antidepressant drugs (for example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants) have failed.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsShulman KI, Herrmann N, Walker SE\|titleCurrent place of monoamine oxidase inhibitors in the treatment of depression\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume27\|issue10\|pages789–797\|dateOctober 2013\|pmid23934742\|doi10.1007/s40263-013-0097-3\|s2cid21625538}}</ref> MAOIs have been found to be effective in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsBuigues J, Vallejo J\|titleTherapeutic response to phenelzine in patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks\|journalThe Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\|volume48\|issue2\|pages55–59\|dateFebruary 1987\|pmid3542985}}</ref> social phobia,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLiebowitz MR, Schneier F, Campeas R, Hollander E, Hatterer J, Fyer A, Gorman J, Papp L, Davies S, Gully R\|titlePhenelzine vs atenolol in social phobia. A placebo-controlled comparison\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume49\|issue4\|pages290–300\|dateApril 1992\|pmid1558463\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.49.4.290}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsVersiani M, Nardi AE, Mundim FD, Alves AB, Liebowitz MR, Amrein R\|titlePharmacotherapy of social phobia. A controlled study with moclobemide and phenelzine\|journalThe British Journal of Psychiatry\|volume161\|issue3\|pages353–360\|dateSeptember 1992\|pmid1393304\|doi10.1192/bjp.161.3.353\|s2cid45341667}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsHeimberg RG, Liebowitz MR, Hope DA, Schneier FR, Holt CS, Welkowitz LA, Juster HR, Campeas R, Bruch MA, Cloitre M, Fallon B, Klein DF\|titleCognitive behavioral group therapy vs phenelzine therapy for social phobia: 12-week outcome\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume55\|issue12\|pages1133–1141\|dateDecember 1998\|pmid9862558\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.55.12.1133}}</ref> atypical depression<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsJarrett RB, Schaffer M, McIntire D, Witt-Browder A, Kraft D, Risser RC\|titleTreatment of atypical depression with cognitive therapy or phenelzine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume56\|issue5\|pages431–437\|dateMay 1999\|pmid10232298\|pmc1475805\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.56.5.431}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLiebowitz MR, Quitkin FM, Stewart JW, McGrath PJ, Harrison W, Rabkin J, Tricamo E, Markowitz JS, Klein DF\|titlePhenelzine v imipramine in atypical depression. A preliminary report\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume41\|issue7\|pages669–677\|dateJuly 1984\|pmid6375621\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1984.01790180039005}}</ref> or mixed anxiety and depression, bulimia,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWalsh BT, Stewart JW, Roose SP, Gladis M, Glassman AH\|titleTreatment of bulimia with phenelzine. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume41\|issue11\|pages1105–1109\|dateNovember 1984\|pmid6388524\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790220095015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsRothschild R, Quitkin HM, Quitkin FM, Stewart JW, Ocepek-Welikson K, McGrath PJ, Tricamo E\|titleA double-blind placebo-controlled comparison of phenelzine and imipramine in the treatment of bulimia in atypical depressives\|journalThe International Journal of Eating Disorders\|volume15\|issue1\|pages1–9\|dateJanuary 1994\|pmid8124322\|doi10.1002/1098-108X(199401)15:1<1::AID-EAT2260150102>3.0.CO;2-E}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWalsh BT, Stewart JW, Roose SP, Gladis M, Glassman AH\|titleA double-blind trial of phenelzine in bulimia\|journalJournal of Psychiatric Research\|volume19\|issue2–3\|pages485–489\|year1985\|pmid3900362\|doi10.1016/0022-3956(85)90058-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWalsh BT, Gladis M, Roose SP, Stewart JW, Stetner F, Glassman AH\|titlePhenelzine vs placebo in 50 patients with bulimia\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume45\|issue5\|pages471–475\|dateMay 1988\|pmid3282482\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800290091011}}</ref> and post-traumatic stress disorder,<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsDavidson J, Walker JI, Kilts C\|titleA pilot study of phenelzine in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder\|journalThe British Journal of Psychiatry\|volume150\|issue2\|pages252–255\|dateFebruary 1987\|pmid3651684\|doi10.1192/bjp.150.2.252\|s2cid10001735}}</ref> as well as borderline personality disorder.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsSoloff PH, Cornelius J, George A, Nathan S, Perel JM, Ulrich RF\|titleEfficacy of phenelzine and haloperidol in borderline personality disorder\|journalArchives of General Psychiatry\|volume50\|issue5\|pages377–385\|dateMay 1993\|pmid8489326\|doi10.1001/archpsyc.1993.01820170055007}}</ref> MAOIs appear to be particularly effective in the management of bipolar depression according to a retrospective-analysis.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsMallinger AG, Frank E, Thase ME, Barwell MM, Diazgranados N, Luckenbaugh DA, Kupfer DJ\|titleRevisiting the effectiveness of standard antidepressants in bipolar disorder: are monoamine oxidase inhibitors superior?\|journalPsychopharmacology Bulletin\|volume42\|issue2\|pages64–74\|year2009\|pmid19629023\|pmc3570273}}</ref> There are reports of MAOI efficacy in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), trichotillomania, dysmorphophobia, and avoidant personality disorder, but these reports are from uncontrolled case reports.<ref name"pmid2248064">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLiebowitz MR, Hollander E, Schneier F, Campeas R, Welkowitz L, Hatterer J, Fallon B\|titleReversible and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors in other psychiatric disorders\|journalActa Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum\|volume360\|pages29–34\|year1990\|pmid2248064\|doi10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb05321.x\|s2cid=30319319}}</ref> MAOIs can also be used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease by targeting MAO-B in particular (therefore affecting dopaminergic neurons), as well as providing an alternative for migraine prophylaxis. Inhibition of both MAO-A and MAO-B is used in the treatment of clinical depression and anxiety disorders. NMDA receptor antagonists NMDA receptor antagonists like ketamine and esketamine are rapid-acting antidepressants and seem to work via blockade of the ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor.<ref name"SpravatoLabel">{{cite web\|titleSPRAVATO™ (Esketamine) nasal spray FDA label\|publisherFood and Drug Administration\|date5 March 2019\|urlhttps://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2019/211243lbl.pdf\|access-date6 March 2019}}</ref> Other NMDA antagonists may also play a role in treating depression. The combination medication dextromethorphan/bupropion (Auvelity), which contains the NMDA receptor antagonist dextromethorphan, was approved in the United States in 2022 for treating major depressive disorder.<ref name"pmid36301443">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKeam SJ\|titleDextromethorphan/Bupropion: First Approval\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume36\|issue11\|pages1229–1238\|dateNovember 2022\|pmid36301443\|doi10.1007/s40263-022-00968-4\|s2cid253158902\|urlhttps://figshare.com/articles/online_resource/Dextromethorphan_Bupropion_First_Approval/21320970}}</ref><ref name"pmid36943010">{{cite journal\|vauthorsParincu Z, Iosifescu DV\|titleCombinations of dextromethorphan for the treatment of mood disorders – a review of the evidence\|journalExpert Review of Neurotherapeutics\|volume23\|issue3\|pages205–212\|dateMarch 2023\|pmid36943010\|doi10.1080/14737175.2023.2192402\|s2cid257638827}}</ref>OthersSee the list of antidepressants and management of depression for other drugs that are not specifically characterized.AdjunctsAdjunct medications are an umbrella category of substances that increase the potency or "enhance" antidepressants.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric_disorders/mood_disorders/depressive_disorders.html?qtdepression&altsh#v1028590\|websiteMerck Manual\|titleDepressive Disorders\|access-date30 November 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131205163219/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric_disorders/mood_disorders/depressive_disorders.html?qtdepression&altsh\|archive-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> They work by affecting variables very close to the antidepressant, sometimes affecting a completely different mechanism of action. This may be attempted when depression treatments have not been successful in the past. Common types of adjunct medication techniques generally fall into the following categories: Two or more antidepressants taken together, from either the same or different classes (affecting the same area of the brain, often at a much higher level). * An antipsychotic combined with an antidepressant, particularly atypical antipsychotics such as aripiprazole (Abilify), quetiapine (Seroquel), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and risperidone (Risperdal).<ref name"Maudsley">{{cite book\|vauthorsTaylor D, Carol P, Shitij K\|titleThe Maudsley prescribing guidelines in psychiatry\|year2012\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\|locationWest Sussex\|isbn978-0-470-97969-3}}</ref><!--first added https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleAntidepressant&diffprev&oldid576824896--> It is unknown if undergoing psychological therapy at the same time as taking anti-depressants enhances the anti-depressive effect of the medication.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsCox GR, Callahan P, Churchill R, Hunot V, Merry SN, Parker AG, Hetrick SE\|titlePsychological therapies versus antidepressant medication, alone and in combination for depression in children and adolescents\|journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|volume2014\|issue11\|pagesCD008324\|dateNovember 2014\|pmid25433518\|pmc8556660\|doi10.1002/14651858.CD008324.pub3\|urlhttp://vuir.vu.edu.au/33744/1/Cox%20et%20al%202012%20Psychological%20therapies%20versus%20antidepressant%20medication%20%28Review%29.pdf\|url-statuslive\|hdl-accessfree\|hdl11343/59254\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://vuir.vu.edu.au/33744/1/Cox%20et%20al%202012%20Psychological%20therapies%20versus%20antidepressant%20medication%20%28Review%29.pdf\|archive-date9 October 2022}}</ref> Less common adjuncts Lithium has been used to augment antidepressant therapy in those who have failed to respond to antidepressants alone.<ref name"pmid10505584">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBauer M, Dopfmer S\|s2cid31979046\|year1999\|titleLithium augmentation in treatment-resistant depression: Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume19\|issue5\|pages427–34\|pmid10505584\|doi10.1097/00004714-199910000-00006}}</ref> Furthermore, Lithium dramatically decreases the suicide risk in recurrent depression.<ref name"pmid17388706">{{cite journal\|vauthorsGuzzetta F, Tondo L, Centorrino F, Baldessarini RJ\|s2cid10343453\|titleLithium treatment reduces suicide risk in recurrent major depressive disorder\|journalJ Clin Psychiatry\|volume68\|issue3\|pages380–83\|dateMarch 2007\|pmid17388706\|doi10.4088/JCP.v68n0304}}</ref> There is some evidence for the addition of a thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine, in patients with normal thyroid function.<ref name"pmid16946176">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNierenberg AA, Fava M, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Thase ME, McGrath PJ, Alpert JE, Warden D, Luther JF, Niederehe G, Lebowitz B, Shores-Wilson K, Rush AJ\|year2006\|titleA comparison of lithium and T(3) augmentation following two failed medication treatments for depression: A STARD report\|journalAmerican Journal of Psychiatry\|volume163\|issue9\|pages1519–30\|pmid16946176\|doi10.1176/appi.ajp.163.9.1519}}</ref> Psychopharmacologists have also tried adding a stimulant, in particular, D-amphetamine.<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsStahl SM\|titleThe Prescriber's Guide (Stahl's Essential Psychopharmacology)\|year2011\|publisherCambridge University Press\|page39}}</ref> However, the use of stimulants in cases of treatment-resistant depression is relatively controversial.<ref name"pmid1411740">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKraus MF, Burch EA\|titleMethylphenidate hydrochloride as an antidepressant: controversy, case studies, and review\|journalSouthern Medical Journal\|volume85\|issue10\|pages985–991\|dateOctober 1992\|pmid1411740\|doi10.1097/00007611-199210000-00012}}</ref><ref name"pmid17338594">{{cite journal\|vauthorsOrr K, Taylor D\|titlePsychostimulants in the treatment of depression : a review of the evidence\|journalCNS Drugs\|volume21\|issue3\|pages239–257\|date2007\|pmid17338594\|doi10.2165/00023210-200721030-00004\|s2cid35761979}}</ref> A review article published in 2007 found psychostimulants may be effective in treatment-resistant depression with concomitant antidepressant therapy, but a more certain conclusion could not be drawn due to substantial deficiencies in the studies available for consideration, and the somewhat contradictory nature of their results.<!-- commented out 19 November 2013 However, the authors claim psychostimulants are likely to have a higher level of clinical effectiveness under circumstances in which the patient will probably die soon, so rapid relief is of great importance. In this situation, the patient is likely to die before dependence on, or tolerance of, the medication interferes with their care. note 15 September 2015 This content should likely be incorporated into the article in some form, likely by mentioning the usage for fatigue in cancer (among others), but it's not happening right now, so please leave this commented out content in place as an important reminder for future editors. --><ref name"pmid17338594" />History {{See also\|Discovery and development of dual serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors}} ]] The idea of an antidepressant, if melancholy is thought synonymous with depression, existed at least as early as the 1599 pamphlet A pil to purge melancholie or, A preprative to a pvrgation: or, Topping, copping, and capping: take either or whether: or, Mash them, and squash them, and dash them, and diddle come derrie come daw them, all together... Thomas d'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: Or Pills to Purge Melancholy, the title of a large collection of songs, was published between 1698 and 1720. Before the 1950s, opioids and amphetamines were commonly used as antidepressants.<ref name"Weber 1988 255–66">{{cite journal\|vauthorsWeber MM, Emrich HM\|titleCurrent and Historical Concepts of Opiate Treatment in Psychiatric Disorders\|journalInternational Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume3\|issue3\|pages255–66\|year1988\|pmid3153713\|doi10.1097/00004850-198807000-00007}}</ref><ref name"Amph Uses Dex">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHeal DJ, Smith SL, Gosden J, Nutt DJ\|titleAmphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective\|journalJ. Psychopharmacol.\|volume27\|issue6\|pages479–96\|dateJune 2013\|pmid23539642\|pmc3666194\|doi10.1177/0269881113482532}}</ref><ref name"Rasmussen2006">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRasmussen N\|titleMaking the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929-1950\|journalJ Hist Med Allied Sci\|volume61\|issue3\|pages288–323\|dateJuly 2006\|pmid16492800\|doi10.1093/jhmas/jrj039}}</ref> Amphetamine has been described as the first antidepressant.<ref name"Rasmussen2006" /> Use of opioids and amphetamines for depression was later restricted due to their addictive nature and side effects.<ref name"Weber 1988 255–66" /><ref name"Rasmussen2006" /> Extracts from the herb St John's wort have been used as a "nerve tonic" to alleviate depression.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorCzygan FC\|titleKulturgeschichte und Mystik des Johanniskrauts: Vom 2500 Jahre alten Apotropaikum zum aktuellen Antidepressivum\|languagede\|journalPharmazie in unserer Zeit\|volume32\|issue3\|pages184–90\|year2003\|pmid12784538\|doi10.1002/pauz.200390062\|trans-title=From a 2500-year-old apotropic comes a current antidepressive. The cultural history and mistique of St. John's wort}}</ref> St John's wort fell out of favor in most countries through the 19th and 20th centuries, except in Germany, where Hypericum extracts were eventually licensed, packaged, and prescribed. Small-scale efficacy trials were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s, and attention grew in the 1990s following a meta-analysis.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsLinde K, Ramirez G, Mulrow CD, Pauls A, Weidenhammer W, Melchart D\|titleSt John's wort for depression—an overview and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials\|journalThe BMJ\|volume313\|issue7052\|pages253–258\|dateAugust 1996\|pmid8704532\|pmc2351679\|doi10.1136/bmj.313.7052.253}}</ref> It remains an over-the-counter (OTC) supplement in most countries. Lead contamination associated with its usage has been seen as concerning, as lead levels in women in the United States taking St. John's wort are elevated by about 20% on average.<ref name"LeadInHerbs">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBuettner C, Mukamal KJ, Gardiner P, Davis RB, Phillips RS, Mittleman MA\|titleHerbal supplement use and blood lead levels of United States adults\|journalJournal of General Internal Medicine\|volume24\|issue11\|pages1175–1182\|dateNovember 2009\|pmid19575271\|pmc2771230\|doi10.1007/s11606-009-1050-5\|refLeadInHerbs}}</ref> Research continues to investigate its active component hyperforin, and to further understand its mode of action.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsMüller WE\|titleCurrent St John's wort research from mode of action to clinical efficacy\|journalPharmacological Research\|volume47\|issue2\|pages101–109\|dateFebruary 2003\|pmid12543057\|doi10.1016/S1043-6618(02)00266-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsNathan PJ\|titleHypericum perforatum (St John's Wort): a non-selective reuptake inhibitor? A review of the recent advances in its pharmacology\|journalJournal of Psychopharmacology\|volume15\|issue1\|pages47–54\|dateMarch 2001\|pmid11277608\|doi10.1177/026988110101500109\|s2cid36924335}}</ref>Isoniazid, iproniazid, and imipramineIn 1951, Irving Selikoff and Edward H. Robitzek, working out of Sea View Hospital on Staten Island, began clinical trials on two new anti-tuberculosis agents developed by Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazid, and iproniazid. Only patients with a poor prognosis were initially treated. Nevertheless, their condition improved dramatically. Selikoff and Robitzek noted "a subtle general stimulation ... the patients exhibited renewed vigor and indeed this occasionally served to introduce disciplinary problems."<ref name"pmid14906149">{{cite journal\|vauthorsSelikoff IJ, Robitzek EH\|titleTuberculosis Chemotherapy with Hydrazine Derivatives of Isonicotinic Acid\|journalChest\|volume21\|issue4\|pages385–438\|year1952\|pmid14906149\|doi=10.1378/chest.21.4.385}}</ref> The promise of a cure for tuberculosis in the Sea View Hospital trials was excitedly discussed in the mainstream press. In 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients. In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that isoniazid improved depression in two-thirds of their patients, so they then coined the term antidepressant to refer to its action.<ref name"isbn0-88048-397-0">{{cite book\|vauthorsHealy D\|veditorsWeissman MM\|titleThe treatment of depression: bridging the 21st century\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLAmBVolIG5kC\|year2001\|publisherAmerican Psychiatric Pub\|isbn978-0-88048-397-1\|pages10–11\|chapterThe Antidepressant Drama\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLAmBVolIG5kC}}</ref> A similar incident took place in Paris, where Jean Delay, head of psychiatry at Sainte-Anne Hospital, heard of this effect from his pulmonology colleagues at Cochin Hospital. In 1952 (before Lurie and Salzer), Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on depressed patients.<ref name"Healy96">{{cite book\|vauthorsHealy D\|titleThe psychopharmacologists: interviews\|year1996\|publisherChapman and Hall\|locationLondon\|isbn978-1-86036-008-4\|page8}}</ref> The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of diamine oxidase, coupled with a weak inhibition of monoamine oxidase A.<ref name"isbn1-86036-010-6">{{cite book\|vauthorsHealy D\|titleThe Psychopharmacologists\|volume2\|publisherA Hodder Arnold Publication\|year1998\|pages132–4\|isbn=978-1-86036-010-7}}</ref> Selikoff and Robitzek also experimented with another anti-tuberculosis drug, iproniazid; it showed a greater psychostimulant effect, but more pronounced toxicity.<ref name"pmid12998444">{{cite journal\|vauthorsRobitzek EH, Selikoff IJ, Mamlok E, Tendlau A\|titleIsoniazid and Its Isopropyl Derivative in the Therapy of Tuberculosis in Humans: Comparative Therapeutic and Toxicologic Properties\|journalChest\|volume23\|issue1\|pages1–15\|year1953\|pmid12998444\|doi10.1378/chest.23.1.1}}</ref> Later, Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George E. Crane, and Frank Ayd, described the psychiatric applications of iproniazid. Ernst Zeller found iproniazid to be a potent monoamine oxidase inhibitor.<ref name"pmid18004120">{{cite journal\|vauthorsLópez-Muñoz F, Alamo C, Juckel G, Assion HJ\|titleHalf a Century of Antidepressant Drugs\|journalJournal of Clinical Psychopharmacology\|volume27\|issue6\|pages555–9\|year2007\|pmid18004120\|doi10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181bb617}}</ref> Nevertheless, iproniazid remained relatively obscure until Nathan S. Kline, the influential head of research at Rockland State Hospital, began to popularize it in the medical and popular press as a "psychic energizer".<ref name"pmid18004120" /><ref>{{cite news\|titlePsychic Energizer\|urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,862555,00.html\|date15 April 1957\|magazineTime\|access-date28 May 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130811223331/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C862555%2C00.html\|archive-date11 August 2013\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Roche put a significant marketing effort behind iproniazid.<ref name"pmid18004120" /> Its sales grew until it was recalled in 1961, due to reports of lethal hepatotoxicity.<ref name="pmid18004120" /> The antidepressant effect of a tricyclic antidepressant, a three-ringed compound, was first discovered in 1957 by Roland Kuhn in a Swiss psychiatric hospital. Antihistamine derivatives were used to treat surgical shock and later as neuroleptics. Although in 1955, reserpine was shown to be more effective than a placebo in alleviating anxious depression, neuroleptics were being developed as sedatives and antipsychotics.{{medical citation needed\|date=March 2013}} Attempting to improve the effectiveness of chlorpromazine, Kuhn {{emdash}} in conjunction with the Geigy Pharmaceutical Company {{emdash}} discovered the compound "G 22355", later renamed imipramine. Imipramine had a beneficial effect on patients with depression who showed mental and motor retardation. Kuhn described his new compound as a "thymoleptic" "taking hold of the emotions," in contrast with neuroleptics, "taking hold of the nerves" in 1955–56. These gradually became established, resulting in the patent and manufacture in the US in 1951 by Häfliger and SchinderA.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorKuhn R\|titleThe treatment of depressive states with G 22355 (Imipramine Hydrochloride)\|journalThe American Journal of Psychiatry\|volume115\|issue5\|pages459–64\|year1958\|pmid13583250\|doi=10.1176/ajp.115.5.459}}</ref> Antidepressants became prescription drugs in the 1950s. It was estimated that no more than fifty to one hundred individuals per million had the kind of depression that these new drugs would treat, and pharmaceutical companies were not enthusiastic about marketing for this small market. Sales through the 1960s remained poor compared to the sales of tranquilizers,<ref>{{cite web\|titleTranquilizers\|urlhttp://www.cmcsb.com/tranquil.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120916074410/http://www.cmcsb.com/tranquil.htm\|archive-date16 September 2012\|access-date20 November 2013\|websiteCumberland Mountain Community Services\|publishercmcsb.com}}</ref>{{Unreliable medical source\|dateMarch 2013}} which were being marketed for different uses.<ref name"3faces">{{cite journal\|authorHealy D\|year1999\|titleThe Three Faces of the Antidepressants: A Critical Commentary on the Clinical-Economic Context of Diagnosis\|journalThe Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease\|volume187\|issue3\|pages174–80\|doi10.1097/00005053-199903000-00007\|pmid10086474}}</ref> Imipramine remained in common use and numerous successors were introduced. The use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) increased after the development and introduction of "reversible" forms affecting only the MAO-A subtype of inhibitors, making this drug safer to use.<ref name"3faces" /><ref>{{cite journal\|authorPletscher A\|year1991\|titleThe discovery of antidepressants: A winding path\|journalExperientia\|volume47\|issue1\|pages4–8\|doi10.1007/BF02041242\|pmid1999242\|s2cid=112210}}</ref> By the 1960s, it was thought that the mode of action of tricyclics was to inhibit norepinephrine reuptake. However, norepinephrine reuptake became associated with stimulating effects. Later tricyclics were thought to affect serotonin as proposed in 1969 by Carlsson and Lindqvist as well as Lapin and Oxenkrug.{{medical citation needed\|dateMarch 2013}}Second-generation antidepressants {{Main\|Second-generation antidepressants}} Researchers began a process of rational drug design to isolate antihistamine-derived compounds that would selectively target these systems. The first such compound to be patented was zimelidine in 1971, while the first released clinically was indalpine. Fluoxetine was approved for commercial use by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1988, becoming the first blockbuster SSRI. Fluoxetine was developed at Eli Lilly and Company in the early 1970s by Bryan Molloy, Klaus Schmiegel, David T. Wong, and others.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorDomino EF\|titleHistory of modern psychopharmacology: A personal view with an emphasis on antidepressants\|journalPsychosomatic Medicine\|volume61\|issue5\|pages591–8\|year1999\|pmid10511010\|doi10.1097/00006842-199909000-00002\|urlhttp://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid10511010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWong DT, Bymaster FP, Horng JS, Molloy BB\|titleA new selective inhibitor for uptake of serotonin into synaptosomes of rat brain: 3-(p-trifluoromethylphenoxy). N-methyl-3-phenylpropylamine\|journalThe Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics\|volume193\|issue3\|pages804–11\|year1975\|doi10.1016/S0022-3565(25)30202-8 \|pmid1151730\|urlhttp://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid1151730\|access-date24 April 2009\|archive-date19 November 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211119145719/https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/193/3/804.long\|url-statusdead}}</ref> SSRIs became known as "novel antidepressants" along with other newer drugs such as SNRIs and NRIs with various selective effects.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1016/0924-9338(96)88597-X\|titleTolerability and safety of novel antidepressants\|year1996\|vauthorsFreeman H\|journalEuropean Psychiatry\|volume11\|pages206s\|s2cid144286291}}</ref> Rapid-acting antidepressants Esketamine (brand name Spravato), the first rapid-acting antidepressant to be approved for clinical treatment of depression, was introduced for this indication in March 2019 in the United States.<ref name"SpravatoLabel" />ResearchA 2016 randomized controlled trial evaluated the rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic Ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression with a positive outcome.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsPalhano-Fontes F, Barreto D, Onias H, Andrade KC, Novaes MM, Pessoa JA, Mota-Rolim SA, Osório FL, Sanches R, Dos Santos RG, Tófoli LF, de Oliveira Silveira G, Yonamine M, Riba J, Santos FR, Silva-Junior AA, Alchieri JC, Galvão-Coelho NL, Lobão-Soares B, Hallak JE, Arcoverde E, Maia-de-Oliveira JP, Araújo DB\|titleRapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial\|journalPsychological Medicine\|volume49\|issue4\|pages655–663\|dateMarch 2019\|pmid29903051\|pmc6378413\|doi10.1017/S0033291718001356\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|titleAntidepressant Effects of Ayahuasca: a Randomized Placebo Controlled Trial in Treatment Resistant Depression – Full Text View – ClinicalTrials.gov\|urlhttps://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02914769\|websiteclinicaltrials.gov\|date15 February 2017\|vauthorsde Araujo DB}}</ref> In 2018, the FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin-assisted therapy for treatment-resistant depression and in 2019, the FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin therapy treating major depressive disorder.<ref>{{cite web\|date22 November 2019\|titleFDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder\|urlhttps://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191122005452/en/FDA-grants-Breakthrough-Therapy-Designation-to-Usona-Institutes-psilocybin-program-for-major-depressive-disorder\|access-date17 September 2020\|websitebusinesswire.com}}</ref> Publication bias and aged research A 2018 systematic review published in The Lancet comparing the efficacy of 21 different first and second generation antidepressants found that antidepressant drugs tended to perform better and cause less adverse events when they were novel or experimental treatments compared to when they were evaluated again years later.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsZhou X, Teng T, Zhang Y, Del Giovane C, Furukawa TA, Weisz JR, Li X, Cuijpers P, Coghill D, Xiang Y, Hetrick SE, Leucht S, Qin M, Barth J, Ravindran AV, Yang L, Curry J, Fan L, Silva SG, Cipriani A, Xie P\|titleComparative efficacy and acceptability of antidepressants, psychotherapies, and their combination for acute treatment of children and adolescents with depressive disorder: a systematic review and network meta-analysis\|journalThe Lancet. Psychiatry\|volume7\|issue7\|pages581–601\|dateJuly 2020\|pmid32563306\|pmc7303954\|doi10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30137-1}}</ref> Unpublished data was also associated with smaller positive effect sizes. However, the review did not find evidence of bias associated with industry funded research. Society and culture Prescription trends United Kingdom In the UK, figures reported in 2010 indicated that the number of antidepressants prescribed by the National Health Service (NHS) almost doubled over a decade.<ref>{{cite news\|vauthorsDavis R\|date11 June 2010\|titleAntidepressant Use Rises as Recession Feeds Wave of Worry\|newspaperThe Guardian\|locationLondon\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/jun/11/antidepressant-prescriptions-rise-nhs-recession\|url-statuslive\|access-date1 July 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100615165456/http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/jun/11/antidepressant-prescriptions-rise-nhs-recession\|archive-date15 June 2010}}</ref> Further analysis published in 2014 showed that number of antidepressants dispensed annually in the community went up by 25 million in the 14 years between 1998 and 2012, rising from 15 million to 40 million. Nearly 50% of this rise occurred in the four years after the Great Recession, during which time the annual increase in prescriptions rose from 6.7% to 8.5%.<ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsSpence R\|titleFocus on: Antidepressant prescribing\|urlhttp://www.qualitywatch.org.uk/focus-on/antidepressant-prescribing\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150204194028/http://www.qualitywatch.org.uk/focus-on/antidepressant-prescribing\|archive-date4 February 2015\|access-date12 January 2015\|websiteQualityWatch\|publisher=QualityWatch (Nuffield Trust/Health Foundation)}}</ref> These sources also suggest that aside from the recession, other factors that may influence changes in prescribing rates may include: improvements in diagnosis, a reduction of the stigma surrounding mental health, broader prescribing trends, GP characteristics, geographical location, and housing status. Another factor that may contribute to increasing consumption of antidepressants is the fact that these medications now are used for other conditions including social anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. Between 2005 and 2017, the number of adolescents (12 to 17 years) in England who were prescribed antidepressants has doubled. On the other hand, antidepressant prescriptions for children aged 5–11 in England decreased between 1999 and 2017.<ref>{{cite journal\|date18 November 2020\|titleTeenagers' use of antidepressants is rising with variations across regions and ethnic groups\|urlhttps://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/teenagers-use-of-antidepressants-is-rising-with-variations-across-regions-and-ethnic-groups/\|journalNIHR Evidence\|typePlain English summary\|publisherNational Institute for Health and Care Research\|doi10.3310/alert_42239\|s2cid240759939}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsJack RH, Hollis C, Coupland C, Morriss R, Knaggs RD, Butler D, Cipriani A, Cortese S, Hippisley-Cox J\|titleIncidence and prevalence of primary care antidepressant prescribing in children and young people in England, 1998–2017: A population-based cohort study\|journalPLOS Medicine\|volume17\|issue7\|pagese1003215\|dateJuly 2020\|pmid32697803\|pmc7375537\|doi10.1371/journal.pmed.1003215\|veditorsHellner C\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> From April 2015, prescriptions increased for both age groups (for people aged 0 to 17) and peaked during the first COVID lockdown in March 2020.<ref>{{cite web\|vauthorsRobinson J\|titlePeaks in number of young people prescribed antidepressants coincide with lockdowns\|urlhttps://pharmaceutical-journal.com/article/news/peaks-in-number-of-young-people-prescribed-antidepressants-coincide-with-lockdowns\|access-date4 November 2022\|websiteThe Pharmaceutical Journal\|date23 June 2021}}</ref> According to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines, antidepressants for children and adolescents with depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) should be prescribed together with therapy and after being assessed by a child and adolescent psychiatrist. However, between 2006 and 2017, only 1 in 4 of 12–17 year-olds who were prescribed an SSRI by their GP had seen a specialist psychiatrist and 1 in 6 has seen a pediatrician. Half of these prescriptions were for depression and 16% for anxiety, the latter not being licensed for treatment with antidepressants.<ref name"NIHR-2022"/><ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsJack RH, Joseph RM, Coupland C, Butler D, Hollis C, Morriss R, Knaggs RD, Cipriani A, Cortese S, Hippisley-Cox J\|titleSecondary care specialist visits made by children and young people prescribed antidepressants in primary care: a descriptive study using the QResearch database\|journalBMC Medicine\|volume18\|issue1\|pages93\|dateApril 2020\|pmid32349753\|pmc7191694\|doi10.1186/s12916-020-01560-7\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Among the suggested possible reasons why GPs are not following the guidelines are the difficulties of accessing talking therapies, long waiting lists, and the urgency of treatment.<ref name"NIHR-2022" /><ref>{{cite web\|date4 November 2022\|titleGPs giving antidepressants to children against guidelines\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/nov/04/gps-giving-antidepressants-to-children-against-guidelines\|access-date5 November 2022\|websiteThe Guardian}}</ref> According to some researchers, strict adherence to treatment guidelines would limit access to effective medication for young people with mental health problems.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWalkup JT, Strawn JR\|titleHigh-quality antidepressant prescribing: please consider whether "perfection is the enemy of progress"\|journalBMC Medicine\|volume18\|issue1\|pages150\|dateMay 2020\|pmid32438910\|pmc7243321\|doi10.1186/s12916-020-01621-x\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> United States In the United States, antidepressants were the most commonly prescribed medication in 2013.<ref name"AJantidepressantstatsUS" /> Of the estimated 16 million "long term" (over 24 months) users, roughly 70 percent are female.<ref name"AJantidepressantstatsUS">{{cite web\|vauthorsWhite R\|titleWaking up from sadness: Many find trouble getting off antidepressants\|urlhttp://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/1/22/patients-mostly-womenfindtroublegettingoffofantidepressants.html\|publisherAl Jazeera\|access-date8 June 2014\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714142717/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/1/22/patients-mostly-womenfindtroublegettingoffofantidepressants.html\|archive-date14 July 2014}}</ref> {{As of\|2017}}, about 16.5% of white people in the United States took antidepressants compared with 5.6% of black people in the United States.<ref name"APP2017">{{cite web\|titleBy the numbers: Antidepressant use on the rise\|urlhttps://www.apa.org/monitor/2017/11/numbers.aspx\|websiteapa.org\|access-date1 February 2019}}</ref> ]] United States: The most commonly prescribed antidepressants in the US retail market in 2010 were:<ref>{{cite web\|titleTop 200 generic drugs by units in 2010\|urlhttp://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/252011/727243/article.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121215070930/http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/252011/727243/article.pdf\|archive-date15 December 2012}}{{cite web\|titleTop 200 brand drugs by units in 2010\|urlhttp://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/252011/727256/article.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120422181417/http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/252011/727256/article.pdf\|archive-date22 April 2012}}</ref> {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! scope="col" \| Drug name ! scope="col" \| Drug class ! scope="col" \| Total prescriptions \|- \| Sertraline \| SSRI \| 33,409,838 \|- \| Citalopram \| SSRI \| 27,993,635 \|- \| Fluoxetine \| SSRI \| 24,473,994 \|- \| Escitalopram \| SSRI \| 23,000,456 \|- \| Trazodone \| SARI \| 18,786,495 \|- \|Venlafaxine (all formulations) \|SNRI \|16,110,606 \|- \|Bupropion (all formulations) \|NDRI \|15,792,653 \|- \| Duloxetine \| SNRI \| 14,591,949 \|- \| Paroxetine \| SSRI \| 12,979,366 \|- \| Amitriptyline \| TCA \| 12,611,254 \|- \| Venlafaxine XR \| SNRI \| 7,603,949 \|- \| Bupropion XL \| NDRI \| 7,317,814 \|- \| Mirtazapine \| TeCA \| 6,308,288 \|- \| Venlafaxine ER \| SNRI \| 5,526,132 \|- \| Bupropion SR \| NDRI \| 4,588,996 \|- \| Desvenlafaxine \| SNRI \| 3,412,354 \|- \| Nortriptyline \| TCA \| 3,210,476 \|- \| Bupropion ER \| NDRI \| 3,132,327 \|- \| Venlafaxine \| SNRI \| 2,980,525 \|- \| Bupropion \| NDRI \| 753,516 \|} Netherlands: In the Netherlands, paroxetine is the most prescribed antidepressant, followed by amitriptyline, citalopram and venlafaxine.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?schermtabellenFrameSet&infoTypeg&tabel01-basis&itemN06AB\|titleGIPdatabank\|publisherGipdatabank.nl\|access-date6 November 2008\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?schermtabellenFrameSet&infoTypeg&tabel01-basis&itemN06AB\|archive-date6 December 2008}}</ref>Adherence {{Main\|Adherence (medicine)}} {{As of\|2003}}, worldwide, 30% to 60% of people did not follow their practitioner's instructions about taking their antidepressants,<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.who.int/chp/knowledge/publications/adherence_full_report.pdf?ua1\|titleAdherence to Long Term Therapies: Evidence for Action\|date2003\|publisherWorld Health Organization}}</ref> and {{As of\|2013\|lcy}} in the US, it appeared that around 50% of people did not take their antidepressants as directed by their practitioner.<ref name"Kaplan-2013">{{cite journal\|vauthorsKaplan JE, Keeley RD, Engel M, Emsermann C, Brody D\|titleAspects of patient and clinician language predict adherence to antidepressant medication\|journalJournal of the American Board of Family Medicine\|volume26\|issue4\|pages409–420\|dateJuly 2013\|pmid23833156\|doi10.3122/jabfm.2013.04.120201\|doi-access=free}}</ref> When people fail to take their antidepressants, there is a greater risk that the drug will not help, that symptoms get worse, that they miss work or are less productive at work, and that the person may be hospitalized.<ref name"Ho2016">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHo SC, Chong HY, Chaiyakunapruk N, Tangiisuran B, Jacob SA\|titleClinical and economic impact of non-adherence to antidepressants in major depressive disorder: A systematic review\|journalJournal of Affective Disorders\|volume193\|pages1–10\|dateMarch 2016\|pmid26748881\|doi10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.029}}</ref>Social science perspectiveSome academics{{Who\|dateMarch 2023}} have highlighted the need to examine the use of antidepressants and other medical treatments in cross-cultural terms, because various cultures prescribe and observe different manifestations, symptoms, meanings, and associations of depression and other medical conditions within their populations.<ref name"Ecks_2005">{{cite journal\|authorEcks S\|s2cid23046695\|titlePharmaceutical Citizenship: Antidepressant Marketing and the Promise of Demarginalization in India\|journalAnthropology & Medicine\|year2005\|volume12\|issue3\|pages239–254\|doi10.1080/13648470500291360\|pmid26873669}}</ref><ref name"Lock_2010">{{cite book\|vauthorsLock M, Nguyen VK\|titleAn anthropology of biomedicine\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/anthropologybiom00lock\|url-accesslimited\|date2010\|publisherWiley-Blackwell\|locationChichester, West Sussex\|isbn978-1-4051-1071-6\|edition1st\|chapter"Local Biologies and Human Difference\|pages[https://archive.org/details/anthropologybiom00lock/page/n97 83]–109}}</ref> These cross-cultural discrepancies, it has been argued, then have implications on the perceived efficacy and use of antidepressants and other strategies in the treatment of depression in these different cultures.<ref name"Ecks_2005" /><ref name"Lock_2010" /> In India, antidepressants are largely seen as tools to combat marginality, promising the individual the ability to reintegrate into society through their use—a view and association not observed in the West.<ref name"Ecks_2005" /> Environmental impacts Because most antidepressants function by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine<ref name"pmid17690258">{{cite journal\|vauthorsZhou Z, Zhen J, Karpowich NK, Goetz RM, Law CJ, Reith ME, Wang DN\|titleLeuT-desipramine structure reveals how antidepressants block neurotransmitter reuptake\|journalScience\|volume317\|issue5843\|pages1390–3\|year2007\|pmid17690258\|pmc3711652\|doi10.1126/science.1147614\|bibcode2007Sci...317.1390Z}}</ref> these drugs can interfere with natural neurotransmitter levels in other organisms impacted by indirect exposure.<ref>{{cite book\|veditorsDaughton CG, Jones-Lepp TJ\|titlePharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: scientific and regulatory issues\|year2001\|publisherAmerican Chemical Society\|locationWashington, DC\|isbn978-0-8412-3739-1\|chapterAntidepressants in Aquatic Organisms: A Wide Range of Effects\|authorFong PP\|pages264–281}}</ref> Antidepressants fluoxetine and sertraline have been detected in aquatic organisms residing in effluent-dominated streams.<ref name"pmid15720009">{{cite journal\|vauthorsBrooks BW, Chambliss CK, Stanley JK, Ramirez A, Banks KE, Johnson RD, Lewis RJ\|titleDetermination of select antidepressants in fish from an effluent-dominated stream\|journalEnviron. Toxicol. Chem.\|volume24\|issue2\|pages464–9\|year2005\|pmid15720009\|doi10.1897/04-081r.1\|bibcode2005EnvTC..24..464B \|s2cid27420248}}</ref> The presence of antidepressants in surface waters and aquatic organisms has caused concern because ecotoxicological effects on aquatic organisms due to fluoxetine exposure have been demonstrated.<ref name"pmid16257063">{{cite journal\|vauthorsFent K, Weston AA, Caminada D\|titleEcotoxicology of human pharmaceuticals\|journalAquat. Toxicol.\|volume76\|issue2\|pages122–59\|year2006\|pmid16257063\|doi10.1016/j.aquatox.2005.09.009\|bibcode2006AqTox..76..122F}}</ref> Coral reef fish have been demonstrated to modulate aggressive behavior through serotonin.<ref>{{cite journal\|vauthorsWinberg S, Carter CG, McCarthy JD, He XY, Nilsson GE, Houlihan DF\|titleFeeding rank and brain serotonergic activity in rainbow trout Onchorhynchus my kiss\|journalJ. Exp. Biol.\|volume179\|year1993\|issue1 \|pages197–211\|doi10.1242/jeb.179.1.197\|bibcode1993JExpB.179..197W }}</ref> Artificially increasing serotonin levels in crustaceans can temporarily reverse social status and turn subordinates into aggressive and territorial dominant males.<ref name"pmid9159179">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHuber R, Smith K, Delago A, Isaksson K, Kravitz EA\|titleSerotonin and aggressive motivation in crustaceans: altering the decision to retreat\|journalProc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.\|volume94\|issue11\|pages5939–42\|year1997\|pmid9159179\|pmc20885\|doi10.1073/pnas.94.11.5939\|bibcode1997PNAS...94.5939H\|doi-accessfree}}</ref> Exposure to Fluoxetine has been demonstrated to increase serotonergic activity in fish, subsequently reducing aggressive behavior.<ref name"pmid12954414">{{cite journal\|vauthorsPerreault HA, Semsar K, Godwin J\|s2cid39464936\|titleFluoxetine treatment decreases territorial aggression in a coral reef fish\|journalPhysiol. Behav.\|volume79\|issue4–5\|pages719–24\|year2003\|pmid12954414\|doi10.1016/S0031-9384(03)00211-7}}</ref> Perinatal exposure to Fluoxetine at relevant environmental concentrations has been shown to lead to significant modifications of memory processing in 1-month-old cuttlefish.<ref name"pmid23474317">{{cite journal\|vauthorsDi Poi C, Darmaillacq AS, Dickel L, Boulouard M, Bellanger C\|titleEffects of perinatal exposure to waterborne Fluoxetine on memory processing in the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis\|journalAquat. Toxicol.\|volume132–133\|pages84–91\|year2013\|pmid23474317\|doi10.1016/j.aquatox.2013.02.004\|bibcode2013AqTox.132...84D}}</ref> This impairment may disadvantage cuttlefish and decrease their survival. Somewhat less than 10% of orally administered Fluoxetine is excreted from humans unchanged or as glucuronide.<ref name"pmid10674711">{{cite journal\|vauthorsHiemke C, Härtter S\|titlePharmacokinetics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors\|journalPharmacology & Therapeutics\|volume85\|issue1\|pages11–28\|dateJanuary 2000\|pmid10674711\|doi10.1016/s0163-7258(99)00048-0\|urlhttp://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biochem/Chm_357/Articles/SSRIs.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140523225824/http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biochem/Chm_357/Articles/SSRIs.pdf\|archive-date23 May 2014}}</ref><ref name"pmid17160491">{{cite journal\|vauthorsNentwig G\|titleEffects of pharmaceuticals on aquatic invertebrates. Part II: the antidepressant drug Fluoxetine\|journalArchives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology\|volume52\|issue2\|pages163–170\|dateFebruary 2007\|pmid17160491\|doi10.1007/s00244-005-7190-7\|bibcode2007ArECT..52..163N\|s2cid22309647}}</ref> See also {{Commons category\|Antidepressants}} Antidepressants in Japan * Atypical antidepressant * Depression and natural therapies * Depression in childhood and adolescence * List of investigational antidepressants * Management of depression References {{Reflist}} Further reading * {{cite book\|vauthorsStahl SM\|titlePsychopharmacology of Antidepressants\|publisherInforma Healthcare\|year1997\|isbn978-1-85317-513-8}}External links {{Wiktionary\|antidepressant}} *{{Commons category-inline\|Antidepressants}} {{See also for drug classes defined by psychological effects\|Antidepressants}} {{Antidepressants}} {{Major drug groups}} {{Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs}} {{Authority control}} Category:Anaphrodisia Category:Major depressive disorder Category:Drug classes defined by psychological effects	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antidepressant	2025-04-05T18:26:03.135795
2389	Auger effect	thumb\|340px\|Two views of the Auger process. (a) illustrates sequentially the steps involved in Auger deexcitation. An incident electron (or photon) creates a core hole in the 1s level. An electron from the 2s level fills in the 1s hole and the transition energy is imparted to a 2p electron which is emitted. The final atomic state thus has two holes, one in the 2s orbital and the other in the 2p orbital. (b) illustrates the same process using X-ray notation, KL1L2,3. The Auger effect (; ) or Auger−Meitner effect is a physical phenomenon in which atoms eject electrons. It occurs when an inner-shell vacancy in an atom is filled by an electron, releasing energy that causes the emission of another electron from a different shell of the same atom. When a core electron is removed, leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of energy. For light atoms (Z<12), this energy is most often transferred to a valence electron which is subsequently ejected from the atom. This second ejected electron is called an Auger electron. For heavier atomic nuclei, the release of the energy in the form of an emitted photon becomes gradually more probable. Effect Upon ejection, the kinetic energy of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition into the vacancy and the ionization energy for the electron shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. Auger electron spectroscopy involves the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either X-rays or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons that result as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment. Auger recombination is a similar Auger effect which occurs in semiconductors. An electron and electron hole (electron-hole pair) can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. The reverse effect is known as impact ionization. The Auger effect can impact biological molecules such as DNA. Following the K-shell ionization of the component atoms of DNA, Auger electrons are ejected leading to damage of its sugar-phosphate backbone. Discovery The Auger emission process was observed and published in 1922 by Lise Meitner, an Austrian-Swedish physicist, as a side effect in her competitive search for the nuclear beta electrons with the British physicist Charles Drummond Ellis. The French physicist Pierre Victor Auger independently discovered it in 1923 upon analysis of a Wilson cloud chamber experiment and it became the central part of his PhD work. High-energy X-rays were applied to ionize gas particles and observe photoelectric electrons. The observation of electron tracks that were independent of the frequency of the incident photon suggested a mechanism for electron ionization that was caused from an internal conversion of energy from a radiationless transition. Further investigation, and theoretical work using elementary quantum mechanics and transition rate/transition probability calculations, showed that the effect was a radiationless effect more than an internal conversion effect. See also Auger therapy Charge carrier generation and recombination Characteristic X-ray Coster–Kronig transition Electron capture Radiative Auger effect References Category:Atomic physics Category:Foundational quantum physics Category:Electron spectroscopy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auger_effect	2025-04-05T18:26:03.162520
2391	Akio Morita	{{Short description\|Japanese entrepreneur (1921–1999)}} {{Eastern name order\|Morita Akio}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=May 2024}} {{Infobox person \| name = Akio Morita \| honorific_suffix = Senior Third Rank \| image = Morita Akio.jpg \| caption = Morita in 1965 \| native_name = {{nobold\|盛田昭夫}} \| native_name_lang = ja \| birth_date {{Birth date\|1921\|01\|26\|mfy}} \| birth_name \| birth_place Nagoya, Empire of Japan \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1999\|10\|03\|1921\|01\|26\|mfy}} \| death_place = Tokyo, Japan \| spouse = Yoshiko Kamei \| children = 3 \| known_for = Co-founder of Sony \| education = Osaka University \| awards = Albert Medal (1982) }} {{nihongo\|Akio Morita\|盛田昭夫\|Morita Akio\|extraJanuary 26, 1921 – October 3, 1999}} was a Japanese entrepreneur and co-founder of Sony along with Masaru Ibuka.Early lifeAkio Morita was born in Nagoya.<ref>[http://www.akiomorita.net/en/profile/life.html Chronology] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180211214320/http://www.akiomorita.net/en/profile/life.html \|dateFebruary 11, 2018}} About Akio Morita, Akio Morita Library</ref> Morita's family was involved in sake, miso and soy sauce production in the village of Kosugaya (currently a part of Tokoname City) on the western coast of Chita Peninsula in Aichi Prefecture since 1665. He was the oldest of four siblings and his father Kyuzaemon trained him as a child to take over the family business. Akio, however, found his true calling in mathematics and physics, and in 1944 he graduated from Osaka Imperial University with a degree in physics. He was later commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and served in World War II. During his service, Morita met his future business partner Masaru Ibuka at a study group for developing infrared-guided bombs (Ke-Go) in the Navy's Wartime Research Committee.SonyIn September 1945, Ibuka founded a radio repair shop in the bombed out Shirokiya Department Store in Nihonbashi, Tokyo.<ref namechap1/><ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.akiomorita.net/en/profile/life.html \| titleChronology – About Akio Morita – Akio Morita Library \| access-dateApril 25, 2011 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180211214320/http://www.akiomorita.net/en/profile/life.html \| archive-dateFebruary 11, 2018 \| url-statusdead }}</ref> Morita saw a newspaper article about Ibuka's new venture and, after some correspondence, chose to join him in Tokyo. With funding from Morita's father, they co-founded Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, the forerunner of Sony Corporation) in 1946 with about 20 employees and initial capital of ¥190,000.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press_Archive/199801/ibuka-e.html\|titleSony Global – Press Release – Masaru Ibuka 1908–1997\|websitewww.sony.net\|access-dateMay 6, 2017\|archive-dateMay 4, 2006\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060504010811/https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/News/Press_Archive/199801/ibuka-e.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref namechap1>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/1-01.html\|titleSony Global – Sony History Chapter 1 Rebuilding from the Ashes\|websitewww.sony.net\|languageen\|access-dateJune 21, 2017\|archive-dateJanuary 22, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210122131354/https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/1-01.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1949, the company developed magnetic recording tape and, in 1950, sold the first tape recorder in Japan. Ibuka was instrumental in securing the licensing of transistor technology from Bell Labs to Sony in the 1950s,<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.goldmercury.org/leadership/masaru-ibuka/\|titleMasaru Ibuka\|workGold Mercury International\|access-dateJune 21, 2017\|languageen-GB\|archive-dateDecember 3, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181203164404/http://www.goldmercury.org/leadership/masaru-ibuka/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> thus making Sony one of the first companies to apply transistor technology to non-military uses.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://prezi.com/opzltzlkth1y/masaru-ibuka/\|titleMasaru Ibuka\|websiteprezi.com\|languageen\|access-dateJune 21, 2017\|archive-dateJuly 8, 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180708162358/https://prezi.com/opzltzlkth1y/masaru-ibuka/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1957, the company produced a pocket-sized radio (the first to be fully transistorized), and in 1958, Morita and Ibuka decided to rename their company Sony (derived from "sonus"—Latin for "sound"—and "sonny", a then-common American expression).<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Akio_Morita \|titleAkio Morita \|workIEEE Global History Network \|publisherIEEE \|access-dateJuly 21, 2011 \|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110926015942/http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Akio_Morita \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Morita was an advocate for all the products made by Sony. However, since the radio was slightly too big to fit in a shirt pocket, Morita made his employees wear shirts with slightly larger pockets to give the radio a "pocket sized" appearance. to Sao Paulo governor Laudo Natel in 1972.]] Morita founded Sony Corporation of America (SONAM, currently abbreviated as SCA) in 1960.<ref name"Nobuo">{{cite news\|titlePioneering firm upsets Japan hiring: Pattern broken\|authorNobuo Abiko\|workThe Christian Science Monitor\|dateMarch 26, 1966\|page14}}</ref> In the process, he was struck by the mobility of employees between American companies, which was unheard of in Japan at that time.<ref name"Nobuo" /> When he returned to Japan, he encouraged experienced, middle-aged employees of other companies to reevaluate their careers and consider joining Sony.<ref name"Nobuo" /> The company filled many positions in this manner, and inspired other Japanese companies to do the same.<ref name="Nobuo" /> In 1961, Sony Corporation was the first Japanese company to be listed on the New York Stock Exchange, in the form of American depositary receipts (ADRs). In March 1968, Morita set up a joint venture in Japan between Sony and CBS Records, with him as president, to manufacture "software" for Sony's hardware.<ref namechap22>{{cite web\|titleSony History Chapter 22 CBS/Sony Records is Established in First Round of Capital Deregulation\|urlhttps://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-22.html\|websitewww.sony.net\|access-dateMay 7, 2020\|archive-dateSeptember 21, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200921011042/https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-22.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Morita became president of Sony in 1971,<ref namevar>{{cite magazine\|magazineDaily Variety\|page3\|dateOctober 4, 1999\|titleSony co-founder Morita dies}}</ref> taking over from Ibuka who had served from 1950 to 1971.<ref name":0">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/20/business/masaru-ibuka-89-engineer-and-sony-co-founder-dies.html\|titleMasaru Ibuka, 89, Engineer And Sony Co-Founder, Dies\|lastSterngold\|firstJames\|dateDecember 20, 1997\|workThe New York Times\|access-dateFebruary 13, 2019\|languageen-US\|issn0362-4331\|archive-dateMarch 28, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230328193245/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/20/business/masaru-ibuka-89-engineer-and-sony-co-founder-dies.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1975, Sony released the first Betamax home videocassette recorder, a year before the VHS format came out. Ibuka retired in 1976<ref name":0" /> and Morita was named chairman of the company.<ref namevar/> In 1979, the Walkman was introduced, making it one of the world's first portable music players and in 1982, Sony launched the world's first compact disc player, the Sony CDP-101, with a compact disc (CD) itself, a new data storage format Sony and Philips co-developed.<ref>{{Cite web\|titlePhotos: The history of the digital camera\|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/photos-the-history-of-the-digital-camera/\|lastTrenholm\|firstRichard\|websiteCNET\|languageen\|access-dateApril 30, 2020\|archive-dateOctober 16, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201016091943/https://www.cnet.com/news/photos-the-history-of-the-digital-camera/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In that year, a 3.5-inch floppy disk structure was introduced by Sony, and it soon became the defacto standard. In 1984, Sony launched the Discman series, which extended their Walkman brand to portable CD products. Under the vision of Morita,<ref name"Fackler">{{cite news\|authorFackler, Martin\|titleCutting Sony, a Corporate Octopus, Back to a Rational Size\|workThe New York Times\|pageC.1\|dateMay 29, 2006}}</ref> the company aggressively expanded into new businesses.<ref name"Christian" /> Part of its motivation for doing so was the pursuit of "convergence", linking film, music and digital electronics.<ref name"Christian">{{cite news\|last1Caryl\|first1Christian\|last2Takayama\|first2Hideko\|last3Itoi\|first3Kay\|last4Wehrfritz\|first4George\|last5Sparks\|first5John\|last6Hastings\|first6Michael\|titleSony is Not Japan; the Appointment of a Foreign CEO is a Sign of how Far the Iconic Company has Fallen in the Japanese Corporate Elite\|workNewsweek\|dateMarch 21, 2005\|pages30–}}</ref> Twenty years after setting up a joint venture with CBS Records in Japan, Sony bought CBS Records Group<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-11-19-fi-22750-story.html \| workLos Angeles Times \| first1Paul \| last1Richter \| first2William K. \| last2Knoedeiseder Jr \| titleSony Buys CBS Record Division for $2 Billion After Months of Talks \| dateNovember 19, 1987 \| archive-dateOctober 15, 2016 \| access-dateAugust 14, 2024 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161015214717/http://articles.latimes.com/1987-11-19/business/fi-22750_1_cbs-records \| url-statuslive }}</ref> which consisted of Columbia Records, Epic Records and other CBS labels. In 1989, they acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment (Columbia Pictures, TriStar Pictures and others).<ref name=chap22/> Norio Ohga, who had joined the company in the 1950s after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders, succeeded Morita as chief executive officer in 1989.<ref namestonybrook>{{cite web\|urlhttps://stonybrook.digication.com/navaldeep_singh/Investigate_and_Analyze_the_company_s_History_and_\|titleDigication e-Portfolio :: Navaldeep Singh :: Investigate and Analyze the company's History and Growth\|websitestonybrook.digication.com\|languageen\|access-dateJune 4, 2017\|archive-dateOctober 25, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201025232223/https://stonybrook.digication.com/navaldeep_singh/Investigate_and_Analyze_the_company_s_History_and_\|url-status=live}}</ref> Morita suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1993 while playing tennis<ref namevar/> and on November 25, 1994, stepped down as Sony chairman to be succeeded by Ohga.Other affiliationsMorita was vice chairman of the Japan Business Federation (Japan Federation of Economic Organizations), and was a member of the Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group, also known as the "Wise Men's Group". He helped General Motors with its acquisition of an interest in Isuzu in 1972.<ref namevar/> He was the third Japanese chairman of the Trilateral Commission. His amateur radio call sign is JP1DPJ. Publications In 1966, Morita wrote a book called Gakureki Muyō Ron (学歴無用論, Never Mind School Records), where he stresses that school records are not important to success or one's business skills. In 1986, Morita wrote an autobiography titled Made in Japan. He co-authored the 1991 book The Japan That Can Say No with politician Shintaro Ishihara, where they criticized American business practices and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs. (Actually, Morita had no intention to criticize American practices at that time.) The book was translated into English and caused controversy in the United States, and Morita later had his chapters removed from the English version and distanced himself from the book.<ref>City Mayors [http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/tokyo_mayor.html Shintaro Ishihara Governor of Tokyo 7 September 2012] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160501033232/http://www.citymayors.com/mayors/tokyo_mayor.html \|dateMay 1, 2016 }} Retrieved on September 22, 2012</ref> Awards and honours In 1972, Morita received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.<ref>{{cite web\|titleGolden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement\|websitewww.achievement.org\|publisherAmerican Academy of Achievement\|urlhttps://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#business\|access-dateJuly 27, 2020\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2023\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326032022/https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#business\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Morita was awarded the Albert Medal by the United Kingdom's Royal Society of Arts in 1982, the first Japanese to receive the honor. Two years later, he received the prestigious Legion of Honour, and in 1991, was awarded the First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure from the Emperor of Japan. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1992 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAPS Member History \|urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorAkio+Morita&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced \|access-dateMarch 31, 2022 \|websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleAkio Morita \|urlhttps://www.amacad.org/person/akio-morita \|access-dateMarch 31, 2022 \|websiteAmerican Academy of Arts & Sciences\|languageen}}</ref> That same year, he was awarded an honorary British knighthood (KBE). Morita received the International Distinguished Entrepreneur Award from the University of Manitoba in 1987. In 1998, he was the only Asian person on Time magazine's list of the 20 most influential business people of the 20th century as part of their Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century.<ref>{{cite magazine\|magazineTime\|urlhttp://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,26473,00.html\|titleBuilders & Titans\|dateDecember 7, 1998\|access-dateAugust 9, 2020\|archive-dateMay 23, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160523112333/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,26473,00.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> He was posthumously awarded the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun in 1999. In 2003, Anaheim University's Graduate School of Business was renamed the Akio Morita School of Business in his honor. The Morita family's support for the program led to the growth of the Anaheim University Akio Morita School of Business in Tokyo, Japan.Television commercialsAmerican Express (1984)<ref>{{cite book \|last1Yochelson \|first1John N. \|titleLoving and Leaving Washington: Reflections on Public Service \|date2016 \|publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press\|isbn9781612348353 \|languageen}}</ref> Death Morita, who loved to play golf and tennis,<ref>[http://www.akiomorita.net/contents/10th/010.html Talk about "Akio Morita"/ Naoyuki Agawa, Professor of Keio University (2001)] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151126201523/http://www.akiomorita.net/contents/10th/010.html \|dateNovember 26, 2015 }} (in Japanese)</ref> suffered a stroke in 1993, during a game of tennis.<ref namevar/> The stroke weakened him and left him in a wheelchair.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleASIANOW – Akio Morita, co-founder of Sony Corp. dies – October 2, 1999 \|urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/east/9910/02/morita.obit/index.html \|access-dateMay 16, 2022 \|websiteCNN \|archive-dateNovember 12, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231112065358/http://edition.cnn.com/ASIANOW/east/9910/02/morita.obit/index.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> On November 25, 1994, he stepped down as Sony chairman. On October 3, 1999, Morita died of pneumonia at the age of 78 in a Tokyo hospital, where he had been admitted since August 1999.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPollack \|firstAndrew \|dateOctober 4, 1999 \|titleAkio Morita, Co-Founder of Sony and Japanese Business Leader, Dies at 78 \|languageen-US \|workNew York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/04/business/akio-morita-co-founder-of-sony-and-japanese-business-leader-dies-at-78.html \|access-dateMay 16, 2022 \|issn0362-4331 \|archive-dateMay 16, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220516134546/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/04/business/akio-morita-co-founder-of-sony-and-japanese-business-leader-dies-at-78.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> References {{reflist}} Further reading Morita, Akio. Made in Japan Dutton, 1986 {{ISBN\|0-451-15171-2}} * Morita, Akio. Never Mind School Records (1966) {{ISBN\|4-02-260415-8}} in Japanese * Morita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. The Japan That Can Say No Simon & Schuster, 1991 {{ISBN\|0-671-75853-5}}, {{ISBN\|4-334-05158-8}} in Japanese External links {{Wikiquote-inline}} {{Commons-inline\|Sony}} [https://akiomorita.com/en/ Akio Morita Library] [https://web.archive.org/web/20080306071650/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,989790,00.html Time magazine, AKIO MORITA: Guru Of Gadgets] [https://web.archive.org/web/20010128213800/http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/morita1.html Time Asia, Time 100: Akio Morita] [http://www.sony.com/SCA/press/morita_bio.shtml Sony Biographical notes] [https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/addlbios/morita.html PBS notes] [https://biography.yourdictionary.com/akio-morita Akio Morita Facts] {{s-start}} {{s-bus}} {{s-bef\|before=Masaru Ibuka}} {{s-ttl\|titleChairman of Sony\|years 1976–1994}} {{s-aft\|after= Norio Ohga}} {{s-end}} {{Sony Corp}} {{IEEE Founders Medal}} {{Asian of the Century}} {{International Emmy Directorate Award}} {{Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century}} {{Authority control}} {{Portal bar\|Japan\|Biography\|History\|Business}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Morita, Akio}} Category:1921 births Category:1999 deaths Category:Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:20th-century Japanese businesspeople Category:Japanese company founders Category:Imperial Japanese Navy personnel of World War II Category:Recipients of the Legion of Honour Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Treasure Category:People from Nagoya Category:Businesspeople from Tokyo Category:Sony people Category:Osaka University alumni Category:International Emmy Directorate Award Category:Imperial Japanese Navy officers Category:Japanese industrialists Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Japan Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akio_Morita	2025-04-05T18:26:03.193943
2392	Anode	{{short description\|Electrode through which conventional current flows into a polarized electrical device}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2025}} anode in a galvanic cell. Note how electrons move out of the cell, and the conventional current moves into it in the opposite direction.]] An anode usually is an electrode of a polarized electrical device through which conventional current enters the device. This contrasts with a cathode, which is usually an electrode of the device through which conventional current leaves the device. A common mnemonic is ACID, for "anode current into device".<ref>{{cite web \|lastDenker \|firstJohn \|date2004 \|urlhttp://www.av8n.com/physics/anode-cathode.htm#sec-def \|titleHow to Define Anode and Cathode \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060328234449/http://www.av8n.com/physics/anode-cathode.htm \|archive-date28 March 2006 \|websiteav8n.com}}</ref> The direction of conventional current (the flow of positive charges) in a circuit is opposite to the direction of electron flow, so (negatively charged) electrons flow from the anode of a galvanic cell, into an outside or external circuit connected to the cell. For example, the end of a household battery marked with a "+" is the cathode (while discharging). In both a galvanic cell and an electrolytic cell, the anode is the electrode at which the oxidation reaction occurs. In a galvanic cell the anode is the wire or plate having excess negative charge as a result of the oxidation reaction. In an electrolytic cell, the anode is the wire or plate upon which excess positive charge is imposed.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleChemistry \|last1Pauling \|first1Linus \|date1975 \|publisherW. H. Freeman \|last2Pauling \|first2Peter \|isbn978-0716701767 \|locationSan Francisco \|oclc1307272 \|url-accessregistration \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/chemistry00paulrich }}</ref> As a result of this, anions will tend to move towards the anode where they will undergo oxidation. Historically, the anode of a galvanic cell was also known as the zincode because it was usually composed of zinc.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleZincode definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary\|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/zincode\|access-date2021-06-11\|websitecollinsdictionary.com\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref name"Ross 1961">{{cite journal\|authorRoss, S\|titleFaraday Consults the Scholars: The Origins of the Terms of Electrochemistry\|journalNotes and Records of the Royal Society of London\|volume 16\|issue2\|year 1961\|pages187–220\|doi10.1098/rsnr.1961.0038\|s2cid145600326}}</ref>{{rp\|pg. 209, 214}}Charge flow The terms anode and cathode are not defined by the voltage polarity of electrodes, but are usually defined by the direction of current through the electrode. An anode usually is the electrode of a device through which conventional current (positive charge) flows into the device from an external circuit, while a cathode usually is the electrode through which conventional current flows out of the device. In general, if the current through the electrodes reverses direction, as occurs for example in a rechargeable battery when it is being charged, the roles of the electrodes as anode and cathode are reversed.<ref name"Inside a Tube">{{cite web \|titleInside a Tube \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101007201649/http://pentalabs.com/tubeworks.html#INSIDE \|publisherPenta Labs \|access-date31 December 2024}}</ref> However, the definition of anode and cathode is different for electrical devices such as diodes and vacuum tubes where the electrode naming is fixed and does not depend on the actual charge flow (current). These devices usually allow substantial current flow in one direction but negligible current in the other direction. Therefore, the electrodes are named based on the direction of this "forward" current. In a diode the anode is the terminal through which current enters and the cathode is the terminal through which current leaves, when the diode is forward biased. The names of the electrodes do not change in cases where reverse current flows through the device. Similarly, in a vacuum tube only one electrode can thermionically emit electrons into the evacuated tube, so electrons can only enter the device from the external circuit through the heated electrode. Therefore, this electrode is permanently named the cathode, and the electrode through which the electrons exit the tube is named the anode.<ref name"Inside a Tube"/> Conventional current depends not only on the direction the charge carriers move, but also the carriers' electric charge. The currents outside the device are usually carried by electrons in a metal conductor. Since electrons have a negative charge, the direction of electron flow is opposite to the direction of conventional current. Consequently, electrons leave the device through the anode and enter the device through the cathode.<ref name"Inside a Tube"/>Examples during discharge and charge.]] The polarity of voltage on an anode with respect to an associated cathode varies depending on the device type and on its operating mode. In the following examples, the anode is negative in a device that provides power, and positive in a device that consumes power: In a discharging battery or galvanic cell (diagram on left), the anode is the negative terminal: it is where conventional current flows into the cell. This inward current is carried externally by electrons moving outwards.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2024}} In a recharging battery, or an electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive terminal imposed by an external source of potential difference. The current through a recharging battery is opposite to the direction of current during discharge; in other words, the electrode which was the cathode during battery discharge becomes the anode while the battery is recharging.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2024}} In battery engineering, it is common to designate one electrode of a rechargeable battery the anode and the other the cathode according to the roles the electrodes play when the battery is discharged. This is despite the fact that the roles are reversed when the battery is charged. When this is done, "anode" simply designates the negative terminal of the battery and "cathode" designates the positive terminal. In a diode, the anode is the terminal represented by the tail of the arrow symbol (flat side of the triangle), where conventional current flows into the device. Note the electrode naming for diodes is always based on the direction of the forward current (that of the arrow, in which the current flows "most easily"), even for types such as Zener diodes or solar cells where the current of interest is the reverse current.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2024}} In vacuum tubes or gas-filled tubes, the anode is the terminal where current enters the tube.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}EtymologyThe word was coined in 1834 from the Greek ἄνοδος (anodos), 'ascent', by William Whewell, who had been consulted<ref name"Ross 1961" /> by Michael Faraday over some new names needed to complete a paper on the recently discovered process of electrolysis. In that paper Faraday explained that when an electrolytic cell is oriented so that electric current traverses the "decomposing body" (electrolyte) in a direction "from East to West, or, which will strengthen this help to the memory, that in which the sun appears to move", the anode is where the current enters the electrolyte, on the East side: "ano upwards, odos a way; the way which the sun rises".<ref>{{cite journal\|authorFaraday, Michael\|titleExperimental Researches in Electricity. Seventh Series\|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14986\|journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society\|volume124\|issue1\|dateJanuary 1834\|page77\|doi10.1098/rstl.1834.0008\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171209152633/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14986\|archive-date9 December 2017\|bibcode1834RSPT..124...77F\|s2cid116224057}} in which Faraday introduces the words electrode, anode, cathode, anion, cation, electrolyte, electrolyze</ref><ref>{{cite book\|authorFaraday, Michael\|titleExperimental Researches in Electricity\|volume1\|year1849\|publisherTaylor\|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14986\|hdl2027/uc1.b4484853\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171209152633/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14986\|archive-date9 December 2017}} Reprint</ref> The use of 'East' to mean the 'in' direction (actually 'in' → 'East' → 'sunrise' → 'up') may appear contrived. Previously, as related in the first reference cited above, Faraday had used the more straightforward term "eisode" (the doorway where the current enters). His motivation for changing it to something meaning 'the East electrode' (other candidates had been "eastode", "oriode" and "anatolode") was to make it immune to a possible later change in the direction convention for current, whose exact nature was not known at the time. The reference he used to this effect was the Earth's magnetic field direction, which at that time was believed to be invariant. He fundamentally defined his arbitrary orientation for the cell as being that in which the internal current would run parallel to and in the same direction as a hypothetical magnetizing current loop around the local line of latitude which would induce a magnetic dipole field oriented like the Earth's. This made the internal current East to West as previously mentioned, but in the event of a later convention change it would have become West to East, so that the East electrode would not have been the 'way in' any more. Therefore, "eisode" would have become inappropriate, whereas "anode" meaning 'East electrode' would have remained correct with respect to the unchanged direction of the actual phenomenon underlying the current, then unknown but, he thought, unambiguously defined by the magnetic reference. In retrospect the name change was unfortunate, not only because the Greek roots alone do not reveal the anode's function any more, but more importantly because as we now know, the Earth's magnetic field direction on which the "anode" term is based is subject to reversals whereas the current direction convention on which the "eisode" term was based has no reason to change in the future.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2024}} Since the later discovery of the electron, an easier to remember and more durably correct technically although historically false, etymology has been suggested: anode, from the Greek anodos, 'way up', 'the way (up) out of the cell (or other device) for electrons'.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}Electrolytic anodeIn electrochemistry, the anode is where oxidation occurs and is the positive polarity contact in an electrolytic cell.<ref>{{cite book \|publisherBlackwell Scientific Publications \|titleIUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology \|edition2nd \|last1McNaught \|first1A. D. \|last2Wilkinson \|first2A. \|placeOxford \|year1997 \|isbn978-0-9678550-9-7 \|doi10.1351/goldbook.A00370}}</ref> At the anode, anions (negative ions) are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit. Mnemonics: LEO Red Cat (Loss of Electrons is Oxidation, Reduction occurs at the Cathode), or AnOx Red Cat (Anode Oxidation, Reduction Cathode), or OIL RIG (Oxidation is Loss, Reduction is Gain of electrons), or Roman Catholic and Orthodox (Reduction – Cathode, anode – Oxidation), or LEO the lion says GER (Losing electrons is Oxidation, Gaining electrons is Reduction). This process is widely used in metals refining. For example, in copper refining, copper anodes, an intermediate product from the furnaces, are electrolysed in an appropriate solution (such as sulfuric acid) to yield high purity (99.99%) cathodes. Copper cathodes produced using this method are also described as electrolytic copper. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen.<ref name"Faraday1849">{{cite book \|lastFaraday \|firstMichael \|year1849 \|titleExperimental Researches in Electricity \|volume1 \|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/14986/14986-h/14986-h.htm \|locationLondon \|publisherUniversity of London \|author-linkMichael Faraday}}</ref> They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}Battery or galvanic cell anode In a battery or galvanic cell, the anode is the negative electrode from which electrons flow out towards the external part of the circuit. Internally the positively charged cations are flowing away from the anode (even though it is negative and therefore would be expected to attract them, this is due to electrode potential relative to the electrolyte solution being different for the anode and cathode metal/electrolyte systems); but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential as would be expected. ]] Battery manufacturers may regard the negative electrode as the anode,<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhat is the anode, cathode and electrolyte? \|urlhttps://www.duracell.co.uk/help/ \|websiteDuracell Frequently Asked Questions page \|access-date24 October 2020}}</ref> particularly in their technical literature. Though from an electrochemical viewpoint incorrect, it does resolve the problem of which electrode is the anode in a secondary (or rechargeable) cell. Using the traditional definition, the anode switches ends between charge and discharge cycles.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.biologic.net/topics/anode-cathode-positive-and-negative-battery-basics/ \|titleAnode vs Cathode: What’s the difference? \|author<!--Not stated--> \|date2023-10-10 \|websiteBioLogic \|access-date2024-04-11 }}</ref> Vacuum tube anode In electronic vacuum devices such as a cathode-ray tube, the anode is the positively charged electron collector. In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. It also accelerates the flow of these electrons.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}Diode anodeIn a semiconductor diode, the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies holes to the junction. In the junction region, the holes supplied by the anode combine with electrons supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone. As the P-doped layer supplies holes to the depleted region, negative dopant ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions). This creates a base negative charge on the anode. When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more holes are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit. The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a Zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}} Sacrificial anode {{main\|Sacrificial anode}} s mounted "on the fly" for corrosion protection of a metal structure]] In cathodic protection, a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment than the metal system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system. As a result, the metal anode partially corrodes or dissolves instead of the metal system. As an example, an iron or steel ship's hull may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded. Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a static charge is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft. Sacrificial anodes are also generally used in tank-type water heaters. In 1824 to reduce the impact of this destructive electrolytic action on ships hulls, their fastenings and underwater equipment, the scientist-engineer Humphry Davy developed the first and still most widely used marine electrolysis protection system. Davy installed sacrificial anodes made from a more electrically reactive (less noble) metal attached to the vessel hull and electrically connected to form a cathodic protection circuit. A less obvious example of this type of protection is the process of galvanising iron. This process coats iron structures (such as fencing) with a coating of zinc metal. As long as the zinc remains intact, the iron is protected from the effects of corrosion. Inevitably, the zinc coating becomes breached, either by cracking or physical damage. Once this occurs, corrosive elements act as an electrolyte and the zinc/iron combination as electrodes. The resultant current ensures that the zinc coating is sacrificed but that the base iron does not corrode. Such a coating can protect an iron structure for a few decades, but once the protecting coating is consumed, the iron rapidly corrodes.{{Citation needed\|date=February 2024}} If, conversely, tin is used to coat steel, when a breach of the coating occurs it actually accelerates oxidation of the iron.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}}Impressed current anodeAnother cathodic protection is used on the impressed current anode.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.corroprotec.com/faq/what-is-an-impressed-current-anode-rod/ \|date16 January 2020 \|titleImpressed Current Protection Anodes – Specialist Castings}}</ref> It is made from titanium and covered with mixed metal oxide. Unlike the sacrificial anode rod, the impressed current anode does not sacrifice its structure. This technology uses an external current provided by a DC source to create the cathodic protection.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.corrosionpedia.com/definition/2186/impressed-current-anode\|title What is an Impressed Current Anode? – Definition from Corrosionpedia}}</ref> Impressed current anodes are used in larger structures like pipelines, boats, city water tower, water heaters and more.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.corroprotec.com/powered-anode-rod/\|title Powered Anode Rod Advantages &#124; #1 Anode Rod &#124; Corro-Protec\|date 13 March 2019}}</ref>Related antonymThe opposite of an anode is a cathode. When the current through the device is reversed, the electrodes switch functions, so the anode becomes the cathode and the cathode becomes anode, as long as the reversed current is applied. The exception is diodes where electrode naming is always based on the forward current direction.{{Citation needed\|dateFebruary 2024}} {{Clear}} See also * Anodizing * Galvanic anode * Gas-filled tube * Primary cell * Redox (reduction–oxidation) References {{Reflist}} External links * [http://www.av8n.com/physics/anode-cathode.htm How to define anode and cathode] {{Galvanic cells}} {{Authority control}} Category:Electrodes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode	2025-04-05T18:26:03.221411
2393	Analog television	{{Short description\|Television that uses analog signals}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2020}} {{Use American English\|date=August 2020}} Analog television is the original television technology that uses analog signals to transmit video and audio.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/broadcast/guidance/tech-guidance/tv_tech_platform_code.pdf \|titleTelevision Technical Performance Code \|dateDecember 2006 \|publisherOfcom&nbsp;– office of Communications \|access-date24 November 2010 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110704163159/http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/broadcast/guidance/tech-guidance/tv_tech_platform_code.pdf \|archive-date4 July 2011}}</ref> In an analog television broadcast, the brightness, colors and sound are represented by amplitude, phase and frequency of an analog signal. Analog signals vary over a continuous range of possible values which means that electronic noise and interference may be introduced. Thus with analog, a moderately weak signal becomes snowy and subject to interference. In contrast, picture quality from a digital television (DTV) signal remains good until the signal level drops below a threshold where reception is no longer possible or becomes intermittent. Analog television may be wireless (terrestrial television and satellite television) or can be distributed over a cable network as cable television. All broadcast television systems used analog signals before the arrival of DTV. Motivated by the lower bandwidth requirements of compressed digital signals, beginning just after the year 2000, a digital television transition is proceeding in most countries of the world, with different deadlines for the cessation of analog broadcasts. Several countries have made the switch already, with the remaining countries still in progress mostly in Africa, Asia, and South America. Development {{Main\|History of television}} The earliest systems of analog television were mechanical television systems that used spinning disks with patterns of holes punched into the disc to scan an image. A similar disk reconstructed the image at the receiver. Synchronization of the receiver disc rotation was handled through sync pulses broadcast with the image information. Camera systems used similar spinning discs and required intensely bright illumination of the subject for the light detector to work. The reproduced images from these mechanical systems were dim, very low resolution and flickered severely. Analog television did not begin in earnest as an industry until the development of the cathode-ray tube (CRT), which uses a focused electron beam to trace lines across a phosphor coated surface. The electron beam could be swept across the screen much faster than any mechanical disc system, allowing for more closely spaced scan lines and much higher image resolution. Also, far less maintenance was required of an all-electronic system compared to a mechanical spinning disc system. All-electronic systems became popular with households after World War II. Standards {{Further\|Broadcast television systems}} Broadcasters of analog television encode their signal using different systems. The official systems of transmission were defined by the ITU in 1961 as: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, K1, L, M and N.<ref>[http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/act/R-ACT-RRC.1-1961-PDF-E.pdf Final acts of the European Broadcasting Conference in the VHF and UHF bands. Stockholm, 1961.] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130729181525/http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/act/R-ACT-RRC.1-1961-PDF-E.pdf \|date29 July 2013 }}</ref> These systems determine the number of scan lines, frame rate, channel width, video bandwidth, video-audio separation, and so on. A color encoding scheme (NTSC, PAL, or SECAM) could be added to the base monochrome signal.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.thinkbox.tv/server/show/conGlossary.252\|titleTV Technology PAL\|workPublication date unknown\|publisherThinkbox\|access-date24 November 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101205214352/http://thinkbox.tv/server/show/conGlossary.252\|archive-date5 December 2010\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Using RF modulation the signal is then modulated onto a very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high frequency (UHF) carrier wave. Each frame of a television image is composed of scan lines drawn on the screen. The lines are of varying brightness; the whole set of lines is drawn quickly enough that the human eye perceives it as one image. The process repeats and the next sequential frame is displayed, allowing the depiction of motion. The analog television signal contains timing and synchronization information so that the receiver can reconstruct a two-dimensional moving image from a one-dimensional time-varying signal. The first commercial television systems were black-and-white; the beginning of color television was in the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcolortelevision.htm\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120720210830/http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcolortelevision.htm\|url-statusdead\|archive-date20 July 2012\|titleColor Television History\|workPublication date unknown\|publisherAbout.com\|access-date24 November 2010}}</ref> A practical television system needs to take luminance, chrominance (in a color system), synchronization (horizontal and vertical), and audio signals, and broadcast them over a radio transmission. The transmission system must include a means of television channel selection. Analog broadcast television systems come in a variety of frame rates and resolutions. Further differences exist in the frequency and modulation of the audio carrier. The monochrome combinations still existing in the 1950s were standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as capital letters A through N. When color television was introduced, the chrominance information was added to the monochrome signals in a way that black and white televisions ignore. In this way backward compatibility was achieved. There are three standards for the way the additional color information can be encoded and transmitted. The first was the American NTSC system. The European and Australian PAL and the French and former Soviet Union SECAM standards were developed later and attempt to cure certain defects of the NTSC system. PAL's color encoding is similar to the NTSC systems. SECAM, though, uses a different modulation approach than PAL or NTSC. PAL had a late evolution called PALplus, allowing widescreen broadcasts while remaining fully compatible with existing PAL equipment. In principle, all three color encoding systems can be used with any scan line/frame rate combination. Therefore, in order to describe a given signal completely, it is necessary to quote the color system plus the broadcast standard as a capital letter. For example, the United States, Canada, Mexico and South Korea used (or use) NTSC-M,{{efn\|Many of these countries have transitioned or are transitioning to digital}} Japan used NTSC-J,{{efn\|Discontinued in 2012, when Japan transitioned to digital (ISDB)}} the UK used PAL-I,{{efn\|Discontinued in 2012, when UK transitioned to digital (DVB-T)}} France used SECAM-L,{{efn\|Discontinued in 2011, when France transitioned to digital (DVB-T)}} much of Western Europe and Australia used (or use) PAL-B/G,{{efn\|Many of these transitioned or transitioning to DVB-T as digital television standards}} most of Eastern Europe uses SECAM-D/K or PAL-D/K and so on. <!-- "used" means for broadcast, (taped TV on) VHS still retains analog PAL or NTSC, and thus they are still hypothetically still in use" indefinetly, and DVDs still support and output possibly analog. Most though output and input digital only. --> Not all of the possible combinations exist. NTSC is only used with system M, even though there were experiments with NTSC-A (405 line) in the UK and NTSC-N (625 line) in part of South America. PAL is used with a variety of 625-line standards (B, G, D, K, I, N) but also with the North American 525-line standard, accordingly named PAL-M. Likewise, SECAM is used with a variety of 625-line standards. For this reason, many people refer to any 625/25 type signal as PAL and to any 525/30 signal as NTSC, even when referring to digital signals; for example, on DVD-Video, which does not contain any analog color encoding, and thus no PAL or NTSC signals at all. Although a number of different broadcast television systems are in use worldwide, the same principles of operation apply.<ref>{{cite web\| urlhttp://www.paradiso-design.net/TVsystems_worldwide.html\|titleColor subcarrier frequency and TV Standards/TV Systems\|workPublication dates 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 last updated 2005/12/15\|publisherParadiso Design\|access-date24 November 2010}}</ref>Displaying an image ning is performed from left-to-right and top-to-bottom. Once the screen has been scanned, the beam returns to the beginning of the first line.]] A cathode-ray tube (CRT) television displays an image by scanning a beam of electrons across the screen in a pattern of horizontal lines known as a raster. At the end of each line, the beam returns to the start of the next line; at the end of the last line, the beam returns to the beginning of the first line at the top of the screen. As it passes each point, the intensity of the beam is varied, varying the luminance of that point. A color television system is similar except there are three beams that scan together and an additional signal known as chrominance controls the color of the spot. When analog television was developed, no affordable technology for storing video signals existed; the luminance signal had to be generated and transmitted at the same time at which it is displayed on the CRT. It was therefore essential to keep the raster scanning in the camera (or other device for producing the signal) in exact synchronization with the scanning in the television. The physics of the CRT require that a finite time interval be allowed for the spot to move back to the start of the next line (horizontal retrace) or the start of the screen (vertical retrace). The timing of the luminance signal must allow for this. The human eye has a characteristic called phi phenomenon. Quickly displaying successive scan images creates the illusion of smooth motion. Flickering of the image can be partially solved using a long persistence phosphor coating on the CRT so that successive images fade slowly. However, slow phosphor has the negative side-effect of causing image smearing and blurring when there is rapid on-screen motion occurring. The maximum frame rate depends on the bandwidth of the electronics and the transmission system, and the number of horizontal scan lines in the image. A frame rate of 25 or 30 hertz is a satisfactory compromise, while the process of interlacing two video fields of the picture per frame is used to build the image. This process doubles the apparent number of video frames per second and further reduces flicker and other defects in transmission. Receiving signals The television system for each country will specify a number of television channels within the UHF or VHF frequency ranges. A channel actually consists of two signals: the picture information is transmitted using amplitude modulation on one carrier frequency, and the sound is transmitted with frequency modulation at a frequency at a fixed offset (typically 4.5 to 6&nbsp;MHz) from the picture signal. The channel frequencies chosen represent a compromise between allowing enough bandwidth for video (and hence satisfactory picture resolution), and allowing enough channels to be packed into the available frequency band. In practice a technique called vestigial sideband is used to reduce the channel spacing, which would be nearly twice the video bandwidth if pure AM was used. Signal reception is invariably done via a superheterodyne receiver: the first stage is a tuner which selects a television channel and frequency-shifts it to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF). The signal amplifier performs amplification to the IF stages from the microvolt range to fractions of a volt. Extracting the sound At this point the IF signal consists of a video carrier signal at one frequency and the sound carrier at a fixed offset in frequency. A demodulator recovers the video signal. Also at the output of the same demodulator is a new frequency modulated sound carrier at the offset frequency. In some sets made before 1948, this was filtered out, and the sound IF of about 22&nbsp;MHz was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. In newer sets, this new carrier at the offset frequency was allowed to remain as intercarrier sound, and it was sent to an FM demodulator to recover the basic sound signal. One particular advantage of intercarrier sound is that when the front panel fine tuning knob is adjusted, the sound carrier frequency does not change with the tuning, but stays at the above-mentioned offset frequency. Consequently, it is easier to tune the picture without losing the sound. So the FM sound carrier is then demodulated, amplified, and used to drive a loudspeaker. Until the advent of the NICAM and MTS systems, television sound transmissions were monophonic. Structure of a video signal The video carrier is demodulated to give a composite video signal{{efn\|The RF signal modulation is inverted compared to the conventional AM{{snd}}the minimum video signal level corresponds to maximum carrier amplitude, and vice versa.}} containing luminance, chrominance and synchronization signals.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.tek.com/Measurement/App_Notes/25_7075/eng/25W_7075_3.pdf?wt480&wtwi2217&wtlaEN&wttyTI&wtstyPrimer&wtptDETAILS&wtlit25W-7075-3&wtcatsignal+generators&wttiPAL+Video+Measurements\|titlePal systems&nbsp;– Television measurements\|dateSeptember 1999\|publisherTektronics Incorporated\|access-date25 November 2010\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110718081158/http://www.tek.com/Measurement/App_Notes/25_7075/eng/25W_7075_3.pdf?wt480&wtwi2217&wtlaEN&wttyTI&wtstyPrimer&wtptDETAILS&wtlit25W-7075-3&wtcatsignal+generators&wttiPAL+Video+Measurements\|archive-date18 July 2011}}</ref> The result is identical to the composite video format used by analog video devices such as VCRs or CCTV cameras. To ensure good linearity and thus fidelity, consistent with affordable manufacturing costs of transmitters and receivers, the video carrier is never modulated to the extent that it is shut off altogether. When intercarrier sound was introduced later in 1948, not completely shutting off the carrier had the side effect of allowing intercarrier sound to be economically implemented. composite video signal (analog)]] Each line of the displayed image is transmitted using a signal as shown above. The same basic format (with minor differences mainly related to timing and the encoding of color) is used for PAL, NTSC, and SECAM television systems. A monochrome signal is identical to a color one, with the exception that the elements shown in color in the diagram (the colorburst, and the chrominance signal) are not present. , front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with colorburst, and beginning of next line]] The front porch is a brief (about 1.5 microsecond) period inserted between the end of each transmitted line of picture and the leading edge of the next line's sync pulse. Its purpose was to allow voltage levels to stabilise in older televisions, preventing interference between picture lines. The front porch is the first component of the horizontal blanking interval which also contains the horizontal sync pulse and the back porch.<ref name"tveng" /><ref name"analogtv" /><ref name"Maxim">{{cite web \|titleBasics of Analog Video \|urlhttps://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-documents/tutorials/7/734.html \|websitemaximintegrated.com \|publisherMaxim \|access-date21 May 2021}}</ref> The back porch is the portion of each scan line between the end (rising edge) of the horizontal sync pulse and the start of active video. It is used to restore the black level (300&nbsp;mV) reference in analog video. In signal processing terms, it compensates for the fall time and settling time following the sync pulse.<ref name"tveng" /><ref name"analogtv" /> In color television systems such as PAL and NTSC, this period also includes the colorburst signal. In the SECAM system, it contains the reference subcarrier for each consecutive color difference signal in order to set the zero-color reference. In some professional systems, particularly satellite links between locations, the digital audio is embedded within the line sync pulses of the video signal, to save the cost of renting a second channel. The name for this proprietary system is Sound-in-Syncs. Monochrome video signal extraction The luminance component of a composite video signal varies between 0&nbsp;V and approximately 0.7&nbsp;V above the black level. In the NTSC system, there is a blanking signal level used during the front porch and back porch, and a black signal level 75&nbsp;mV above it; in PAL and SECAM these are identical. In a monochrome receiver, the luminance signal is amplified to drive the control grid in the electron gun of the CRT. This changes the intensity of the electron beam and therefore the brightness of the spot being scanned. Brightness and contrast controls determine the DC shift and amplification, respectively. Color video signal extraction U and V signals A color signal conveys picture information for each of the red, green, and blue components of an image. However, these are not simply transmitted as three separate signals, because: such a signal would not be compatible with monochrome receivers, an important consideration when color broadcasting was first introduced. It would also occupy three times the bandwidth of existing television, requiring a decrease in the number of television channels available. Instead, the RGB signals are converted into YUV form, where the Y signal represents the luminance of the colors in the image. Because the rendering of colors in this way is the goal of both monochrome film and television systems, the Y signal is ideal for transmission as the luminance signal. This ensures a monochrome receiver will display a correct picture in black and white, where a given color is reproduced by a shade of gray that correctly reflects how light or dark the original color is. The U and V signals are color difference signals. The U signal is the difference between the B signal and the Y signal, also known as B minus Y (B-Y), and the V signal is the difference between the R signal and the Y signal, also known as R minus Y (R-Y). The U signal then represents how purplish-blue or its complementary color, yellowish-green, the color is, and the V signal how purplish-red or its complementary, greenish-cyan, it is. The advantage of this scheme is that the U and V signals are zero when the picture has no color content. Since the human eye is more sensitive to detail in luminance than in color, the U and V signals can be transmitted with reduced bandwidth with acceptable results. In the receiver, a single demodulator can extract an additive combination of U plus V. An example is the X demodulator used in the X/Z demodulation system. In that same system, a second demodulator, the Z demodulator, also extracts an additive combination of U plus V, but in a different ratio. The X and Z color difference signals are further matrixed into three color difference signals, (R-Y), (B-Y), and (G-Y). The combinations of usually two, but sometimes three demodulators were: {{ordered list \| list-style-type=lower-alpha \| (I) / (Q), (as used in the 1954 RCA CTC-2 and the 1985 RCA "Colortrak" series, and the 1954 Arvin, and some professional color monitors in the 1990s), \| (R-Y) / (Q), as used in the 1955 RCA 21-inch color receiver, \| (R-Y) / (B-Y), used in the first color receiver on the market (Westinghouse, not RCA), \| (R-Y) / (G-Y), (as used in the RCA Victor CTC-4 chassis), \| (R-Y) / (B-Y) / (G-Y), \| (X) / (Z), as used in many receivers of the late '50s and throughout the '60s. }} In the end, further matrixing of the above color-difference signals c through f yielded the three color-difference signals, (R-Y), (B-Y), and (G-Y). The R, G, and B signals in the receiver needed for the display device (CRT, Plasma display, or LCD display) are electronically derived by matrixing as follows: R is the additive combination of (R-Y) with Y, G is the additive combination of (G-Y) with Y, and B is the additive combination of (B-Y) with Y. All of this is accomplished electronically. It can be seen that in the combining process, the low-resolution portion of the Y signals cancel out, leaving R, G, and B signals able to render a low-resolution image in full color. However, the higher resolution portions of the Y signals do not cancel out, and so are equally present in R, G, and B, producing the higher-resolution image detail in monochrome, although it appears to the human eye as a full-color and full-resolution picture. NTSC and PAL systems In the NTSC and PAL color systems, U and V are transmitted by using quadrature amplitude modulation of a subcarrier. This kind of modulation applies two independent signals to one subcarrier, with the idea that both signals will be recovered independently at the receiving end. For NTSC, the subcarrier is at 3.58&nbsp;MHz.{{efn\|Their exact frequencies were chosen such that (for NTSC), they are midway between two harmonics of the frame repetition rate, thus ensuring that the majority of the power of the luminance signal does not overlap with the power of the chrominance signal.}} For the PAL system it is at 4.43&nbsp;MHz.{{efn\|In the British PAL (D) system, the actual chrominance center frequency, with equal lower and upper sidebands, is 4.43361875&nbsp;MHz, a direct multiple of the scan rate frequency. This frequency was chosen to minimize the chrominance beat interference pattern that would be visible in areas of high color saturation in the transmitted picture.}} The subcarrier itself is not included in the modulated signal (suppressed carrier), it is the subcarrier sidebands that carry the U and V information. The usual reason for using suppressed carrier is that it saves on transmitter power. In this application a more important advantage is that the color signal disappears entirely in black and white scenes. The subcarrier is within the bandwidth of the main luminance signal and consequently can cause undesirable artifacts on the picture, all the more noticeable in black and white receivers. A small sample of the subcarrier, the colorburst, is included in the horizontal blanking portion, which is not visible on the screen. This is necessary to give the receiver a phase reference for the modulated signal. Under quadrature amplitude modulation the modulated chrominance signal changes phase as compared to its subcarrier and also changes amplitude. The chrominance amplitude (when considered together with the Y signal) represents the approximate saturation of a color, and the chrominance phase against the subcarrier reference approximately represents the hue of the color. For particular test colors found in the test color bar pattern, exact amplitudes and phases are sometimes defined for test and troubleshooting purposes only. Due to the nature of the quadrature amplitude modulation process that created the chrominance signal, at certain times, the signal represents only the U signal, and 70 nanoseconds (NTSC) later, it represents only the V signal. About 70 nanoseconds later still, -U, and another 70 nanoseconds, -V. So to extract U, a synchronous demodulator is utilized, which uses the subcarrier to briefly gate the chroma every 280 nanoseconds, so that the output is only a train of discrete pulses, each having an amplitude that is the same as the original U signal at the corresponding time. In effect, these pulses are discrete-time analog samples of the U signal. The pulses are then low-pass filtered so that the original analog continuous-time U signal is recovered. For V, a 90-degree shifted subcarrier briefly gates the chroma signal every 280 nanoseconds, and the rest of the process is identical to that used for the U signal. Gating at any other time than those times mentioned above will yield an additive mixture of any two of U, V, -U, or -V. One of these off-axis (that is, of the U and V axis) gating methods is called I/Q demodulation. Another much more popular off-axis scheme was the X/Z demodulation system. Further matrixing{{clarify\|reasonmatrixing of what?\|dateOctober 2022}} recovered the original U and V signals. This scheme was actually the most popular demodulator scheme throughout the 1960s.{{clarify\|reasonWhich scheme I/Q, X/Y, matrixing.\|dateOctober 2022}} The above process uses the subcarrier. But as previously mentioned, it was deleted before transmission, and only the chroma is transmitted. Therefore, the receiver must reconstitute the subcarrier. For this purpose, a short burst of the subcarrier, known as the colorburst, is transmitted during the back porch (re-trace blanking period) of each scan line. A subcarrier oscillator in the receiver locks onto this signal (see phase-locked loop) to achieve a phase reference, resulting in the oscillator producing the reconstituted subcarrier.{{efn\|A second use of the colorburst in more expensive or newer receiver models is a reference to an AGC system to compensate for chroma gain imperfections in reception.}} showing "Hanover bars" (color banding phase effect) in the PAL-S (simple) signal mode of transmission.]] NTSC uses this process unmodified. Unfortunately, this often results in poor color reproduction due to phase errors in the received signal, caused sometimes by multipath, but mostly by poor implementation at the studio end. With the advent of solid-state receivers, cable TV, and digital studio equipment for conversion to an over-the-air analog signal, these NTSC problems have been largely fixed, leaving operator error at the studio end as the sole color rendition weakness of the NTSC system.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2022}} In any case, the PAL D (delay) system mostly corrects these kinds of errors by reversing the phase of the signal on each successive line, and averaging the results over pairs of lines. This process is achieved by the use of a 1H (where H horizontal scan frequency) duration delay line.{{efn\|A typical circuit used with this device converts the low-frequency color signal to ultrasound and back again.}} Phase shift errors between successive lines are therefore canceled out and the wanted signal amplitude is increased when the two in-phase (coincident) signals are re-combined. NTSC is more spectrum efficient than PAL, giving more picture detail for a given bandwidth. This is because sophisticated comb filters in receivers are more effective with NTSC's 4 color frame sequence compared to PAL's 8-field sequence. However, in the end, the larger channel width of most PAL systems in Europe still gives PAL systems the edge in transmitting more picture detail. SECAM system In the SECAM television system, U and V are transmitted on alternate lines, using simple frequency modulation of two different color subcarriers. In some analog color CRT displays, starting in 1956, the brightness control signal (luminance) is fed to the cathode connections of the electron guns, and the color difference signals (chrominance signals) are fed to the control grids connections. This simple CRT matrix mixing technique was replaced in later solid state designs of signal processing with the original matrixing method used in the 1954 and 1955 color TV receivers. Synchronization Synchronizing pulses added to the video signal at the end of every scan line and video frame ensure that the sweep oscillators in the receiver remain locked in step with the transmitted signal so that the image can be reconstructed on the receiver screen.<ref name="tveng"> {{cite book \| last = Gupta \| first = R. G. \| title = Television Engineering and Video Systems \| publisher = Tata McGraw-Hill \| year = 2006 \| page = 62 \| isbn = 0-07-058596-2 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idP6BlcWaizHUC }} </ref><ref name="analogtv"> {{cite web \| url = http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/World-TV-Standards/index.html \| title = World Analogue Television Standards and Waveforms \| first = Alan \| last = Pemberton \| date = 30 November 2008 \| work = Pembers' Ponderings \| location = Sheffield, England \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080220113153/http://www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk/World-TV-Standards/index.html \| archive-date = 20 February 2008 \| access-date =25 September 2010 }} </ref><ref name="tvreception"> {{cite book \| last = Wharton \| first = W. \| author2 = Douglas Howorth \| title = Principles of Television Reception \| url https://books.google.com/books?iddxOCAAAACAAJ \| edition = illustrated \| year = 1971 \| publisher = Pitman Publishing \| isbn = 0-273-36103-1 \| oclc = 16244216 }} </ref> A sync separator circuit detects the sync voltage levels and sorts the pulses into horizontal and vertical sync. Horizontal synchronization The horizontal sync pulse separates the scan lines. The horizontal sync signal is a single short pulse that indicates the start of every line. The rest of the scan line follows, with the signal ranging from 0.3&nbsp;V (black) to 1&nbsp;V (white), until the next horizontal or vertical synchronization pulse. The format of the horizontal sync pulse varies. In the 525-line NTSC system it is a 4.85&nbsp;μs pulse at 0&nbsp;V. In the 625-line PAL system the pulse is 4.7&nbsp;μs at 0&nbsp;V. This is lower than the amplitude of any video signal (blacker than black) so it can be detected by the level-sensitive sync separator circuit of the receiver. Two timing intervals are defined&nbsp;– the front porch between the end of the displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the back porch after the sync pulse and before the displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the horizontal blanking (or retrace) interval and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line. Vertical synchronization {{For\|the graphic option provided by video games\|Screen tearing#Vertical synchronization}} Vertical synchronization separates the video fields. In PAL and NTSC, the vertical sync pulse occurs within the vertical blanking interval. The vertical sync pulses are made by prolonging the length of horizontal sync pulses through almost the entire length of the scan line. The vertical sync signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The sync pulses occupy the whole line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace; it also indicates whether each field represents even or odd lines in interlaced systems (depending on whether it begins at the start of a horizontal line, or midway through). The format of such a signal in 525-line NTSC is: * pre-equalizing pulses (6 to start scanning odd lines, 5 to start scanning even lines) * long-sync pulses (5 pulses) * post-equalizing pulses (5 to start scanning odd lines, 4 to start scanning even lines) Each pre- or post-equalizing pulse consists of half a scan line of black signal: 2&nbsp;μs at 0&nbsp;V, followed by 30&nbsp;μs at 0.3&nbsp;V. Each long sync pulse consists of an equalizing pulse with timings inverted: 30&nbsp;μs at 0&nbsp;V, followed by 2&nbsp;μs at 0.3&nbsp;V. In video production and computer graphics, changes to the image are often performed during the vertical blanking interval to avoid visible discontinuity of the image. If this image in the framebuffer is updated with a new image while the display is being refreshed, the display shows a mishmash of both frames, producing page tearing partway down the image. Horizontal and vertical hold The sweep (or deflection) oscillators were designed to run without a signal from the television station (or VCR, computer, or other composite video source). This allows the television receiver to display a raster and to allow an image to be presented during antenna placement. With sufficient signal strength, the receiver's sync separator circuit would split timebase pulses from the incoming video and use them to reset the horizontal and vertical oscillators at the appropriate time to synchronize with the signal from the station. The free-running oscillation of the horizontal circuit is especially critical, as the horizontal deflection circuits typically power the flyback transformer (which provides acceleration potential for the CRT) as well as the filaments for the high voltage rectifier tube and sometimes the filament(s) of the CRT itself. Without the operation of the horizontal oscillator and output stages in these television receivers, there would be no illumination of the CRT's face. The lack of precision timing components in early equipment meant that the timebase circuits occasionally needed manual adjustment. If their free-run frequencies were too far from the actual line and field rates, the circuits would not be able to follow the incoming sync signals. Loss of horizontal synchronization usually resulted in an unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization would produce an image rolling up or down the screen. Older analog television receivers often provide manual controls to adjust horizontal and vertical timing. The adjustment takes the form of horizontal hold and vertical hold controls, usually on the front panel along with other common controls. These adjust the free-run frequencies of the corresponding timebase oscillators. A slowly rolling vertical picture demonstrates that the vertical oscillator is nearly synchronized with the television station but is not locking to it, often due to a weak signal or a failure in the sync separator stage not resetting the oscillator. Horizontal sync errors cause the image to be torn diagonally and repeated across the screen as if it were wrapped around a screw or a barber's pole; the greater the error, the more copies of the image will be seen at once wrapped around the barber pole. By the early 1980s the efficacy of the synchronization circuits, plus the inherent stability of the sets' oscillators, had been improved to the point where these controls were no longer necessary. Integrated Circuits which eliminated the horizontal hold control were starting to appear as early as 1969.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Mills \|first1Thomas \|titleA five function IC for television receivers \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/3478408 \|websiteResearchGate \|publisherIEEE \|access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref> The final generations of analog television receivers used IC-based designs where the receiver's timebases were derived from accurate crystal oscillators. With these sets, adjustment of the free-running frequency of either sweep oscillator was unnecessary and unavailable. Horizontal and vertical hold controls were rarely used in CRT-based computer monitors, as the quality and consistency of components were quite high by the advent of the computer age, but might be found on some composite monitors used with the 1970s–80s home or personal computers. Other technical information {{Further\|Broadcast engineering\|Electronic engineering}} Components of a television system \|alt=block diagram of a television receiver showing tuner, intermediate frequency amplifier. A demodulator separates sound from video. Video is directed to the CRT and to the synchronizing circuits.]] The tuner is the object which, with the aid of an antenna, isolates the television signals received over the air. There are two types of tuners in analog television, VHF and UHF tuners. The VHF tuner selects the VHF television frequency. This consists of a 4&nbsp;MHz video bandwidth and about 100&nbsp;kHz audio bandwidth. It then amplifies the signal and converts it to a 45.75&nbsp;MHz Intermediate Frequency (IF) amplitude-modulated video and a 41.25&nbsp;MHz IF frequency-modulated audio carrier. The IF amplifiers are centered at 44&nbsp;MHz for optimal frequency transference of the audio and video carriers.{{efn\|Most of the early television sets (1939–45) used 4 stage IF amplifiers with specially designed video amplifier tubes (the type 1852/6AC7). In 1946 the RCA presented a new innovation in television; the RCA 630TS. Instead of using the 1852 octal tube, it uses the 6AG5 7-pin miniature tube. It still had 4 stages, but it was 1/2 the size. Soon all of the manufactures followed RCA and designed better IF stages. They developed higher amplification tubes, and lower stage counts with more amplification. When the tube era came to an end in the mid-70s, they had shrunk the IF stages down to 1–2 (depending on the set) and with the same amplification as the 4 stage, 1852 tube sets.}} Like radio, television has automatic gain control (AGC). This controls the gain of the IF amplifier stages and the tuner. The video amp and output amplifier is implemented using a pentode or a power transistor. The filter and demodulator separates the 45.75&nbsp;MHz video from the 41.25&nbsp;MHz audio then it simply uses a diode to detect the video signal. After the video detector, the video is amplified and sent to the sync separator and then to the picture tube. The audio signal goes to a 4.5&nbsp;MHz amplifier. This amplifier prepares the signal for the 4.5&nbsp;MHz detector. It then goes through a 4.5&nbsp;MHz IF transformer to the detector. In television, there are 2 ways of detecting FM signals. One way is by the ratio detector. This is simple but very hard to align. The next is a relatively simple detector. This is the quadrature detector. It was invented in 1954. The first tube designed for this purpose was the 6BN6 type. It is easy to align and simple in circuitry. It was such a good design that it is still being used today in the Integrated circuit form. After the detector, it goes to the audio amplifier. Image synchronization is achieved by transmitting negative-going pulses.{{efn\|In a composite video signal of 1-volt amplitude, these are approximately 0.3&nbsp;V below the black level.}} The horizontal sync signal is a single short pulse that indicates the start of every line. Two-timing intervals are defined&nbsp;– the front porch between the end of the displayed video and the start of the sync pulse, and the back porch after the sync pulse and before the displayed video. These and the sync pulse itself are called the horizontal blanking (or retrace) interval and represent the time that the electron beam in the CRT is returning to the start of the next display line. The vertical sync signal is a series of much longer pulses, indicating the start of a new field. The vertical sync pulses occupy the whole of line interval of a number of lines at the beginning and end of a scan; no picture information is transmitted during vertical retrace. The pulse sequence is designed to allow horizontal sync to continue during vertical retrace.{{efn\|The pattern of vertical sync pulses also indicates whether each field represents even or odd lines in interlaced systems depending on whether a pulse begins at the start of a horizontal line, or midway through.}} A sync separator circuit detects the sync voltage levels and extracts and conditions signals that the horizontal and vertical oscillators can use to keep in sync with the video. It also forms the AGC voltage. The horizontal and vertical oscillators form the raster on the CRT. They are driven by the sync separator. There are many ways to create these oscillators. The earliest is the thyratron oscillator. Although it is known to drift, it makes a perfect sawtooth wave. This sawtooth wave is so good that no linearity control is needed. This oscillator was designed for the electrostatic deflection CRTs but also found some use in electromagnetically deflected CRTs. The next oscillator developed was the blocking oscillator which uses a transformer to create a sawtooth wave. This was only used for a brief time period and never was very popular. Finally the multivibrator was probably the most successful. It needed more adjustment than the other oscillators, but it is very simple and effective. This oscillator was so popular that it was used from the early 1950s until today. Two oscillator amplifiers are needed. The vertical amplifier directly drives the yoke. Since it operates at 50 or 60&nbsp;Hz and drives an electromagnet, it is similar to an audio amplifier. Because of the rapid deflection required, the horizontal oscillator requires a high-power flyback transformer driven by a high-powered tube or transistor. Additional windings on this flyback transformer typically power other parts of the system. videosignal. From left to right: end of a video line, front porch, horizontal sync pulse, back porch with colorburst, and beginning of next line]] Loss of horizontal synchronization usually results in a scrambled and unwatchable picture; loss of vertical synchronization produces an image rolling up or down the screen. Timebase circuits {{Further\|Oscilloscope}} In an analog receiver with a CRT display sync pulses are fed to horizontal and vertical timebase circuits (commonly called sweep circuits in the United States), each consisting of an oscillator and an amplifier. These generate modified sawtooth and parabola current waveforms to scan the electron beam. Engineered waveform shapes are necessary to make up for the distance variations from the electron beam source and the screen surface. The oscillators are designed to free-run at frequencies very close to the field and line rates, but the sync pulses cause them to reset at the beginning of each scan line or field, resulting in the necessary synchronization of the beam sweep with the originating signal. The output waveforms from the timebase amplifiers are fed to the horizontal and vertical deflection coils wrapped around the CRT tube. These coils produce magnetic fields proportional to the changing current, and these deflect the electron beam across the screen. In the 1950s, the power for these circuits was derived directly from the mains supply. A simple circuit consisted of a series voltage dropper resistance and a rectifier. This avoided the cost of a large high-voltage mains supply (50 or 60&nbsp;Hz) transformer. It was inefficient and produced a lot of heat. In the 1960s, semiconductor technology was introduced into timebase circuits. During the late 1960s in the UK, synchronous (with the scan line rate) power generation was introduced into solid state receiver designs.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.oldtellys.co.uk/otpsupps.html\|titleTACKLING THE POWER SUPPLY\|workPublication date&nbsp;– unknown\|publisherOld Tellys.co.uk\|access-date24 November 2010\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120303043022/http://www.oldtellys.co.uk/otpsupps.html\|archive-date3 March 2012}}</ref> In the UK use of the simple (50&nbsp;Hz) types of power, circuits were discontinued as thyristor based switching circuits were introduced. The reason for design changes arose from the electricity supply contamination problems arising from EMI, and supply loading issues due to energy being taken from only the positive half cycle of the mains supply waveform.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.yorkemc.co.uk/conferences/emcYork2003/potm/2004-01_SMPS-and-SELC.pdf\|titleAn Investigation into the EMC Emissions From Switched Mode Power Supplies and Similar Switched Electronic Load Controllers Operating at Various Loading Conditions\|publisherYork EMC.co.uk\|access-date24 November 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120315084947/http://www.yorkemc.co.uk/conferences/emcYork2003/potm/2004-01_SMPS-and-SELC.pdf\|archive-date15 March 2012}}</ref> CRT flyback power supply Most of the receiver's circuitry (at least in transistor- or IC-based designs) operates from a comparatively low-voltage DC power supply. However, the anode connection for a cathode-ray tube requires a very high voltage (typically 10–30&nbsp;kV) for correct operation. This voltage is not directly produced by the main power supply circuitry; instead, the receiver makes use of the circuitry used for horizontal scanning. Direct current (DC), is switched through the line output transformer, and alternating current (AC) is induced into the scan coils. At the end of each horizontal scan line the magnetic field, which has built up in both transformer and scan coils by the current, is a source of latent electromagnetic energy. This stored collapsing magnetic field energy can be captured. The reverse flow, short duration, (about 10% of the line scan time) current from both the line output transformer and the horizontal scan coil is discharged again into the primary winding of the flyback transformer by the use of a rectifier which blocks this counter-electromotive force. A small value capacitor is connected across the scan-switching device. This tunes the circuit inductances to resonate at a much higher frequency. This lengthens the flyback time from the extremely rapid decay rate that would result if they were electrically isolated during this short period. One of the secondary windings on the flyback transformer then feeds this brief high-voltage pulse to a Cockcroft–Walton generator design voltage multiplier. This produces the required high-voltage supply. A flyback converter is a power supply circuit operating on similar principles. A typical modern design incorporates the flyback transformer and rectifier circuitry into a single unit with a captive output lead, known as a diode split line output transformer or an Integrated High Voltage Transformer (IHVT),<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.miniwatt.info/mullard_tn77.pdf\|titleTechnical note 77&nbsp;– Diode Split for E.H.T. generation\|workPublication date&nbsp;– 1976\|publisherMullard\|access-date24 November 2010\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721224854/http://www.miniwatt.info/mullard_tn77.pdf\|archive-date21 July 2011}}</ref> so that all high-voltage parts are enclosed. Earlier designs used a separate line output transformer and a well-insulated high-voltage multiplier unit. The high frequency (15&nbsp;kHz or so) of the horizontal scanning allows reasonably small components to be used. Transition to digital {{main\|Digital television transition\|Digital television}} In many countries, over-the-air broadcast television of analog audio and analog video signals has been discontinued to allow the re-use of the television broadcast radio spectrum for other services. The first country to make a wholesale switch to digital over-the-air (terrestrial television) broadcasting was Luxembourg in 2006, followed later in 2006 by the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.ivir.nl/publications/sloot/switch-off.pdf \|titleHow Television went Digital in The Netherlands \|access-date2013-02-04 \|workOpen Society Foundations September 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130420120837/http://www.ivir.nl/publications/sloot/switch-off.pdf \|archive-date2013-04-20 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> The Digital television transition in the United States for high-powered transmission was completed on 12 June 2009, the date that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set. Almost two million households could no longer watch television because they had not prepared for the transition. The switchover had been delayed by the DTV Delay Act.<ref>{{cite web \|authorStephanie Condon \|title=Senate OKs delay of digital television transition \|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-10150551-38.html \|date26 January 2009 \|publisherCNET News \|access-date14 June 2009 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121025003610/http://news.cnet.com/8301-13578_3-10150551-38.html \|archive-date25 October 2012}}</ref> While the majority of the viewers of over-the-air broadcast television in the U.S. watch full-power stations (which number about 1800), there are three other categories of television stations in the U.S.: low-power broadcasting stations, class A stations, and television translator stations. These were given later deadlines. In Japan, the switch to digital began in northeastern Ishikawa Prefecture on 24 July 2010 and ended in 43 of the country's 47 prefectures (including the rest of Ishikawa) on 24 July 2011, but in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures, the conversion was delayed to 31 March 2012, due to complications from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and its related nuclear accidents.<ref>{{cite web \| url http://www.soumu.go.jp/main_sosiki/joho_tsusin/dtv/111207_1.html \| script-titleja:岩手、宮城、福島の3県のアナログ放送は平成24年3月31日に終了しました \| date 31 March 2012 \| publisherMinistry of Internal Affairs and Communications \| location Tokyo \| languageja \| trans-title Analog broadcast ended in Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima on 31 March 2012 (year Heisei 24) \| access-date1 April 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120320184657/http://www.soumu.go.jp/main_sosiki/joho_tsusin/dtv/111207_1.html \| archive-date20 March 2012 \| url-status =dead }}</ref> In Canada, most of the larger cities turned off analog broadcasts on 31 August 2011.<ref>{{cite web \|url=http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/info_sht/bdt14.htm \|title=The digital television (DTV) change in Canada happens August 31, 2011 {{pipe}} CRTC \|access-date=2009-05-05 \|url-status=dead \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411170737/http://www.crtc.gc.ca/ENG/INFO_SHT/BDT14.HTM \|archive-date=11 April 2009 }}</ref> China had scheduled to end analog broadcasting between 2015 and 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|last1cnBeta \|title广电总局发文关停地面模拟信号 "模拟电视"时代即将结束 \|date15 July 2020 \|urlhttps://tech.sina.com.cn/roll/2020-07-15/doc-iivhvpwx5572519.shtml \|publisherSina Corp \|access-date30 August 2020 \|language=zh-cn}}</ref> Brazil switched to digital television on 2 December 2007 in São Paulo and planned to end analog broadcasting nationwide by 30 June 2016. However, the Ministry of Communications announced in 2012 that the deadline would be delayed.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBNamericas - Government's 2016 analog TV switch-off suffe... \|urlhttps://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/government-to-partially-postpone-analog-tv-switch-off \|access-date2025-01-01 \|websiteBNamericas.com \|languageen}}</ref> As of 2024, Brazil is in the process of implementing its next-generation digital television system, known as TV 3.0.<ref name":0">{{Cite web \|lastMiller \|firstLee \|date2024-07-23 \|titleBrazil Adopts ATSC 3.0 for Next-Generation Digital TV \|urlhttps://www.broadcastingalliance.org/brazil-adopts-atsc-3-0-for-next-generation-digital-tv/ \|access-date2025-01-01 \|websiteBroadcasting Alliance \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleMainConcept Partners with Videodata to Support Brazil's Transition to SBTVD TV 3.0 Standard \|urlhttps://www.mainconcept.com/mainconcept-partners-with-videodata \|access-date2025-01-01 \|websitewww.mainconcept.com \|languageen}}</ref> In July 2024, ATSC 3.0 standard was officially selected for the country's next-generation digital television system.<ref name":0" /> The transition to TV 3.0 is expected to begin in 2025, with initial deployments planned for key cities such as São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Brasília.<ref>{{Cite web \|author1Deborah D. McAdams \|date2024-12-24 \|titleBrazil Set to Redefine Broadcasting with TV 3.0 \|urlhttps://www.tvtechnology.com/opinion/brazil-set-to-redefine-broadcasting-with-tv-3-0 \|access-date2025-01-01 \|websiteTVTechnology \|language=en}}</ref> In Malaysia, the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission advertised for tender bids to be submitted in the third quarter of 2009 for the 470 through 742&nbsp;MHz UHF allocation, to enable Malaysia's broadcast system to move into DTV. The new broadcast band allocation would result in Malaysia's having to build an infrastructure for all broadcasters, using a single digital terrestrial television broadcast channel.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2017}} Large portions of Malaysia are covered by television broadcasts from Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, and Indonesia (from Borneo and Batam). Starting from 1 November 2019, all regions in Malaysia were no longer using the analog system after the states of Sabah and Sarawak finally turned it off on 31 October 2019.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.soyacincau.com/2019/09/25/malaysia-complete-digital-tv-switchover/\|titleMalaysia to turn off analogue TV completely on 31 Oct\|date25 September 2019}}</ref> In Singapore, digital television under DVB-T2 began on 16 December 2013. The switchover was delayed many times until analog TV was switched off at midnight on 2 January 2019.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.rapidtvnews.com/2019010854679/singapore-pulls-the-plug-on-analogue-tv-transmission.html#axzz6mFnWAhye\|title Singapore pulls the plug on analogue TV transmission {{pipe}} Broadcast {{pipe}} News {{pipe}} Rapid TV News}}</ref> In the Philippines, the National Telecommunications Commission required all broadcasting companies to end analog broadcasting on 31 December 2015 at 11:59&nbsp;p.m. Due to delay of the release of the implementing rules and regulations for digital television broadcast, the target date was moved to 2020. Full digital broadcast was expected in 2021 and all of the analog TV services were to be shut down by the end of 2023.<ref>{{cite web\|lastCabuenas\|firstJon Viktor D.\|titleGov't wants analog TV switched off by 2023\|date14 February 2017 \|urlhttps://www.gmanetwork.com/news/money/companies/599484/gov-t-wants-analog-tv-switched-off-by-2023/story/\|access-date18 March 2023}}</ref> However, in February 2023, the NTC postponed the ASO/DTV transition to 2025 due to many provincial television stations not being ready to start their digital TV transmissions.{{citation needed\|date=January 2024}} In the Russian Federation, the Russian Television and Radio Broadcasting Network (RTRS) disabled analog broadcasting of federal channels in five stages, shutting down broadcasting in multiple federal subjects at each stage. The first region to have analog broadcasting disabled was Tver Oblast on 3 December 2018, and the switchover was completed on 14 October 2019.<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhen analog TV channels will be turned off \|urlhttps://rtrs.ru/tv/countdown/ \|websiteRussian Television and Radio Broadcasting Network \|access-date14 October 2019 \|archive-date7 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210307230418/https://rtrs.ru/tv/countdown/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> During the transition, DVB-T2 receivers and monetary compensations for purchasing of terrestrial or satellite digital TV reception equipment were provided to disabled people, World War II veterans, certain categories of retirees and households with income per member below living wage.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Plotnikova \|first1Elena \|titleCompensation for digital TV. How to get 2000 rubles for buying a digital TV receiver \|urlhttps://aif.ru/techno/technology/kompensaciya_za_cifru_kak_poluchit_2_tysyachi_za_pokupku_cifrovoy_pristavki \|access-date14 October 2019 \|publisherArgumenty i Fakty \|date17 February 2019}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Television}} {{Div col}} * Amateur television * Narrow-bandwidth television * Overscan * Slow-scan television * Glossary of video terms {{Div col end}} Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Wiktionary\|analog}} * [http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/4750 Video signal measurement and generation] * {{web archive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100326081108/http://freespace.virgin.net/ljmayes.mal/var/tvsync.htm \|titleTelevision synchronisation}} * {{web archive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101227173347/http://www.hometechanswers.com/video/standards.html \|titleVideo broadcast standard frequencies and country listings}} * {{web archive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060716111817/http://www.edn.com/article/CA6335297.html \|titleEDN magazine describing design of a 1958 transistorized television receiver}} * {{web archive \|urlhttps://archive.today/20140923181048/http://www.productstat.com/engineering/18-6-story-color-television \|titleDesigning the color television signal in the early 1950s as described by two engineers working directly with the NTSC}} {{Broadcasting}} {{Telecommunications}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Analog Television}} Category:Television technology Category:Television terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_television	2025-04-05T18:26:03.256820
2395	April 11	{{short description\|Date in Gregorian calendars}} {{pp-pc1}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{calendar}} {{This date in recent years}} {{Day}} Events Pre-1600 * 491 &ndash; Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine emperor, with the name of Anastasius I.<ref>{{cite book\|titleVon einer Gesellschaft deutscher Gelehrten bearbeitet: Bd. 1-4\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0FT9TlFkyAwC&pgPA487\|year1832\|publisherBrüggemann\|pages487\|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book\|lastKosiński\|firstRafał\|titleHoliness and Power: Constantinopolitan Holy Men and Authority in the 5th Century\|locationBerlin\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|date2016\|isbn9783110417074\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddZBlCwAAQBAJ\|page162}}</ref> 1241 &ndash; Batu Khan defeats Béla IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi.<ref>{{cite book\|lastBachrach\|firstDavid S.\|titleThe Histories of a Medieval German City, Worms c. 1000-c. 1300\|locationFarnham, Surrey, UK\|publisherAshgate\|date2014\|isbn9781472436412\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_Fw8BAAAQBAJ\|page88}}</ref> 1512 &ndash; War of the League of Cambrai: Franco-Ferrarese forces led by Gaston de Foix and Alfonso I d'Este win the Battle of Ravenna against the Papal-Spanish forces.<ref>{{cite book\|lastTucker\|firstSpencer C.\|chapterOverview of 1500-1600: A Chronology\|titleA Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Volume 2: 1500-1774\|editor-lastTucker\|editor-firstSpencer C.\|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.\|publisherABC-CLIO\|date2010\|isbn9781851096671\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh5_tSnygvbIC\|page=481}}</ref> 1544 &ndash; Italian War of 1542–46: A French army defeats Habsburg forces at the Battle of Ceresole, but fails to exploit its victory.<ref>{{cite book\|lastTucker\|firstSpencer C.\|chapterOverview of 1500-1600: A Chronology\|titleA Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Volume 2: 1500-1774\|editor-lastTucker\|editor-firstSpencer C.\|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.\|publisherABC-CLIO\|date2010\|isbn9781851096671\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh5_tSnygvbIC\|pages510–511}}</ref>1601–19001689 &ndash; William III and Mary II are crowned as joint sovereigns of Great Britain<ref>{{cite book\|lastBell\|firstJames B.\|titleAnglicans, Dissenters and Radical Change in Early New England 1686-1786\|locationCham, Switzerland\|publisherPalgrave Macmillan\|date2017\|isbn9783319556291\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfng5DwAAQBAJ\|page33}}</ref> on the same day that the Scottish Parliament concurs with the English decision of 12 February.<ref>{{cite book\|lastPanton\|firstKenneth J.\|titleHistorical Dictionary of the British Monarchy\|locationLanham, Md.\|publisherScarecrow Press\|date2011\|isbn9780810857797\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBiyyueBTpaMC\|page=xxxiii}}</ref> 1713 &ndash; France and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Utrecht, bringing an end to the War of the Spanish Succession (Queen Anne's War). Britain accepts Philip V as King of Spain, while Philip renounces any claim to the French throne.<ref>{{cite book\|lastGhervas\|firstStella\|chapterIn the Shadow of Utrecht: Perpetual Peace and International Order, 1713-1815\|titleThe 1713 Peace of Utrecht and Its Enduring Effects\|editor-lastSoons\|editor-firstAlfred H.A.\|locationBoston\|publisherBrill\|date2020\|isbn9789004266407\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhm3DDwAAQBAJ\|pages=204–205}}</ref> 1727 &ndash; Premiere of Johann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion BWV 244b at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig, Electorate of Saxony (now Germany).<ref>{{cite book\|lastJones\|firstRichard Douglas\|titleThe Creative Development of Johann Sebastian Bach: Music to Delight the Spirit. Volume 2: 1717-1750\|locationOxford, UK\|publisherOxford University Press\|date2013\|isbn9780198164401\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0YwzAQAAQBAJ\|page181}}</ref> 1809 &ndash; Battle of the Basque Roads: Admiral Lord Gambier fails to support Captain Lord Cochrane, leading to an incomplete British victory over the French fleet.<ref>{{cite book\|lastCordingly\|firstDavid\|titleCochrane the Dauntless\|locationLondon\|publisherBloomsbury Publishing\|date2007\|isbn9780747580881\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZMdDpmTXdWsC\|page205\|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book\|lastClowes\|firstWilliam Laird\|titleThe Royal Navy, A History from the Earliest Times to the Present. Volume V\|locationLondon\|publisherS. Low, Marston and Co.\|date1900\|oclc1296915\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiH9nAAAAMAAJ\|pages268–269\|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book\|lastStewart\|firstWilliam\|titleAdmirals of the World: A Biographical Dictionary: 1500 to the Present\|locationJefferson, N.C.\|publisherMcFarland & Co.\|date2009\|isbn9780786438099\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS1VimlFIjQoC\|page139}}</ref> 1814 &ndash; The Treaty of Fontainebleau ends the War of the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon Bonaparte, and forces him to abdicate unconditionally for the first time. 1856 &ndash; Second Battle of Rivas: Juan Santamaría burns down the hostel where William Walker's filibusters are holed up. 1868 &ndash; Former shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu surrenders Edo Castle to Imperial forces, marking the end of the Tokugawa shogunate. 1876 &ndash; The Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks is organized. 1881 &ndash; Spelman College is founded in Atlanta, Georgia as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, an institute of higher education for African-American women. 1901–present 1908 &ndash; {{SMS\|Blücher}}, the last armored cruiser to be built by the Imperial German Navy, is launched. 1909 &ndash; The city of Tel Aviv is founded.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Schlor \|first1Joachim \|last2Schlör \|first2Joachim \|titleTel Aviv: From Dream to City \|year1999 \|publisherReaktion Books \|isbn978-1-86189-033-7 \|page43 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCpxkwO7hdVQC&pgPA43 \|language=en}}</ref> 1921 &ndash; Emir Abdullah establishes the first centralised government in the newly created British protectorate of Transjordan. 1935 &ndash; Stresa Front: opening of the conference between the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, the Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini and the French Minister for Foreign Affairs Pierre Laval to condemn the German violations of the Treaty of Versailles.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://beyondthirtynine.com/11-14-april-1935-the-stresa-front-to-stop-adolf-hitler/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150413050817/http://beyondthirtynine.com/11-14-april-1935-the-stresa-front-to-stop-adolf-hitler/ \|archive-date13 April 2015 \|url-statusdead \|title11-14 April 1935. The Stresa Front to stop Adolf Hitler. \|lastParatico \|firstAngelo \|date13 April 2015 \|website=beyondthirtynine.com}}</ref> 1945 &ndash; World War II: American forces liberate the Buchenwald concentration camp.<ref>{{cite web \|titleBuchenwald {{!}} Definition, Location, & Facts \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/place/Buchenwald \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date19 November 2020 \|language=en}}</ref> 1951 &ndash; Korean War: President Truman relieves Douglas MacArthur of the command of American forces in Korea and Japan. * 1951 &ndash; The Stone of Scone, the stone upon which Scottish monarchs were traditionally crowned, is found on the site of the altar of Arbroath Abbey. It had been taken by Scottish nationalist students from its place in Westminster Abbey. 1952 &ndash; Bolivian National Revolution: Rebels take over Palacio Quemado.<ref name":4">{{Cite web\|date13 November 2019\|titleThe 1952 Bolivian Revolution \|websiteIWL-FI \|lastSagra \|firstAlicia \|urlhttps://litci.org/en/the-1952-bolivian-revolution/ \|access-date26 February 2022 \|languageen \|url-statuslive \|archive-date27 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201127005758/https://litci.org/en/the-1952-bolivian-revolution/}}</ref> 1952 &ndash; Pan Am Flight 526A ditches near San Juan-Isla Grande Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico, after experiencing an engine failure, killing 52 people.<ref name"ASN2">{{Cite web \|titleASN Aircraft accident Douglas DC-4 N88899 San Juan-Isla Grande Airport (SIG) \|urlhttp://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19520411-0 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121013235651/http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19520411-0 \|archive-date2012-10-13 \|access-date\|websiteAviation Safety Network}}</ref> 1955 &ndash; The Air India Kashmir Princess is bombed and crashes in a failed assassination attempt on Zhou Enlai by the Kuomintang. 1957 &ndash; United Kingdom agrees to Singaporean self-rule. 1961 &ndash; The trial of Adolf Eichmann begins in Jerusalem. 1963 &ndash; Pope John XXIII issues Pacem in terris, the first encyclical addressed to all Christians instead of only Catholics, and which described the conditions for world peace in human terms. 1964 &ndash; Brazilian Marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco is elected president by the National Congress. 1965 &ndash; The Palm Sunday tornado outbreak of 1965: Fifty-five tornadoes hit in six Midwestern states of the United States, killing 266 people.<ref name"NWSNrnIndiana">{{cite web \|author1Blake Naftel \|author2Jon Chamberlain \|author3Becky Monroe \|author4Ed Lacey Jr. \|author5Dick Loney \|titleApril 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak \|urlhttps://www.weather.gov/iwx/1965_palmsunday_50 \|websiteNorthern Indiana Weather Forecast Office \|publisherNational Weather Service \|access-date14 December 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150404011605/https://www.weather.gov/iwx/1965_palmsunday_50 \|archive-date4 April 2015 \|locationSyracuse, Indiana \|date=2015}}</ref> 1968 &ndash; US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1968, prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. 1968 &ndash; A failed assassination attempt on Rudi Dutschke, leader of the German student movement, leaves Dutschke suffering from brain damage.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastKarcher \|firstKatharina \|date2021-11-01 \|titleThe pleasure and pain of passing as (dis)abled: Rudi Dutschke's exile in the UK (1968-1971) and the Ableism of the West German Student Movement \|urlhttps://research.birmingham.ac.uk/en/publications/the-pleasure-and-pain-of-passing-as-disabled-rudi-dutschkes-exile \|journalNew German Critique \|languageEnglish \|volume48 \|issue3 \|pages199–218 \|doi10.1215/0094033X-9305540 \|s2cid244302173 \|issn=1558-1462}}</ref> 1970 &ndash; Apollo Program: Apollo 13 is launched. 1976 &ndash; The Apple I is created.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAnd that's the way it was: April 11, 1976\|websiteColumbia Journalism Review\|dateApril 11, 2013\|access-dateApril 1, 2019\|url=https://archives.cjr.org/the_kicker/and_thats_the_way_it_was_april_7.php}}</ref> 1977 &ndash; London Transport's Silver Jubilee AEC Routemaster buses are launched. 1979 &ndash; Ugandan dictator Idi Amin is deposed. 1981 &ndash; A massive riot in Brixton, south London results in almost 300 police injuries and 65 serious civilian injuries. 1986 &ndash; FBI Miami Shootout: A gun battle in broad daylight in Dade County, Florida between two bank/armored car robbers and pursuing FBI agents. During the firefight, FBI agents Jerry L. Dove and Benjamin P. Grogan were killed, while five other agents were wounded. As a result, the popular .40 S&W cartridge was developed. 1987 &ndash; The London Agreement is secretly signed between Israeli Foreign Affairs Minister Shimon Peres and King Hussein of Jordan. 1990 &ndash; Customs officers in Middlesbrough, England, seize what they believe to be the barrel of a massive gun on a ship bound for Iraq. 1993 &ndash; Four hundred fifty prisoners rioted at the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility in Lucasville, Ohio, and continued to do so for ten days, citing grievances related to prison conditions, as well as the forced vaccination of Nation of Islam prisoners (for tuberculosis) against their religious beliefs. 2001 &ndash; The detained crew of a United States EP-3E aircraft that landed in Hainan, China after a collision with a J-8 fighter, is released. 2002 &ndash; The Ghriba synagogue bombing by al-Qaeda kills 21 in Tunisia. 2002 &ndash; Over two hundred thousand people march in Caracas towards the presidential palace to demand the resignation of President Hugo Chávez. Nineteen protesters are killed. 2006 &ndash; Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announces Iran's claim to have successfully enriched uranium.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/apr/12/iran.topstories3\|titleIran declares: we are in the nuclear club\|firstRobert Tait Ewen\|lastMacAskill\|newspaperThe Guardian \|dateApril 11, 2006\|via=www.theguardian.com}}</ref> 2007 &ndash; Algiers bombings: Two bombings in Algiers kill 33 people and wound a further 222 others. 2008 &ndash; Kata Air Transport Flight 007 crashes while attempting an emergency landing at Chișinău International Airport, killing eight.<ref>{{Cite web \|date12 April 2008 \|titleSudanese plane crashes in Moldova, eight dead \|urlhttp://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/198443,sudanese-plane-crashes-in-moldova-eight-dead.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714115007/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/198443,sudanese-plane-crashes-in-moldova-eight-dead.html \|archive-date14 July 2014 \|website=Earth Times}}</ref> 2011 &ndash; An explosion in the Minsk Metro, Belarus kills 15 people and injures 204 others. 2012 &ndash; A pair of great earthquakes occur in the Wharton Basin west of Sumatra in Indonesia. The maximum Mercalli intensity of this strike-slip doublet earthquake is VII (Very strong). Ten are killed, twelve are injured, and a non-destructive tsunami is observed on the island of Nias. 2018 &ndash; An Ilyushin Il-76 which was owned and operated by the Algerian Air Force crashes near Boufarik, Algeria, killing 257. 2021 &ndash; Twenty year old Daunte Wright is shot and killed in Brooklyn Center, Minnesota by officer Kimberly Potter, sparking protests in the city, when the officer allegedly mistakes her own gun for her taser.<ref>{{Cite web\|authorRay Sanchez and Mallika Kallingal\|titleEx-police officer Kim Potter weeps, says she's 'sorry' as she recalls fatally shooting Daunte Wright\|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2021/12/17/us/kim-potter-trial-friday/index.html\|access-date2021-12-18\|websiteCNN\|date17 December 2021 }}</ref> 2023 &ndash; During the Pazigyi massacre, an airstrike conducted by the Myanmar Air Force kills at least 100 villagers in Pazigyi, Sagaing Region.<ref>{{cite news \|date11 April 2023 \|titleAirstrikes on Myanmar village feared to have killed 100 \|languageen \|workAP NEWS \|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/airstrikes-military-myanmar-village-918fd636bb81153928ab7481e06423e5}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600145 &ndash; Septimius Severus, Roman emperor (probable;<ref>{{cite book\|authorMaurice Platnauer\|titleThe Life and Reign of the Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeandreignemp00platgoog\|year1918\|publisherH. Milford, Oxford University Press\|page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeandreignemp00platgoog/page/n36 24]}}</ref> d. 211) 1184 &ndash; William of Winchester, Lord of Lüneburg (d. 1213) 1348 &ndash; Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1385) 1357 &ndash; John I of Portugal (d. 1433)<ref>{{cite book\|authorEncyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.\|titleBritannica Concise Encyclopedia\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idea-bAAAAQBAJ&pgPA990\|date1 May 2008\|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.\|isbn978-1-59339-492-9\|pages=990}}</ref> 1370 &ndash; Frederick I, Elector of Saxony (d. 1428)<ref>{{cite book\|titleEncyclopaedia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAq3LSkgUigIC\|year1962\|publisherEncyclopaedia Britannica\|page721}}</ref> 1374 &ndash; Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, heir to the throne of England (d. 1398) 1493 &ndash; George I, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1531) 1591 &ndash; Bartholomeus Strobel, Silezian painter (d. 1650) 1592 &ndash; John Eliot, English lawyer and politician (d. 1632) 1601–1900 1644 &ndash; Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1724) 1658 &ndash; James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton, Scottish peer (d. 1712) 1683 &ndash; Jean-Joseph Mouret, French composer and conductor (d. 1738) 1715 &ndash; John Alcock, English organist and composer (d. 1806) 1721 &ndash; David Zeisberger, Czech-American clergyman and missionary (d. 1808) 1722 &ndash; Christopher Smart, English actor, playwright, and poet (d. 1771) 1749 &ndash; Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, French miniaturist and portrait painter (d. 1803)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://siefar.org/dictionnaire/en/Ad%C3%A9la%C3%AFde_Labille\|titleAdélaïde Labille\|firstLaura\|lastAuricchio\|date2003\|publisherSociété Internationale pour l'Etude des Femmes de l'Ancien Régime\|access-date=2019-04-11}}</ref> 1755 &ndash; James Parkinson, English surgeon, geologist, and paleontologist (d. 1824) 1770 &ndash; George Canning, Irish-English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1827) 1794 &ndash; Edward Everett, English-American educator and politician, 15th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1865) 1798 &ndash; Macedonio Melloni, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1854) 1819 &ndash; Charles Hallé, German-English pianist and conductor (d. 1895) 1825 &ndash; Ferdinand Lassalle, German philosopher and jurist (d. 1864) 1827 &ndash; Jyotirao Phule, Indian scholar, philosopher, and activist (d. 1890) 1830 &ndash; John Douglas, English architect (d. 1911)<ref>{{cite ODNB \|last1Howell \|first1Peter \|date2004 \|titleDouglas, John (1830–1911) \|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/52372}}</ref> 1837 &ndash; Elmer E. Ellsworth, American army officer and law clerk (d. 1861)<ref>{{cite magazine \|magazineThe Wisconsin Magazine of History \|volume1 \|issue4 \|titleColonel Elmer E. Ellsworth: First Hero of the Civil War \|page351 \|last1Ingraham \|first1Charles A. \|dateJune 1918 \|jstor=4630106}}</ref> 1854 &ndash; Hugh Massie, Australian cricketer (d. 1938) 1856 &ndash; Arthur Shrewsbury, English cricketer and rugby player (d. 1903) 1859 &ndash; Stefanos Thomopoulos, Greek historian and author (d. 1939) 1862 &ndash; William Wallace Campbell, American astronomer and academic (d. 1938) 1862 &ndash; Charles Evans Hughes, American lawyer and politician, 44th United States Secretary of State (d. 1948) 1864 &ndash; Johanna Elberskirchen, German author and activist (d. 1943) 1866 &ndash; Bernard O'Dowd, Australian journalist, author, and poet (d. 1953) 1867 &ndash; Mark Keppel, American educator (d. 1928) 1869 &ndash; Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor, designed the Nobel Peace Prize medal (d. 1943) 1871 &ndash; Gyula Kellner, Hungarian runner (d. 1940) 1872 &ndash; Aleksandër Stavre Drenova, Albanian poet, rilindas and author of national anthem of Albania (d. 1947)<ref>{{cite book\|authorRobert Elsie\|titleHistorical Dictionary of Albania: Second Edition\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhaFlGXIg8uoC&qhistorical+dictionary+of+albania\|year2010\|publisherThe Scarecrow Press, Inc.\|page25\|isbn=9780810873803}}</ref> 1873 &ndash; Edward Lawson, English soldier, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1955) 1876 &ndash; Paul Henry, Irish painter (d. 1958) * 1876 &ndash; Ivane Javakhishvili, Georgian historian and academic (d. 1940) 1878 &ndash; Percy Lane Oliver, British pioneer of volunteer blood donation (d. 1944)<ref>Oliver, Percy Lane (2004) '[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/52372 Oliver, Percy Lane (1878–1944)]', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Retrieved on 5 May 2024.</ref> 1879 &ndash; Bernhard Schmidt, Estonian-German astronomer and optician (d. 1935) 1887 &ndash; Jamini Roy, Indian painter (d. 1972) 1893 &ndash; Dean Acheson, American lawyer and politician, 51st United States Secretary of State (d. 1971) 1896 &ndash; Léo-Paul Desrosiers, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1967) 1899 &ndash; Percy Lavon Julian, African-American chemist and academic (d. 1975) 1900 &ndash; Sándor Márai, Hungarian journalist and author (d. 1989) 1901–present 1903 &ndash; Misuzu Kaneko, Japanese poet (d. 1930) 1904 &ndash; K. L. Saigal, Indian singer and actor (d. 1947) 1905 &ndash; Attila József, Hungarian poet and educator (d. 1937) 1906 &ndash; Dale Messick, American author and illustrator (d. 2005) 1907 &ndash; Paul Douglas, American actor (d. 1959) 1908 &ndash; Jane Bolin, American lawyer and judge (d. 2007) 1908 &ndash; Masaru Ibuka, Japanese businessman, co-founded Sony (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite news \|titleObituary: Masaru Ibuka \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/obituary-masaru-ibuka-1290247.html \|access-date22 July 2020 \|workThe Independent \|date22 December 1997 \|languageen}}</ref> * 1908 &ndash; Dan Maskell, English tennis player and sportscaster (d. 1992) * 1908 &ndash; Leo Rosten, Polish-American author and academic (d. 1997) 1910 &ndash; António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (d. 1996) 1912 &ndash; John Levy, American bassist and businessman (d. 2012) 1913 &ndash; Oleg Cassini, French-American fashion designer (d. 2006) 1914 &ndash; Norman McLaren, Scottish-Canadian animator, director, and producer (d. 1987) * 1914 &ndash; Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 2003) * 1914 &ndash; Dorothy Lewis Bernstein, American mathematician (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite book \| firstAnn \| lastMorkel \| chapterDorothy Lewis Bernstein \| editor-last1Grinstein \| editor-first1Louise S. \| editor-last2Campbell \| editor-first2Paul J. \| titleWomen of Mathematics: a Biobibliographic Sourcebook \| placeNew York \| publisherGreenwood Press \| year1987 \| isbn978-0-3132-4849-8 \| page[https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/17 17] \| chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/17 }}</ref> 1916 &ndash; Alberto Ginastera, Argentinian pianist and composer (d. 1983)<ref>{{cite web \|titleAlberto Ginastera {{!}} Argentine composer {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alberto-Ginastera \|websitewww.britannica.com \|access-date27 April 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> 1916 &ndash; Howard W. Koch, American director and producer (d. 2001) 1917 &ndash; David Westheimer, American soldier, journalist, and author (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite book\|authorHarris M. Lentz\|titleObituaries in the performing arts, 2005: film, television, radio, theatre, dance, music, cartoons and pop culture\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPp8HAQAAMAAJ\|year2006\|publisherMcFarland & Company\|isbn978-0-7864-2489-4\|page389}}</ref> 1918 &ndash; Richard Wainwright, English soldier and politician (d. 2003) 1919 &ndash; Raymond Carr, English historian and academic (d. 2015) 1920 &ndash; Emilio Colombo, Italian lawyer and politician, 40th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite book\|titleNouvelles universitaires européennes\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBFxT-QmnT3wC\|year1997\|publisherBureau d'information des Communautés européennes\|page14}}</ref> * 1920 &ndash; William Royer, American soldier and politician (d. 2013) 1921 &ndash; Jim Hearn, American baseball player (d. 1998) 1921 &ndash; Jack Rayner, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2008) 1922 &ndash; Arved Viirlaid, Estonian-Canadian soldier and author (d. 2015) 1923 &ndash; George J. Maloof, Sr., American businessman (d. 1980) 1924 &ndash; Mohammad Naseem, Pakistani-English activist and politician (d. 2014) 1925 &ndash; Yuriy Lituyev, Russian hurdler and commander (d. 2000) * 1925 &ndash; Viola Liuzzo, American civil rights activist (d. 1965) * 1925 &ndash; Viktor Masing, Estonian botanist and ecologist (d. 2001) * 1925 &ndash; Pierre Péladeau, Canadian businessman, founded Quebecor (d. 1997) 1926 &ndash; David Manker Abshire, American commander and diplomat, United States Permanent Representative to NATO (d. 2014)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/us/david-m-abshire-who-helped-reagan-through-iran-contra-scandal-dies-at-88.html \|titleDavid M. Abshire, Who Helped Reagan Through Iran-Contra Scandal, Dies at 88 \|lastMartin \|firstDouglas \|workThe New York Times \|dateNovember 3, 2014 \|access-dateJuly 9, 2023 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108173050/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/us/david-m-abshire-who-helped-reagan-through-iran-contra-scandal-dies-at-88.html \|archive-dateNovember 8, 2014 \|quote=David Manker Abshire was born in Chattanooga, Tenn., on April 11, 1926}}</ref> 1926 &ndash; Victor Bouchard, Canadian pianist and composer (d. 2011) * 1926 &ndash; Karl Rebane, Estonian physicist and academic (d. 2007) 1927 &ndash; Lokesh Chandra, Indian historian 1928 &ndash; Ethel Kennedy, American philanthropist (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastMartin \|firstDouglas \|dateOctober 10, 2024 \|titleEthel Kennedy, Passionate Supporter of the Family Legacy, Dies at 96 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/10/us/politics/ethel-kennedy-dead.html \|access-dateOctober 11, 2024 \|work=The New York Times}}</ref> * 1928 &ndash; Edwin Pope, American journalist and author (d. 2017) * 1928 &ndash; Tommy Tycho, Hungarian-Australian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2013) 1930 &ndash; Nicholas F. Brady, American businessman and politician, 68th United States Secretary of the Treasury 1930 &ndash; Walter Krüger, German javelin thrower (d. 2018) * 1930 &ndash; Anton LaVey, American occultist, founded the Church of Satan (d. 1997)<ref>{{cite web \|titleAnton LaVey {{!}} Biography, Books, & Facts \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anton-LaVey \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date16 January 2021 \|language=en}}</ref> 1931 &ndash; Lewis Jones, Welsh rugby player and coach (d. 2024) 1932 &ndash; Joel Grey, American actor, singer, and dancer 1933 &ndash; Tony Brown, American journalist and academic 1934 &ndash; Mark Strand, Canadian-born American poet, essayist, and translator (d. 2014) * 1934 &ndash; Ron Pember, English actor, director and playwright (d. 2022) 1935 &ndash; Richard Berry, American singer-songwriter (d. 1997) 1936 &ndash; Brian Noble, English bishop (d. 2019) 1937 &ndash; Jill Gascoine, English actress and author (d. 2020) 1938 &ndash; Gerry Baker, American soccer player and manager (d. 2013) * 1938 &ndash; Michael Deaver, American politician, Deputy White House Chief of Staff (d. 2007) * 1938 &ndash; Reatha King, American chemist and businesswoman<ref>{{cite book \| lastBrown \|first Jeannette E. \| year2012 \| titleAfrican American Women Chemists \| locationNew York \| publisherOxford University Press \|page115 \| isbn978-0-19974-288-2}}</ref> 1939 &ndash; Luther Johnson, American singer and guitarist (d. 2022) 1939 &ndash; Louise Lasser, American actress 1940 &ndash; Col Firmin, Australian politician (d. 2013) 1940 &ndash; Władysław Komar, Polish shot putter and actor (d. 1998) 1941 &ndash; Ellen Goodman, American journalist and author 1941 &ndash; Shirley Stelfox, English actress (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite web \|last1Hayward \|first1Anthony \|titleShirley Stelfox obituary \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2015/dec/09/shirley-stelfox \|websiteThe Guardian \|access-date9 August 2023 \|date=9 December 2015}}</ref> 1942 &ndash; Anatoly Berezovoy, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2014) 1942 &ndash; Hattie Gossett, American writer<ref>{{Cite book\|titlePresenting-- Sister Noblues\|lastGossett\|firstHattie\|publisherFirebrand Books\|year1988\|isbn0932379508\|pages[https://archive.org/details/presentingsister00goss/page/9 9]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/presentingsister00goss/page/9}}</ref> * 1942 &ndash; James Underwood, English pathologist and academic 1943 &ndash; John Montagu, 11th Earl of Sandwich, English businessman and politician 1943 &ndash; Harley Race, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2019) 1944 &ndash; Peter Barfuß, German footballer 1944 &ndash; John Milius, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1945 &ndash; John Krebs, Baron Krebs, English zoologist and academic 1946 &ndash; Chris Burden, American sculptor, illustrator, and academic (d. 2015) * 1946 &ndash; Bob Harris, English journalist and radio host 1947 &ndash; Lev Bulat, Ukrainian-Russian physicist and academic (d. 2016) 1947 &ndash; Uli Edel, German director and screenwriter * 1947 &ndash; Frank Mantooth, American pianist and composer (d. 2004) * 1947 &ndash; Peter Riegert, American actor, screenwriter and film director * 1947 &ndash; Michael T. Wright, English engineer and academic (d. 2015) * 1949 – Dorothy Allison, American writer (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGreen \|firstPenelope \|dateNovember 8, 2024 \|titleDorothy Allison, Author of ‘Bastard Out of Carolina,’ Dies at 75 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/08/books/dorothy-allison-dead.html \|access-dateNovember 9, 2024 \|work=The New York Times}}</ref> 1949 &ndash; Bernd Eichinger, German director and producer (d. 2011) 1950 &ndash; Bill Irwin, American actor and clown 1951 &ndash; Paul Fox, English singer and guitarist (d. 2007) 1952 &ndash; Nancy Honeytree, American singer and guitarist * 1952 &ndash; Indira Samarasekera, Sri Lankan engineer and academic * 1952 &ndash; Peter Windsor, English-Australian journalist and sportscaster 1953 &ndash; Guy Verhofstadt, Belgian politician, 47th Prime Minister of Belgium 1953 &ndash; Andrew Wiles, English mathematician and academic 1954 &ndash; Abdullah Atalar, Turkish engineer and academic 1954 &ndash; Aleksandr Averin, Azerbaijani cyclist and coach * 1954 &ndash; Francis Lickerish, English guitarist and composer * 1954 &ndash; David Perrett, Scottish psychologist and academic * 1954 &ndash; Ian Redmond, English biologist and conservationist * 1954 &ndash; Willie Royster, American baseball player (d. 2015) 1955 &ndash; Kevin Brady, American lawyer and politician 1955 &ndash; Michael Callen, American singer-songwriter and AIDS activist (d. 1993) * 1955 &ndash; Micheal Ray Richardson, American basketball player and coach 1958 &ndash; Stuart Adamson, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001) 1958 &ndash; Lyudmila Kondratyeva, Russian sprinter * 1958 &ndash; Wayne Wigham, Australian rugby league player<ref>[http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/players/wayne-wigham/summary.html Rugby League Project]</ref> 1959 &ndash; Pierre Lacroix, Canadian ice hockey player 1959 &ndash; Ana María Polo, Cuban-American lawyer and judge * 1959 &ndash; Zahid Maleque, Bangladeshi politician 1960 &ndash; Jeremy Clarkson, English journalist and television presenter 1961 &ndash; Vincent Gallo, American actor, director, producer, and musician * 1961 &ndash; Doug Hopkins, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 1993) * 1961 &ndash; Nobuaki Kakuda, Japanese martial artist 1962 &ndash; Franck Ducheix, French fencer 1962 &ndash; Mark Lawson, English journalist and author 1963 &ndash; Billy Bowden, New Zealand cricketer and umpire 1963 &ndash; Waldemar Fornalik, Polish footballer and manager * 1963 &ndash; Elizabeth Smylie, Australian tennis player * 1963 &ndash; Eleni Tsaligopoulou, Greek singer<ref>{{cite web \|last1Βαμβακούλα \|first1Χαρά \|titleΕλένη Τσαλιγοπούλου: Γιατί να συνεργαστώ με τον Αργυρό; \|urlhttps://www.athensvoice.gr/viral/showbiz/746248-eleni-tsaligopoyloy-giati-na-synergasto-me-ton-argyro \|websiteAthens Voice \|date16 February 2022 \|access-date27 June 2022 \|languageel}}</ref> 1964 &ndash; Steve Azar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 &ndash; John Cryer, English journalist and politician * 1964 &ndash; Johann Sebastian Paetsch, American cellist * 1964 &ndash; Bret Saberhagen, American baseball player and coach * 1964 &ndash; Patrick Sang, Kenyan runner 1966 &ndash; Steve Scarsone, American baseball player and manager 1966 &ndash; Shin Seung-hun, South Korean singer-songwriter * 1966 &ndash; Lisa Stansfield, English singer-songwriter and actress 1968 &ndash; Sergei Lukyanenko, Kazakh-Russian journalist and author 1969 &ndash; Cerys Matthews, Welsh singer-songwriter<ref>{{cite book\|authorEuropa Europa Publications\|titleInternational Who's Who in Popular Music 2008\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNYUnAQAAIAAJ\|year2008\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-85743-454-5\|page205}}</ref> * 1969 &ndash; Dustin Rhodes, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web \|titleGoldust \|urlhttps://www.espn.com/wwe/story/_/id/17167218/wwe-profile-page-goldust \|publisherESPN \|access-date31 March 2023 \|date=11 August 2016}}</ref> * 1969 &ndash; Michael von Grünigen, Swiss skier 1970 &ndash; Trevor Linden, Canadian ice hockey player and manager 1970 &ndash; Whigfield, Danish singer and songwriter<ref>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrgsEAAAAMBAJ&qWhigfield+Italian&pgPA75\|titleBillboard: Italian Acts\|magazineBillboard\|access-date2020-08-19\|date1995-07-01}}</ref> 1971 &ndash; Oliver Riedel, German bass player<ref>{{cite book\|authorGraham Betts\|titleCollins Complete UK Hit Singles 1952-2004\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEwk5AQAAIAAJ\|year2004\|publisherCollins\|isbn978-0-00-717931-2\|page534}}</ref> 1972 &ndash; Balls Mahoney, American wrestler (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttp://www.wrestlingnewssource.com/news/42182/ECW-Original-Balls-Mahoney-Passes-Away-At-Age-44/ \| titleECW Original Balls Mahoney Passes Away At Age 44 \| firstKenny \| lastWilliams \| workWrestling News Source \| dateApril 12, 2016 \| access-date=April 13, 2016}}</ref> * 1972 &ndash; Allan Théo, French singer * 1972 &ndash; Jason Varitek, American baseball player and manager * 1972 &ndash; Jennifer Esposito, American actress and writer<ref>{{cite book\|titleDrum: A Magazine of Africa for Africa\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZ1EnAQAAIAAJ\|year2001\|publisherAfrican Drum Publications\|page57}}</ref> 1973 &ndash; Olivier Magne, French rugby player 1974 &ndash; Àlex Corretja, Spanish tennis player and coach * 1974 &ndash; Ashot Danielyan, Armenian weightlifter * 1974 &ndash; David Jassy, Swedish singer-songwriter and producer * 1974 &ndash; Tom Thacker, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1974 &ndash; Trot Nixon, American baseball player and sportscaster 1976 &ndash; Marta Breen, Norwegian journalist, non-fiction writer, and organizational leader<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|titleMarta Breen \|firstRandi \|lastBrenden \|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon \|date5 January 2024 \|editor-lastBolstad \| editor-firstErik \|publisherNorsk nettleksikon \|locationOslo \|urlhttps://snl.no/Marta_Breen \|languageno\|access-date17 March 2024}}</ref> 1976 &ndash; Kelvim Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player * 1976 &ndash; Kotomitsuki Keiji, Japanese sumo wrestler<ref>{{cite web \|titleHefty fan club \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/tn-dpt-xpm-2008-04-15-dpt-sumo041308-story.html \|websiteDaily Pilot \|access-date12 October 2020 \|date=15 April 2008}}</ref> 1977 &ndash; Ivonne Teichmann, German runner 1978 &ndash; Josh Hancock, American baseball player (d. 2007) 1979 &ndash; Malcolm Christie, English footballer 1979 &ndash; Sebastien Grainger, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1979 &ndash; Michel Riesen, Swiss ice hockey player * 1979 &ndash; Josh Server, American actor 1980 &ndash; Keiji Tamada, Japanese footballer 1980 &ndash; Mark Teixeira, American baseball player 1981 &ndash; Alessandra Ambrosio, Brazilian model 1981 &ndash; Alexandre Burrows, Canadian ice hockey player * 1981 &ndash; Luis Flores, Dominican basketball player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.basketball-reference.com/players/f/florelu01.html\|titleLuis Flores Stats\|website=Basketball-Reference.com}}</ref> * 1981 &ndash; Veronica Pyke, Australian cricketer 1982 &ndash; Ian Bell, English cricketer 1982 &ndash; Peeter Kümmel, Estonian skier 1983 &ndash; Jennifer Heil, Canadian skier 1983 &ndash; Rubén Palazuelos, Spanish footballer * 1983 &ndash; Nicky Pastorelli, Dutch race car driver 1984 &ndash; Kelli Garner, American actress 1984 &ndash; Nikola Karabatić, French handball player 1985 &ndash; Pablo Hernández Domínguez, Spanish footballer 1985 &ndash; Will Minson, Australian footballer 1986 &ndash; Sarodj Bertin, Haitian model and human rights lawyer<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://wenshow.me/2012/10/26/miss-haiti-sarodj-bertin-is-now-reina-hispano-americana-2012/\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141026094629/http://wenshow.me/2012/10/26/miss-haiti-sarodj-bertin-is-now-reina-hispano-americana-2012/\|url-statusdead\|archive-date2014-10-26\|titleMiss Haiti, Sarodj Bertin is now Reina Hispano Americana 2012 {{!}} WENSHOW\|date2014-10-26\|access-date=2018-05-03}}</ref> 1986 &ndash; Lena Schöneborn, German pentathlete 1987 &ndash; Joss Stone, English singer-songwriter and actress 1987 &ndash; Lights, Canadian singer-songwriter 1988 &ndash; Leland Irving, Canadian ice hockey player 1989 &ndash; Torrin Lawrence, American sprinter (d. 2014) 1990 &ndash; Dimitrios Anastasopoulos, Greek footballer 1990 &ndash; Thulani Serero, South African footballer 1991 &ndash; Thiago Alcântara, Spanish footballer 1991 &ndash; Brennan Poole, American racing driver<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.racing-reference.info/driver/Brennan_Poole\|titleBrennan Poole\|access-date=21 April 2020}}</ref> 1994 &ndash; Brandon Montour, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{Cite web \|titleBrandon Montour \|urlhttps://www.nhl.com/panthers/player/brandon-montour-8477986 \|access-date11 April 2024 \|publisherNational Hockey League}}</ref> 1996 &ndash; Dele Alli, English international footballer<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id63196\|titleDele Alli\|websitesoccerbase.com\|access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref> 2000 &ndash; Calen Addison, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCalen Addison \|urlhttps://www.nhl.com/sharks/player/calen-addison-8480884 \|access-date11 April 2024 \|publisherNational Hockey League}}</ref> 2000 &ndash; Milly Alcock, Australian actress<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://shanahan.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ALCOCK-Milly-081121.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://shanahan.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ALCOCK-Milly-081121.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|titleMilly Alcock\|websiteShanahan.com.au\|access-date=31 August 2022}}</ref> * 2000 &ndash; Karina, South Korean singer<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://m.entertain.naver.com/article/312/0000657620 \|title카리나, 누가 찍어줬을까…화려한 비주얼→푸짐한 생일상 눈길 \|date11 April 2024 \|work텐아시아\|languageko \|access-date25 October 2024}}</ref> 2001 &ndash; Manuel Ugarte, Uruguayan footballer<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf \|titleFIFA World Cup Qatar 2022™: List of Players: Uruguay \|publisherFIFA \|page30 \|date18 December 2022 \|access-date29 October 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221218195301/https://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf \|archive-date18 December 2022 \|url-status=live}}</ref> 2002 &ndash; Jake Fraser-McGurk, Australian cricketer<ref name"Bio">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1168049.html \|titleJake Fraser-McGurk \|access-date12 November 2019 \|work=ESPN Cricinfo}}</ref> 2005 &ndash; Danielle Marsh, South Korean-Australian singer<ref>{{cite web\|title“Don’t hurry Be Happy”…뉴진스 혜인, 부상으로 스케줄 중단→다니엘 생일 축하\|urlhttps://www.topstarnews.net/news/articleView.html?idxno15479694#_PA\|work톱스타뉴스\|date12 April 2024\|access-date10 March 2025\|language=ko}}</ref> <!--Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.--> Deaths Pre-1600 618 &ndash; Yang Guang, Chinese emperor of the Sui Dynasty (b. 569) * 678 &ndash; Donus, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 610) * 924 &ndash; Herman I, chancellor and archbishop of Cologne 1034 &ndash; Romanos III Argyros, Byzantine emperor (b. 968) 1077 &ndash; Anawrahta, king of Burma and founder of the Pagan Empire (b. 1014) 1079 &ndash; Stanislaus of Szczepanów, bishop of Kraków (b. 1030) 1165 &ndash; Stephen IV, king of Hungary and Croatia<ref>{{cite book\|author1Július Bartl\|author2Dusan Skvarna\|titleSlovak History: Chronology & Lexicon\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3orG2yZ9mBkC&pgPA29\|year2002\|publisherBolchazy-Carducci Publishers\|isbn978-0-86516-444-4\|pages29}}</ref> 1240 &ndash; Llywelyn the Great, Welsh prince (b. 1172)<ref>{{cite book\|authorRoger Turvey\|titleLlywelyn the Great: Prince of Gwynedd\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoRMXAQAAIAAJ\|year2007\|publisherGwasg Gomer\|isbn978-1-84323-747-1\|page134}}</ref> 1349 &ndash; Ramadan ibn Alauddin, first known Muslim from Korea<ref>{{cite journal\| author박현규 (Park Hyun-kyu) \| title Choegeun balgul-doen Jungguk sojang Haedong gwallyeon geumseongmun: Goryeo-in Isseullam-gyodo Ramadan myobi \| script-title ko:최근 발굴된 중국 소장 海東 관련 금석문: 고려인 이슬람교도 剌馬丹 묘비 \| trans-title A recently discovered Korea-related inscription in China: The epitaph of Ramadan, a Korean Muslim \| journal 중국학논총 \| volume 17 \| year 2004 \| pages 309–324 \| url https://dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeIdNODE09039250 \| access-date June 8, 2020 \| ref {{harvid\|Park H.\|2004}}}}</ref> 1447 &ndash; Henry Beaufort, Cardinal, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1377) 1512 &ndash; Gaston de Foix, French military commander (b. 1489) 1554 &ndash; Thomas Wyatt the Younger, English rebel leader (b. 1521)<ref>{{cite book\|authorGeorge Wilson Page\|titleThe descendants of Robart Page of the king's house: the probable English origins, ancestors, and relatives of George Page of Branford, Connecticut, and Thomas Page of Saco in the Province of Maine\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ohCAAAAMAAJ\|year1992\|publisherG.W. Page\|page=112}}</ref> 1587 &ndash; Thomas Bromley, English lord chancellor (b. 1530) 1601–1900 1609 &ndash; John Lumley, 1st Baron Lumley, English noble (b. 1533) 1612 &ndash; Emanuel van Meteren, Flemish historian and author (b. 1535) * 1612 &ndash; Edward Wightman, English minister and martyr (b. 1566) 1626 &ndash; Marino Ghetaldi, Ragusan mathematician and physicist (b. 1568) 1712 &ndash; Richard Simon, French priest and critic (b. 1638) 1723 &ndash; John Robinson, English bishop and diplomat (b. 1650) 1783 &ndash; Nikita Ivanovich Panin, Polish-Russian politician, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1718) 1798 &ndash; Karl Wilhelm Ramler, German poet and academic (b. 1725) 1856 &ndash; Juan Santamaría, Costa Rican soldier (b. 1831) 1861 &ndash; Francisco González Bocanegra, Mexican poet and composer (b. 1824) 1873 &ndash; Edward Canby, American general (b. 1817) 1890 &ndash; David de Jahacob Lopez Cardozo, Dutch Talmudist (b. 1808) 1890 &ndash; Joseph Merrick, English man with severe deformities (b. 1862)<ref>{{Citation\| title Death Of 'The Elephant Man' \| newspaperThe Times \| date 16 April 1890\|page 6}}</ref> 1894 &ndash; Constantin Lipsius, German architect and theorist (b. 1832) 1895 &ndash; Julius Lothar Meyer, German chemist (b. 1830) 1901–present 1902 &ndash; Wade Hampton III, Confederate general and politician, 77th Governor of South Carolina (b. 1818)<ref>{{cite web \|titleWade Hampton {{!}} Family & Term of Office {{!}} Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Wade-Hampton \|websitewww.britannica.com \|access-date18 March 2022 \|language=en}}</ref> 1903 &ndash; Gemma Galgani, Italian mystic and saint (b. 1878) 1906 &ndash; James Anthony Bailey, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus (b. 1847) 1906 &ndash; Francis Pharcellus Church, American journalist and publisher, co-founded Armed Forces Journal and The Galaxy Magazine (b. 1839) 1908 &ndash; Henry Bird, English chess player and author (b. 1829) 1916 &ndash; Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (b. 1864) 1918 &ndash; Otto Wagner, Austrian architect and urban planner (b. 1841) 1926 &ndash; Luther Burbank, American botanist and academic (b. 1849) 1939 &ndash; Kurtdereli Mehmet, Turkish wrestler (b. 1864) 1953 &ndash; Kid Nichols, American baseball player and manager (b. 1869) 1954 &ndash; Paul Specht, American violinist and bandleader (b. 1895) 1958 &ndash; Konstantin Yuon, Russian painter and educator (b. 1875) 1960 &ndash; Rosa Grünberg, Swedish actress (b. 1878) 1962 &ndash; Ukichiro Nakaya, Japanese physicist and academic (b. 1900) * 1962 &ndash; George Poage, American hurdler and educator (b. 1880) * 1962 &ndash; Axel Revold, Norwegian painter (b. 1887)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|titleAxel Revold \|first \|last\|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon \|date23 August 2023\|editor-lastBolstad \| editor-firstErik \|publisherNorsk nettleksikon \|locationOslo \|urlhttps://snl.no/Axel_Revold \|languageno\|access-date18 March 2024}}</ref> 1967 &ndash; Thomas Farrell, American general (b. 1891) 1967 &ndash; Donald Sangster, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Jamaica (b. 1911) 1970 &ndash; Cathy O'Donnell, American actress (b. 1923) 1970 &ndash; John O'Hara, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1905) 1974 &ndash; Ernst Ziegler, German actor (b. 1894) 1977 &ndash; Jacques Prévert, French poet and screenwriter (b. 1900) * 1977 &ndash; Phanishwar Nath 'Renu', Indian author and activist (b. 1921) 1980 &ndash; Ümit Kaftancıoğlu, Turkish journalist and producer (b. 1935) 1981 &ndash; Caroline Gordon, American author and critic (b. 1895) 1983 &ndash; Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite book\|authorSusan Ware\|titleNotable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary Completing the Twentieth Century\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWSaMu4F06AQC&pgPA163\|year2004\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn978-0-674-01488-6\|pages=163}}</ref> 1984 &ndash; Edgar V. Saks, Estonian historian and politician, Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1910) 1985 &ndash; Bunny Ahearne, Irish-born English businessman (b. 1900) 1985 &ndash; John Gilroy, English artist and illustrator (b. 1898) * 1985 &ndash; Enver Hoxha, Albanian educator and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Albania (b. 1908) 1987 &ndash; Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903) 1987 &ndash; Primo Levi, Italian chemist and author (b. 1919) 1990 &ndash; Harold Ballard, Canadian businessman (b. 1903) 1991 &ndash; Walker Cooper, American baseball player and manager (b. 1915) * 1991 &ndash; Bruno Hoffmann. German glass harp player (b. 1913) 1992 &ndash; James Brown, American actor and singer (b. 1920) 1992 &ndash; Eve Merriam, American author and poet (b. 1916) * 1992 &ndash; Alejandro Obregón, Colombian painter, sculptor, and engraver (b. 1920) 1996 &ndash; Jessica Dubroff, American pilot (b. 1988) 1997 &ndash; Muriel McQueen Fergusson, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (b. 1899) * 1997 &ndash; Wang Xiaobo, contemporary Chinese novelist and essayist (b. 1952) 1999 &ndash; William H. Armstrong, American author and educator (b. 1911) 2000 &ndash; Diana Darvey, English actress, singer and dancer (b. 1945) 2001 &ndash; Harry Secombe, Welsh-English actor (b. 1921) 2003 &ndash; Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, founded Texas Instruments (b. 1900) 2005 &ndash; André François, Romanian-French cartoonist, painter, and sculptor (b. 1915) 2005 &ndash; Lucien Laurent, French footballer and coach (b. 1907) 2006 &ndash; June Pointer, American singer (b. 1953) 2006 &ndash; DeShaun Holton, American rapper and actor (b. 1973) 2007 &ndash; Roscoe Lee Browne, American actor and director (b. 1922) 2007 &ndash; Loïc Leferme, French diver (b. 1970) * 2007 &ndash; Janet McDonald, American lawyer and author (b. 1954) * 2007 &ndash; Ronald Speirs, Scottish-American colonel (b. 1920) * 2007 &ndash; Kurt Vonnegut, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite web \|titleKurt Vonnegut {{!}} Biography, Facts, & Books \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Vonnegut \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|access-date16 April 2020 \|language=en}}</ref> 2008 &ndash; Merlin German, American sergeant (b. 1985) 2009 &ndash; Gerda Gilboe, Danish actress and singer (b. 1914) * 2009 &ndash; Vishnu Prabhakar, Indian author and playwright (b. 1912) * 2009 &ndash; Corín Tellado, Spanish author (b. 1927) 2010 &ndash; Julia Tsenova, Bulgarian pianist and composer (b. 1948) 2011 &ndash; Larry Sweeney, American wrestler and manager (b. 1981) 2012 &ndash; Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (b. 1916) 2012 &ndash; Roger Caron, Canadian criminal and author (b. 1938) * 2012 &ndash; Tippy Dye, American basketball player and coach (b. 1915) * 2012 &ndash; Hal McKusick, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and flute player (b. 1924) * 2012 &ndash; Agustin Roman, American bishop (b. 1928) 2013 &ndash; Don Blackman, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b. 1953) 2013 &ndash; Sue Draheim, American fiddler (b.1949)<ref>Hunt, Ken 2013 [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/sue-draheim-widely-admired-folk-violinist-8635048.html Sue Draheim: Widely admired folk violinist] independent.co.uk.</ref> * 2013 &ndash; Grady Hatton, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1922) * 2013 &ndash; Thomas Hemsley, English actor and singer (b. 1927) * 2013 &ndash; Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist (b. 1916) * 2013 &ndash; Gilles Marchal, French singer-songwriter (b. 1944) * 2013 &ndash; Maria Tallchief, American ballerina (b. 1925) * 2013 &ndash; Clorindo Testa, Italian-Argentinian architect (b. 1923) * 2013 &ndash; Jonathan Winters, American comedian, actor and screenwriter (b. 1925) 2014 &ndash; Rolf Brem, Swiss sculptor and illustrator (b. 1926) 2014 &ndash; Edna Doré, English actress (b. 1921) * 2014 &ndash; Bill Henry, American baseball player (b. 1927) * 2014 &ndash; Lou Hudson, American basketball player and sportscaster (b. 1944) * 2014 &ndash; Myer S. Kripke, American rabbi and scholar (b. 1914) * 2014 &ndash; Sergey Nepobedimy, Russian engineer (b. 1921) * 2014 &ndash; Jesse Winchester, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1944) 2015 &ndash; Jimmy Gunn, American football player (b. 1948) 2015 &ndash; Muhammad Kamaruzzaman, Bangladeshi journalist and politician (b. 1952) * 2015 &ndash; François Maspero, French journalist and author (b. 1932) * 2015 &ndash; Hanut Singh, Indian general (b. 1933) * 2015 &ndash; Tekena Tamuno, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1932) 2017 &ndash; J. Geils, American singer and guitarist (b. 1946) 2017 &ndash; Mark Wainberg, Canadian researcher and HIV/AIDS activist (b. 1945) 2020 &ndash; John Horton Conway, English mathematician (b. 1937)<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/15/technology/john-horton-conway-dead-coronavirus.html\|titleJohn Horton Conway, a 'Magical Genius' in Math, Dies at 82\|firstSiobhan\|lastRoberts\|newspaperThe New York Times\|dateApril 17, 2020}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Park Bo-ram, South Korean singer (b. 1994)<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastBenjamin \|firstJeff \|date2024-04-12 \|titleK-Pop Singer-Songwriter Park Boram Found Dead at 30 \|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/music/pop/park-boram-k-pop-singer-songwriter-obituary-1235654493/ \|access-date2024-04-13 \|magazineBillboard \|languageen-US}}</ref> <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Antipas of Pergamum (Greek Orthodox Church) Barsanuphius<ref>[https://catholicreadings.org/saint-barsanuphius-of-gaza-saint-of-the-day-april-11/ "Saint Barsanuphius of Gaza"], Catholic Daily Readings.</ref><ref>[http://www.boston-catholic-journal.com/roman-martrylogy-in-english/roman-martyrology-april-in-english.htm#April_11th Roman Martyrology], via Boston Catholic Journal, accessed April 11, 2021.</ref> Elena Guerra<ref>[https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/31750 Sant' Elena Guerra], Santi e Beati, accessed February 24, 2025.</ref> Gemma Galgani Godeberta Guthlac of Crowland George Selwyn (Anglicanism) Stanislaus of Szczepanów April 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Juan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica) International Louie Louie Day World Parkinson's Day References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons}} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/11 BBC: On This Day] * {{NYT On this day\|month4\|day11}} * [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/11 Historical Events on April 11] {{months}} Category:Days of April	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_11	2025-04-05T18:26:03.315662
2396	Adhesive	thumb\|right\|Nitrocellulose adhesive dispensed from a tube Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. The use of adhesives offers certain advantages over other binding techniques such as sewing, mechanical fastenings, and welding. These include the ability to bind different materials together, the more efficient distribution of stress across a joint, the cost-effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, and greater flexibility in design. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion followed by reactive or non-reactive, a term which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively, they can be organized either by their starting physical phase or whether their raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin. Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesive-like substances was approximately 200,000 years ago, when Neanderthals produced tar from the dry distillation of birch bark for use in binding stone tools to wooden handles. The first references to adhesives in literature appeared approximately 2000 BC. The Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the period AD 1500–1700. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were relatively gradual. Only since the 20th century has the development of synthetic adhesives accelerated rapidly, and innovation in the field continues to the present. History thumbnail\|left\|Liquid animal glue The earliest evidence of human adhesive use was discovered in central Italy when three stone implements were discovered with birch bark tar indications. The tools were dated to about 200,000 before present in the Middle Paleolithic. It is the earliest example of tar-hafted stone tools. Although sticky enough, plant-based, single-component adhesives can be brittle and vulnerable to environmental conditions. The first use of compound adhesives was discovered in Sibudu, South Africa. Here, 70,000-year-old stone segments that were once inserted in axe hafts were discovered covered with an adhesive composed of plant gum and red ochre (natural iron oxide) as adding ochre to plant gum produces a stronger product and protects the gum from disintegrating under wet conditions. The ability to produce stronger adhesives allowed middle Stone Age humans to attach stone segments to sticks in greater variations, which led to the development of new tools. A study of material from Le Moustier indicates that Middle Paleolithic people, possibly Neanderthals, used glue made from a mixture of ocher and bitumen to make hand grips for cutting and scraping stone tools. More recent examples of adhesive use by prehistoric humans have been found at the burial sites of ancient tribes. Archaeologists studying the sites found that approximately 6,000 years ago the tribesmen had buried their dead together with food found in broken clay pots repaired with tree resins. Another investigation by archaeologists uncovered the use of bituminous cements to fasten ivory eyeballs to statues in Babylonian temples dating to approximately 4000 BC. thumb\|upright\|A reconstruction of Ötzi's axe, which used pitch as an adhesive In 2000, a paper revealed the discovery of a 5,200-year-old man nicknamed the "Tyrolean Iceman" or "Ötzi", who was preserved in a glacier near the Austria-Italy border. Several of his belongings were found with him including two arrows with flint arrowheads and a copper hatchet, each with evidence of organic glue used to connect the stone or metal parts to the wooden shafts. The glue was analyzed as pitch, which requires the heating of tar during its production. The retrieval of this tar requires a transformation of birch bark by means of heat, in a process known as pyrolysis. The first references to adhesives in literature appeared in approximately 2000 BC. Further historical records of adhesive use are found from the period spanning 1500–1000 BC. Artifacts from this period include paintings depicting wood gluing operations and a casket made of wood and glue in King Tutankhamun's tomb. Other ancient Egyptian artifacts employ animal glue for bonding or lamination. Such lamination of wood for bows and furniture is thought to have extended their life and was accomplished using casein (milk protein)-based glues. The ancient Egyptians also developed starch-based pastes for the bonding of papyrus to clothing and a plaster of Paris-like material made of calcined gypsum. thumb\|Beeswax\|left From AD 1 to 500 the Greeks and Romans made great contributions to the development of adhesives. Wood veneering and marquetry were developed, the production of animal and fish glues refined, and other materials utilized. Egg-based pastes were used to bond gold leaves, and incorporated various natural ingredients such as blood, bone, hide, milk, cheese, vegetables, and grains. The Greeks began the use of slaked lime as mortar while the Romans furthered mortar development by mixing lime with volcanic ash and sand. This material, known as pozzolanic cement, was used in the construction of the Roman Colosseum and Pantheon. The Romans were also the first people known to have used tar and beeswax as caulk and sealant between the wooden planks of their boats and ships. In Central Asia, the rise of the Mongols in approximately AD 1000 can be partially attributed to the good range and power of the bows of Genghis Khan's hordes. These bows were made of a bamboo core, with horn on the belly (facing towards the archer) and sinew on the back, bound together with animal glue. framed\|right\|Casein glue preparation In Europe, glue fell into disuse until the period AD 1500–1700. At this time, world-renowned cabinet and furniture makers such as Thomas Chippendale and Duncan Phyfe began to use adhesives to hold their products together. In 1690, the first commercial glue plant was established in The Netherlands. This plant produced glues from animal hides. In 1750, the first British glue patent was issued for fish glue. The following decades of the next century witnessed the manufacture of casein glues in German and Swiss factories. In 1876, the first U.S. patent (number 183,024) was issued to the Ross brothers for the production of casein glue. The first U.S. postage stamps used starch-based adhesives when issued in 1847. The first US patent (number 61,991) on dextrin (a starch derivative) adhesive was issued in 1867. Natural rubber was first used as material for adhesives in 1830, which marked the starting point of the modern adhesive. In 1862, a British patent (number 3288) was issued for the plating of metal with brass by electrodeposition to obtain a stronger bond to rubber. The development of the automobile and the need for rubber shock mounts required stronger and more durable bonds of rubber and metal. This spurred the development of cyclized rubber treated in strong acids. By 1927, this process was used to produce solvent-based thermoplastic rubber cements for metal to rubber bonding. Natural rubber-based sticky adhesives were first used on a backing by Henry Day (US Patent 3,965) in 1845. Later these kinds of adhesives were used in cloth backed surgical and electric tapes. By 1925, the pressure-sensitive tape industry was born. Today, sticky notes, Scotch Tape, and other tapes are examples of pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA). A key step in the development of synthetic plastics was the introduction of a thermoset plastic known as Bakelite phenolic in 1910. Within two years, phenolic resin was applied to plywood as a coating varnish. In the early 1930s, phenolics gained importance as adhesive resins. The 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s witnessed great advances in the development and production of new plastics and resins due to the First and Second World Wars. These advances greatly improved the development of adhesives by allowing the use of newly developed materials that exhibited a variety of properties. With changing needs and ever evolving technology, the development of new synthetic adhesives continues to the present. However, due to their low cost, natural adhesives are still more commonly used. Types Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase. By reactiveness Non-reactive Drying There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying: solvent-based adhesives and polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives. Solvent-based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers) dissolved in a solvent. White glue, contact adhesives and rubber cements are members of the drying adhesive family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees. Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate (PVAc). They are used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries. They are also used with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones. Pressure-sensitive Pressure-sensitive adhesives (PSA) form a bond by the application of light pressure to bind the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed to have a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e., "wet") to the adherend. The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular interactions, such as van der Waals forces, become involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength. PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications. Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at elevated temperatures. Permanent PSAs may initially be removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days. Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers, barcode labels, price marking labels, promotional graphics materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and trans-dermal drug patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick. They have low adhesion, and generally cannot support much weight. Pressure-sensitive adhesive is used in Post-it notes. Pressure-sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking reaction and increase molecular weight. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive, or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form. Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate-based polymers. Contact Contact adhesives form high shear-resistance bonds with a rapid cure time. They are often applied in thin layers for use with laminates, such as bonding Formica to countertops, and in footwear, as in attaching outsoles to uppers. Natural rubber and polychloroprene (Neoprene) are commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization. Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24 hours to dry completely before the surfaces are to be held together. Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond forms very quickly. Clamps are typically not needed due to the rapid bond formation. Hot right\|thumbnail\|A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are thermoplastics applied in molten form (in the 65–180 °C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. Ethylene-vinyl acetate-based hot-melts are particularly popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive, then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it solidifies. Thermoplastic glue may have been invented around 1940 by Procter & Gamble as a solution to the problem that water-based adhesives, commonly used in packaging at that time, failed in humid climates, causing packages to open. However, water-based adhesives are still of strong interest as they typically do not contain volatile solvents. Reactive Anaerobic Anaerobic adhesives cure when in contact with metal, in the absence of oxygen. They work well in a close-fitting space, as when used as a Thread-locking fluid. Multi-part Multi-component adhesives harden by mixing two or more components which chemically react. This reaction causes polymers to cross-link into acrylates, urethanes, and epoxies . There are several commercial combinations of multi-component adhesives in use in industry. Some of these combinations are: Polyester resin & polyurethane resin Polyols & polyurethane resin Acrylic polymers & polyurethane resins The individual components of a multi-component adhesive are not adhesive by nature. The individual components react with each other after being mixed and show full adhesion only on curing. The multi-component resins can be either solvent-based or solvent-less. The solvents present in the adhesives are a medium for the polyester or the polyurethane resin. The solvent is dried during the curing process. Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives Pre-mixed and frozen adhesives (PMFs) are adhesives that are mixed, deaerated, packaged, and frozen. As it is necessary for PMFs to remain frozen before use, once they are frozen at −80 °C they are shipped with dry ice and are required to be stored at or below −40 °C. PMF adhesives eliminate mixing mistakes by the end user and reduce exposure of curing agents that can contain irritants or toxins. PMFs were introduced commercially in the 1960s and are commonly used in aerospace and defense. One-part One-part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source, such as radiation, heat, and moisture. thumb\|A watch with a date magnifying lens ("cyclops"). The cyclops is attached with transparent UV light curing adhesive to the top of the watch crystal. Ultraviolet (UV) light curing adhesives, also known as light curing materials (LCM), have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as one second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates (materials) and withstand harsh temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical, aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives, UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products. They are generally acrylic-based. Heat curing adhesives consist of a pre-made mixture of two or more components. When heat is applied the components react and cross-link. This type of adhesive includes thermoset epoxies, urethanes, and polyimides. Moisture curing adhesives cure when they react with moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. This type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes. By origin Natural Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch (dextrin), natural resins, or animals (e.g. the milk protein casein and hide-based animal glues). These are often referred to as bioadhesives. One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water. Starch-based adhesives are used in corrugated board and paper sack production, paper tube winding, and wallpaper adhesives. Casein glue is mainly used to adhere glass bottle labels. Animal glues have traditionally been used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues except in specialist applications like the production and repair of stringed instruments. Albumen made from the protein component of blood has been used in the plywood industry. Masonite, a wood hardboard, was originally bonded using natural wood lignin, an organic polymer, though most modern particle boards such as MDF use synthetic thermosetting resins. Synthetic Synthetic adhesives are made out of organic compounds. Many are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets. Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers. The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karlsons Klister in the 1920s. Application Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles. Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes, rollers, using films or pellets, spray guns and applicator guns (e.g., caulk gun). All of these can be used manually or automated as part of a machine. Mechanisms of adhesion For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. Firstly, it must be able to wet the base material. Wetting is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface. It must also increase in strength after application, and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being adhered. Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs. In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. Thiolated polymers, for example, form chemical bonds with endogenous proteins such as mucus glycoproteins, integrins or keratins via disulfide bridges. Because of their comparatively high adhesive properties, these polymers find numerous biomedical applications. In others, electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening. Methods to improve adhesion The quality of adhesive bonding depends strongly on the ability of the adhesive to efficiently cover (wet) the substrate area. This happens when the surface energy of the substrate is greater than the surface energy of the adhesive. However, high-strength adhesives have high surface energy. Thus, they bond poorly to low-surface-energy polymers or other materials. To solve this problem, surface treatment can be used to increase the surface energy as a preparation step before adhesive bonding. Importantly, surface preparation provides a reproducible surface allowing consistent bonding results. The commonly used surface activation techniques include plasma activation, flame treatment and wet chemistry priming. Electrically-debondable adhesive (EDA) Adhesives can be designed so that they debond when an electric current or electric field is applied, thereby eliminating part damage, or the need for heating. Failure thumbnail\|550px\|Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations There are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive. Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces. When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are the following: Cohesive fracture Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherends after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the center of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be "cohesive near the interface". Adhesive fracture Adhesive fracture (sometimes referred to as interfacial fracture) is when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherend. In most cases, the occurrence of adhesive fracture for a given adhesive goes along with smaller fracture toughness. Other types of fracture Other types of fracture include: The mixed type, which occurs if the crack propagates at some spots in a cohesive and in others in an interfacial manner. Mixed fracture surfaces can be characterised by a certain percentage of adhesive and cohesive areas. The alternating crack path type which occurs if the cracks jump from one interface to the other. This type of fracture appears in the presence of tensile pre-stresses in the adhesive layer. Fracture can also occur in the adherend if the adhesive is tougher than the adherend. In this case, the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and remnants of the other. For example, when one removes a price label, the adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface. This is cohesive failure. If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed. Another example is when someone tries to pull apart Oreo cookies and all the filling remains on one side; this is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure. Design of adhesive joints thumbnail\|350px\|Modes of failure As a general design rule, the material properties of the object need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use. (i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered. Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of the joint. Mode I is an opening or tensile mode where the loadings are normal to the crack. Mode II is a sliding or in-plane shear mode where the crack surfaces slide over one another in direction perpendicular to the leading edge of the crack. This is typically the mode for which the adhesive exhibits the highest resistance to fracture. Mode III is a tearing or antiplane shear mode. As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry. Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that: The bonded zone is large It is mainly loaded in mode II Stable crack propagation will follow the appearance of a local failure. Shelf life Some glues and adhesives have a limited shelf life. Shelf life is dependent on multiple factors, the foremost of which being temperature. Adhesives may lose their effectiveness at high temperatures, as well as become increasingly stiff. Other factors affecting shelf life include exposure to oxygen or water vapor. See also Impact glue References Bibliography Kinloch, Anthony J. (1987). Adhesion and Adhesives: Science and Technology. London: Chapman and Hall. External links Educational portal on adhesives and sealants RoyMech: The theory of adhesive bonding 3M's Adhesive & Tapes Classification Database of adhesives for attaching different materials Category:Visual arts materials Category:1750 introductions Category:Packaging materials	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive	2025-04-05T18:26:03.371121
2397	Anthony Hopkins	{{Short description\|Welsh actor (born 1937)}} {{Distinguish\|Antony Hopkins\|A. G. Hopkins}} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use British English\|date=September 2020}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=March 2023}} {{Infobox person \| honorific_prefix = Sir \| name = Anthony Hopkins \| honorific_suffix {{postnominals\|countryGBR-cats\|size=100%\|CBE}} \| image = AnthonyHopkins10TIFF.jpg \| caption = Hopkins at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival \| birth_date {{Birth date and age\|dfyes\|1937\|12\|31}} \| birth_place = Port Talbot, Glamorgan, Wales \| birth_name = Philip Anthony Hopkins \| awards = Full list \| citizenship {{hlist\|United Kingdom\|United States<ref>{{cite web \|titleSir Anthony, Citizen Hopkins \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/sir-anthony-citizen-hopkins/ \|workCBS News \|date13 April 2000 \|agencyAssociated Press \|access-date=11 January 2020}}</ref>}} \| education = {{ubl\| Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama \| Royal Academy of Dramatic Art}} \| occupation = {{hlist\|Actor\|director\|producer}} \| years_active = 1960–present \| works = Full list \| spouse = {{unbulleted list \| {{marriage\|Petronella Barker\|1966\|1972\|end=divorced}} \| {{marriage\|Jennifer Lynton\|1973\|2002\|end=divorced}} \| {{marriage\|Stella Arroyave\|2003}}}} \| children = 1 }} Sir Philip Anthony Hopkins (born 31 December 1937) is a Welsh<!--As per MOS:BIO; became notable as Welsh, and self identifies as Welsh; 2012 Guardian interview; "I suppose it's because we are both Welsh" --> actor.<ref name"Guardian interview 2012"/> One of Britain's most recognisable and prolific actors, he is known for his performances on the screen and stage. Hopkins has received numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, four BAFTA Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, and a Laurence Olivier Award. He has also received the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2005 and the BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement in 2008.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.indiewire.com/2005/11/ap-hopkins-to-receive-cecil-b-demille-award-77646/ \|titleAP: Hopkins to Receive Cecil B. DeMille Award \|websiteIndieWire \|accessdate28 December 2022 \|archive-date28 December 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221228122736/https://www.indiewire.com/2005/11/ap-hopkins-to-receive-cecil-b-demille-award-77646/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for his services to drama in 1993.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.vogue.com/article/celebrities-knighted-queen-elizabeth-royal-family \|titleFrom Lewis Hamilton to Twiggy: All the Celebrities Knighted by the British Royal Family \|websiteVogue \|date7 November 2018 \|accessdate=28 December 2022}}</ref> After graduating from the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in 1957, Hopkins trained at RADA (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) in London. He was then spotted by Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre in 1965. Productions at the National included King Lear (his favourite Shakespeare play), Coriolanus, Macbeth, and Antony and Cleopatra. In 1985, he received acclaim and a Laurence Olivier Award for his performance in the David Hare play Pravda. His last stage play was a West End production of M. Butterfly in 1989. Hopkins's early film roles include The Lion in Winter (1968), A Bridge Too Far (1977), and The Elephant Man (1980). He won two Academy Awards for Best Actor for playing Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991) and an octogenarian with dementia in The Father (2020), becoming the oldest Best Actor Oscar winner for the latter.<ref name"wrap-oldest-nominee">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.thewrap.com/anthony-hopkins-becomes-oldest-best-actor-nominee-at-oscars/ \|titleAnthony Hopkins Becomes Oldest Best Actor Nominee at Oscars \|workThe Wrap \|firstBeatrice \|lastVerhoeven \|date15 March 2021\|access-date15 March 2021}}</ref><ref name"slate-oldest-winner">{{cite web \|urlhttps://slate.com/culture/2021/04/anthony-hopkins-oscars-2021-best-actor-autism-aspergers.html \|titleAnthony Hopkins' Age Isn't the Only Noteworthy Thing About His Oscar Win \|workSlate \|firstMarissa \|lastMartinelli \|date26 April 2021\|access-date12 May 2021}}</ref> His other Oscar-nominated films include The Remains of the Day (1993), Nixon (1995), Amistad (1997), and The Two Popes (2019). Other notable films include 84 Charing Cross Road (1987), Howards End (1992), ''Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), Shadowlands (1993), Legends of the Fall (1994), The Mask of Zorro'' (1998), and the Marvel Cinematic Universe's Thor films (2011–2017). For his work on television, Hopkins received a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his performance in War and Peace (1972). He won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series for The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case (1976) and The Bunker (1981). Other notable projects include the BBC film The Dresser (2015), PBS's King Lear (2018), and the HBO series Westworld (2016–2018).<ref name="Telegraph 2015"/> <!--Do not add more titles to this section. It's a sample, not a complete list.--> Early life and education Philip Anthony Hopkins was born in the Margam district of Port Talbot, Wales, on 31 December 1937,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/sir-anthony-hopkins-offers-buy-2496680 \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins offers to buy Welsh childhood home \|websiteWalesOnline \|access-date2 January 2016 \|firstRobin \|lastTurner \|date5 January 2013}}</ref> the son of Annie Muriel (née Yeates) and baker Richard Arthur Hopkins.<ref name"actors">Stated in interview on Inside the Actors Studio, 2007.</ref> One of his grandfathers was from Wiltshire, England.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/anthony-hopkins-feels-personal-connection-to-role-as-jewish-american-grandfather/ \|titleAnthony Hopkins feels personal connection to role as Jewish-American grandfather \|workThe Times of Israel \|lastCoyle \|firstJake \|date25 October 2022 \|access-date27 October 2022}}</ref> He stated his father's working-class values have always underscored his life, "Whenever I get a feeling that I may be special or different, I think of my father and I remember his hands – his hardened, broken hands."<ref name"Telegraph 2015"/> His school days were unproductive; he would rather immerse himself in art, such as painting and drawing, or playing the piano than attend to his studies. In 1949, to instil discipline, his parents insisted he attend Jones' West Monmouth Boys' School in Pontypool. He remained there for five terms and was then educated at Cowbridge Grammar School in the Vale of Glamorgan. In an interview in 2002, he stated, "I was a poor learner, which left me open to ridicule and gave me an inferiority complex. I grew up absolutely convinced I was stupid."<ref name"NY Times">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/29/movies/film-the-scenery-though-he-won-t-chew.html \|titleFILM; The Scenery, Though, He Won't Chew \|firstFranz \|lastLidz \|author-linkFranz Lidz \|date29 September 2002 \|newspaperThe New York Times \|access-date=27 October 2017}}</ref> (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) in London from 1961 to 1963. In 2005, a new portrait of him featured in their centenary celebrations.<ref>{{cite book \|titleOff Stage: 100 Portraits Celebrating the RADA Centenary, by Cambridge Jones \|viaLensCulture.com \|urlhttps://www.lensculture.com/books/4795-off-stage-100-portraits-celebrating-the-rada-centenary \|access-date2 March 2024 \|quoteWith a foreword by Lord Attenborough, the book includes an introduction by the Observer writer Miranda Sawyer, as well as interviews with all the actors. \|archive-date19 May 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230519111523/https://www.lensculture.com/books/4795-off-stage-100-portraits-celebrating-the-rada-centenary \|url-statuslive }}</ref>]] Hopkins was inspired by fellow Welsh actor Richard Burton, whom he met at the age of 15. He later called Burton "very gracious, very nice"<ref name"RadioTimes 2018"/> but elaborated, "I don't know where everyone gets the idea we were good friends. I suppose it's because we are both Welsh and grew up near the same town. For the record, I didn't really know him at all."<ref name"Guardian interview 2012">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jan/23/anthony-hopkins-composing-music \|titleAnthony Hopkins: 'I've never really been close to anyone' \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date23 January 2012 \|access-date23 January 2015 \|lastCrace \|firstJohn \|author-linkJohn Crace (writer) \|quoteI don't know where everyone gets the idea we were good friends. I suppose it's because we are both Welsh and grew up near the same town [Port Talbot]. I once went up to his sister's house to ask for his autograph which he gave me and the only other time I met him was in his dressing room in New York when he was performing in Equus.}}</ref> He enrolled at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, from which he graduated in 1957.<ref name"telegraph"/> He next met Burton in 1975 as Burton prepared to take over Hopkins's role as the psychiatrist in Peter Shaffer's Equus, with Hopkins stating, "He was a phenomenal actor. So was Peter O'Toole – they were wonderful, larger-than-life characters."<ref name"RadioTimes 2018">{{cite news \|titleKing Lear's Anthony Hopkins on Shakespeare, family break-ups, life&nbsp;… and death \|urlhttps://www.radiotimes.com/news/2018-05-28/anthony-hopkins-king-lear-madness-and-daughter/ \|access-date24 March 2020 \|workRadio Times}}</ref> He spent two years doing his national service between 1958 and 1960, which he served in the British Army's Royal Artillery regiment where he was known as "Gunner Hopkins", before moving to London to study at RADA (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) from where he graduated in 1963.<ref name"NY Times"/> Career 1960–1979: Theatre roles and film debut Hopkins made his first professional stage appearance in the Palace Theatre, Swansea, in 1960 with Swansea Little Theatre's production of Have a Cigarette.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins Biography \|urlhttp://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/anthony-hopkins.html \|publisherBio. \|access-date14 November 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110906065406/http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biographies/anthony-hopkins.html \|archive-date6 September 2011}}</ref> In 1965, after several years in repertory, he was spotted by Laurence Olivier, who invited him to join the Royal National Theatre in London.<ref name"telegraph">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/nationaltreasures/2193352/Sir-Anthony-Hopkins-portrait.html Sir Anthony Hopkins portrait] The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 6 January 2011.</ref> Hopkins became Olivier's understudy, and filled in when Olivier was struck with appendicitis during a 1967 production of August Strindberg's The Dance of Death. Olivier later noted in his memoir, Confessions of an Actor, that, "A new young actor in the company of exceptional promise named Anthony Hopkins was understudying me and walked away with the part of Edgar like a cat with a mouse between its teeth."<ref name"falk">{{cite book \|firstQuentin \|lastFalk \|year2004 \|titleAnthony Hopkins: The Biography \|edition4th \|publisherVirgin Books \|isbn0-7535-0999-7}}</ref> Up until that night, Hopkins was always nervous prior to going on stage. This has since changed, and Hopkins quoted his mentor as saying: "He [Olivier] said: 'Remember: "nerves" is vanity – you're wondering what people think of you; to hell with them, just jump off the edge'. It was great advice."<ref name"Telegraph 2015">{{cite news \|titleAnthony Hopkins: 'I don't have a single friend who is an actor' \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/actors/anthony-hopkins-interview-dresser/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/theatre/actors/anthony-hopkins-interview-dresser/ \|archive-date10 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|newspaperThe Telegraph \|date=27 October 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref> directed Hopkins in five films, and in the 1970s described him as "unquestionably the greatest actor of his generation".<ref name="Telegraph 2015" />]] He made his small-screen debut in a 1967 BBC broadcast of A Flea in Her Ear. His first starring role in a film came in 1964 in Changes, a short directed by Drewe Henley, written and produced by James Scott and co-starring Jacqueline Pearce.<ref>{{Cite book \|titleAnthony Hopkins: The Authorized Biography \|lastFalk \|firstQuentin \|publisherInterlink Pub Group Inc \|year1994 \|isbn1566561450 \|pages24–25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleChanges (1965) \|urlhttp://explore.bfi.org.uk/4ce2b6feadd49 \|websiteBFI\|access-date 1 December 2015\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20151208090925/http://explore.bfi.org.uk/4ce2b6feadd49\|archive-date 8 December 2015\|url-status dead}}</ref> In 1968, Hopkins got his break in The Lion in Winter playing Richard the Lionheart, a performance which saw him nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role.<ref name"BAFTA Fellow">{{cite news \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins – Academy Fellow in 2008 \|urlhttps://www.bafta.org/film/awards/sir-anthony-hopkins-academy-fellow-in-2008 \|access-date25 March 2023 \|agencyBAFTA.org}}</ref> Hopkins portrayed Charles Dickens in the BBC television film The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens in 1970, and Pierre Bezukhov in the BBC's mini series War and Peace (1972), receiving the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his performance in the latter.<ref>[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/1204295/ BFI Screenonline: Sherrin, Ned (1931–2007) Biography]. BFI. Retrieved 19 January 2015</ref> Making a name for himself as a screen actor, he appeared in Frank Pierson's neo-noir action thriller The Looking Glass War (1970), and Étienne Périer's When Eight Bells Toll (1971). The first of five collaborations with director Richard Attenborough, in 1972 Hopkins starred as British politician David Lloyd George in Young Winston.<ref name"Telegraph 2015" /> In 1973, he again portrayed David Lloyd George in the BBC miniseries The Edwardians which aired in the US in 1974 on Masterpiece Theatre.<ref>{{cite book \|titleTrevor Griffiths: Politics, Drama, History \|page105 \|authorStanton B. Garner \|year1999 \|publisherUniversity of Michigan Press}}</ref> Hopkins starred in a film adaptation of the Henrik Ibsen play ''A Doll's House (1973) alongside Claire Bloom, Ralph Richardson, Denholm Elliott, and Edith Evans. He then appeared in the comedy The Girl from Petrovka (1974) with Goldie Hawn and Hal Holbrook and also starred in the Richard Lester suspense film Juggernaut'' opposite Richard Harris and Omar Sharif. In October 1974, Hopkins played the psychologist Dysart in the original Broadway production of Sir Peter Shaffer's play Equus, starring opposite Peter Firth. For this performance, he received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play for the 1974–75 season.<ref>{{cite news \|titleDrama Desk Award \|urlhttps://www.ibdb.com/broadway-production/equus-3484#Awards\|access-date23 June 2023 \|agencyInternet Broadway Database}}</ref> In 1977, he played British Army officer John Frost in Attenborough's World War II-set film A Bridge Too Far. In 1978, he starred in the sequel to National Velvet (1944), entitled International Velvet with Tatum O'Neal, Christopher Plummer, which was directed by Bryan Forbes. That same year, he also starred in Attenborough's psychological horror film Magic about a demonic ventriloquist's puppet with Gene Siskel adding it as one of the best films of the year.<ref>{{cite news \|titleMagic (1978) \|urlhttps://www.tcm.com/ \|access-date25 April 2022 \|agencyTurner Classic Movies \|quoteMagic was also well received by critics, with Gene Siskel placing the film at number 9 on his list of Top 10 Films of 1978}}</ref> In 1979, Hopkins appeared as Prospero in a production of The Tempest held at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1979/05/28/archives/stage-new-approach-to-the-tempest-on-coast-those-are-pearls.html \| titleStage: New Approach to the Tempest' on Coast \| workThe New York Times \| date28 May 1979 \| last1Eder \| first1Richard }}</ref> 1980–1989: National Theatre and acclaim in The Elephant Man (1980).]] In 1980, he starred in David Lynch's The Elephant Man as the English doctor Sir Frederick Treves, who attends to Joseph Merrick (portrayed by John Hurt), a severely deformed man in 19th century London. The film received critical praise and attention from critics and received eight Academy Award nominations including for Best Picture. That year he also starred opposite Shirley MacLaine in A Change of Seasons and famously didn't get along with MacLaine, adding "she was the most obnoxious actress I have ever worked with."<ref name"Films and filming">{{cite book \|titleFilms and filming \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0kEbAQAAIAAJ \|year1989 \|publisherHansom Books}}</ref> The film was an immense box office and critical failure. In 1981, he starred in the CBS television film The Bunker portraying Adolf Hitler during weeks in and around his underground bunker in Berlin before and during the Battle of Berlin. John O'Connor praised Hopkins in his New York Times review: "The portrait becomes all the more riveting through an extraordinarily powerful performance from Anthony Hopkins. His Hitler is mad, often contemptible, but always understandable. Part of the problem, perhaps, is that the monster becomes a little too understandable. He is not made sympathetic, exactly, but he is given decidedly pathetic dimensions, making him just that much more acceptable as a dramatic and historical character."<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/27/arts/tv-bunker-on-hitler-s-last-days.html \|titleTV: 'BUNKER,' ON HITLER'S LAST DAYS \|websiteThe New York Times \|date27 January 1981 \|accessdate16 June 2021 \|last1O'Connor \|first1=John J.}}</ref> For his performance, he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. That same year he starred as Paul the Apostle opposite Robert Foxworth as Saint Peter in the biblical drama and miniseries Peter and Paul (1981). In 1983, Hopkins also became a company member of The Mirror Theater Ltd's Repertory Company. In 1984, he portrayed Deeley in Harold Pinter's play Old Times at the Roundabout Theatre in New York.<ref>{{cite news \| urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/02/09/theater/the-clockwork-of-old-times.html \| titleThe Clockwork of 'Old Times' \| workThe New York Times \| date9 February 1984 \| last1Bennetts \| first1Leslie }}</ref> In 1984, he starred opposite Mel Gibson in The Bounty as William Bligh, captain of the Royal Navy ship {{HMS\|Bounty}}, in a more accurate retelling of the mutiny on the Bounty.<ref>{{cite news \|titleBuoyed by Fresh Insight, "The Bounty" Sails Again \|authorStephen Farber \|workThe New York Times \|date29 April 1984}}</ref> The following year, he starred as Quasimodo in the CBS television film The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982). The film also starred Derek Jacobi, David Suchet, Tim Pigott-Smith, Nigel Hawthorne, and John Gielgud. He also starred in Strangers and Brothers (1984), Arch of Triumph (1984), Guilty Conscience (1985), Mussolini and I (1985), and The Tenth Man (1988). In 1985, Hopkins starred opposite Colin Firth in the Arthur Schnitzler play The Lonely Road at The Old Vic in London. That same year, he featured as Lambert Le Roux in the National Theatre production of Pravda in Sir David Hare and Howard Brenton's satirical play on the British newspaper industry in the Thatcher era.<ref>{{cite news \|titlePravda's prescience \|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/culture/theatre/pravda-s-prescience-7388642.html \|access-date23 June 2023 \|workEvening Standard}}</ref><ref>Gussow, Mel. "[https://www.nytimes.com/1984/03/11/arts/theater-mirror-rep-in-a-revival-of-rain.html "THEATER: MIRROR REP, IN A REVIVAL OF 'RAIN']." The New York Times, 10 March 1984. Web. 10 January 2017.</ref> Receiving acclaim for his performance, Hopkins won the Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement.<ref>{{cite web \|titleOlivier Winners 1985 \|websiteofficiallondontheatre.com \|publisherSociety of London Theatre \|urlhttps://officiallondontheatre.com/olivier-awards/winners/olivier-winners-1985/ \|access-date23 June 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181119125731/https://officiallondontheatre.com/olivier-awards/winners/olivier-winners-1985/ \|archive-date19 November 2018 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Frank Rich in his New York Times review wrote, "Mr. Hopkins creates a memorable image of a perversely brilliant modern-day barbarian."<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/20/theater/stage-2-london-plays-touch-on-stalinization.html \|titleSTAGE: 2 LONDON PLAYS TOUCH ON STALINIZATION \|websiteThe New York Times \|date20 June 1985 \|accessdate16 June 2021 \|last1Rich \|first1=Frank}}</ref> In 1986, he starred in David Hare's production of King Lear, Hopkins's favourite Shakespeare play, at the National Theatre.<ref name"RadioTimes 2018"/> The next year, he starred as Antony in the National Theatre production of Antony and Cleopatra opposite Judi Dench, and in 1989, Hopkins made his last appearance on stage in a West End production of M. Butterfly. "It was a torment", he claimed in a later interview. Of a matinee where nobody laughed, there was, he said "not a titter". When the lights came up, the cast realised the entire audience was Japanese. "Oh God", he recalled, "You'd go to your dressing room and someone would pop their head round the door and say, 'Coffee? Tea?' And I'd think, 'An open razor, please.'"<ref name"Guardian 2018"/> In 1989, he starred as Abel Magwitch in the miniseries Great Expectations which was broadcast on ITV in the UK and The Disney Channel in the US. The adaptation of the Dickens' novel also starred Jean Simmons and John Rhys-Davies. He received his fourth Primetime Emmy Award nomination, this time for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie. 1990–1999: Pravda and film stardom and Hopkins in Berlin to shoot scenes for The Innocent (1993)]] Hopkins won acclaim among critics and audiences as the cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs, for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in 1991, with Jodie Foster as Clarice Starling, who also won for Best Actress. The film won Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay, and Hopkins also picked up his first BAFTA for Best Actor. Hopkins reprised his role as Lecter twice; in Ridley Scott's Hannibal (2001), and Red Dragon (2002). His original portrayal of the character in The Silence of the Lambs has been labelled by the AFI as the number-one film villain.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/handv.aspx \|publisherAFI.com \|titleAFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains \|access-date21 May 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070507035737/http://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/handv.aspx \|archive-date7 May 2007 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Director Jonathan Demme wanted a British actor for the role, with Jodie Foster stating, "Lecter is a manipulator and has a way of using language to keep people at bay. You wanted to see that Shakespearean monster."<ref>[https://www.esquire.com/uk/culture/film/news/a18346/jodie-foster-has-revealed-that/ "Robert DeNiro And Al Pacino Were In The Running To Play Hannibal Lecter"]. Esquire. Retrieved 1 March 2018</ref> At the time he was offered the role, Hopkins was making a return to the London stage, performing in M. Butterfly. He had come back to Britain after living for a number of years in Hollywood, having all but given up on a career there, saying, "Well that part of my life's over; it's a chapter closed. I suppose I'll just have to settle for being a respectable actor poncing around the West End and doing respectable BBC work for the rest of my life."<ref name"falk" /> Hopkins reprised the role, returning to the iconic villain in adaptations of the first three of the Lecter novels by Thomas Harris. The author was reportedly pleased with Hopkins's portrayal of his antagonist. However, Hopkins stated that Red Dragon (2002) would feature his final performance as the character and that he would not reprise even a narrative role in the latest addition to the series, Hannibal Rising (2007).<ref>{{cite news \|titleAnthony Hopkins regrets playing Hannibal Lecter thrice. This is why \|urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/movies/celebrities/story/anthony-hopkins-regrets-playing-hannibal-lecter-thrice-this-is-why-303492-2016-01-12 \|workIndia Today \|date2 March 2018}}</ref> The following year, After winning the Oscar for Silence of the Lambs, Hopkins was featured in Mark Joffe's film Spotswood and the science fiction film Freejack and also played supporting roles as Charlie Chaplin's biographer in Richard Attenborough's biographical drama Chaplin (1992) and Professor Van Helsing in Francis Ford Coppola's horror adaptation ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'' (1992). In 1992, Hopkins starred in Merchant-Ivory's period film based on the E. M. Forster novel Howards End. Hopkins acted alongside Emma Thompson and Helena Bonham Carter where he played the cold businessman Henry Wilcox. The film received enormous critical acclaim, with critic Leonard Maltin calling it "extraordinarily good on every level".<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/great-movie-howards-end-1992 \|newspaperChicago Sun-Times \|date5 June 2005 \|firstRoger \|lastEbert \|titleHowards End (1992) \| access-date1 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastMartin \|firstLeonard \| author-link Leonard Maltin \|titleLeonard Maltin's Movie Guide \|publisherSignet Books \|year2015 \|pages653 \|isbn978-0-451-46849-9}}</ref> The following year, Hopkins reunited with Merchant-Ivory and Emma Thompson in The Remains of the Day (1993), a film set in 1950s post-war Britain based on the novel by Kazuo Ishiguro. David Hunter of The Hollywood Reporter praised Hopkins' performance describing it as "colossal" and a "tour de force".<ref>{{cite web\|url https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/general-news/remains-day-review-movie-1993-1249155/\|title'The Remains of the Day': THR's 1993 Review\|website The Hollywood Reporter\|date5 November 2019\|accessdate August 28, 2023}}</ref> The film was ranked by the British Film Institute as the 64th greatest British film of the 20th century.<ref>[http://www.cinemarealm.com/best-of-cinema/top-100-british-films/ British Film Institute – Top 100 British Films] (1999). Retrieved 27 August 2016</ref> Starring as the butler Stevens, Hopkins named it among his favourite films.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAnthony Hopkins on 'The Dresser,' 'Westworld,' & retirement \|urlhttp://www.ora.tv/larrykingnow/2016/5/25/anthony-hopkins-on-the-dresser-westworld-retirement \|publisherOra TV \|date2 December 2017 \|access-date2 December 2017 \|archive-date26 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326030903/http://www.ora.tv/larrykingnow/2016/5/25/anthony-hopkins-on-the-dresser-westworld-retirement \|url-statusdead }}</ref> He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance and received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor.<ref name"bafta">{{cite news \|titleActor in a Leading Role in 1994 \|urlhttp://awards.bafta.org/award/1994/film/actor-in-a-leading-role \|publisherBAFTA \|date=27 October 2017}}</ref> Hopkins portrayed Oxford academic C. S. Lewis in the 1993 British biographical film Shadowlands, for which he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor.<ref name"bafta"/> Also that year he acted opposite Isabella Rossellini in the drama The Innocent (1993) which was adapted from the Ian McEwan novel of the same name. During this period, Hopkins had the chance to work with Bart the Bear in two films: Legends of the Fall (1994) and The Edge (1997). According to trainer Lynn Seus, "Tony Hopkins was absolutely brilliant with Bart...He acknowledged and respected him like a fellow actor. He would spend hours just looking at Bart and admiring him. He did so many of his own scenes with Bart."<ref>{{cite web \|lastFoy \|firstPaul \|titleBart the Bear, a veteran of several films, dies at 23 \|date19 May 2000 \|workThe Seattle Times \|urlhttps://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20000519/4021798/bart-the-bear-a-veteran-of-several-films-dies-at-23\|access-date4 January 2015}}</ref> Hopkins was Britain's highest-paid performer in 1998, starring in The Mask of Zorro and Meet Joe Black, and also agreed to reprise his role as Dr Hannibal Lecter for a fee of £15&nbsp;million.<ref name"IndependentHopkins">[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/anthony-hopkins-gives-pounds-1m-to-snowdon-1171083.html "Anthony Hopkins gives pounds 1m to Snowdon"], The Independent. Retrieved 19 October 2011.</ref> 2000–2015: Established actor , Berlin 2001]] In 2000, Hopkins narrated Ron Howard's live action remake of How the Grinch Stole Christmas. He then reprised the role of Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs sequel simply entitled Hannibal (2001). Director Ridley Scott and actress Julianne Moore replaced Jonathan Demme and Jodie Foster who declined to participate in the sequel. Hopkins, who previously starred with Moore in Surviving Picasso (1996), agreed to do the role approving of the script. In the book, Lecter uses bandages to disguise himself as a plastic surgery patient. This was left out of the film because Scott and Hopkins agreed to leave the face alone.<ref name"plshan">{{cite news \|titleMovie Interview: Anthony Hopkins \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2001/02/12/anthony_hopkins_hannibal_120201_interview.shtml \|workBBC \| access-date 9 March 2007}}</ref> Hopkins said: "It's as if he's making a statement—'catch me if you can'. With his big hat, he's so obvious that nobody thinks he's Hannibal Lecter. I've always thought he's a very elegant man, a Renaissance man.":<ref name"plshan" /> {{Blockquote\|He's still the sort of Robin Hood of killers. He kills the—what do they call them? The terminally rude.\|Hopkins on Hannibal Lecter prior to Ridley Scott's Hannibal.<ref>{{cite news \|firstCharlie \|lastRose \|title60 Minutes: Actors' Take on Ridley Scott \|date30 January 2001 \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/actors-take-on-ridley-scott/ \|workCBS News \| access-date = 8 June 2007}}</ref>}} ]] In the film, Lecter is first seen in Florence "as the classical Lecter, lecturing and being smooth", according to Hopkins.<ref name"actor">{{cite news \|firstCharlie \|lastRose \|title60 Minutes: Actors' Take On Ridley Scott \|date30 January 2001 \|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/actors-take-on-ridley-scott/ \|workCBS News \| access-date8 June 2007 \| archive-date28 April 2005 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050428163357/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/01/28/60II/main267669.shtml \| url-statuslive}}</ref> When the film moves to the U.S., Hopkins changed his appearance by building up muscle and cropping his hair short "to make him like a mercenary, that he would be so fit and so strong that he could just snap somebody in two if they got ... in his way".<ref name"actor" /> The film broke international box office records receiving $351&nbsp;million,<ref name"indeptaste">{{cite news \|titleTaste of success \|urlhttp://comment.independent.co.uk/leading_articles/article253462.ece \|workThe Independent \|locationLondon \|date20 February 2001 \|access-date9 March 2007 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070930171355/http://comment.independent.co.uk/leading_articles/article253462.ece \|archive-date30 September 2007}}</ref> but received mixed reviews from critics.<ref name"Metacritic">{{cite Metacritic \|titleHannibal \|idhannibal \|typem \|access-date6 March 2018}}</ref> Hopkins starred in the third film in the series Red Dragon (2002) alongside Ralph Fiennes, Edward Norton, Harvey Keitel, Emily Watson, and Philip Seymour Hoffman. The film received generally favourable reviews and was a box office hit.<ref>{{cite web \|date4 October 2002 \|lastEbert \|firstRoger \|author-linkRoger Ebert \|titleRed Dragon \|workChicago Sun-Times \|viaRogerEbert.com \|urlhttps://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/red-dragon-2002 \|access-date16 February 2025 \|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210227075706/https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/red-dragon-2002 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastMcCarthy \|firstTodd \|author-linkTodd McCarthy \|date26 September 2002 \|titleRed Dragon \|urlhttps://variety.com/2002/film/reviews/red-dragon-1200545892/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230720051934/https://variety.com/2002/film/reviews/red-dragon-1200545892/ \|archive-dateJuly 20, 2023 \|access-date16 February 2025\|workVariety}}</ref> ]] In 2003, Hopkins received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.<ref name"daily">[http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/happy-birthday-sir-anthony-hopkins/story-fn6ccwsa-1225978951467 Happy birthday Sir Anthony Hopkins] . Retrieved 5 February 2011</ref> Hopkins stated that his role as Burt Munro, whom he portrayed in his 2005 film ''The World's Fastest Indian'', was his favourite. He also asserted that Munro was the easiest role that he had played because both men have a similar outlook on life.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.solarnavigator.net/films_movies_actors/the_worlds_fastest_indian.htm \|publisherSolarnavigator.net \|titleThe World's Fastest Indian\| access-date21 May 2007\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070609023847/http://www.solarnavigator.net/films_movies_actors/the_worlds_fastest_indian.htm\| archive-date9 June 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2006, Hopkins was the recipient of the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement.<ref name"DeMille">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4444884.stm Lifetime honour for Sir Anthony] BBC News (17 November 2005)</ref> In 2008, he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, the highest award the British Film Academy can bestow.<ref name"baft">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/7191143.stm Bafta Film Awards 2008: The winners] BBC News (10 February 2008)</ref> In a 2003 poll conducted by Channel 4, Hopkins was ranked seventh on their list of the 100 Greatest Movie Stars.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.itnsource.com/en/shotlist/ITVProgs/2003/05/04/Y09420001/ \|title100 Greatest ... (100 Greatest Movie Stars (Part 1)) \|publisherITN Source \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150221233723/http://www.itnsource.com/en/shotlist/ITVProgs/2003/05/04/Y09420001/ \|archive-date21 February 2015 \|access-date31 May 2019}}</ref> On 24 February 2010, it was announced that Hopkins had been cast in The Rite, which was released on 28 January 2011. He played a priest who is "an expert in exorcisms and whose methods are not necessarily traditional".<ref name"the rite">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/02/anthony-hopkins-takes-demonic-forces-in-the-rite.html \|titleAnthony Hopkins takes demonic forces in 'The Rite' \|date24 February 2010 \|workHeatVision\|access-date28 February 2010\|archive-date28 February 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100228163207/http://www.heatvisionblog.com/2010/02/anthony-hopkins-takes-demonic-forces-in-the-rite.html\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Hopkins, an agnostic who is quoted as saying "I don't know what I believe, myself personally", reportedly wrote a line—"Some days I don't know if I believe in God or Santa Claus or Tinkerbell"—into his character to identify with it.<ref name"Gizmodo">[http://io9.com/5744377/anthony-hopkins-reveals-the-secret-atheist-message-he-put-into-the-rite Anthony Hopkins reveals the secret atheist message he put into The Rite]. Retrieved 29 September 2014.</ref> In 2011, Hopkins said, "what I enjoy is uncertainty. ... I don't know. You don't know."<ref name"CNN Morgan">[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1102/05/pmt.01.html An Interview with Anthony Hopkins; Discussion of Exorcism]; CNN Piers Morgan Tonight. (5 February 2011). Retrieved 19 May 2018.</ref> On 21 September 2011, Peter R. de Vries cast Hopkins in the role of the Heineken owner Freddy Heineken, in the film about his kidnapping,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-24457439 \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins set to film Heineken kidnap movie \|date9 October 2013\|access-date7 February 2019 \|workBBC News}}</ref> Kidnapping Freddy Heineken (2015).<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-kidnapping-mr-heinekin-20150306-story.html \|titleReview: 'Kidnapping Mr. Heineken' brews up a B-movie crime tale \|lastAbele \|firstRobert \|date5 March 2015 \|newspaperLos Angeles Times \|accessdate=28 July 2022}}</ref> Hopkins portrayed Odin, the Allfather or "king" of Asgard, in the 2011 film adaptation of Marvel Comics' Thor and would go on to reprise his role as Odin in Thor: The Dark World in 2013, and again in 2017's Thor: Ragnarok.<ref name"Hopkins">{{cite news \|urlhttps://variety.com/2009/film/markets-festivals/anthony-hopkins-cast-in-thor-1118010609/ \|titleAnthony Hopkins cast in 'Thor' \|authorMichael Fleming \|workVariety \|date30 October 2009\|access-date31 October 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091101135506/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118010609.html?categoryid13&cs1&nid2562\|archive-date1 November 2009\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Hopkins portrayed Alfred Hitchcock in Sacha Gervasi's biopic Hitchcock alongside Helen Mirren who played Hitchcock's wife, Alma Reville. The film focuses on the filming of Psycho and that which followed. He starred in the comedy action film Red 2 (2013) as the main antagonist Edward Bailey. In 2014, he portrayed Methuselah in Darren Aronofsky's Noah. Hopkins played Order of the Witwiccans member Sir Edmund Burton in Transformers: The Last Knight which was released in June 2017.<ref>{{cite magazine \|titleTransformers: The Last Knight lands Anthony Hopkins \|urlhttps://www.empireonline.com/people/mark-wahlberg/anthony-hopkins-will-part-transformers-last-knight/ \|magazineEmpire \|date=29 June 2016}}</ref> In October 2015, Hopkins appeared as Sir in a BBC Two production of Ronald Harwood's The Dresser, alongside Ian McKellen, Edward Fox and Emily Watson.<ref name"Dresser">{{cite news \|date31 October 2015 \|titleIan McKellen: 'Working with Anthony Hopkins was bliss' \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-34660715\|access-date31 October 2015}}</ref> The Dresser is set in a London theatre during the Blitz, where an aging actor-manager, Sir, prepares for his starring role in King Lear with the help of his devoted dresser, Norman.<ref name"Dresser" /> Hopkins described his role as Sir as "the highlight of my life. It was a chance to work with the actors I had run away from. To play another actor is fun because you know the ins and outs of their thinking – especially with someone like Sir, who is a diabolically insecure, egotistical man."<ref name"Telegraph 2015" /> He spoke again on the impact the role had on him in 2018, "When I was at the Royal National Theatre all those years ago, I knew I had something in me, but I didn't have the discipline. I had a Welsh temperament and didn't have that 'fitting in' mechanism. I would fight, I would rebel. I thought, 'Well, I don't belong here.' And for almost 50 years afterwards, I felt that edge of, 'I don't belong anywhere, I'm a loner.' But in The Dresser, when Ian [McKellen] responded, it was wonderful. We got on so well and I suddenly felt at home, as though that lack of belonging was all in my imagination, all in my vanity".<ref name"Guardian 2018" /> 2016–present: Career resurgence Beginning in October 2016, Hopkins starred as Robert Ford in the HBO sci-fi series Westworld where he received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his performance. Hopkins starred as Lear in the 2018 television film King Lear acting alongside Emma Thompson, Florence Pugh, and Jim Broadbent which was broadcast on BBC Two on 28 May 2018. Hopkins received a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for his performance.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p067sjyz "Trailer: King Lear"]. BBC. Retrieved 9 June 2018</ref> Vulture stated the film "capture[d] the heart of the classic Shakespeare tragedy" and described Hopkins' performance as "devastating".<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.vulture.com/2018/09/king-lear-amazon-anthony-hopkins-review.html \|titleAmazon's King Lear Captures the Heart of a Classic Shakespeare Tragedy \|websiteVulture \|date30 September 2018 \|accessdate5 July 2022}}</ref> In 2019, Hopkins portrayed Pope Benedict XVI opposite Jonathan Pryce as Pope Francis in Fernando Meirelles's The Two Popes. He stated, "The great treasure was working with – apart from [director] Meirelles – Pryce. We're both from Wales. He's from the north, and I'm from the south".<ref name"LATimes">{{cite news \|titleAnthony Hopkins won't dissect his 'Two Popes' role. Here's why \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2020-01-30/anthony-hopkins-wont-dissect-his-two-popes-role-heres-why \|access-date27 March 2020 \|workLos Angeles Times}}</ref> The film is set in the Vatican City in the aftermath of the Vatican leaks scandal and follows Pope Benedict XVI as he attempts to convince Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio to reconsider his decision to resign as an archbishop as he confides his own intentions to abdicate the papacy.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.screendaily.com/news/netflix-confirms-argentine-cast-and-production-team-on-the-pope/5123699.article \|titleNetflix confirms Argentine cast and production team on 'The Pope' \|lastKay \|firstJeremy \|websiteScreen Daily \|languageen\|access-date7 October 2019}}</ref> In August 2019, the film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival to critical acclaim. The film started streaming on 20 December 2019, by Netflix. The performances of Pryce and Hopkins, as well as McCarten's screenplay, received high praise from critics, and all three men received nominations for their work at the Academy Awards, Golden Globes and British Academy Film Awards.<ref name="LATimes" /> In 2020, Hopkins played a man struggling with Alzheimer's disease in The Father. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival where it received critical acclaim, with many critics praising Hopkins's performance and calling him a standout and Oscar frontrunner.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.indiewire.com/2020/09/the-father-anthony-hopkins-best-actor-race-1234586245/ \|titleWith 'The Father,' Anthony Hopkins Joins the Oscar Race for Best Actor \|websiteIndieWire \|date14 September 2020\|access-date15 September 2020}}</ref> The film also stars Olivia Colman as his daughter. It is based on a Tony Award nominated play Le Père by Florian Zeller, who also directed the film. The Father was released on 18 December 2020 by Sony Pictures Classics.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://variety.com/2020/film/news/olivia-colman-anthony-hopkins-father-release-date-1234769010/ \|titleOlivia Colman and Anthony Hopkins' 'The Father' Gets Release Date \|magazineVariety \|date14 September 2020\|access-date 15 September 2020}}</ref> In a Q&A at the Telluride Film Festival Hopkins praised both Colman and Zeller saying comparing the working experience saying it "might've been the highlight of my life". Hopkins mentioned how lucky he's been over the past five years working with Ian McKellen in The Dresser, Emma Thompson in King Lear, and Jonathan Pryce in The Two Popes.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vMS81ve3sFv0\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/MS81ve3sFv0\| archive-date22 November 2021 \| url-statuslive \|titleTHE FATHER Q&A {{!}} TIFF 2020\|websiteYouTube\| date15 September 2020\|access-date11 October 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Hopkins won the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his performance in The Father, making it his fourth BAFTA and his third for Best Actor.<ref name"Yahoo Movies">{{cite web \|urlhttps://uk.movies.yahoo.com/bafta-film-awards-anthony-hopkins-best-actor-194638995.html?guccounter1&guce_referreraHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sigAQAAAMHaon5GYrndk7552Br9WyNFjX6dV2ofloSfJq7g0fNGhGXl0nwevSfFr4vsYXhvsqpSfkXscwNXgOfRqWylxnd0MDAfchnFc8XMqb21yEuohpWzSzBP8onYqj4fbROq7x5_fEIvaRkBzV1cvDuvX7MiBvoXK72OcwEOTyySbhc \|titleBafta Film Awards 2021: Anthony Hopkins wins fourth Bafta in surprise Best Actor victory \|workYahoo Movies \|firstTom \|lastBeasley \|date11 April 2021\|access-date11 April 2021}}</ref> He also won a second Academy Award for Best Actor for his role, becoming the oldest person to win an acting Oscar.<ref name"Goldderby">{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.goldderby.com/feature/anthony-hopkins-oscar-nominations-screen-time-1204182057/ \|titleAnthony Hopkins: How long was each of his Oscar-nominated performances? \|workGold Derby \|firstMatthew \|lastStewart \|date11 April 2021\|access-date11 April 2021}}</ref> Hopkins did not attend the Oscars ceremony, but accepted the award in a video posted on social media, from Wales, the following day, saying: "Here I am in my homeland in Wales. And at 83 years of age, I did not expect to get this award. I really didn't and am very grateful to the Academy and thank you." He also paid tribute to fellow nominee Chadwick Boseman, who had died the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-56892612 \|titleOscars 2021: Anthony Hopkins accepts award from Welsh countryside \|date26 April 2021 \|access-date26 April 2021 \|publisherBBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/film/i-did-not-expect-this-hopkins-sends-video-acceptance-speech-after-skipping-oscars-1.4547830 \|titleVIDEO: 'I did not expect this': Hopkins sends video acceptance speech after skipping Oscars \|newspaperThe Irish Times \|date26 April 2021 \|access-date26 April 2021}}</ref> In 2022, he acted in James Gray's semi-autobiographical coming of age drama Armageddon Time (2023). In an interview with El País he said that his performance was inspired by his grandfather who had encouraged him to become an actor.<ref>{{cite news \|titleAnthony Hopkins: 'At the age of 17, I was tired of being called stupid. I said, "I'm going to do something. I'm going to be an actor"' \|urlhttps://english.elpais.com/culture/2023-03-26/anthony-hopkins-at-the-age-of-17-i-was-tired-of-being-called-stupid-i-said-im-going-to-do-something-im-going-to-be-an-actor.html \|access-date2 September 2024 \|workEl Pais}}</ref> Hopkins starred alongside Jeremy Strong and Anne Hathaway. Hopkins received positive reviews for his turn as a kindly elderly grandfather. A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "Hopkins finds the essential grit hiding underneath the twinkle".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/27/movies/armageddon-time-review.html\|title 'Armageddon Time' Review: Hard Lessons About Life in America\|workThe New York Times\|date 27 October 2022\|accessdateAugust 27, 2023\|last1 Scott\|first1A. O.}}</ref> That same year he reunited with Florian Zeller, acting in The Son (2022) alongside Hugh Jackman. In 2023, Hopkins starred as stockbroker and humanitarian Sir Nicholas Winton in the biographical drama film One Life, and also played Sigmund Freud in ''Freud's Last Session''.<ref>{{cite news\|url https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-66439471\|titleSir Anthony Hopkins to play man who saved 669 children\|website BBC\|date9 August 2023\|accessdate August 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://variety.com/2023/film/global/anthony-hopkins-matthew-goode-freuds-last-session-1235579267/\|title Anthony Hopkins Plays Sigmund Freud in 'Freud's Last Session,' First Look Revealed\|websiteVariety\|date 11 April 2023\|accessdateAugust 27, 2023}}</ref> Hopkins also appeared in the Netflix science fiction film Rebel Moon directed by Zack Snyder.<ref>{{cite web\|url https://deadline.com/2022/06/anthony-hopkins-joins-rebel-moon-zack-snyders-netflix-sci-fi-epic-1235039960/\|titleAnthony Hopkins Joins Zack Snyder's Netflix Sci-Fi Adventure Pic 'Rebel Moon'\|website Deadline Hollywood\|date8 June 2022\|accessdate August 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.empireonline.com/movies/news/rebel-moon-anthony-hopkins-robot-jimmy-journey-self-discovery-exclusive/\|title Rebel Moon: Anthony Hopkins' Robot Jimmy Is 'On A Journey Of Self-Discovery' In Zack Snyder's Sci-Fi Story – Exclusive Image\|websiteEmpire Magazine\|date 7 February 2023\|accessdate= August 27, 2023}}</ref> In 2024, Hopkins portrayed Herod the Great in the Netflix film Mary.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://media.benedictine.edu/what-netflix-gets-right-and-wrong-in-its-new-movie-mary \|titleWhat Netflix Gets Right and Wrong in Its New Movie ‘Mary’ \|publisherBenedictine College \|lastHoopes \|firstTom \|date15 December 2024 \|access-date13 January 2025}}</ref> Other activities Activism and philanthropy in north Wales which Hopkins described as "one of the most beautiful places in the world and Snowdon is the jewel that lies at its heart. It must be cherished and protected."<ref name"Snowdon">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/149533.stm "Hopkins gives a million to save Snowdonia"], BBC. Retrieved 19 October 2011.</ref>]] Hopkins has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the National Trust's Snowdonia Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of Snowdonia National Park in north Wales. In 1998 he donated £1&nbsp;million towards the £3&nbsp;million needed to aid the Trust's efforts in purchasing parts of Snowdon.<ref name"IndependentHopkins" /><ref name"Snowdon" /> Prior to the campaign, Hopkins wrote ''Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia, which was published in 1995.<ref>Hopkins, Anthony (1995). Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia. Colin Baxter Photography, 1995</ref> Due to his contributions to Snowdonia, in addition to his film career, in 2004 Hopkins was named among the 100 Welsh Heroes in a Welsh poll.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttp://www.gwales.com/bibliographic/?isbn8888039759&tsid10 \|titleArwyr Cymru Welsh Heroes \|dateApril 2004 \|publisherCulturenet Cymru \|isbn8888039759 \|page216 \|access-date=23 January 2016}}</ref> Hopkins has been a patron of the YMCA centre in his home town of Port Talbot, south Wales, for more than 20 years, having first joined the YMCA in the 1950s.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-south-west-wales-10683793 "Drama returns to YMCA where Sir Anthony Hopkins started"], BBC Wales, 20 July 2010.</ref> He supports other various philanthropic groups. He was a Guest of Honour at a Gala Fundraiser for Women in Recovery, Inc., a Venice, California-based non-profit organisation offering rehabilitation assistance to women in recovery from substance abuse. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskin School of Acting in Santa Monica, California. Hopkins served as the Honorary Patron of The New Heritage Theatre Company in Boise, Idaho from 1997 to 2007, participating in fundraising and marketing efforts for the repertory theatre.<ref>[http://arbiteronline.com/2000/09/07/branthony-hopkins-to-kick-off-5-4-million-fund-drive/ "Anthony Hopkins to kick off $5.4 million fund drive"]. Arbiter. Retrieved 4 January 2015</ref> Hopkins contributed toward the refurbishment of a £2.3&nbsp;million wing at his alma mater, the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in Cardiff, named the Anthony Hopkins Centre. It opened in 1999.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/student/into-university/az-uni-colleges/royal-welsh-college-of-music-and-drama-459044.html "Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180622061549/https://www.independent.co.uk/student/into-university/az-uni-colleges/royal-welsh-college-of-music-and-drama-459044.html\|date22 June 2018}}, The Independent''. Retrieved 24 December 2013.</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleFacilities \|urlhttp://www.rwcmd.ac.uk/young_actors_studio/student_handbook/facilities.aspx \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150906155842/http://www.rwcmd.ac.uk/young_actors_studio/student_handbook/facilities.aspx \|archive-date6 September 2015 \|access-date6 September 2015 \|websiteRoyal Welsh College of Music and Drama}}</ref> Hopkins is a prominent member of the environmental protection group Greenpeace and as of early 2008 featured in a television advertisement campaign, voicing concerns about whaling in Japan.<ref>{{cite web \|date17 March 2003 \|titleGreen Peace anti-whaling video \|urlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/australia/resources/videos/whales/sir-anthony-hopkins-speaks-out \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091005191538/http://www.greenpeace.org/australia/resources/videos/whales/sir-anthony-hopkins-speaks-out \|archive-date5 October 2009 \|access-date17 October 2009 \|publisherGreenpeace}}</ref> He has also been a patron of RAPt (Rehabilitation for Addicted Prisoners Trust) since its early days and in 1992 helped open their first intensive drug and alcohol rehabilitation unit at Downview (HM Prison), a women's prison in Surrey, England.<ref>[https://www.forwardtrust.org.uk/about-us/our-team/ "Our Team – Patrons: Sir Anthony Hopkins"]. Forward Trust.org. Retrieved 7 February 2019</ref> Hopkins is an admirer of the late Welsh comedian Tommy Cooper. On 23 February 2008, as patron of the Tommy Cooper Society, he unveiled a commemorative statue in the entertainer's home town of Caerphilly. For the ceremony, he donned Cooper's trademark fez and performed a comic routine.<ref>{{cite news \|date23 February 2008 \|titleTommy Cooper statue is unveiled \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7260219.stm \|access-date17 October 2009 \|workBBC News \|locationLondon, UK}}</ref> Composing , Cardiff]] In an interview, Hopkins stated, "I've been composing music all my life and if I'd been clever enough at school I would like to have gone to music college. As it was I had to settle for being an actor."<ref name"Guardian interview 2012" /> In 1986, he released a single called "Distant Star", which peaked at No. 75 in the UK Singles Chart.<ref name"British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book \|lastRoberts \|firstDavid \|titleBritish Hit Singles & Albums \|publisherGuinness World Records Limited \|year2006 \|isbn1-904994-10-5 \|edition19th \|locationLondon \|page=259}}</ref> In 2007, he announced he would retire temporarily from the screen to tour around the world.<ref>{{cite news \|date3 December 2007 \|titleDe gira como pianista \|urlhttp://www.elnuevodia.com/diario/noticia/musica/flash/de_gira_como_pianista/324637 \|agencyAssociated Press}}{{dead link\|dateJune 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|botmedic}}</ref> Hopkins has also written music for the concert hall, in collaboration with Stephen Barton as orchestrator. These compositions include The Masque of Time, given its world premiere with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra in October 2008, and Schizoid Salsa.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins Scores big With Dallas Symphony Orchestra \|urlhttps://www.prweb.com/releases/2008/10/prweb1491484.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230326031350/https://www.prweb.com/releases/2008/10/prweb1491484.htm \|archive-date26 March 2023 \|accessdate5 May 2021 \|websitePRWeb}}</ref> On 31 October 2011, André Rieu released an album including a waltz which Hopkins had composed in 1964, at the age of 26. Hopkins had never heard his composition, "And the Waltz Goes On", before it was premiered by Rieu's orchestra in Vienna;<ref>{{cite news \|date6 July 2011 \|titleHopkins' waltz gets Vienna premiere \|urlhttp://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/Music/2011/07/06/Hopkins-waltz-gets-Vienna-premiere/UPI-69081309971888/ \|access-date8 January 2012 \|workUnited Press International}}</ref><ref name"independent.uk">{{cite news \|last1Jaques \|first1Adam \|date9 November 2012 \|titleHow We Met: André Rieu & Sir Anthony Hopkins \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/how-we-met-andr-rieu-sir-anthony-hopkins-8294824.html \|access-date2 December 2015 \|workThe Independent \|quoteI...wrote this piece, "And the Waltz Goes On", in 1964}}</ref> Rieu's album was given the same name as Hopkins's piece.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Jaques \|first1Adam \|date9 November 2012 \|titleHow We Met: André Rieu & Sir Anthony Hopkins \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/how-we-met-andr-rieu-sir-anthony-hopkins-8294824.html \|access-date6 May 2020 \|website=Independent.co.uk}}</ref> In January 2012, Hopkins released an album of classical music, entitled Composer, performed by the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, and released on CD via the UK radio station Classic FM.<ref name"composer">{{cite news \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins' classical music released on CD \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-16584155 \|publisherBBC \|date6 August 2015}}</ref> The album consists of nine of his original works and film scores, with one of the pieces titled "Margam" in tribute to his home town near Port Talbot in Wales.<ref name"composer"/> Directing In 1990, Hopkins directed a film about his Welsh compatriot, poet Dylan Thomas, titled Dylan Thomas: Return Journey, which was his directing debut for the screen. In the same year, as part of the restoration process for the Stanley Kubrick film Spartacus, Hopkins was approached to re-record lines from a scene that was being added back to the film; this scene featured Laurence Olivier and Tony Curtis, with Hopkins recommended by Olivier's widow, Joan Plowright to perform her late husband's part thanks to his talent for mimicry.<ref name"Universal Pictures">{{cite web \|titleRestoration of "Spartacus" – "Spartacus" Production Notes \|urlhttp://www.in70mm.com/news/2009/spartacus/ \|publisherUniversal Pictures \|access-date2 September 2013 \|archive-date4 February 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140204183532/http://www.in70mm.com/news/2009/spartacus/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In 1995, he directed August, an adaptation of Chekhov's Uncle Vanya set in Wales. His first screenplay, an experimental drama called Slipstream, which he also directed and scored, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in 2007. In 1997, Hopkins narrated the BBC natural documentary series, Killing for a Living, which showed predatory behaviour in nature. He narrated episode 1 through 3 before being replaced by John Shrapnel. Artistry and reception {{multiple image <!-- Essential parameters -->\| align = right \| direction = vertical \| header \| width 175 <!-- Image 1 -->\| image1 = Anthony Hopkins (111435068).jpg \| width1 \| alt1 \| caption1 = Waxwork of Hopkins at Madame Tussauds, London <!-- Image 2 -->\| image2 = Hollywood Walk of Fame, Hollywood, California (2996358855).jpg \| width2 \| alt2 Five-pointed memorial star on pavement \| caption2 = Hopkins's star (nearest) on the Hollywood Walk of Fame }} Hopkins is renowned for his preparation for roles. He indicated in interviews that once he has committed to a project, he will go over his lines as many times as is needed (sometimes upwards of 200) until the lines sound natural to him, so that he can "do it without thinking". This leads to an almost casual style of delivery that belies the amount of groundwork done beforehand. While it can allow for some careful improvisation, it has also brought him into conflict with the occasional director who departs from the script or demands what the actor views as an excessive number of takes. Hopkins has stated that after he is finished with a scene, he simply discards the lines, not remembering them later on. This is unlike others who usually remember their lines from a film, even years later.<ref>"Anthony Hopkins: Lecter and Me"&nbsp;— Red Dragon DVD interview</ref> In the mid-1970s, he started a collaboration with Richard Attenborough who called him "the greatest actor of his generation". Attenborough, who directed Hopkins on five occasions, found himself going to great lengths during the filming of Shadowlands (1993) to accommodate the differing approaches of his two stars (Hopkins and Debra Winger), who shared many scenes. Whereas Hopkins preferred the spontaneity of a fresh take and liked to keep rehearsals to a minimum, Winger rehearsed continuously. To allow for this, Attenborough stood in for Hopkins during Winger's rehearsals, only bringing him in for the last one before a take. The director praised Hopkins for "this extraordinary ability to make you believe when you hear him that it is the very first time he has ever said that line. It's an incredible gift."<ref name="falk" /> Renowned for his ability to remember lines, Hopkins keeps his memory supple by learning things by heart such as poetry and Shakespeare. In Steven Spielberg's Amistad (1997), Hopkins astounded the crew with his memorisation of a seven-page courtroom speech, delivering it in one go. An overawed Spielberg could not bring himself to call Hopkins "Tony" and insisted on addressing him as Sir Anthony throughout the shoot.<ref name"RADA">{{cite news \|firstGabe \|lastWood \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/1998/dec/05/features \|titleA dark and stormy knight \|newspaperThe Guardian \|date5 December 1998\|access-date6 January 2011}}</ref> In a 2016 interview with the Radio Times, Hopkins spoke of his ability to frighten people since he was a boy growing up in Port Talbot, Wales. "I don't know why but I've always known what scares people. When I was a kid I'd tell the girls around the street the story about Dracula and I'd go 'th-th-th' (the sucking noise which he reproduced in The Silence of the Lambs). As a result, they'd run away screaming."<ref name"RT Interview">[https://www.walesonline.co.uk/whats-on/film-news/sir-anthony-hopkins-reveals-scary-12079267 "Anthony Hopkins reveals his scary Hannibal Lecter was born on the streets of Port Talbot when he was a boy"]. Wales Online. Retrieved 1 March 2018</ref> He recalled going through the script of Silence of the Lambs for the first time with fellow cast members. "I didn't know what they were going to make of it but I'd prepared it—my first line to Jodie Foster was: 'Good morning. You're one of Jack Crawford's aren't you?' Everyone froze. There was a silence. Then one of the producers said, 'Holy crap, don't change a thing'."<ref name"RT Interview"/> On Hopkins's approach to playing villains, Miranda Sawyer in The Guardian writes, "When he portrays deliberately scary people, he plays them quietly, emphasising their sinister control."<ref name"Guardian 2018">{{cite news \|firstMiranda \|lastSawyer\|author-linkMiranda Sawyer \|titleAnthony Hopkins: 'Most of this is nonsense, most of this is a lie' \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/may/26/anthony-hopkins-most-nonsense-most-lie-lear \|date26 May 2018\|access-date31 May 2019 \|work=The Guardian}}</ref> Speaking on his favourite performances which inspired him in his own approach to acting, Morgan Freeman mentioned Hopkins' portrayal of the butler Stevens in The Remains of the Day.<ref name"Freeman"/> Discussing how he learnt "stillness" from José Ferrer, Freeman continued, "It’s what I learn from the great actors that I work with. Stillness. That’s all and that’s the hardest thing. The other actor still like that is Anthony Hopkins. Learning how to be still, to really be still and let life happen–that stillness becomes a radiance. It’s all about eloquent stillness. I’ve told Hopkins that that performance was one of the great lessons for me as an actor."<ref name"Freeman">{{cite news \|titleThe Anthony Hopkins performance that Morgan Freeman calls "one of the great lessons for me as an actor" \|urlhttps://faroutmagazine.co.uk/anthony-hopkins-performance-that-morgan-freeman-calls-one-of-the-great-lessons-for-me-as-an-actor/ \|access-date4 June 2024 \|workFar Out magazine}}</ref> Hopkins is a well-known mimic, adept at turning his native Welsh accent into whatever is required by a character. In the 1991 restoration of Spartacus, he recreated the voice of his late mentor Laurence Olivier in a scene for which the soundtrack had been lost. His interview on the 1998 relaunch edition of the British television talk show Parkinson featured an impersonation of comedian Tommy Cooper. Hopkins has said acting "like a submarine" has helped him to deliver credible performances in his thrillers. He said, "It's very difficult for an actor to avoid, you want to show a bit. But I think the less one shows the better."<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8512396.stm \|titleSir Anthony Hopkins acts 'like a submarine' \|workBBC News \|date12 February 2010 \|access-date7 March 2010 \|locationLondon}}</ref> Personal life Hopkins has a residence in Malibu, California.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/film/2013/oct/17/anthony-hopkins-bryan-cranston-breaking-bad-fan-letter "Anthony Hopkins's letter to Breaking Bad star Bryan Cranston"], The Guardian. Retrieved 31 December 2015.</ref> In January 2025, his two neighbouring homes in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles, were destroyed by the Palisades Fire.<ref>{{Cite news \|first1E.B. \|last1Solomont \|first2Libertina \|last2Brandt \|first3Jessica \|last3Flint \|first4Sarah \|last4Paynter \|date10 January 2025 \|title$155 Million and Counting: A Tally of Celebrity Homes Lost In and Around the Pacific Palisades \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/real-estate/luxury-homes/los-angeles-fires-celebrity-homes-destroyed-30d214a4 \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|url-accesssubscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastJack \|firstSmart \|date10 January 2025 \|titleAnthony Hopkins Shares Emotional Message After L.A. Home Was Left a Shell in Wake of Palisades Fire \|urlhttps://people.com/anthony-hopkins-los-angeles-fires-house-burned-down-pacific-palisades-8771583 \|magazinePeople}}</ref> He moved to the United States once before, during the late 1970s, to pursue his film career, but returned to London in the late 1980s. However, he decided to return to the US following his 1990s success. Retaining his British citizenship, he became a naturalised American citizen on 12 April 2000, with Hopkins stating: "I have dual citizenship; it just so happens I live in America".<ref name"sinkteeth1">{{cite web \|titleAnthony Hopkins&nbsp;– A role to sink his teeth into \|urlhttp://www.talktalk.co.uk/entertainment/film/interviews/anthony_hopkins/2 \|access-date11 February 2010 \|quoteI have dual citizenship, it just so happens I live in America.}}</ref> Hopkins has been married three times. He was married to actress Petronella Barker from 1966 to 1972, Jennifer Lynton from 1973 to 2002, and Stella Arroyave since 2003. Hopkins met Arroyave, a Colombian-born antiques dealer, in the early 2000s, and he credits her with helping him overcome his feelings of depression at the time.<ref>{{cite news \|date31 January 2011 \|titleAnthony Hopkins' wife saved him from 'depression' \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/news/anthony-hopkins-wife-saved-him-from-depression-2199439.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110203033454/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/news/anthony-hopkins-wife-saved-him-from-depression-2199439.html \|archive-date3 February 2011 \|access-date8 May 2022 \|workThe Independent}}</ref> On Christmas Eve 2013, he celebrated his 10th wedding anniversary by having a blessing at a private service at St Davids Cathedral in St Davids.<ref>[http://www.thisissouthwales.co.uk/Hannibal-star-Sir-Anthony-Hopkins-makes-trek/story-17756782-detail/story.html "Hannibal star Sir Anthony Hopkins makes a trek back to his childhood home in Margam"], South Wales Evening Post. Retrieved 8 January 2013.</ref> He has a daughter from his first marriage. The two are estranged; when asked if he had any grandchildren, he said, "I don't have any idea. People break up. Families split and, you know, 'Get on with your life.' People make choices. I don't care one way or the other."<ref>{{cite web \|lastGuglielmi \|firstJodi \|date22 May 2018 \|titleAnthony Hopkins Doesn't Know If His Estranged Daughter Has Kids: 'I Don't Care' \|urlhttps://people.com/movies/anthony-hopkins-estranged-daughter/ \|websitePeople}}</ref> In another interview, he said, "I guess I am selfish. I have not been a good husband or father."<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1515851/Her-dark-materials.html?ICIDcontinue_without_subscribing_reg_first \|firstOlga \|lastCraig \|titleHer dark materials \|date16 April 2006\|websiteThe Telegraph \|access-date9 December 2024 \|url-accesssubscription}}</ref> Hopkins is a recovering alcoholic; he has stayed sober since just after Christmas 1975.<ref>{{cite news \|authorStaff \|date5 December 1998 \|titleUnlimited: A dark and stormy knight \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/1998/dec/05/features \|access-date17 October 2009 \|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon, UK}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|lastTurner \|firstRobin \|date29 March 2009 \|titleNew book tells of Wales' famous boozers \|urlhttps://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/new-book-tells-wales-famous-2120728 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140302010924/http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/new-book-tells-wales-famous-2120728 \|archive-date2 March 2014 \|access-date12 September 2024 \|workWalesOnline}}</ref> He said, "I made that quantum leap when I asked for help. I just found something and a woman talked to me and she said, just trust in God. And I said, well, why not?" When asked, "Did you literally pray?" Hopkins responded: "No, I didn't. I think because I asked for help, which is a form of prayer."<ref name"CNN Morgan" /> In January 2020, when asked if he was still agnostic, he responded, "Agnosticism is a bit strange. An agnostic doubts and atheism denies. I'm not a holy Joe; I'm just an old sinner like everyone else. I do believe more than ever now that there is a vast area of our own lives that we know nothing about. As I get older, I can cry at the drop of a hat because the wonderful, terrible passion of life is so short. I have to believe there's something bigger than me. I'm just a microbe. That, for me, is the biggest feeling of relief – acknowledging that I am really nothing. I'm compelled to say, whoever's running the show, thank you very much."<ref name"LATimes" /> Hopkins quit smoking using the Allen Carr method.<ref>[http://allencarr.com/40/celebrity-endorsements "Celebrity Clients: Endorsements"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131112143435/http://allencarr.com/40/celebrity-endorsements\|date12 November 2013}}. Allen Carr. Retrieved 4 January 2015</ref> In 2008, he embarked on a weight loss programme, and by 2010, he had lost 5st 10&nbsp;lb (80&nbsp;lb or 36&nbsp;kg).<ref>{{cite news \|titleSilence of the Lamb Chops&nbsp;– Anthony Hopkins Loses 80 Pounds \|urlhttp://www.motleyhealth.com/celeb/silence-of-the-lamb-chop-anthony-hopkins-loses-70-pounds \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101024045846/http://www.motleyhealth.com/celeb/silence-of-the-lamb-chop-anthony-hopkins-loses-70-pounds \|archive-date24 October 2010 \|access-date11 November 2010 \|workMotley Health \|locationLondon, UK}}</ref> In January 2017, in an interview with The Desert Sun, Hopkins said that he had been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome three years earlier, but that he was "high end".<ref>{{cite news \|lastFessier \|firstBruce \|date2 January 2017 \|title'Westworld' star Anthony Hopkins explores consciousness \|urlhttp://www.desertsun.com/story/life/entertainment/people/brucefessierentertainment/2017/01/02/westworld-star-anthony-hopkins-explores-consciousness/96018744 \|access-date8 January 2017 \|publisherThe Desert Sun \|quoteWell, I've been diagnosed with Asperger's, but I'm high end.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastMartinelli \|firstMarissa \|date26 April 2021 \|titleAnthony Hopkins' Age Isn't the Only Noteworthy Thing About His Oscar Win \|urlhttps://slate.com/culture/2021/04/anthony-hopkins-oscars-2021-best-actor-autism-aspergers.html \|websiteSlate}}</ref> In 2020, he said that "it's a great gift, actually".<ref>{{cite news \|lastBudryk \|firstZack \|date8 September 2021 \|titleMore celebrities are coming out as autistic. That makes a huge difference. \|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/09/08/wentworth-miller-anthony-hopkins-autistic-celebrities/ \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221116034241/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/09/08/wentworth-miller-anthony-hopkins-autistic-celebrities/ \|archive-date16 November 2022 \|access-date4 August 2023 \|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> He has a pet cat named Niblo, which he adopted in Budapest.<ref>{{cite news \|lastMezei \|firstLilla \|date24 January 2019 \|titleAnthony Hopkins, the Saviour of a Hungarian Cat \|urlhttps://dailynewshungary.com/anthony-hopkins-the-saviour-of-a-hungarian-cat/ \|access-date4 August 2023 \|workDaily News Hungary}}</ref> Hopkins eschews meat and prefers a pescatarian diet.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGoldberg \|firstCarey \|date18 February 2001 \|titleA NIGHT OUT WITH: Sir Anthony Hopkins; The Man Who Still Isn't Hannibal Lecter \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/18/style/a-night-out-with-sir-anthony-hopkins-the-man-who-still-isn-t-hannibal-lecter.html \|access-date2 March 2023 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn0362-4331}}</ref> He is a fan of the BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, and once remarked in an interview how he would love to appear in the series. Writer John Sullivan saw the interview, and with Hopkins in mind created the character Danny Driscoll, a local villain. However, filming of the new series coincided with the filming of The Silence of the Lambs, making Hopkins unavailable. The role instead went to Roy Marsden.<ref>{{cite book \|authorClark, Steve \|titleThe Only Fools and Horses Story \|publisherBBC Books \|year1998 \|isbn0-563-38445-X \|page125}}</ref> Commenting on the loss of his Los Angeles home, in the 2025 Palisades fire, Hopkins posted a message on Instagram, supporting those affected, and saying "the only thing we take with us is the love we give".<ref>{{cite web \|last1Pigott \|first1Paul \|titleActor Anthony Hopkins' home 'destroyed' in LA fires \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/ce8y0ej1mlno \|websiteBBC News \|access-date17 January 2025 \|date11 January 2025}}</ref>Acting credits and awards {{main\|List of Anthony Hopkins performances\|List of awards and nominations received by Anthony Hopkins}} ]] Hopkins was appointed a CBE in 1987 and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for "services to the arts" at Buckingham Palace in 1993.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/arts/sites/film/pages/actors-anthony-hopkins.shtml \|titleTop 10 Welsh actors: Anthony Hopkins \|workBBC Wales \|publisherBBC \|access-date2 January 2010 \|date5 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/02/23/actor-anthony-hopkins-knighted-by-queen-elizabeth/ \|titleActor Anthony Hopkins Knighted By Queen Elizabeth \|newspaperChicago Tribune \|date23 February 1993 \|access-date27 November 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121001002520/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1993-02-23/news/9303184625_1_actor-anthony-hopkins-knighted-serial-killer \|archive-date1 October 2012 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 1988, he was awarded an honorary D.Litt. degree and in 1992 received an honorary fellowship from the University of Wales, Lampeter.<ref name"HNRY">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/arts/sites/anthony-hopkins/pages/biography.shtml \|titleAnthony Hopkins biography \|workBBC Wales \|publisherBBC \|access-date2 January 2010 \|date15 March 2010}}</ref> He was made a freeman of his home town, Port Talbot, in 1996.<ref>{{cite news \|date17 October 2013 \|titleMax to Join Sheen as Freeman of Borough \|newspaperWestern Mail \|location=Cardiff, Wales}}</ref> He has received numerous accolades for his performances, including two Academy Awards, four BAFTA Awards, a Critics' Choice Movie Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards and a Laurence Olivier Award as well as nominations for eight Golden Globe Awards and seven Screen Actors Guild Awards. In receiving the Oscar for Best Actor for his role in The Father (2020), he became the oldest nominee and winner of the award.<ref name"wrap-oldest-nominee" /><ref name"slate-oldest-winner" /> Hopkins has also been honoured with various lifetime achievement awards for his work in film and television. In 2006, Gwyneth Paltrow presented him with the Golden Globe Cecil B. DeMille Award.<ref name"DeMille" /> In 2008, Richard Attenborough presented Hopkins with the BAFTA Fellowship for lifetime achievement from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.<ref name"BAFTA Fellow" /> Hopkins has also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003.<ref name"daily" />See also * List of oldest and youngest Academy Award winners and nominees List of British Academy Award nominees and winners List of actors with Academy Awards nominations * List of actors with two or more Academy Award nominations in acting categories * List of actors with two or more Academy Awards in acting categories References {{Reflist \| colwidth \| refs <!-- unused reference <ref namewmail-2008-10-20>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/tm_campaignWales_email_newsam:20081020&headlineraucous-approval-for-sir-anthony-hopkins-8217-music&methodfull&objectid22070091&siteid91466-name_page.html \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130505115026/http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/tm_campaignWales_email_newsam:20081020&headlineraucous-approval-for-sir-anthony-hopkins-8217-music&methodfull&objectid22070091&siteid91466-name_page.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date5 May 2013 \|titleRaucous approval for Sir Anthony Hopkins' music \|workWestern Mail \|publisherMedia Wales \|date20 October 2008 \|access-date11 October 2012 \|firstRobin \|lastTurner}}</ref> --> }} External links {{wikiquote}} {{Commons category\|Anthony Hopkins}} * {{IBDB name}} * {{Iobdb name\|6552}} * {{IMDb name\|164}} * {{Screenonline name\|495786}} * {{Tcmdb name}} {{Navboxes \|title = Awards for Anthony Hopkins \|list = {{AcademyAwardBestActor 1981–2000}} {{AARP Movies for Grownups Award for Best Actor}} {{AARP Movies for Grownups Award for Best Grownup Love Story}} {{BAFTA Award for Best Actor 1980–1999}} {{British Academy Television Award for Best Actor 1960–1979}} {{BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award}} {{Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor}} {{Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor}} {{BAFTA Los Angeles Britannia Awards}} {{Cecil B. DeMille Award 2001–2025}} {{Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor}} {{Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor}} {{Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Best Actor}} {{Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor}} {{David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor}} {{Donostia Award}} {{DramaDesk PlayOutstandingActor 1975-2000}} {{EmmyAward MiniseriesLeadActor 1976–2000}} {{European Film Award for Best Actor}} {{Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor}} {{Hasty Pudding Man of the Year}} {{OlivierAward OutstandingAchievement}} {{London Film Critics Circle Award for Actor of the Year}} {{Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor}} {{Maltin Modern Master Award}} {{National Board of Review Award for Best Actor}} {{National Board of Review Award for Best Supporting Actor}} {{New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor}} {{RTS Programme Award for Best Performance by a Male Actor}} {{Saturn Award for Best Actor}} }} {{British Triple Crown of Acting winners}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hopkins, Anthony}} Category:1937 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Welsh male actors Category:21st-century Welsh male actors Category:Actors awarded knighthoods Category:Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art Category:Alumni of the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama Category:American people of Welsh descent Category:Autistic actors Category:Autistic musicians Category:BAFTA fellows Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award winners Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award (television) winners Category:British actors with disabilities Category:Cecil B. DeMille Award Golden Globe winners Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire Category:Cool Cymru Category:Critics' Circle Theatre Award winners Category:David di Donatello winners Category:Drama Desk Award winners Category:Honorary members of the Royal Academy of Music Category:Knights Bachelor Category:Laurence Olivier Award winners Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners Category:People educated at Cowbridge Grammar School Category:People educated at West Monmouth School Category:People from Port Talbot Category:People with Asperger syndrome Category:Welsh expatriate male actors in the United States Category:Welsh male composers Category:Welsh male film actors Category:Welsh male Shakespearean actors Category:Welsh male stage actors Category:Welsh male television actors Category:Welsh people with disabilities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hopkins	2025-04-05T18:26:03.452119
2398	Ardal O'Hanlon	{{short description\|Irish comedian and actor}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox person \| image \| alt \| caption \| birth_date {{Birth date and age\|1965\|10\|8\|df=y}} \| birth_place = Carrickmacross, County Monaghan, Ireland \| education = Blackrock College \| alma_mater = NIHE, Dublin \| occupation = {{hlist\|Actor\|comedian}} \| years_active = 1991–present \| father = Rory O'Hanlon \| relatives = Peter Fenelon Collier \| spouse = Melanie O'Hanlon \| children = 3 \| website = }} '''Ardal O'Hanlon' ({{IPAc-en\|oʊ\|ˈ\|h\|æ\|n\|l\|ə\|n}}; born 8 October 1965) is an Irish comedian, actor, and author. He played Father Dougal McGuire in Father Ted (1995–1998), George Sunday/Thermoman in My Hero (2000–2006), and DI Jack Mooney in Death in Paradise (2017–2020). His novel The Talk of the Town'' was published in 1998. Early life O'Hanlon was born in Carrickmacross, County Monaghan,<ref name"Scotsman"/> the son of Fianna Fáil TD and physician Rory O'Hanlon and Teresa (née Ward).<ref name"Scotsman">{{cite web \|lastChristie \|firstJanet \|date11 Nov 2019 \|titleArdal O'Hanlon: I had to distance myself from Father Ted after it finished \|urlhttps://www.scotsman.com/arts-and-culture/theatre-and-stage/ardal-ohanlon-i-had-distance-myself-father-ted-after-it-finished-1402708 \|access-date3 June 2020 \|websitescotsman.com \|archive-date3 June 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200603085909/https://www.scotsman.com/arts-and-culture/theatre-and-stage/ardal-ohanlon-i-had-distance-myself-father-ted-after-it-finished-1402708 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> He is the third of six children, and has three brothers and two sisters.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Palmer \|first1Camilla \|titleArdal O'Hanlon: My family values \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/dec/27/ardal-ohanlon-my-family-values \|access-date18 December 2021 \|workThe Guardian \|date27 December 2013 \|languageen \|archive-date18 December 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211218171838/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/dec/27/ardal-ohanlon-my-family-values \|url-status=live }}</ref> O'Hanlon was schooled in Blackrock College in Dublin and graduated, in 1987, from the National Institute for Higher Education, Dublin (now Dublin City University), with a degree in communication studies.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastFreyne \|firstPatrick \|titleArdal O'Hanlon: 'I was always this weird, watchful kind of kid' \|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/stage/ardal-o-hanlon-i-was-always-this-weird-watchful-kind-of-kid-1.4024884 \|access-date2022-04-18 \|newspaperThe Irish Times \|languageen \|archive-date18 April 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220418134226/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/stage/ardal-o-hanlon-i-was-always-this-weird-watchful-kind-of-kid-1.4024884 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Career {{refimprove section\|date=August 2024}} Together with Kevin Gildea and Barry Murphy, O'Hanlon founded the International Comedy Cellar, upstairs in the International Bar on Dublin's South Wicklow Street.<ref name"Scotsman"/> Dublin had no comedy scene at the time. As a stand up, O'Hanlon won the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year competition in 1994. For a time he was the presenter of The Stand Up Show.<ref name"Scotsman"/> O'Hanlon was cast as Father Dougal McGuire in Father Ted (1995–1998). During filming, O'Hanlon went to buy shoes. Still being in costume, the seller thought he was a real priest and offered the footwear for free.<ref>{{cite web \| titleArdal O'Hanlon Interview Father Ted Death in Paradise \| websiteYouTube \| date18 May 2020 \| urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vydNnFh9eyRI\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/ydNnFh9eyRI\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1995 he received the Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards for this role. In 1995, he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a Channel 4 ident ("Hello, you're watching ... television"), and during Comic Relief on BBC1. This was followed by the award-winning short comedy film ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll''. In a 2019 interview, O'Hanlon admitted that he had attempted to distance himself from Father Ted once the show had finished.<ref name="Scotsman"/> O'Hanlon moved into straight acting alongside Emma Fielding and Beth Goddard in the ITV comedy-drama Big Bad World, which aired for two series in summer 1999 and winter 2001.<ref name="Scotsman"/> He also played a minor role in The Butcher Boy as Joe's (Francie's best friend) father, and appeared in an episode of the original Whose Line is it Anyway?. In 2000, O'Hanlon starred in the comedy series My Hero, in which he played a very naive superhero from the planet Ultron.<ref name="Scotsman"/> His character juggled world-saving heroics with life in suburbia. He stayed in the role until the first episode of series 6 in July 2006, when he was replaced by James Dreyfus during the same episode. O'Hanlon also provided the voice of the lead character in the three Christmas television cartoon specials of Robbie the Reindeer. He appeared in the 2005 BBC One sitcom Blessed, written by Ben Elton; at the 2005 British Comedy Awards, it was publicly slated by Jonathan Ross, albeit in jest.<ref>{{Cite web \|title9783612650702: Talk of the Town. - O'Hanlon, Ardal: 361265070X - AbeBooks \|urlhttps://www.abebooks.com/9783612650702/Talk-Town-OHanlon-Ardal-361265070X/plp \|access-date2022-11-07 \|websitewww.abebooks.com \|languageen \|archive-date7 November 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221107050558/https://www.abebooks.com/9783612650702/Talk-Town-OHanlon-Ardal-361265070X/plp \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Towards the end of 2005, he played an eccentric Scottish character, Coconut Tam, in the family based film, The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby. He has also appeared on radio, including an appearance on Quote... Unquote on BBC Radio 4 on 18 July 2011. Appropriately, one of his questions concerned a quotation from Father Ted. In 2015, he appeared as incompetent angel Smallbone in the sitcom The Best Laid Plans, on the same channel. In 2006, O'Hanlon wrote and presented an RTÉ television series called Leagues Apart, which saw him investigate the biggest and most passionate football rivalries in a number of European countries. Included were Roma vs Lazio in Italy, Barcelona vs Real Madrid in Spain, and Galatasaray vs Fenerbahce in Turkey. He followed this with another RTÉ show, So You Want To Be Taoiseach? in 2007. It was a political series in which O'Hanlon gave tongue-in-cheek advice on how to go about becoming Taoiseach of Ireland. He appeared in the Doctor Who episode "Gridlock", broadcast on 14 April 2007, in which he played a catlike creature named Thomas Kincade Brannigan.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/6478495.stm\|titleFans mad for Doctor's new companion\|date22 March 2007\|access-date3 April 2007\|workBBC News\|authorMasters, Tim\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070328182935/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/6478495.stm\| archive-date 28 March 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> O'Hanlon appears in series 3 of the TV show Skins,<ref name"Scotsman"/> playing Naomi Campbell (Lily Loveless)'s politics teacher named Kieran, who attempted to kiss her. He then went on to form a relationship with Naomi's mother (Olivia Colman). O'Hanlon plays the lead role in Irish comedy television programme Val Falvey, TD on RTÉ One. In 2012, he performed in the Edinburgh Fringe. In February 2011, O'Hanlon returned to the Gate Theatre, Dublin starring in the Irish premiere of Christopher Hampton's translation of Yasmina Reza's God of Carnage, alongside Maura Tierney. Later that year, he appeared in the comedy panel show Argumental. O'Hanlon has written a novel, The Talk of the Town (known in the United States as Knick Knack Paddy Whack), which was published in 1998. The novel is about a teenage boy, Patrick Scully, and his friends. In February 2015, he officially launched the 2015 Sky Cat Laughs Comedy Festival, which took place in Kilkenny from 28 May to 1 June.<ref>{{cite news \|date26 February 2015 \|titleArdal O'Hanlan launches this year's Cats Laughs as the festival comes of age \|workevoke.ie \|urlhttp://www.evoke.ie/events/ardal-ohanlan-launches-this-years-cats-laughs-as-the-festival-comes-of-age/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228162558/http://evoke.ie/events/ardal-ohanlan-launches-this-years-cats-laughs-as-the-festival-comes-of-age \|archive-date28 Feb 2017}}</ref> In 2015 he played the role of Peter the Milkman in the Sky One sitcom After Hours. On 2 February 2017, it was announced he would play the lead role in the BBC crime drama Death in Paradise taking the role of DI Jack Mooney following Kris Marshall's departure the same day. He announced his intention to leave the series in early 2020 and was replaced by Ralf Little.<ref>{{cite web \|lastPalmer \|firstKatie \|date27 January 2020 \|titleDeath in Paradise: When is Ralf Little's first episode? \|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1232880/Death-In-Paradise-when-Ralf-Little-first-episode-new-inspector-arrive \|websiteexpress.co.uk \|access-date27 January 2020 \|archive-date27 January 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200127095828/https://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1232880/Death-In-Paradise-when-Ralf-Little-first-episode-new-inspector-arrive \|url-statuslive }}</ref> On 25 November 2021, it was announced that he would participate in series 13 of Taskmaster.<ref>{{cite tweet\|userTaskmaster\|date 25 November 2021\|title Taskmaster will return in 2022\|number1463991162075852808 \|link = https://twitter.com/taskmaster/status/1463991162075852808}}</ref> He finished in 4th place ahead of Judi Love. In 2023, he played Uncle Jack in the National Theatre's production of Dancing at Lughnasa by Brian Friel, alongside Siobhan McSweeney and Tom Vaughan-Lawlor.<ref name"Nat-the-1">{{cite web \|titleDancing at Lughnasa {{!}} National Theatre \|urlhttps://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/productions/dancing-at-lughnasa/ \|websitewww.nationaltheatre.org.uk \|access-date=9 December 2024}}</ref> In January 2024, he presented his first Irish language show, Inis na nIontas, on TG4, exploring the islands around the coast of Ireland.<ref>{{Cite journal \|date2023-12-19 \|titleArdal O'Hanlon to present his first Irish language show \|urlhttps://www.rte.ie/entertainment/2023/1219/1422880-ardal-ohanlon-to-present-his-first-irish-language-show/ \|languageen}}</ref> Personal life O'Hanlon met his wife Melanie as a teenager. They have three children.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Dwyer\|first1Ciara\|titleArdal O'Hanlon: Stand up for a life well lived\|urlhttp://www.independent.ie/entertainment/books/ardal-ohanlon-stand-up-for-a-life-well-lived-26851128.html\|access-date11 July 2015\|workIrish Independent\|date7 May 2012\|archive-date30 July 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180730021307/https://www.independent.ie/entertainment/books/ardal-ohanlon-stand-up-for-a-life-well-lived-26851128.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> He is a supporter of Leeds United.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Tench\|first1Matt\|titleMy team: Ardal O'Hanlon\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/03/sport.features1\|access-date11 July 2015\|workThe Guardian\|date3 August 2003\|archive-date4 December 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201204153315/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2003/aug/03/sport.features1\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Filmography Film {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Year ! Title ! Role ! Notes \|- \| 1996 \| Moll Flanders \| Gentleman From East Chiswick \| \|- \| 1997 \| The Butcher Boy \| Mr. Purcell \| \|- \| 1998 \| ''Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll'' \| Eddie Johnny \| Short film<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0162961/\|titleFlying Saucer Rock'n'Roll (1998)\|authorsimon_duddy ([email protected])\|date1 October 1998\|workIMDb\|access-date5 October 2015\|archive-date10 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160310181318/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0162961/\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- \| 2002 \| ''Another Bobby O'Hara Story...'' \| Bobby O'Hara \| Short film<ref name"York-IFF-2003">{{cite news\|date1 March 2003\|titleYork Independent Film Festival\|urlhttps://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/7912447.york-independent-film-festival/\|websiteThe Press (York)\|access-date19 March 2025}}</ref> \|- \| 2005 \| The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby \| Coconut Tam \| \|- \| 2007 \| Blind Eye \| Immigration Official \| Short film \|- \| 2008 \| Tales of the Riverbank \| Hammy Hamster (voice) \| Direct-to-DVD \|- \| 2009 \| Wide Open Spaces \| Myles \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2016 \| Donkeys \| Derek \| Short film \|- \| Handsome Devil \| Dan Roche \| \|- \| Twice Shy \| Brendan O'Meara \| \|- \| 2021 \| Rian \| McCarthy \| Short film \|- \| 2024 \| My Freaky Family \| Nerlin Flood \| \|- \| TBA \| Fran the Man \| Jim O'Dea \| Post production \|} Television {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Year ! Title ! Role ! Notes \|- \| 1995–1998 \| Father Ted \| Father Dougal McGuire \| Series 1–3 (25 episodes) \|- \| 1996 \| Whose Line Is It Anyway? \| Himself \| Series 8; Episode 7 \|- \| 1997 \| Top of the Pops \| Himself - Guest Presenter \| Series 34; Episode 5<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/totp2/trivia/presenters/list12.shtml\|titleBBC – Top of the Pops 2 – Trivia\|workbbc.co.uk\|access-date5 October 2015\|archive-date2 March 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160302023203/http://www.bbc.co.uk/totp2/trivia/presenters/list12.shtml\|url-status=live}}</ref> \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 1999 \| Hooves of Fire \| Robbie the Reindeer (voice) \| Television film \|- \| The Comedy Trail: A Shaggy Dog Story \| George Sunday / Thermoman \| Television Special \|- \| 1999–2001 \| Big Bad World \| Eamon Donaghy \| Series 1–3 (16 episodes) \|- \| 2000–2006 \| My Hero \| George Sunday / Thermoman \| Series 1–6 (45 episodes) \|- \| 2002 \| Legend of the Lost Tribe \| Robbie the Reindeer (voice) \| Television film \|- \| 2005 \| Blessed \| Gary Chandler \| Episodes 1–8 \|- \| 2006 \| Leagues Apart \| Himself - Presenter \| Episodes 1–6 \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2007 \| Close Encounters of the Herd Kind \| Robbie the Reindeer (voice) \| Television film \|- \| Doctor Who \| Thomas Brannigan \| Series 3; Episode 3: "Gridlock" \|- \| 2008 \| Who Do You Think You Are? \| Himself \| Series 1; Episode 4: "Ardal O'Hanlon" \|- \| rowspan="2" \| 2009 \| Val Falvey, TD \| Val Falvey \| Episodes 1–6 \|- \| Skins \| Kieran \| Series 3; Episodes 1 & 6: "Everyone" and "Naomi" \|- \| 2010 \| ''Michael McIntyre's Comedy Roadshow \| Himself \| Series 2; Episode 6: "Leeds" \|- \| 2013 \| London Irish'' \| Chris 'Da' Lynch \| Mini-series (4 episodes) \|- \| 2014 \| ''Lily's Driftwood Bay \| Bull Dozer \| Series 1; Episode 24: "Stop! Watch" \|- \| rowspan="4" \| 2015 \| Celebrity Mastermind \| Himself - Contestant \| Series 14; Episode 1 \|- \| Cucumber \| Brian McCoy \| Mini-series; Episode 4 \|- \| Nelly & Nora \| Dad (voice) \| 24 episodes \|- \| After Hours \| Peter Hannigan \| Episodes 1–6 \|- \| 2016 \| Ireland with Ardal O'Hanlon \| Himself - Presenter \| Episodes 1–3 \|- \| 2017–2020 \| Death in Paradise \| DI Jack Mooney \| Series 6–9 (24 episodes) \|- \| 2019 \| Showbands: How Ireland Learned to Party \| Himself - Presenter \| Television film \|- \| 2019–2022 \| Derry Girls \| Eamonn \| Series 2; Episode 4: "The Curse" and Series 3; Episode 7: "The Agreement" \|- \| 2021 \| Would I Lie to You? \| Himself - Panellist \| Series 15; Christmas Special \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2022 \| Rosie Molloy Gives Up Everything \| Conall \| Series 1; Episodes 1–5 \|- \| Taskmaster \| Himself - Contestant \| Series 13; Episodes 1–10 \|- \| Countdown \| Himself \| Dictionary Corner. Series 86 & 88 (10 episodes) \|- \| 2023 \| The Woman in the Wall \| Dara \| Episodes 2 & 3: "Show Thyself" and "Knock Knock" \|- \| 2023–2024 \| Extraordinary \| Martin (voice) \| Series 1 & 2 (8 episodes) \|- \| rowspan="3" \| 2024 \| Celebrity Catchphrase'' \| Himself - Contestant \| Series 9; Episode 9: "Chris Bisson, Ruth Madeley and Ardal O'Hanlon" \|- \| Return to Paradise \| DI Jack Mooney \| Episodes 1 & 6: "R.I.P. Tide" and "Oh Mine Papa" \|- \|''Richard Osman's House of Games'' \| Himself - Contestant \| Series 8; Episodes 51–55 (Week 11) \|} Awards {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Name \|- \| 1994 \| Hackney Empire New Act of the Year \|- \| 1995 \| Top TV Comedy Newcomer at the British Comedy Awards \|} References {{Reflist}} External links * {{IMDb name\|id0641192\|nameArdal O'Hanlon}} * {{British Comedy Guide\|people\|ardal_ohanlon}} * [http://www.comedycv.co.uk/ardalohanlon/ Ardal O'Hanlon on comedycv.co.uk] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214147/http://www.irlfunds.org/australia/events_29.asp Ardal O'Hanlon in Melbourne at The Australian Ireland Fund charity event] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ohanlon, Ardal}} Category:1965 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Irish comedians Category:21st-century Irish comedians Category:Alumni of Dublin City University Category:Irish humorists Category:Irish male comedians Category:Irish male stage actors Category:Irish male film actors Category:Irish male television actors Category:Irish male voice actors Category:Irish television presenters Category:20th-century Irish novelists Category:Irish stand-up comedians Category:People educated at Blackrock College Category:People from Carrickmacross Category:Irish male novelists Category:Actors from County Monaghan Category:20th-century Irish male writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardal_O'Hanlon	2025-04-05T18:26:03.490336
2400	AMD	{{Short description\|American multinational technology company}} {{Other uses}} {{distinguish\|Advanced Micro Foundry}} {{Use American English\|date=February 2023}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=October 2023}} {{Infobox company \| name = Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. \| logo \| logo_alt Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. logo \| image = 2485 Augustine Drive headquarters in Santa Clara, California.jpg \| image_alt = Image of AMD's headquarters located in Santa Clara, California \| image_caption = Headquarters in Santa Clara, California, in 2020 \| image_upright = 1.1 \| trade_name = AMD \| type = Public \| traded_as = {{Unbulleted list \| {{NASDAQ\|AMD}} \| Nasdaq-100 component \| S&P 100 component \| S&P 500 component }} \| industry = Semiconductors \| founded = {{Start date and age\|1969\|05\|01}} \| founder = Team led by Jerry Sanders \| hq_location_city = Santa Clara, California \| hq_location_country United States<br/>{{Coord\|37\|22\|56\|N\|121\|58\|15\|W\|type:landmark_region:US-CA\|displaytitle,inline\|name=Advanced Micro Devices Headquarters}} \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = {{Unbulleted list \| Lisa Su (chair & CEO) \| Mark Papermaster (CTO) }} \| products = {{Flatlist\| * AMD CPUs * AMD GPUs }} \| brands = {{hlist\|Ryzen\|Radeon\|Athlon\|Epyc\|Threadripper\|Virtex\|Vivado\|Sempron\|Duron\|AMD Instinct}} \| revenue = {{increase}} {{US$\|25.79}}&nbsp;billion (2024) \| operating_income = {{increase}} {{US$\|1.900}}&nbsp;billion (2024) \| net_income = {{increase}} {{US$\|1.641}}&nbsp;billion (2024) \| assets = {{increase}} {{US$\|69.23}}&nbsp;billion (2024) \| equity = {{increase}} {{US$\|57.57}}&nbsp;billion (2024) \| num_employees = {{circa\|28,000}} (2024) \| website = {{URL\|amd.com}} \| footnotes <ref name10K>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.sec.gov/ix?doc/Archives/edgar/data/2488/000000248825000012/amd-20241228.htm\|titleAMD 2024 Annual Report (Form 10-K) \|publisherU.S. Securities and Exchange Commission\|date=February 5, 2025}}</ref> }} Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California and maintains significant operations in Austin, Texas. AMD is a hardware and fabless company that designs and develops central processing units (CPUs), graphics processing units (GPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), system-on-chip (SoC), and high-performance computer solutions. AMD serves a wide range of business and consumer markets, including gaming, data centers, artificial intelligence (AI), and embedded systems. AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors, and graphics processors for servers, workstations, personal computers, and embedded system applications. The company has also expanded into new markets, such as the data center, gaming, and high-performance computing<ref>{{Cite web \|lastWare \|firstAna \|date2023-11-20 \|titleAMD Delivers High Performance, High Efficiency CPUs and GPUs for All HPC Use Cases \|urlhttps://www.hpcwire.com/2023/11/20/amd-delivers-high-performance-high-efficiency-cpus-and-gpus-for-all-hpc-use-cases/ \|access-date2024-02-16 \|websiteHPCwire \|languageen-US}}</ref> markets. AMD's processors are used in a wide range of computing devices, including personal computers, servers, laptops, and gaming consoles. While it initially manufactured its own processors, the company later outsourced its manufacturing, after GlobalFoundries was spun off in 2009. Through its Xilinx acquisition in 2022, AMD offers field-programmable gate array (FPGA) products. AMD was founded in 1969 by Jerry Sanders and a group of other technology professionals. The company's early products were primarily memory chips and other components for computers. In 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market, competing with Intel, its main rival in the industry. In the early 2000s, it experienced significant growth and success, thanks in part to its strong position in the PC market and the success of its Athlon and Opteron processors. However, the company faced challenges in the late 2000s and early 2010s, as it struggled to keep up with Intel in the race to produce faster and more powerful processors. In the late 2010s, AMD regained market share by pursuing a penetration pricing strategy<ref>{{Cite web \|last\|first \|date2019-10-22 \|titleAMD's Extremely Successful Price Strategy Could Burden AMD And Intel Investors Long Term \|urlhttps://seekingalpha.com/article/4297960-amds-extremely-successful-price-strategy-burden-amd-and-intel-investors-long-term \|access-date2024-08-23 \|websiteseekingalpha.com \|languageen}}</ref> and building on the success of its Ryzen processors, which were considerably more competitive with Intel microprocessors in terms of performance whilst offering attractive pricing.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD ascending: How Ryzen CPUs snatched the computing crown from Intel \|urlhttps://www.pcworld.com/article/398418/amd-ascending-how-ryzen-laptop-desktop-cpus-snatched-computing-crown-intel.html \|dateMarch 31, 2020 \|access-dateMarch 31, 2020 \|websitePCWorld \|languageen}}</ref> In 2022, AMD surpassed Intel by market capitalization for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD's Market Cap Surpasses Intel for the First Time in History \|urlhttps://www.tomshardware.com/news/amds-market-cap-surpasses-intel \|dateFebruary 16, 2022 \|access-dateFebruary 16, 2022 \|websiteTom's Hardware \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|titleHow AMD became a chip giant and leapfrogged Intel after years of playing catch-up \|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/22/how-amd-became-a-chip-giant-leapfrogged-intel-after-playing-catch-up.html \|dateNovember 22, 2022 \|access-dateNovember 22, 2022 \|websiteCNBC \|languageen}}</ref> History (demolished in 2019)]] , Ontario, Canada, formerly ATI headquarters]] Lone Star campus in Austin, Texas<!-- DO NOT LINK SEPARATELY, see MOS:GEOLINK for further guidance -->]] Foundational years Advanced Micro Devices was formally incorporated by Jerry Sanders, along with seven of his colleagues from Fairchild Semiconductor, on May 1, 1969.<ref>The other founding members were Ed Turney, John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three members from Gifford's team: Frank Botte, Jim Giles, and Larry Stenger.</ref><ref>Rodengen, p. 30.</ref> Sanders, an electrical engineer who was the director of marketing at Fairchild, had, like many Fairchild executives, grown frustrated with the increasing lack of support, opportunity, and flexibility within the company. He later decided to leave to start his own semiconductor company,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20030501040300/http://www.businessweek.com/pdfs/fairkid.pdf "Fairchild's Offspring"]. Business Week. August 25, 1997. p. 84.</ref> following the footsteps of Robert Noyce (developer of the first silicon integrated circuit at Fairchild in 1959)<ref>Mueller, Scott. [https://books.google.com/books?idgXaRdKyD4PsC&pgPA6 Upgrading and Repairing PCs]. Que Publishing, 2013. p. 6.</ref> and Gordon Moore, who together founded the semiconductor company Intel in July 1968.<ref name"abc">Malone, Michael S. [https://abcnews.go.com/Business/story?id86632&page1&singlePagetrue "Silicon Insider: AMD-Intel Feud Continues"]. ABC News. April 24, 2003.</ref> In September 1969, AMD moved from its temporary location in Santa Clara to Sunnyvale, California.<ref>Rodengen, p. 36.</ref> To immediately secure a customer base, AMD initially became a second source supplier of microchips designed by Fairchild and National Semiconductor.<ref name"directory">Pederson, Jay P. [http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/advanced-micro-devices-inc-history/ International Directory of Company Histories, Vol. 30] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140719091859/http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/advanced-micro-devices-inc-history/ \|dateJuly 19, 2014 }}. St. James Press, 2000.</ref><ref>Rodengen, p. 35.</ref> AMD first focused on producing logic chips.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 37–38.</ref> The company guaranteed quality control to United States Military Standard, an advantage in the early computer industry since unreliability in microchips was a distinct problem that customers – including computer manufacturers, the telecommunications industry, and instrument manufacturers – wanted to avoid.<ref namedirectory /><ref name"singer">Singer, Graham. [http://www.techspot.com/article/599-amd-rise-and-fall/ "The Rise and Fall of AMD"]. TechSpot. November 21, 2012.</ref><ref>Rodengen, pp. 35, 38, 41, 42.</ref><ref name"svh">[http://www.siliconvalleyhistorical.org/#!amd-company-history/csut AMD Corporation] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201112025526/https://www.siliconvalleyhistorical.org/#!amd-company-history/csut \|dateNovember 12, 2020 }}. Silicon Valley Historical Association. 2008.</ref> In November 1969, the company manufactured its first product: the Am9300, a 4-bit MSI shift register, which began selling in 1970.<ref namesvh /><ref>Rodengen, pp. 36, 38.</ref> Also in 1970, AMD produced its first proprietary product, the Am2501 logic counter, which was highly successful.<ref name"lojek220">Lojek, Bo. [https://books.google.com/books?id2cu1Oh_COv8C&pgPA220 History of Semiconductor Engineering]. Springer Science & Business Media, 2007. p. 220.</ref><ref name"history">[https://www.amd.com/en-us/who-we-are/corporate-information/history Our History]. AMD.com.</ref> Its bestselling product in 1971 was the Am2505, the fastest multiplier available.<ref namelojek220 /><ref name="rodengen41">Rodengen, p. 41.</ref> In 1971, AMD entered the RAM chip market, beginning with the Am3101, a 64-bit bipolar RAM.<ref namerodengen41 /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idUmZJAQAAIAAJ&q%22am3101%22+%22ram%22 Electronic Design, Volume 19, Part 3]. Hayden Publishing Company, 1971. p. 227.</ref> That year AMD also greatly increased the sales volume of its linear integrated circuits, and by year-end the company's total annual sales reached US$4.6&nbsp;million.<ref namelojek220 /><ref>Rodengen, pp. 42, 43.</ref> AMD went public in September 1972.<ref namedirectory /><ref>Rodengen, p. 45.</ref><ref>Walker, Rob. [http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/sanders.htm "Interview with W. Jerry Sanders"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102192309/http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/sanders.htm \|dateJanuary 2, 2014 }}. Silicon Genesis. Stanford University. October 18, 2002.</ref> The company was a second source for Intel MOS/LSI circuits by 1973, with products such as Am14/1506 and Am14/1507, dual 100-bit dynamic shift registers.<ref>Rodengen, p. 46.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idqVRNAAAAYAAJ&q%22am14/1506%22/1506%22 MOS/LSI Data Book]. Advanced Micro Devices, 1980. pp. 5–1, 5–2, B-8.</ref> By 1975, AMD was producing 212 products – of which 49 were proprietary, including the Am9102 (a static N-channel 1024-bit RAM)<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idRHFJAQAAIAAJ&q%22am9102%22+AMD Electrical Design News, Volume 19, Issues 13–24]. Rogers Publishing Company, 1974. p. 86.</ref> and three low-power Schottky MSI circuits: Am25LS07, Am25LS08, and Am25LS09.<ref name"rodengen55">Rodengen, p. 55.</ref> Intel had created the first microprocessor, its 4-bit 4004, in 1971.<ref>Venkata Ram, S.K. [https://books.google.com/books?idMUI1ioZrnzcC&pgPA3 Advanced Microprocessor & Microcontrollers]. Firewall Media, 2004. p. 3.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130207174740/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/transcript/silicon-transcript/ Transcript: Silicon Valley (documentary)]. American Experience. PBS. 2013.</ref> By 1975, AMD entered the microprocessor market with the Am9080, a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080,<ref>{{cite web \|dateDecember 29, 1997 \|titleInterview with Shawn and Kim Hailey \|urlhttp://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hailey.htm \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131111155525/http://silicongenesis.stanford.edu/transcripts/hailey.htm \|archive-dateNovember 11, 2013 \|access-dateOctober 20, 2014 \|publisherStanford University Libraries}}</ref><ref name"rodengen50">Rodengen, p. 50.</ref><ref>Hitt, Michael; Ireland, R. Duane; Hoskisson, Robert. [https://books.google.com/books?idHxj4qCuHNPQC&pgPA41 Strategic Management: Competitiveness and Globalization, Cases, Volume 2]. Cengage Learning, 2008. p. 41.</ref> and the Am2900 bit-slice microprocessor family.<ref namerodengen50 /> When Intel began installing microcode in its microprocessors in 1976, it entered into a cross-licensing agreement with AMD, which was granted a copyright license to the microcode in its microprocessors and peripherals, effective October 1976.<ref namerodengen55 /><ref>Lennon, Michael J. [https://books.google.com/books?idi3MLYUjRWisC&pgSA4-PA36 Drafting Technology Patent License Agreements]. Aspen Publishers Online, 2007. p. 4-36.</ref><ref>Pane, Patricia J. and Barbara Darrow. [https://books.google.com/books?idVTwEAAAAMBAJ&pgPT6 "AMD Asserts Right to Distribute Intel Code"]. InfoWorld. October 1, 1990. p. 5.</ref><ref name"justia1994">[http://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/4th/9/362.html Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. v. Intel Corp. (1994)]. No. S033874. December 30, 1994. Justia.com. Retrieved October 25, 2014.</ref><ref name="sec1996">[https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/3437730.txt SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934: RELEASE No. 37730]. Securities and Exchange Commission. Sec.gov. September 26, 1996. (Accessed October 25, 2014.)</ref> {{anchor\|AMC}}In 1977, AMD entered into a joint venture with Siemens, a German engineering conglomerate wishing to enhance its technology expertise and enter the American market.<ref name"malerba">Malerba, Franco. [https://books.google.com/books?idpC1oHOTnaLAC&pgPA166 The Semiconductor Business: The Economics of Rapid Growth and Decline]. University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. p. 166.</ref> Siemens purchased 20% of AMD's stock, giving the company an infusion of cash to increase its product lines.<ref namemalerba /><ref>Rodengen, pp. 59–60.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?idliUrAAAAYAAJ&pgPA53 Reindustrialization Or New Industrialization: Minutes of a Symposium, January 13, 1981, Part 3]. National Academies, 1981. p. 53.</ref> The two companies also jointly established Advanced Micro Computers (AMC), located in Silicon Valley and in Germany, allowing AMD to enter the microcomputer development and manufacturing field,<ref namemalerba /><ref name"rodengen60">Rodengen, p. 60.</ref><ref>[http://californiafirm.us/advanced-micro-computers-inc.nhd7.california-company-profile.html ADVANCED MICRO COMPUTERS, INC.] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141104070612/http://californiafirm.us/advanced-micro-computers-inc.nhd7.california-company-profile.html \|dateNovember 4, 2014 }}. CaliforniaFirm.us.</ref><ref>[http://www.californiacompanieslist.com/advanced-micro-computers-inc-cje0/ ADVANCED MICRO COMPUTERS, INC.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141104095752/http://www.californiacompanieslist.com/advanced-micro-computers-inc-cje0/ \|dateNovember 4, 2014 }}. CaliforniaCompaniesList.com.</ref> in particular based on AMD's second-source Zilog Z8000 microprocessors.<ref namefreiberger /><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id4W1VAAAAMAAJ&q%22advanced+micro+computers%22+z8000+OR+zilog Mini-micro Systems, Volume 15]. Cahners Publishing Company, 1982. p. 286.</ref> When the two companies' vision for Advanced Micro Computers diverged, AMD bought out Siemens' stake in the American division in 1979.<ref>Rodengen, p. 62.</ref><ref>"Siemens and Advanced Micro Devices Agree to Split Joint Venture". The Wall Street Journal. February 14, 1979. p. 38.</ref> AMD closed Advanced Micro Computers in late 1981 after switching focus to manufacturing second-source Intel x86 microprocessors.<ref name"freiberger">Freiberger, Paul. [https://books.google.com/books?idzC8EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA28 "AMD sued for alleged misuse of subsidiary's secrets"]. InfoWorld. June 20, 1983. p. 28.</ref><ref name"swaine">Swaine, Michael. [https://books.google.com/books?idSD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA78 "Eight Companies to produce the 8086 chip"]. InfoWorld. November 30, 1981. p. 78.</ref><ref>Rodengen, p. 73.</ref> Total sales in fiscal year 1978 topped $100&nbsp;million,<ref namerodengen60 /> and in 1979, AMD debuted on the New York Stock Exchange.<ref namehistory /> In 1979, production also began on AMD's new semiconductor fabrication plant in Austin, Texas;<ref namehistory /> the company already had overseas assembly facilities in Penang and Manila,<ref>Rodengen, p. 59.</ref> and began construction on a fabrication plant in San Antonio in 1981.<ref name"HittC26">Hitt, Michael; Ireland, R. Duane; Hoskisson, Robert. [https://books.google.com/books?idgZ60WQm54CoC&pgPT498 Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases]. Cengage Learning, 2006. p. C-26.</ref> In 1980, AMD began supplying semiconductor products for telecommunications, an industry undergoing rapid expansion and innovation.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 65, 71–72, 79–80.</ref> Intel partnership Intel had introduced the first x86 microprocessors in 1978.<ref>Sanchez, Julio, and Maria P. Canton. [https://books.google.com/books?idjtKc0k5BWA8C&pgPA95 Software Solutions for Engineers and Scientists]. CRC Press, 2007. p. 95.</ref> In 1981, IBM created its PC, and wanted Intel's x86 processors, but only under the condition that Intel would also provide a second-source manufacturer for its patented x86 microprocessors.<ref namesinger /> Intel and AMD entered into a 10-year technology exchange agreement, first signed in October 1981<ref nameswaine /><ref>[http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/8086/MANUF-AMD.html AMD 8086 microprocessor family], CPU World. (Accessed November 3, 2014.)</ref> and formally executed in February 1982.<ref namesec1996 /> The terms of the agreement were that each company could acquire the right to become a second-source manufacturer of semiconductor products developed by the other; that is, each party could "earn" the right to manufacture and sell a product developed by the other, if agreed to, by exchanging the manufacturing rights to a product of equivalent technical complexity. The technical information and licenses needed to make and sell a part would be exchanged for a royalty to the developing company.<ref namejustia1994 /> The 1982 agreement also extended the 1976 AMD–Intel cross-licensing agreement through 1995.<ref namejustia1994 /><ref namesec1996 /> The agreement included the right to invoke arbitration of disagreements, and after five years the right of either party to end the agreement with one year's notice.<ref namejustia1994 /> The main result of the 1982 agreement was that AMD became a second-source manufacturer of Intel's x86 microprocessors and related chips, and Intel provided AMD with database tapes for its 8086, 80186, and 80286 chips.<ref namesec1996 /> However, in the event of a bankruptcy or takeover of AMD, the cross-licensing agreement would be effectively canceled.<ref>{{cite web\|titlePatent Cross License Agreement\|urlhttps://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/2488/000119312509236705/dex102.htm\|dateNovember 11, 2009\|access-dateFebruary 2, 2021\|website=U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission}}</ref> Beginning in 1982, AMD began volume-producing second-source Intel-licensed 8086, 8088, 80186, and 80188 processors, and by 1984, its own Am286 clone of Intel's 80286 processor, for the rapidly growing market of IBM PCs and IBM clones.<ref namesinger /><ref>Ziberg, Christian. [http://www.tgdaily.com/trendwatch-features/39628-timeline-how-amd-changed-over-the-past-39-years "Timeline: How AMD changed over the past 39 years"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141113081521/http://www.tgdaily.com/trendwatch-features/39628-timeline-how-amd-changed-over-the-past-39-years \|date=November 13, 2014 }}. TGDaily. October 7, 2008.</ref> It also continued its successful concentration on proprietary bipolar chips.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Advanced_Micro_Devices_Inc.aspx International Directory of Company Histories]. 1992.</ref> The company continued to spend greatly on research and development,<ref>Rodengen, pp. 73, 78–80.</ref> and created the world's first 512K EPROM in 1984.<ref>Rodengen, p. 80.</ref> That year, AMD was listed in the book The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America,<ref name=HittC26 /><ref>Levering, Robert; Moskowitz, Milton; Katz, Michael. The 100 Best Companies to Work for in America. Addison-Wesley, 1984.</ref> and later made the Fortune 500 list for the first time in 1985.<ref>[https://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500_archive/full/1985/401.html 1985 Full list] . Fortune 500. Fortune archive.</ref><ref>Rodengen, p. 85.</ref> By mid-1985, the microchip market experienced a severe downturn, mainly due to long-term aggressive trade practices (dumping) from Japan, but also due to a crowded and non-innovative chip market in the United States.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 85–87.</ref> AMD rode out the mid-1980s crisis by aggressively innovating and modernizing,<ref>Rodengen, pp. 86, 90, 95, 99.</ref> devising the Liberty Chip program of designing and manufacturing one new chip or chipset per week for 52 weeks in fiscal year 1986,<ref name=HittC26 /><ref>Rodengen, pp. 90–91.</ref> and by heavily lobbying the U.S. government until sanctions and restrictions were put in place to prevent predatory Japanese pricing.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 87–88, 97–99.</ref> During this time, AMD withdrew from the DRAM market,<ref>Rodengen, p. 97.</ref> and made some headway into the CMOS market, which it had lagged in entering, having focused instead on bipolar chips.<ref>Rodengen, p. 91.</ref> AMD had some success in the mid-1980s with the AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem, one of the first multi-standard devices that covered both Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex or 300/300 full duplex.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id-Yo_AQAAIAAJ&q%22amd%22+%22world+chip%22 Computer Design, Volume 25, Issues 13–22]. Computer Design Publishing Corporation, 1986. p. 14.</ref> Beginning in 1986, AMD embraced the perceived shift toward RISC with their own AMD Am29000 (29k) processor;<ref>Rodengen, p. 100.</ref> the 29k survived as an embedded processor.<ref>{{Citation \|lastMann \|firstDaniel \|titleEvaluating and Programming the 29K RISC Family \|urlhttp://datasheets.chipdb.org/AMD/29K/29kprog.pdf \|year1995 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927060927/http://www.amd.com/epd/29k/29kprog/29kprog.pdf \|publisherAdvanced Micro Devices \|archive-dateSeptember 27, 2007}}</ref><ref>Pflanz, Matthias. [https://books.google.com/books?idFXWJ61To3iYC&pgPA23 On-line Error Detection and Fast Recover Techniques for Dependable Embedded Processors]. Springer Science & Business Media, 2002. p. 23.</ref> The company also increased its EPROM memory market share in the late 1980s.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 121–122.</ref> Throughout the 1980s, AMD was a second-source supplier of Intel x86 processors. In 1991, it introduced its 386-compatible Am386, an AMD-designed chip. Creating its own chips, AMD began to compete directly with Intel.<ref>[https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/37710/amd AMD]. PC Encyclopedia. PC Magazine.</ref> AMD had a large, successful flash memory business, even during the dotcom bust.<ref>Ruiz. p. 20.</ref> In 2003, to divest some manufacturing and aid its overall cash flow, which was under duress from aggressive microprocessor competition from Intel, AMD spun off its flash memory business and manufacturing into Spansion, a joint venture with Fujitsu, which had been co-manufacturing flash memory with AMD since 1993.<ref>Ruiz, pp. 54–55.</ref><ref>Spooner, John G. [http://news.cnet.com/AMD,-Fujitsu-merge-on-flash-memory/2100-1041_3-1025477.html "AMD, Fujitsu merge on flash memory"]. CNET. July 14, 2003.</ref> In December 2005, AMD divested itself of Spansion to focus on the microprocessor market, and Spansion went public in an IPO.<ref>Yi, Matthew. [http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Spansion-spun-off-by-AMD-Money-losing-flash-2556614.php "Spansion spun off by AMD"]. San Francisco Chronicle. December 17, 2005.</ref> 2006–present On July 24, 2006, AMD announced its acquisition of the Canadian 3D graphics card company ATI Technologies. AMD paid $4.3&nbsp;billion and 58&nbsp;million shares of its capital stock, for approximately $5.4&nbsp;billion. The transaction was completed on October 25, 2006.<ref>{{cite web \|dateOctober 25, 2006 \|titleAMD Completes ATI Acquisition and Creates Processing Powerhouse \|urlhttp://newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/October2006/25/c4187.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012221335/http://newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/October2006/25/c4187.html \|archive-dateOctober 12, 2007 \|publisherNewsWire}}</ref> On August 30, 2010, AMD announced that it would retire the ATI brand name for its graphics chipsets in favor of the AMD brand name.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAMD Decides to Drop the ATI Brand – Softpedia \|dateAugust 30, 2010 \|urlhttp://news.softpedia.com/news/AMD-Really-Dropping-the-ATI-Brand-154168.shtml \|access-dateFebruary 19, 2011 \|publisherNews.softpedia.com \|archive-dateAugust 17, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200817173249/https://news.softpedia.com/news/AMD-Really-Dropping-the-ATI-Brand-154168.shtml \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|dateAugust 30, 2010 \|titleATI to be re-branded as AMD – branding, ATI Radeon, ati, amd – ARN \|urlhttp://www.arnnet.com.au/article/358774/ati_re-branded_amd/ \|access-dateFebruary 19, 2011 \|publisherArnnet.com.au}}</ref> In October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of GlobalFoundries Inc., a multibillion-dollar joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu Dhabi. The partnership and spin-off gave AMD an infusion of cash and allowed it to focus solely on chip design.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastVance \|firstAshlee \|author-linkAshlee Vance \|dateOctober 7, 2008 \|titleA.M.D. to Split Into Two Operations \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/07/technology/07chip.html \|access-dateMarch 26, 2010}}</ref> To assure the Abu Dhabi investors of the new venture's success, AMD's CEO Hector Ruiz stepped down in July 2008, while remaining executive chairman, in preparation for becoming chairman of GlobalFoundries in March 2009.<ref>Ruiz, 159–162.</ref><ref>Gruener, Wolfgang. [http://www.tgdaily.com/business-and-law-features/41615-amd%E2%80%99s-fabs-now-on-their-own-globalfoundries "AMD's fabs now on their own: GlobalFoundries"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141221020940/http://www.tgdaily.com/business-and-law-features/41615-amd%E2%80%99s-fabs-now-on-their-own-globalfoundries \|dateDecember 21, 2014 }}. TG Daily. March 4, 2009.</ref> President and COO Dirk Meyer became AMD's CEO.<ref>[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/products/2008-07-17-4237049458_x.htm "At a glance: AMD's new CEO Dirk Meyer"]. Associated Press. July 17, 2008.</ref> Recessionary losses necessitated AMD cutting 1,100 jobs in 2009.<ref>Kawamoto, Dawn. [http://www.cnet.com/news/amd-to-trim-1100-jobs-initiate-temporary-pay-cuts/ "AMD to trim 1,100 jobs, initiate temporary pay cuts"]. CNET. January 16, 2009.</ref> In August 2011, AMD announced that former Lenovo executive Rory Read would be joining the company as CEO, replacing Meyer.<ref>{{cite news\|authorDylan McGrath\|work EE Times\|urlhttp://eetimes.com/electronics-news/4219307/AMD-appoints-former-Lenovo-exec-CEO \|titleAMD appoints former Lenovo exec CEO\|dateAugust 25, 2011\|accessdateAugust 25, 2011}}</ref> In November 2011, AMD announced plans to lay off more than 10% (1,400) of its employees from across all divisions worldwide.<ref>O'Gara. Maureen. [http://virtualization.sys-con.com/node/2050701 "AMD to Fire 1,400"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141221021304/http://virtualization.sys-con.com/node/2050701 \|dateDecember 21, 2014 }}. Virtualization Journal. November 7, 2011.</ref> In October 2012, it announced plans to lay off an additional 15% of its workforce to reduce costs in the face of declining sales revenue.<ref name"king2012">{{Citation \|lastIan King \|titleAMD Forecast Misses Estimates; to Cut 15 Percent of Staff \|dateOctober 18, 2012 \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-18/amd-sales-forecast-misses-estimates-to-cut-15-percent-of-staff.html \|editor-lastTom Giles \|publisherBloomberg L.P. \|access-dateOctober 31, 2012}}</ref> The inclusion of AMD chips into the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were later seen as saving AMD from bankruptcy.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTyson \|firstMark \|date2024-07-05 \|titleSony PlayStation 4 chip helped AMD avoid bankruptcy – exec recounts how 'Jaguar' chips fueled company's historic turnaround \|urlhttps://www.tomshardware.com/pc-components/cpus/sony-playstation-4-chip-helped-amd-avoid-bankruptcy-exec-recounts-how-jaguar-chips-fueled-companys-historic-turnaround \|access-date2024-07-31 \|websiteTom's Hardware \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastFox \|firstJacob \|date2024-07-05 \|titleHere's your reminder how close AMD came to financial collapse and just how much we owe to the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One \|urlhttps://www.pcgamer.com/hardware/processors/heres-your-reminder-how-close-amd-came-to-financial-collapse-and-just-how-much-we-owe-to-the-playstation-4-and-xbox-one/ \|access-date2024-07-31 \|workPC Gamer \|languageen}}</ref> AMD acquired the low-power server manufacturer SeaMicro in early 2012, with an eye to bringing out an Arm64 server chip.<ref name"vance2012">{{cite web \|lastVance \|firstAshlee \|dateOctober 30, 2012 \|titleAMD Finds the Courage for Another Server Chip Gambit \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-10-30/amd-finds-the-courage-for-another-server-chip-gambit \|access-dateJuly 29, 2020 \|websiteBloomberg Businessweek \|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.}}</ref> On October 8, 2014, AMD announced that Rory Read had stepped down after three years as president and chief executive officer.<ref name"wsj.com">{{cite web \|dateOctober 8, 2014 \|titleAdvanced Micro Devices CEO Rory Read Steps Down \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/advanced-micro-devices-ceo-rory-read-steps-down-1412800319 \|access-dateOctober 8, 2014 \|workThe Wall Street Journal}}</ref> He was succeeded by Lisa Su, a key lieutenant who had been chief operating officer since June.<ref>[http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/10/08/a-m-d-names-lisa-su-as-chief-executive/ A.M.D names Lisa Su as chief executive], Bits-Blogs, NYTimes October 8, 2014.</ref> On October 16, 2014, AMD announced a new restructuring plan along with its Q3 results. Effective July 1, 2014, AMD reorganized into two business groups: Computing and Graphics, which primarily includes desktop and notebook processors and chipsets, discrete GPUs, and professional graphics; and Enterprise, Embedded, and Semi-Custom, which primarily includes server and embedded processors, dense servers, semi-custom SoC products (including solutions for gaming consoles), engineering services, and royalties. As part of this restructuring, AMD announced that 7% of its global workforce would be laid off by the end of 2014.<ref>[https://www.amd.com/en-us/press-releases/Pages/press-release-2014oct16.aspx AMD Reports 2014 Third Quarter Results]. AMD. October 16, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.</ref> After the GlobalFoundries spin-off and subsequent layoffs, AMD was left with significant vacant space at 1 AMD Place, its aging Sunnyvale headquarters office complex. In August 2016, AMD's 47 years in Sunnyvale came to a close when it signed a lease with the Irvine Company for a new 220,000 sq. ft. headquarters building in Santa Clara.<ref name"DonatoWeinstein">{{Cite news \|lastDonato-Weinstein \|firstNathan \|dateAugust 19, 2016 \|titleAMD moving headquarters to Santa Clara, ending 47-year history in Sunnyvale \|workSilicon Valley Business Journal \|publisherAmerican City Business Journals \|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2016/08/19/amd-moving-headquarters-to-santa-clara-ending-47.html \|access-dateJune 22, 2020}}</ref> AMD's new location at Santa Clara Square faces the headquarters of archrival Intel across the Bayshore Freeway and San Tomas Aquino Creek. Around the same time, AMD also agreed to sell 1 AMD Place to the Irvine Company.<ref name"SVBJ">{{Cite news \|lastSVBJ Staff \|dateJune 17, 2020 \|titleDeveloper buys townhome portion of under-construction project on former AMD campus in Sunnyvale \|workSilicon Valley Business Journal \|publisherAmerican City Business Journals \|urlhttps://www.bizjournals.com/sanjose/news/2020/06/17/irvine-co-amd-sunnyvale-homes-taylor-morrison.html \|access-dateJune 22, 2020}}</ref> In April 2019, the Irvine Company secured approval from the Sunnyvale City Council of its plans to demolish 1 AMD Place and redevelop the entire 32-acre site into townhomes and apartments.<ref name"SVBJ" /> In October 2020, AMD announced that it was acquiring Xilinx, one of the market leaders in field programmable gate arrays and complex programmable logic devices (FPGAs and CPLDs) in an all-stock transaction. The acquisition was completed in February 2022, with an estimated acquisition price of $50&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAMD to Acquire Xilinx, Creating the Industry's High-Performance Computing Leader\|urlhttps://ir.amd.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/977/amd-to-acquire-xilinx-creating-the-industrys-high?sf2392695501\|dateOctober 27, 2020\|access-dateOctober 27, 2020\|websiteAdvanced Micro Devices, Inc.\|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|lastLee\|firstJane Lanhee\|dateFebruary 14, 2022\|titleAMD closes record chip industry deal with estimated $50 billion purchase of Xilinx\|languageen\|workReuters\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/amd-closes-biggest-chip-acquisition-with-498-bln-purchase-xilinx-2022-02-14/\|access-date=February 14, 2022}}</ref> In October 2023, AMD acquired an open-source AI software provider, Nod.ai, to bolster its AI software ecosystem.<ref nameTechCrunch>{{Cite web \|lastWiggers \|firstKyle \|date2023-10-11 \|titleAMD acquires Nod.ai to bolsters its AI software ecosystem \|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2023/10/11/amd-acquires-nod-ai-to-bolsters-its-ai-software-ecosystem/ \|access-date2023-10-23 \|websiteTechCrunch \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref nameCNBC/> In January 2024, AMD announced it was discontinuing the production of all complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) acquired through Xilinx.<ref name"cpld_eol">{{cite web\|titleXCN23009 Product Discontinuation Notice (v1.0)\|dateJanuary 1, 2024\|urlhttps://mm.digikey.com/Volume0/opasdata/d220001/medias/docus/5783/XCN23009.pdf\|access-date=August 8, 2024}}</ref> In March 2024, a rally in semiconductor stocks pushed AMD's valuation above $300B for the first time.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGrant \|firstCharlie \|date1 March 2024 \|titleAMD Surpasses $300 Billion Valuation \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/stock-market-today-dow-jones-02-29-2024/card/amd-charges-toward-300-billion-valuation-Swj2Q5u165U2JRDY4sIR?mod \|access-date6 March 2024 \|website=Wall Street Journal}}</ref> In July 2024 AMD announced that it would acquire the Finnish-based artificial intelligence startup company Silo AI in a $665 million all-cash deal in an attempt to better compete with AI chip market leader Nvidia.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastTimes \|firstFinancial \|date2024-07-10 \|titleIn bid to loosen Nvidia's grip on AI, AMD to buy Finnish startup for $665M \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2024/07/in-bid-to-loosen-nvidias-grip-on-ai-amd-to-buy-finnish-startup-for-665-million/ \|access-date2024-07-10 \|websiteArs Technica \|languageen-us}}</ref> List of CEOs {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! Name !! Years !! Position, education \|- \| Jerry Sanders \|\| 1969–2002 \|\| Founder, electrical engineer \|- \| Hector Ruiz \|\| 2002–2008 \|\| Electrical engineer \|- \| Dirk Meyer \|\| 2008–2011 \|\| Computer engineer \|- \| Rory Read \|\| 2011–2014 \|\| Information Systems \|- \| Lisa Su \|\| 2014–present \|\| Electrical engineer \|} Products CPUs and APUs {{See also\|List of AMD processors}} {{Gallery \| title = AMD microprocessors \| width = 95 \| height = 95 \| align = center \| footer = \| File:KL AMD 2901.jpg \| alt1= \| Am2900 series (1975) \| File:AMD Am29000-16GC.jpg \| alt2= \| AMD 29000 series (1987–1995) \| File:Am386DX-40.jpg \| alt3= \| Am386 Amx86 series (1991–1995) \| File:AMD K5 PR166 Front.jpg \| alt4= \| K5 architecture (1996) \| File:Ic-photo-AMD--AMD-K6-166ALR-(K6-CPU).png \| alt5= \| K6 architecture (1997–2001) \| \| alt6= \| K7 architecture Athlon (1999–2005) \| \| alt7= \| K8 series K8 core architecture (2003–2014) \| \| alt8= \| K10 series CPUs (2007–2013) \| File:Bulldozer 640.jpg \| alt9= \| Bulldozer Series CPUs Bulldozer, Piledriver, Steamroller, Excavator (2011–2017) \| File:AMD CMC60.jpg \| alt10= \| Bobcat series APUs Bobcat, Jaguar, Puma (2011–present) \| File:Ryzen 5 1600 CPU on a motherboard.jpg \| alt11= \| Zen core architecture (2017) \| File:Amd epyc 7302 top side with carrier IMGP3323 smial wp.jpg \| alt12= \| Zen 2 series (released 2019) \| File:AMD Ryzen 7 5800X 19339.jpg \| alt13= \| Zen 3 series (released 2020) \| File:AMD Ryzen 9 7900X.jpg \| alt14= \| Zen 4 series (released 2022) \| File:AMD@4nmCCD(6nmIOD)@Zen5@Granite Ridge@Ryzen 5 9600X@100-000001405 BY 2429SUY 9AEQ579S40073 DSCx01.jpg \| alt15= \| Zen 5 series (released 2024) }} IBM PC and the x86 architecture {{Main\|Am286\|Am386\|Am486\|Am5x86}} In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but its policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement. In 1984, Intel internally decided to no longer cooperate with AMD in supplying product information to shore up its advantage in the marketplace, and delayed and eventually refused to convey the technical details of the Intel 80386.<ref>Ruiz, p. 86–87.</ref> In 1987, AMD invoked arbitration over the issue, and Intel reacted by canceling the 1982 technological-exchange agreement altogether.<ref>Rodengen, p. 102.</ref><ref>Ruiz, p. 87.</ref> After three years of testimony, AMD eventually won in arbitration in 1992, but Intel disputed this decision. Another long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with the arbitrator and AMD.<ref>{{cite web \|lastGreg Tang \|dateFebruary 13, 2011 \|titleIntel and the x86 Architecture: A Legal Perspective \|urlhttp://jolt.law.harvard.edu/digest/patent/intel-and-the-x86-architecture-a-legal-perspective-2 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607113904/http://jolt.law.harvard.edu/digest/patent/intel-and-the-x86-architecture-a-legal-perspective-2 \|archive-dateJune 7, 2011 \|publisherJOLT Digest}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAdvanced Micro Devices, Inc. v. Intel Corp. (1994) \|urlhttp://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/4th/9/362.html \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015 \|websiteJustia Law}}</ref> In 1990, Intel countersued AMD, renegotiating AMD's right to use derivatives of Intel's microcode for its cloned processors.<ref>Rodengen, p. 116.</ref> In the face of uncertainty during the legal dispute, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code for its x386 and x486 processors, the former long after Intel had released its own x386 in 1985.<ref>Rodengen, pp. 116–199.</ref> In March 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor.<ref nameHittC26 /> By October of the same year it had sold one million units.<ref nameHittC26 /> In 1993, AMD introduced the first of the Am486 family of processors,<ref namehistory /> which proved popular with a large number of original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, which signed an exclusive agreement using the Am486.<ref namedirectory /><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Hitt \|first1Michael \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJaQFAAAAQBAJ&pgPT499 \|titleStrategic Management: Concepts and Cases \|last2Duane Ireland \|first2R. \|last3Hoskisson \|first3Robert \|dateMarch 2, 2006 \|publisherCengage Learning \|isbn9781111796372 \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titlecpu-collection.de >> AMD >> 486 DX \|urlhttp://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0co&l1AMD&l2486%20DX \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015}}</ref> The Am5x86, another Am486-based processor, was released in November 1995, and continued AMD's success as a fast, cost-effective processor.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastMueller \|firstScott \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideV1_LjW3pTkC&pgPA132 \|titleUpgrading and Repairing PCs \|year2003 \|publisherQue \|isbn9780789727459 \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|dateNovember 6, 1995 \|titleInfoWorld \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYTgEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA44-IA4 \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015}}</ref> Finally, in an agreement effective 1996, AMD received the rights to the microcode in Intel's x386 and x486 processor families, but not the rights to the microcode in the following generations of processors.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastLennon \|firstMichael J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi3MLYUjRWisC&pgSA4-PA36 \|titleDrafting Technology Patent License Agreements \|dateJanuary 1, 2007 \|publisherWolters Kluwer \|isbn978-0-7355-6748-1 \|pages4-36–4-38 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|dateJanuary 8, 1996 \|titleInfoWorld \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzz4EAAAAMBAJ&pgPA3 \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015}}</ref> {{anchor\|K5\|K6\|Athlon\|Duron\|Sempron}}K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron {{Main\|AMD K5\|AMD K6\|Athlon\|Duron\|Sempron}} AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5, launched in 1996.<ref name"CPU-INFO K5">{{cite web \|titleAMD K5 \|urlhttp://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainidhtml/cpu/amdk5.php \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070818021000/http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainidhtml%2Fcpu%2Famdk5.php \|archive-dateAugust 18, 2007 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2007 \|publisherCPU-INFO.COM}}</ref> The "K" in its name was a reference to Kryptonite, the only substance known to harm comic book character Superman. This itself was a reference to Intel's hegemony over the market, i.e., an anthropomorphization of them as Superman.<ref name"Forbes-Chip-Names">{{Cite news \|lastHesseldahl \|firstArik \|dateJuly 6, 2000 \|titleWhy Cool Chip Code Names Die \|workForbes Inc \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/2000/07/06/mu2.html \|access-dateJuly 14, 2007}}</ref> The number "5" was a reference to the fifth generation of x86 processors; rival Intel had previously introduced its line of fifth-generation x86 processors as Pentium because the U.S. Trademark and Patent Office had ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.<ref name"newyorker">{{Cite news \|lastColapinto \|firstJohn\|author-linkJohn Colapinto \|dateOctober 3, 2011 \|titleFamous names \|pages38–43 \|magazineThe New Yorker \|urlhttp://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/10/03/111003fa_fact_colapinto \|access-dateOctober 12, 2011}}</ref> In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen, specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although it was based on Socket 7, variants such as K6-III/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth-generation processor). The K7 was AMD's seventh-generation x86 processor, making its debut under the brand name Athlon on June 23, 1999. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intel's, due to licensing issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor bus. The Duron was a lower-cost and limited version of the Athlon (64&nbsp;KB instead of 256&nbsp;KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin socketed PGA (socket A) or soldered directly onto the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower-cost Athlon XP, replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era. It has since been migrated upward to all new sockets, up to AM3. On October 9, 2001, the Athlon XP was released. On February 10, 2003, the Athlon XP with 512&nbsp;KB L2 Cache was released.<ref name"The AMD Athlon XP Processor with 512 KB L2 Cache">{{Cite news \|lastHuynh \|firstJack \|dateFebruary 10, 2003 \|titleThe AMD Athlon XP Processor with 512KB L2 Cache \|workamd.com \|publisherAMD \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/white_papers_and_tech_docs/26485A_AthlXPwp_2-20.pdf \|url-statuslive \|access-dateOctober 2, 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071026182602/http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/white_papers_and_tech_docs/26485A_AthlXPwp_2-20.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 26, 2007}}</ref> Athlon 64, Opteron, and Phenom {{Main\|Athlon 64\|Opteron\|AMD Phenom\|l3=Phenom}} The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit extension to the x86 instruction set (called x86-64, AMD64, or x64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high-performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented processor on April 22, 2003.<ref>Scott Wasson. "[http://www.techreport.com/reviews/2003q3/workstation/index.x?pg1 Workstation platforms compared] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061127144618/http://techreport.com/reviews/2003q3/workstation/index.x?pg1 \|dateNovember 27, 2006 }}", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., September 15, 2003. Retrieved July 29, 2007.</ref> Shortly thereafter, it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64.<ref>Scott Wasson. "[http://www.techreport.com/reviews/2003q3/athlon64/index.x?pg1 AMD's Athlon 64 processor] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061127141205/http://techreport.com/reviews/2003q3/athlon64/index.x?pg1 \|dateNovember 27, 2006 }}", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., September 23, 2003. Retrieved July 29, 2007.</ref> On April 21, 2005, AMD released the first dual-core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU.<ref>Scott Wasson. "[http://www.techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/opteron-x75/index.x?pg1 AMD's dual-core Opteron processors] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070702163921/http://techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/opteron-x75/index.x?pg1 \|dateJuly 2, 2007 }}", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., April 21, 2005. Retrieved July 29, 2007.</ref> A month later, it released the Athlon 64 X2, the first desktop-based dual-core processor family.<ref>Scott Wasson. "[http://www.techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/athlon64-x2/index.x?pg1 AMD's Athlon 64 X2 processors] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070708074121/http://techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/athlon64-x2/index.x?pg1 \|dateJuly 8, 2007 }}", techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., May 9, 2005. Retrieved July 29, 2007.</ref> In May 2007, AMD abandoned the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of 64-bit computing in its processors. Further updates involved improvements to the microarchitecture, and a shift of the target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems. In 2008, AMD started to release dual-core Sempron processors exclusively in China, branded as the Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache. AMD completed its dual-core product portfolio for each market segment. In September 2007, AMD released the first server Opteron K10 processors,<ref>{{Cite news \|dateAugust 13, 2007 \|titleAMD to launch two Barcelona-based processors in September \|publishertgdaily.com \|urlhttp://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/33338/139/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016184512/http://tgdaily.com/content/view/33338/139/ \|archive-dateOctober 16, 2007}}</ref> followed in November by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came in dual-core, triple-core,<ref>[https://www.amd.com/us-en/Corporate/VirtualPressRoom/0,,51_104_543~120741,00.html AMD announcement]. Retrieved September 17, 2007.</ref> and quad-core versions, with all cores on a single die. AMD released a new platform codenamed "Spider", which used the new Phenom processor, and an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series.<ref name"hothardware">{{cite web \|lastMarco Chiappetta \|dateNovember 19, 2007 \|titleAMD Spider Platform – Phenom, 790FX, RV670 \|urlhttp://www.hothardware.com/Articles/AMD_Spider_Platform__Phenom_790FX_RV670/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120415171225/http://hothardware.com/Articles/AMD%5FSpider%5FPlatform%5F%5FPhenom%5F790FX%5FRV670/ \|archive-dateApril 15, 2012 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017 \|publisher=HotHardware}}</ref> However, AMD built the Spider at 65nm, which was uncompetitive with Intel's smaller and more power-efficient 45nm. In January 2009, AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using the 45&nbsp;nm process.<ref name"anandtech3512">{{Citation \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|titleThe Phenom II X4 810 & X3 720: AMD Gets DDR3 But Doesn't Need It \|dateFebruary 9, 2009 \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/2721 \|publisherAnandTech \|access-dateJanuary 23, 2012}}</ref> AMD's new platform, codenamed "Dragon", used the new Phenom II processor, and an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, and a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700 chipset series.<ref>{{Citation \|lastParrish \|firstKevin \|titleAMD Unleashes the Dragon \|dateJanuary 8, 2009 \|urlhttp://www.tomshardware.com/news/AMD-Dragon-Phenom-II,6781.html \|workTom's Hardware \|access-date=July 6, 2014}}</ref> The Phenom II came in dual-core, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die, with cores disabled for the triple-core and dual-core versions. The Phenom II resolved issues that the original Phenom had, including a low clock speed, a small L3 cache, and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. The Phenom II cost less but was not performance-competitive with Intel's mid-to-high-range Core 2 Quads. The Phenom II also enhanced its predecessor's memory controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backward compatibility with AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom, and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform. In April 2010, AMD released a new Phenom II Hexa-core (6-core) processor codenamed "Thuban".<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWalrath \|firstJosh \|dateApril 27, 2010 \|titleAMD Phenom II X6 1090T 6-core Thuban Processor Review \|publisherPC Perspective \|urlhttps://www.pcper.com/reviews/Processors/AMD-Phenom-II-X6-1090T-6-core-Thuban-Processor-Review \|access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref> This was a totally new die based on the hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron processor. It included AMD's "turbo core" technology, which allows the processor to automatically switch from 6 cores to 3 faster cores when more pure speed is needed. The Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts were released in 2010.<ref name"Opteron6100Series">{{cite web \|dateApril 22, 2009 \|titleAMD announces 16-core chips \|urlhttp://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1051877/amd-announces-core-chips \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090506110053/http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1051877/amd-announces-core-chips \|url-statusunfit \|archive-dateMay 6, 2009 \|access-dateMarch 31, 2010}}</ref> The Magny Cours part came in 8 to 12&nbsp;cores and the Lisbon part in 4 and 6&nbsp;core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (multi-chip module) with two hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron parts. This will use a new socket G34 for dual and quad-socket processors and thus will be marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses socket C32 certified for dual-socket use or single socket use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process. Fusion becomes the AMD APU {{Main\|AMD APU\|AMD mobile platform}} Following AMD's 2006 acquisition of Canadian graphics company ATI Technologies, an initiative codenamed Fusion was announced to integrate a CPU and GPU together on some of AMD's microprocessors, including a built in PCI Express link to accommodate separate PCI Express peripherals, eliminating the northbridge chip from the motherboard. The initiative intended to move some of the processing originally done on the CPU (e.g. floating-point unit operations) to the GPU, which is better optimized for some calculations. The Fusion was later renamed the AMD APU (Accelerated Processing Unit).<ref name"APU">{{cite web \|lastStokes \|firstJon \|dateFebruary 8, 2010 \|titleAMD reveals Fusion CPU+GPU, to challenge Intel in laptops \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/business/news/2010/02/amd-reveals-fusion-cpugpu-to-challege-intel-in-laptops.ars \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100210011231/http://arstechnica.com/business/news/2010/02/amd-reveals-fusion-cpugpu-to-challege-intel-in-laptops.ars \|archive-dateFebruary 10, 2010 \|access-dateFebruary 9, 2010 \|website=Ars Technica}}</ref> Llano was AMD's first APU built for laptops. Llano was the second APU released,<ref name"Hruska">{{cite web \|lastHruska \|firstJoel \|dateJuly 16, 2010 \|titleAMD Flip-Flops: Llano Later, Bobcat Bounding Forward \|urlhttp://hothardware.com/News/AMD-FlipFlops-Llano-Later-Bobcat-Bounding-Forward/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100721024445/http://hothardware.com/News/AMD%2DFlipFlops%2DLlano%2DLater%2DBobcat%2DBounding%2DForward/ \|archive-dateJuly 21, 2010 \|access-dateJuly 17, 2010 \|publisherHotHardware}}</ref> targeted at the mainstream market.<ref name"APU" /> It incorporated a CPU and GPU on the same die, and northbridge functions, and used "Socket FM1" with DDR3 memory. The CPU part of the processor was based on the Phenom II "Deneb" processor. AMD suffered an unexpected decrease in revenue based on production problems for the Llano.<ref>[http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Desktops-and-Notebooks/AMD-Cuts-Q3-Forecast-Due-to-Chip-Manufacturing-Problems-581901/] {{Dead link\|dateDecember 2021\|botInternetArchiveBot\|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> More AMD APUs for laptops running Windows 7 and Windows 8 OS are being used commonly. These include AMD's price-point APUs, the E1 and E2, and their mainstream competitors with Intel's Core i-series: The Vision A- series, the A standing for accelerated. These range from the lower-performance A4 chipset to the A6, A8, and A10. These all incorporate next-generation Radeon graphics cards, with the A4 utilizing the base Radeon HD chip and the rest using a Radeon R4 graphics card, with the exception of the highest-model A10 (A10-7300) which uses an R6 graphics card. New microarchitectures High-power, high-performance Bulldozer cores {{Main\|Bulldozer (microarchitecture)\|l1Bulldozer microarchitecture\|Piledriver (microarchitecture)\|l2Piledriver microarchitecture\|Steamroller (microarchitecture)\|l3Steamroller microarchitecture\|Excavator (microarchitecture)\|l4=Excavator microarchitecture}} Bulldozer was AMD's microarchitecture codename for server and desktop AMD FX processors, first released on October 12, 2011. This family 15h microarchitecture is the successor to the family 10h (K10) microarchitecture design. Bulldozer was a clean-sheet design, not a development of earlier processors.<ref>{{Citation \|titleBulldozer 50% Faster than Core i7 and Phenom II \|dateJanuary 13, 2011 \|urlhttp://www.techpowerup.com/138328/Bulldozer-50-Faster-than-Core-i7-and-Phenom-II.html \|publishertechPowerUp \|access-dateJanuary 23, 2012}}</ref> The core was specifically aimed at 10–125&nbsp;W TDP computing products. AMD claimed dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with Bulldozer cores. While hopes were high that Bulldozer would bring AMD to be performance-competitive with Intel once more, most benchmarks were disappointing. In some cases the new Bulldozer products were slower than the K10 models they were built to replace.<ref>{{Citation \|titleAnalyzing Bulldozer: Why AMD's chip is so disappointing \|newspaperExtremetech \|dateOctober 24, 2011 \|urlhttp://www.extremetech.com/computing/100583-analyzing-bulldozers-scaling-single-thread-performance \|publisherextremetech.com \|access-dateNovember 30, 2013\|last1Hruska \|first1Joel }}</ref><ref>{{Citation \|titleLab Tested: AMD's Bulldozer Packs Plenty Of Cores, But Not Enough Power \|dateOctober 12, 2011 \|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/241812/lab_tested_amds_bulldozer_packs_plenty_of_cores_but_not_enough_power.html \|workPC World \|access-dateNovember 30, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|dateOctober 20, 2011 \|titleCan AMD survive Bulldozer's disappointing debut? \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/10/can-amd-survive-bulldozers-disappointing-debut/ \|access-dateNovember 30, 2013 \|publisher=ars technica}}</ref> The Piledriver microarchitecture was the 2012 successor to Bulldozer, increasing clock speeds and performance relative to its predecessor.<ref>{{cite news \|lastHruska \|firstJoel \|titleAMD's FX-8350 analyzed: Does Piledriver deliver where Bulldozer fell short? \|urlhttp://www.extremetech.com/computing/138394-amds-fx-8350-analyzed-does-piledriver-deliver-where-bulldozer-fell-short \|access-dateMarch 23, 2013 \|newspaperExtremeTech\|dateOctober 23, 2012 }}</ref> Piledriver would be released in AMD FX, APU, and Opteron product lines.<ref>{{cite web \|dateMay 15, 2012 \|titleAMD launches widely anticipated "Trinity" APU \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/press-releases/Pages/second-generation-amd-a-series-2012may15.aspx \|access-dateJanuary 16, 2014 \|websitePress release \|publisherAMD}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleNew AMD A-Series Processors Bring Faster Speeds, High Core Count and AMD Radeon HD 7000 Series Graphics to Do-It-Yourself PC Enthusiasts and Gamers \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/press-releases/Pages/press-release-2012oct2.aspx \|access-dateMarch 22, 2013 \|publisherAMD}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleNew AMD FX Line-Up Brings Faster Speeds and Higher Performance Core over Previous Generation to PC Enthusiasts and Gamers \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/press-releases/Pages/new-amd-fx-line-2012oct23.aspx \|access-dateMarch 22, 2013 \|publisherAMD}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|dateDecember 4, 2012 \|titleNew AMD Opteron 4300 and 3300 Series Processors Deliver Ideal Performance, Power and Price for Cloud Applications \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/press-releases/Pages/new-amd-opteron-2012dec04.aspx \|access-dateJanuary 16, 2014 \|websitePress release \|publisherAMD}}</ref> Piledriver was subsequently followed by the Steamroller microarchitecture in 2013. Used exclusively in AMD's APUs, Steamroller focused on greater parallelism.<ref name"anandtech-kaveri-review">{{cite web \|dateJanuary 14, 2014 \|titleAMD Kaveri Review: A8-7600 and A10-7850K Tested \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7677/amd-kaveri-review-a8-7600-a10-7850k \|access-dateFebruary 8, 2014 \|publisherAnandtech.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastSu \|firstLisa \|dateFebruary 2, 2012 \|titleConsumerization, Cloud, Convergence. \|urlhttp://phx.corporate-ir.net/External.File?itemUGFyZW50SUQ9MTI1MTM5fENoaWxkSUQ9LTF8VHlwZT0z&t1 \|access-dateFebruary 4, 2012 \|websiteAMD 2012 Financial Analyst Day \|publisherAdvanced Micro Devices \|locationSunnyvale, California \|page26 \|formatPDF}}</ref> In 2015, the Excavator microarchitecture replaced Piledriver.<ref name"PCWorld">{{Cite magazine \|lastHachman \|firstMark \|dateNovember 21, 2014 \|titleAMD reveals high-end 'Carrizo' APU, the first chip to fully embrace audacious HSA tech \|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/2850853/amd-reveals-high-end-carrizo-apu-its-first-fully-hsa-compliant-chip.html \|magazinePC World \|access-dateJanuary 15, 2015}}</ref> Expected to be the last microarchitecture of the Bulldozer series,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://bit-tech.net/news/tech/cpus/amd-zen/1/\|titleAMD hints at high-performance Zen x86 architecture &#124; bit-tech.net\|websitebit-tech.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastShilov \|firstAnton \|dateMay 10, 2014 \|titleAMD to Introduce New High-Performance Micro-Architecture in 2015 – Report. \|urlhttp://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20140510165441_AMD_to_Introduce_New_High_Performance_Micro_Architecture_in_2015_Report.html \|url-statusdead \|access-dateMay 22, 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140513224717/http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20140510165441_AMD_to_Introduce_New_High_Performance_Micro_Architecture_in_2015_Report.html \|archive-dateMay 13, 2014}}</ref> Excavator focused on improved power efficiency.<ref>{{cite web \|dateAugust 28, 2012 \|titleAMD Explains Advantages of High Density (Thin) Libraries \|urlhttp://www.tomshardware.com/news/Steamroller-High_Density_Libraries-hot-chips-cpu-gpu,17218.html}}</ref> Low-power Cat cores {{Main\|Bobcat (microarchitecture)\|l1Bobcat microarchitecture\|Jaguar (microarchitecture)\|l2Jaguar microarchitecture\|Puma (microarchitecture)\|l3Puma microarchitecture}} The Bobcat microarchitecture was revealed during a speech from AMD executive vice-president Henri Richard in Computex 2007 and was put into production during the first quarter of 2011.<ref name"Hruska" /> Based on the difficulty competing in the x86 market with a single core optimized for the 10–100&nbsp;W range, AMD had developed a simpler core with a target range of 1–10&nbsp;watts.<ref>{{cite web \|lastStokes \|firstJon \|dateAugust 26, 2010 \|titleAMD's Bobcat mobile architecture will play it straight \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/business/2010/08/amds-bobcat-plays-it-straight/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica}}</ref> In addition, it was believed that the core could migrate into the hand-held space if the power consumption can be reduced to less than 1&nbsp;W.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKirsch \|firstNathan \|dateAugust 6, 2007 \|titleAMD and Intel Rivalry Moves to Hand-Held Market \|publisherLegit Reviews \|urlhttps://www.legitreviews.com/amd-and-intel-rivalry-moves-to-hand-held-market_3781 \|access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref> Jaguar is a microarchitecture codename for Bobcat's successor, released in 2013, that is used in various APUs from AMD aimed at the low-power/low-cost market.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWoligroski \|firstDon \|dateMay 23, 2013 \|titleAMD's Kabini: Jaguar And GCN Come Together In A 15 W APU \|publisherTom's Hardware \|urlhttp://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/kabini-a4-5000-review,3518.html \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Jaguar and its derivates would go on to be used in the custom APUs of the PlayStation 4,<ref>{{cite web \|dateNovember 15, 2013 \|titleA Look at Sony's Playstation 4 Core Processor \|urlhttp://www.chipworks.com/en/technical-competitive-analysis/resources/blog/a-look-at-sonys-playstation-4-core-processor/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131116053120/http://www.chipworks.com/en/technical-competitive-analysis/resources/blog/a-look-at-sonys-playstation-4-core-processor/ \|archive-dateNovember 16, 2013 \|access-dateNovember 16, 2013 \|websiteChipWorks}}</ref><ref name"AMD elaborate">{{Cite news \|lastTaylor \|firstJohn \|dateFebruary 21, 2013 \|titleAMD and The Sony PS4. Allow Me To Elaborate. \|urlhttp://community.amd.com/community/amd-blogs/amd-unprocessed/blog/2013/02/21/amd-and-the-sony-ps4-allow-me-to-elaborate \|url-statusdead \|access-dateFebruary 25, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130526191443/http://community.amd.com/community/amd-blogs/amd-unprocessed/blog/2013/02/21/amd-and-the-sony-ps4-allow-me-to-elaborate \|archive-dateMay 26, 2013}}</ref> Xbox One,<ref>{{cite web \|lastCunningham \|firstAndrew \|dateSeptember 3, 2013 \|titleXbox One gets a CPU speed boost to go with its faster GPU \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gaming/2013/09/xbox-one-gets-a-cpu-speed-boost-to-go-with-its-faster-gpu/ \|access-dateSeptember 4, 2013 \|websiteArs Technica }}</ref><ref name"JaguarAnandtech">{{cite web \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|author-linkAnand Lal Shimpi \|dateMay 23, 2013 \|titleAMD's Jaguar Architecture: The CPU Powering Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Kabini & Temash \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/6976/amds-jaguar-architecture-the-cpu-powering-xbox-one-playstation-4-kabini-temash/4 \|access-dateJune 24, 2013 \|websiteAnandTech \|publisherPurch Group}}</ref> PlayStation 4 Pro,<ref>{{cite web \|lastWalton \|firstMark \|dateAugust 10, 2016 \|titlePS4 Neo: Sony confirms PlayStation event for September 7 \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gaming/2016/08/sony-ps4-neo-event-details/ \|access-dateAugust 10, 2016 \|websiteArs Technica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|lastWalton \|firstMark \|dateApril 19, 2016 \|titleSony PS4K is codenamed NEO, features upgraded CPU, GPU, RAM—report \|urlhttp://arstechnica.co.uk/gaming/2016/04/ps4k-neo-details-specs-revealed-rumours/ \|access-dateAugust 10, 2016 \|websiteArs Technica}}</ref><ref name"Anandtech">{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateSeptember 8, 2016 \|titleAnalyzing Sony's Playstation 4 Pro Hardware Reveal: What Lies Beneath \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/10663/analyzing-sonys-playstation-4-pro-announcement \|access-dateSeptember 8, 2016}}</ref> Xbox One S,<ref>{{cite web \|lastMachkovech\|firstSam\|dateAugust 2, 2016 \|titleMicrosoft hid performance boosts for old games in Xbox One S, told no one \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gaming/2016/08/surprise-new-xbox-one-s-gpu-smooths-out-some-older-games/ \|access-dateAugust 2, 2016 \|websiteArs Technica}}</ref> and Xbox One X.<ref>{{cite web \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|titleMicrosoft's Project Scorpio Gets a Launch Date: Xbox One X, $499, November 7th \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11536/microsofts-project-scorpio-get-a-launch-date-xbox-one-x-499-november-7th\|workAnandtech\|dateJune 11, 2017\|access-dateMarch 22, 2021}}</ref><ref name"arstechnica.com">{{cite web \|titleXbox One Project Scorpio specs: 12GB GDDR5, 6 teraflops, native 4K at 60FPS \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gaming/2017/04/xbox-scorpio-hardware-specs/\|workArs Technica\|lastWalton\|firstMark\|dateApril 6, 2017\|access-dateMarch 22, 2021}}</ref> Jaguar would be later followed by the Puma microarchitecture in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastLal Shimpi \|firstAnand \|dateApril 29, 2014 \|titleAMD Beema/Mullins Architecture & Performance Preveiw \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7974/amd-beema-mullins-architecture-a10-micro-6700t-performance-preview \|access-dateApril 17, 2017}}</ref> ARM architecture-based designs In 2012, AMD announced it was working on ARM products, both as a semi-custom product and server product.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateFebruary 2, 2012 \|titleAMD is Ambidextrous, Not Married to Any One Architecture, ARM in the Datacenter \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5501/amd-is-ambidextrous-not-married-to-any-one-architecture-arm-in-the-datacenter \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateFebruary 2, 2012 \|titleAMD: Flexible Around ISA \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5495/amd-flexible-around-isa \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateOctober 29, 2012 \|titleAMD will build 64-bit ARM based Opteron CPUs for Servers, Production in 2014 \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/6418/amd-will-build-64bit-arm-based-opteron-cpus-for-servers-production-in-2014 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> The initial server product was announced as the Opteron A1100 in 2014, an 8-core Cortex-A57-based ARMv8-A SoC,<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateJanuary 28, 2014 \|titleIt Begins: AMD Announces Its First ARM Based Server SoC, 64-bit/8-core Opteron A1100 \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7724/it-begins-amd-announces-its-first-arm-based-server-soc-64bit8core-opteron-a1100 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastBarrett \|firstStephen \|dateAugust 11, 2014 \|titleAMD's Big Bet on ARM Powered Servers: Opteron A1100 Revealed \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/8362/amds-big-bet-on-arm-powered-servers-a1100-revealed \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> and was expected to be followed by an APU incorporating a Graphics Core Next GPU.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateMay 5, 2014 \|titleAMD Announces Project Skybridge \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7989/amd-announces-project-skybridge-pincompatible-arm-and-x86-socs-in-2015 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> However, the Opteron A1100 was not released until 2016, with the delay attributed to adding software support.<ref name"a1100_release">{{Cite news \|lastDe Gelas \|firstJohan \|dateJanuary 14, 2016 \|titleThe Silver Lining of the Late AMD Opteron A1100 Arrival \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/9956/the-silver-lining-of-the-late-amd-opteron-a1100-arrival \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> The A1100 was also criticized for not having support from major vendors upon its release.<ref name"a1100_release" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastKennedy \|firstPatrick \|dateJuly 5, 2017 \|titleMost Impressive Part of the AMD EPYC Launch: The Ecosystem \|publisherServe The Home \|urlhttps://www.servethehome.com/impressive-part-amd-epyc-launch-ecosystem/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastKennedy \|firstPatrick \|dateJanuary 14, 2016 \|titleThe AMD Opteron A1100 – An Editorial \|publisherServe the Home \|urlhttps://www.servethehome.com/the-amd-opteron-a1100-an-editorial/ \|access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref> In 2014, AMD also announced the K12 custom core for release in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateMay 5, 2014 \|titleAMD Announces K12 Core \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7990/amd-announces-k12-core-custom-64bit-arm-design-in-2016 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> While being ARMv8-A instruction set architecture compliant, the K12 was expected to be entirely custom-designed, targeting the server, embedded, and semi-custom markets. While ARM architecture development continued, products based on K12 were subsequently delayed with no release planned. Development of AMD's x86-based Zen microarchitecture was preferred.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateMay 5, 2015 \|titleAMD's K12 ARM CPU Now In 2017 \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/9232/amds-k12-arm-cpu-now-in-2017 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|dateJanuary 24, 2018 \|titleGetting Radeon Vega Everywhere \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/12312/getting-radeon-vega-everywhere-an-exclusive-interview-with-dr-lisa-su-amd-ceo \|access-dateJanuary 31, 2018}}</ref> Zen-based CPUs and APUs {{Main\|Zen (microarchitecture)\|l1Zen microarchitecture}} Zen is an architecture for x86-64 based Ryzen series of CPUs and APUs, introduced in 2017 by AMD and built from the ground up by a team led by Jim Keller, beginning with his arrival in 2012, and taping out before his departure in September 2015. One of AMD's primary goals with Zen was an IPC increase of at least 40%, however in February 2017 AMD announced that they had actually achieved a 52% increase.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|titleAMD Launches Ryzen: 52% More IPC, Eight Cores for Under $330, Pre-order Today, On Sale March 2nd \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11143/amd-launch-ryzen-52-more-ipc-eight-cores-for-under-330-preorder-today-on-sale-march-2nd \|url-statusdead \|access-dateMarch 5, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170227094912/http://www.anandtech.com/show/11143/amd-launch-ryzen-52-more-ipc-eight-cores-for-under-330-preorder-today-on-sale-march-2nd \|archive-dateFebruary 27, 2017}}</ref> Processors made on the Zen architecture are built on the 14&nbsp;nm FinFET node and have a renewed focus on single-core performance and HSA compatibility.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAMD's Next Gen x86 High Performance Core is Ryzen – Will Debut Alongside K12 in 2016 \|urlhttp://wccftech.com/breaking-amds-gen-x86-high-performance-core-code-named-zen-debut-k12/ \|access-dateAugust 6, 2015 \|websiteWCCFtech\|date=September 9, 2014 }}</ref> Previous processors from AMD were either built in the 32&nbsp;nm process ("Bulldozer" and "Piledriver" CPUs) or the 28&nbsp;nm process ("Steamroller" and "Excavator" APUs). Because of this, Zen is much more energy efficient. The Zen architecture is the first to encompass CPUs and APUs from AMD built for a single socket (Socket AM4). Also new for this architecture is the implementation of simultaneous multithreading (SMT) technology, something Intel has had for years on some of their processors with their proprietary hyper-threading implementation of SMT. This is a departure from the "Clustered MultiThreading" design introduced with the Bulldozer architecture. Zen also has support for DDR4 memory. AMD released the Zen-based high-end Ryzen 7 "Summit Ridge" series CPUs on March 2, 2017,<ref>{{cite web \|titleRyzen \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/en/ryzen \|access-dateMarch 3, 2017 \|websiteAMD \|languageen \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170303123117/https://www.amd.com/en/ryzen\|archive-date Mar 3, 2017 }}</ref> mid-range Ryzen 5 series CPUs on April 11, 2017, and entry level Ryzen 3 series CPUs on July 27, 2017.<ref name"zen_ars">{{Cite magazine \|dateFebruary 1, 2017 \|titleAMD confirms Ryzen and Vega launch windows \|urlhttp://www.pcgamer.com/amd-confirms-ryzen-and-vega-launch-windows/ \|magazinePC Gamer \|access-dateFebruary 4, 2017}}</ref> AMD later released the Epyc line of Zen derived server processors for 1P and 2P systems.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKampman \|firstJeff \|dateMay 16, 2017 \|titleAMD's Naples datacenter CPUs will make an Epyc splash \|publisherTech Report \|urlhttps://techreport.com/news/31916/amd-naples-datacenter-cpus-will-make-an-epyc-splash \|access-dateMay 16, 2017}}</ref> In October 2017, AMD released Zen-based APUs as Ryzen Mobile, incorporating Vega graphics cores.<ref name"RM_AT">{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|dateOctober 26, 2017 \|titleRyzen Mobile is Launched \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/11964/ryzen-mobile-is-launched-amd-apus-for-laptops-with-vega-and-updated-zen \|access-dateOctober 26, 2017}}</ref> In January 2018 AMD has announced their new lineup plans, with Ryzen 2.<ref>{{cite web \|lastMoammer \|firstKhalid \|dateDecember 9, 2017 \|titleAMD Ryzen 2 Set For March 2018 Launch On 12nm – To Support Higher Core & Memory Clock Speeds \|urlhttps://wccftech.com/amd-ryzen-2-set-march-2018-launch-12nm-support-higher-core-memory-clock-speeds/}}</ref> AMD launched CPUs with the 12nm Zen+<ref>{{cite web \|title2nd Generation AMD Ryzen Desktop Processors Deliver Best-in-Class Compute Performance and Even Faster Gaming Framerates than Previous Generation \|urlhttp://ir.amd.com/news-releases/news-release-details/2nd-generation-amd-ryzentm-desktop-processors-deliver-best-class \|access-dateFebruary 11, 2019 \|websiteAdvanced Micro Devices \|language=en}}</ref> microarchitecture in April 2018, following up with the 7nm Zen 2 microarchitecture in June 2019, including an update to the Epyc line with new processors using the Zen&nbsp;2 microarchitecture in August 2019, and Zen 3 slated for release in Q3 2020. As of 2019, AMD's Ryzen processors were reported to outsell Intel's consumer desktop processors.<ref>{{cite web \|lastAllan \|firstDarren \|titleAMD Ryzen CPUs are crushing Intel's processors going by Amazon sales \|urlhttps://www.techradar.com/uk/news/amd-ryzen-cpus-are-crushing-intels-processors-going-by-amazon-sales \|websiteTechRadar\|dateNovember 28, 2019 }}</ref> At CES 2020 AMD announced their Ryzen Mobile 4000, as the first 7&nbsp;nm x86 mobile processor,{{Vague\|dateOctober 2020\|reasonIce Lake's 10nm density could be comparable}} the first 7&nbsp;nm 8-core (also 16-thread) high-performance mobile processor, and the first 8-core (also 16-thread) processor for ultrathin laptops.<ref>{{cite web \|lastSalter \|dateMarch 3, 2020 \|titleAMD's 7nm Ryzen 4000 laptop processors are finally here \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2020/03/amds-7nm-ryzen-4000-laptop-processors-are-finally-here \|websiteArsTechnica}}</ref> This generation is still based on the Zen&nbsp;2 architecture. In October 2020, AMD announced new processors based on the Zen 3 architecture.<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhere Gaming Begins {{!}} AMD Ryzen Desktop Processors – YouTube \| dateOctober 8, 2020 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?viuiO6rqYV4o \|access-dateNovember 1, 2020 \|viaYouTube}}</ref> On PassMark's Single thread performance test the Ryzen 5 5600x bested all other CPUs besides the Ryzen 9 5950X.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePassMark CPU Benchmarks – Single Thread Performance \|urlhttps://www.cpubenchmark.net/singleThread.html \|access-dateNovember 1, 2020 \|websitecpubenchmark.net \|languageen}}</ref> In April 2020, AMD launched three new SKUs which target commercial HPC workloads & hyperconverged infrastructure applications. The launch was based on Epyc’s 7&nbsp;nm second-generation Rome platform and supported by Dell EMC, Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Lenovo, Supermicro, and Nutanix. IBM Cloud was its first public cloud partner.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Trader \|first1Tiffany \|titleAMD Launches Three New High-Frequency Epyc SKUs Aimed at Commercial HPC \|urlhttps://www.hpcwire.com/2020/04/14/amd-targets-commercial-hpc-with-high-frequency-epyc-7f-series-skus/ \|websitewww.hpcwire.com \|dateApril 14, 2020}}</ref> In August 2022, AMD announced their initial lineup of CPUs based on the new Zen 4 architecture.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD Announces Ryzen 7000 Series "Zen 4" Desktop Processors \|urlhttps://www.techpowerup.com/298318/amd-announces-ryzen-7000-series-zen-4-desktop-processors \|dateAugust 29, 2022 \|access-dateApril 27, 2023 \|websiteTechPowerUp \|languageen}}</ref> The Steam Deck,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/22779252/steam-deck-things-we-learned-from-valve-developer-summit\|titleSteam Deck: Five big things we learned from Valve's developer summit\|firstSean\|lastHollister\|dateNovember 13, 2021\|websiteThe Verge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.steamdeck.com/en/tech\|titleSteam Deck :: Tech Specs\|websiteSteam Deck}}</ref> PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X and Series S all use chips based on the Zen&nbsp;2 microarchitecture, with proprietary tweaks and different configurations in each system's implementation than AMD sells in its own commercially available APUs.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/2/24/21150578/microsoft-xbox-series-x-specs-performance-12-teraflops-gpu-details-features\|titleMicrosoft reveals more Xbox Series X specs, confirms 12 teraflops GPU\|lastWarren\|firstTom\|workThe Verge\|dateFebruary 24, 2020\|access-dateFebruary 24, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-2020-playstation-5-specs-and-tech-that-deliver-sonys-next-gen-vision\|titleInside PlayStation 5: the specs and the tech that deliver Sony's next-gen vision\|lastLeadbetter\|firstRichard\|workEurogamer\|dateMarch 18, 2020\|access-date=March 18, 2020}}</ref> In March 2025 AMD announced Instella an open source large language model.<ref>https://www.phoronix.com/news/AMD-Intella-Open-Source-LM</ref> Graphics products and GPUs {{Main\|Radeon\|Radeon Pro\|Radeon Instinct\|list of AMD graphics processing units}} {{Gallery \| title = AMD graphics processing units \| width = 95 \| height = 95 \| align = center \| footer = \| \| alt1= \| Radeon R100 series (2000) \| File:ATI Radeon 8500 logo.png \| alt2= \| Radeon R200 series (2001) \| \| alt3= \| Radeon R300 series (2002) \| \| alt4= \| Radeon R400 (2004) \| File:ATI Radeon X1300 256MB-5388.jpg \| alt5= \| Radeon R500 (2005) \| File:Sapphire ATI Radeon HD 2400 XT.jpg \| alt6= \| Radeon HD 2000 series (2007a) \| File:Ati 3870 X2.jpg \| alt7= \| Radeon HD 3000 series (2007b) \| File:ATI Radeon HD 4770 Graphics Card-oblique view.jpg \| alt8= \| Radeon HD 4000 series (2008) \| File:ATI Radeon HD 5970 Graphics Card-oblique view.jpg \| alt9= \| Radeon HD 5000 series (2009) \| File:AMD Radeon logo.svg \| alt10= \| Radeon HD 6000 series (2010) \| File:Sapphire-Radeon-HD-7750.jpg \| alt11= \| Radeon HD 7000 series (2012) \| File:Sapphire Radeon R9 290X-front oblique PNr°0437.jpg \| alt12= \| Radeon Rx 200 series (2013) \| \| alt13= \| Radeon Rx 300 series (2015) \| File:AMD Radeon logo 2019.png \| alt14= \| Radeon RX 400 series (2016) \| File:AMD Radeon logo 2019.png \| alt15= \| Radeon RX 500 series (2016) \| File:AMD Radeon RX Vega Series logo.png \| alt16= \| Radeon RX Vega series (2017) \| File:Radeon RX 5000 logo, infobox edit.png \| alt17= \| Radeon RX 5000 series (2019) \| File:AMD Radeon RX 6000 series wordmark.png \| alt18= \| Radeon RX 6000 series (2020) \| File:Sapphire AMD Radeon RX 7900 XTX.jpg \| alt19= \| Radeon RX 7000 series (2022) }} ATI prior to AMD acquisition {{Main\|ATI Technologies}} {{#section-h::ATI Technologies\|History}} Radeon within AMD {{Main\|Radeon}} In 2007, the ATI division of AMD released the TeraScale microarchitecture implementing a unified shader model. This design replaced the previous fixed-function hardware of previous graphics cards with multipurpose, programmable shaders. Initially released as part of the GPU for the Xbox 360, this technology would go on to be used in Radeon branded HD 2000 parts. Three generations of TeraScale would be designed and used in parts from 2007 to 2015. Combined GPU and CPU divisions In a 2009 restructuring, AMD merged the CPU and GPU divisions to support the company's APUs, which fused both graphics and general purpose processing.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastDuncan \|firstGeoff \|dateMay 7, 2009 \|titleAMD RESTRUCTURES TO COMBINE GRAPHICS AND CHIP UNITS \|publisherDigital Trends \|urlhttps://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/amd-restructures-to-combine-graphics-and-chip-units/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastMusil \|firstSteven \|dateMay 7, 2009 \|titleAMD reorg merges microprocessor, graphics units \|publisherCNET \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/au/news/amd-reorg-merges-microprocessor-graphics-units/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> In 2011, AMD released the successor to TeraScale, Graphics Core Next (GCN).<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateDecember 21, 2011 \|titleAMD's Graphics Core Next Preview \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/4455/amds-graphics-core-next-preview-amd-architects-for-compute \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> This new microarchitecture emphasized GPGPU compute capability in addition to graphics processing, with a particular aim of supporting heterogeneous computing on AMD's APUs. GCN's reduced instruction set ISA allowed for significantly increased compute capability over TeraScale's very long instruction word ISA. Since GCN's introduction with the HD 7970, five generations of the GCN architecture have been produced from 2011 through at least 2018.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateDecember 22, 2011 \|titleAMD Radeon HD 7970 Review \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5261/amd-radeon-hd-7970-review \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Radeon Technologies Group In September 2015, AMD separated the graphics technology division of the company into an independent internal unit called the Radeon Technologies Group (RTG) headed by Raja Koduri.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHigginbotham \|firstStacey \|dateSeptember 9, 2015 \|titleAMD splits out its graphics chips into the Radeon Technology Group \|workFortune \|urlhttp://fortune.com/2015/09/09/amd-graphics-chip-split/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> This gave the graphics division of AMD autonomy in product design and marketing.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastTakahashi \|firstDean \|dateSeptember 14, 2016 \|titleAMD celebrates a year of its revamped Radeon Technologies Group \|workVentureBeat \|urlhttps://venturebeat.com/2016/09/14/amd-celebrates-a-year-of-its-revamped-radeon-technologies-group/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastMoorehead \|firstPatrich \|dateNovember 12, 2015 \|titleAdvanced Micro Devices's Head Of Radeon Technologies Group, Raja Koduri, Talks About Their Future \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2015/11/12/advanced-micro-devicess-head-of-radeon-technologies-group-raja-koduri-talks-about-the-future/ \|magazineForbes \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> The RTG then went on to create and release the Polaris and Vega microarchitectures released in 2016 and 2017, respectively.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateJune 29, 2016 \|titleThe AMD Radeon RX 480 Preview \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/10446/the-amd-radeon-rx-480-preview \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateJanuary 5, 2017 \|titleThe AMD Vega GPU Architecture Preview \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11002/the-amd-vega-gpu-architecture-teaser \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> In particular the Vega, or fifth-generation GCN, microarchitecture includes a number of major revisions to improve performance and compute capabilities.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateJanuary 5, 2017 \|titleThe AMD Vega GPU Architecture Preview \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11002/the-amd-vega-gpu-architecture-teaser \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|last1Smith \|first1Ryan \|last2Oh \|first2Nate \|dateAugust 14, 2017 \|titleThe AMD RX Vega 64 & RX Vega 56 Review: Vega Burning Bright \|publisherAnandtech.com \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11717/the-amd-radeon-rx-vega-64-and-56-review \|access-date=August 16, 2017}}</ref> In November 2017, Raja Koduri left RTG<ref name"Hexus Net">{{cite web \|titleExclusive: Raja Koduri, Radeon Technologies Boss, leaves AMD \|urlhttps://hexus.net/tech/news/graphics/111926-exclusive-raja-koduri-radeon-technologies-boss-leaves-amd/ \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2020 \|websitehexus.net \|dateNovember 7, 2017 \|publisherHexus}}</ref> and CEO and President Lisa Su took his position. In January 2018, it was reported that two industry veterans joined RTG, namely Mike Rayfield as senior vice president and general manager of RTG, and David Wang as senior vice president of engineering for RTG.<ref name"hexus.net">{{cite web \|titleTwo industry veterans join AMD Radeon Technologies Group \|urlhttps://hexus.net/tech/news/graphics/114608-two-industry-veterans-join-amd-radeon-technologies-group/ \|access-dateJanuary 6, 2020 \|websitehexus.net \|dateJanuary 24, 2018 \|publisherHexus Net}}</ref> In January 2020, AMD announced that its second-generation RDNA graphics architecture was in development, with the aim of competing with the Nvidia RTX graphics products for performance leadership. In October 2020, AMD announced their new RX 6000 series<ref>{{cite web \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|titleAMD Reveals The Radeon RX 6000 Series: RDNA2 Starts At The High-End, Coming November 18th \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/16202/amd-reveals-the-radeon-rx-6000-series-rdna2-starts-at-the-highend-coming-november-18th \|access-dateNovember 1, 2020 \|websiteanandtech.com}}</ref> series GPUs, their first high-end product based on RDNA2 and capable of handling ray-tracing natively, aiming to challenge Nvidia's RTX 3000 GPUs. Semi-custom and game console products In 2012, AMD's then CEO Rory Read began a program to offer semi-custom designs.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateFebruary 2, 2012 \|titleUnderstand AMD's Roadmap & New Direction \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5503/understanding-amds-roadmap-new-direction \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateSeptember 5, 2013 \|titleUnderstanding AMD's Semi-Custom Strategy \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/7281/understanding-amd-semi-custom-strategy \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> Rather than AMD simply designing and offering a single product, potential customers could work with AMD to design a custom chip based on AMD's intellectual property. Customers pay a non-recurring engineering fee for design and development, and a purchase price for the resulting semi-custom products. In particular, AMD noted their unique position of offering both x86 and graphics intellectual property. These semi-custom designs would have design wins as the APUs in the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and the subsequent PlayStation 4 Pro, Xbox One S, Xbox One X, Xbox Series X/S, and PlayStation 5.<ref name"XboxSeriesS">{{cite web\|urlhttps://news.xbox.com/en-us/2020/09/09/introducing-xbox-series-s/\|titleIntroducing Xbox Series S, Delivering Next-Gen Performance in Our Smallest Xbox Ever, Available November 10 at $299\|workXbox News\|dateSeptember 9, 2020\|access-dateSeptember 9, 2020}}</ref><ref name"XboxSeriesX">{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/15546/microsoft-drops-more-xbox-series-x-tech-specs-zen-2-rdna-2-12-tflops-gpu-hdmi-21-a-custom-ssd\|titleMicrosoft Drops More Xbox Series X Tech Specs: Zen 2 + RDNA 2, 12 TFLOPs GPU, HDMI 2.1, & a Custom SSD\|lastSmith\|firstRyan\|workAnandTech\|access-dateMarch 19, 2020\|dateFebruary 24, 2020}}</ref><ref name"PS5Specs">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/3/18/21183181/sony-ps5-playstation-5-specs-details-hardware-processor-8k-ray-tracing\|titleSony reveals full PS5 hardware specifications\|lastGartenberg\|firstChaim\|workThe Verge\|dateMarch 18, 2020\|access-dateJanuary 3, 2021}}</ref><ref name"Anandtech" /><ref name"arstechnica.com" /><ref name"XboxOneMay2013Anandtechcomparison">{{Cite news \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|dateMay 21, 2013 \|titleThe Xbox One: Hardware Analysis & Comparison to PlayStation 4 \|publisherAnandTech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/6972/xbox-one-hardware-compared-to-playstation-4/2 \|access-dateMay 22, 2013}}</ref> Financially, these semi-custom products would represent a majority of the company's revenue in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastHowse \|firstBrett \|dateOctober 20, 2016 \|titleAMD Announces Q3 2016 Financial Results \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/10780/amd-announces-q3-2016-results \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastTeam \|firstTrefis \|dateSeptember 14, 2016 \|titleAMD's Embedded and Semi-Custom Revenues To Generate High Growth In The Next 5 Years? \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2016/09/14/amds-embedded-and-semi-custom-revenues-to-generate-high-growth-in-the-next-5-years \|magazineForbes \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> In November 2017, AMD and Intel announced that Intel would market a product combining in a single package an Intel Core CPU, a semi-custom AMD Radeon GPU, and HBM2 memory.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKampman \|firstJeff \|dateNovember 6, 2017 \|titleIntel brings a Core CPU and Radeon GPU together on one package \|publisherTech Report \|urlhttps://techreport.com/news/32792/intel-brings-a-core-cpu-and-radeon-gpu-together-on-one-package \|access-dateNovember 7, 2017}}</ref> Other hardware AMD motherboard chipsets {{See also\|Comparison of AMD chipsets}} Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751, and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This was the "Open Platform Management Architecture" with ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia. The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today,{{When\|date=March 2021}} Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets for Opteron processors. As the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename RS690), targeted at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed RS600, sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and ASRock. Although AMD stated the firm would still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of {{nowrap\|1333 MHz}} FSB to ATI. On November 15, 2007, AMD announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from the enthusiast multi-graphics segment to the value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690 series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on November 15, 2007, as part of the codenamed Spider desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later time in spring 2008 as part of the codenamed Cartwheel platform. AMD returned to the server chipsets market with the AMD 800S series server chipsets. It includes support for up to six SATA 6.0 Gbit/s ports, the C6 power state, which is featured in Fusion processors and AHCI 1.2 with SATA FIS-based switching support. This is a chipset family supporting Phenom processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (890FX), IGP (890GX). With the advent of AMD's APUs in 2011, traditional northbridge features such as the connection to graphics and the PCI Express controller were incorporated into the APU die. Accordingly, APUs were connected to a single chip chipset, renamed the Fusion Controller Hub (FCH), which primarily provided southbridge functionality.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWasson \|firstScott \|dateJune 22, 2011 \|titleAMD's A8-3500M Fusion APU \|publisherTech Report \|urlhttps://techreport.com/review/21099/amd-a8-3500m-fusion-apu \|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> AMD released new chipsets in 2017 to support the release of their new Ryzen products. As the Zen microarchitecture already includes much of the northbridge connectivity, the AM4-based chipsets primarily varied in the number of additional PCI Express lanes, USB connections, and SATA connections available.<ref name"chipset_toms">{{Cite news \|last1Justin \|first1Michael \|last2Sexton \|first2Allen \|dateMarch 3, 2017 \|titleAMD's AM4 Ryzen Chipsets \|publisherTom's Hardware \|urlhttp://www.tomshardware.com/news/amd-am4-ryzen-chipsets,33806.html \|access-dateMarch 3, 2017}}</ref> These AM4 chipsets were designed in conjunction with ASMedia.<ref name"su_interview">{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|dateMarch 2, 2017 \|titleMaking AMD Tick: A Very Zen Interview it Dr. Lisa Su, CEO \|publisherAnandtech.com \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/11177/making-amd-tick-a-very-zen-interview-with-dr-lisa-su-ceo \|access-dateMarch 2, 2017}}</ref> Embedded products Embedded CPUs {{Main\|AMD Élan\|Alchemy (microarchitecture)\|l2Alchemy\|Geode (processor)\|l3Geode}} ]] In the early 1990s, AMD began marketing a series of embedded system-on-a-chips (SoCs) called AMD Élan, starting with the SC300 and SC310. Both combines a 32-Bit, Am386SX, low-voltage 25&nbsp;MHz or 33&nbsp;MHz CPU with memory controller, PC/AT peripheral controllers, real-time clock, PLL clock generators and ISA bus interface. The SC300 integrates in addition two PC card slots and a CGA-compatible LCD controller. They were followed in 1996 by the SC4xx types. Now supporting VESA Local Bus and using the Am486 with up to 100&nbsp;MHz clock speed. A SC450 with 33&nbsp;MHz, for example, was used in the Nokia 9000 Communicator. In 1999 the SC520 was announced. Using an Am586 with 100&nbsp;MHz or 133&nbsp;MHz and supporting SDRAM and PCI it was the latest member of the series.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://ascii.jp/elem/000/000/648/648702/ \|author文● 大原雄介 \|titleCPU黒歴史組み込みへの無理解に翻弄されたElan＆Geode \|publisherascii.jp \|date2011-11-14 \|access-date2022-11-15 \|languageja}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://jhalfmoon.com/dbc/2019/03/14/%E9%BB%84%E6%98%8F%E3%81%AEsoc4-amd%E3%80%81elan-sc300-400-single-chip-pc-at/ \|title冥界のLSI(4) AMD、Elan SC300/400 Single Chip PC/AT \|publisherAMD \|access-date2022-11-15 \|languageja}}</ref> In February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor for its Alchemy line of MIPS processors for the hand-held and portable media player markets.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastLammers \|firstDavid \|dateJanuary 29, 2002 \|titleAMD to buy MIPS processor startup Alchemy \|urlhttp://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id1134862 \|magazineEE Times \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.<ref name"Alchemy">{{Cite news \|dateJune 14, 2006 \|titleAMD Alchemy processor product line acquired by Raza Microelectronics \|workTechNews \|publishertechnologynewsdaily.com \|urlhttp://www.technologynewsdaily.com/node/3336 \|url-statusdead \|access-dateJuly 11, 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070102020841/http://www.technologynewsdaily.com/node/3336 \|archive-dateJanuary 2, 2007}}</ref> In August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastShah \|firstAgam \|dateJanuary 26, 2009 \|titleAMD Sees No Geode Chip Replacement in Sight \|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/158363/article.html \|magazinePC World \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless processors {{nowrap\|667 MHz}} and {{nowrap\|1 GHz}}, and {{nowrap\|1.4&nbsp;GHz}} processor with fan, of TDP 25&nbsp;W. This technology is used in a variety of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia markets, and the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world.<ref>{{cite web \|lastPaul \|firstRyan \|dateMarch 5, 2007 \|titleA comparison of OLPC's XO laptop and Intel's Classmate PC \|urlhttps://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2007/03/acomparison-of-olpcs-xo-laptop-and-intels-classmate-pc/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017 \|websiteArs Technica}}</ref> The Geode LX processor was announced in 2005 and is said will continue to be available through 2015.{{Update inline\|date=March 2021}} AMD has also introduced 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct Connect Architecture these server-class processors have been targeted at high-end telecom and storage applications. In 2007, AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion, and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007 and into 2008, AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded 64-bit solutions starting with 8&nbsp;W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard availability.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 5, 2010 \|workAmd.com \|titleAMD Embedded Solutions that are scalable, x86- based, low-power and feature-rich products \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/products/embedded/Pages/embedded.aspx \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101126232903/https://www.amd.com/us/products/embedded/Pages/embedded.aspx \|archive-dateNovember 26, 2010}}</ref> The ATI acquisition in 2006 included the Imageon and Xilleon product lines. In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, who have since produced the Adreno series.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastFerguson \|firstScott \|dateJanuary 20, 2009 \|titleAMD Sells Handset Division to Qualcomm for $65 million \|workeWeek \|urlhttp://www.eweek.com/c/a/Mobile-and-Wireless/AMD-Sells-Handset-Division-to-Qualcomm-for-65-Million/ \|access-dateJune 6, 2014}}</ref> Also in 2008, the Xilleon division was sold to Broadcom.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://news.cnet.com/8301-1001_3-10024509-92.html?hhTest1&tagxlr8yourmac \| titleBroadcom to buy AMD's digital TV business &#124; Business Tech - CNET News \| access-dateJuly 11, 2017 \| archive-dateJuly 16, 2012 \| archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120716025226/http://news.cnet.com/8301-1001_3-10024509-92.html?hhTest1&tagxlr8yourmac \| url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleNews Room \|urlhttp://www.broadcom.com/press/release.php?id1190026 \|website=Broadcom.com}}</ref> In April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high-performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk, and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent DVI interfaces.{{Citation needed\|dateJune 2019}}<ref>{{cite web\|titleAMD M690T/E Databook\|urlhttps://www.amd.com/system/files/TechDocs/42437.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.amd.com/system/files/TechDocs/42437.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive\|access-dateJanuary 18, 2021\|websiteAmd.com}}</ref> In January 2011, AMD announced the AMD Embedded G-Series Accelerated Processing Unit.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastGanesh \|firstTS \|dateJanuary 19, 2011 \|titleAMD G-Series Brings x86 to the Embedded Market \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/4133/amd-gseries-brings-apus-to-the-x86-embedded-market \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastMelanson \|firstDonald \|dateJanuary 19, 2011 \|titleAMD announces Fusion-based Embedded G-Series platform \|workEngadget \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2011/01/19/amd-announces-fusion-based-embedded-g-series-platform/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> This was the first APU for embedded applications. These were followed by updates in 2013 and 2016.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSakr \|firstSarif \|dateApril 23, 2013 \|titleAMD reveals G-Series X embedded chips, drops a little ARM-powered bombshell \|workEngadget \|urlhttps://www.engadget.com/2013/04/23/amd-reveals-g-series-x-embedded-chips/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastRyan \|firstThomas \|dateFebruary 23, 2016 \|titleAMD Launches Three New Embedded G-Series SoC Families \|publisherSemiAccurate \|urlhttps://www.semiaccurate.com/2016/02/23/amd-launches-three-new-embedded-g-series-soc-families/ \|access-dateSeptember 6, 2024}}</ref> In May 2012, AMD Announced the AMD Embedded R-Series Accelerated Processing Unit.<ref name"R-Series">{{Cite news \|dateJuly 10, 2012 \|titleAMD Embedded R-Series Platform \|workAMD \|publisheramd.com \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/products/embedded/processors/Pages/r-series.aspx \|access-dateJuly 10, 2012}}</ref> This family of products incorporates the Bulldozer CPU architecture, and Discrete-class Radeon HD 7000G Series graphics. This was followed by a system-on-a-chip (SoC) version in 2015 which offered a faster CPU and faster graphics, with support for DDR4 SDRAM memory.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|dateOctober 21, 2015 \|titleAMD Launches Excavator Based R-Series APUs for Embedded with DDR4 \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/9726/amd-launches-excavator-based-rseries-apus-for-embedded-with-ddr4-support \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastBrown \|firstEric \|dateOctober 21, 2015 \|titleAMD R-Series system-on-chips dip to 12 Watts, support DDR4 \|publisherLinux Gizmos \|urlhttp://linuxgizmos.com/amd-r-series-system-on-chips-dip-to-12-watts-support-ddr4/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Embedded graphics AMD builds graphic processors for use in embedded systems. They can be found in anything from casinos to healthcare, with a large portion of products being used in industrial machines.<ref>[https://www.amd.com/de/products/embedded/graphics-processors/Pages/embedded-display-graphics.asp] {{dead link\|dateDecember 2017\|botInternetArchiveBot\|fix-attemptedyes}}</ref> These products include a complete graphics processing device in a compact multi-chip module including RAM and the GPU.<ref name"AMD_embedded">{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateMay 2, 2011 \|titleAMD Launches E6760: The Next Embedded Radeon \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/4307/amd-launches-radeon-e6760 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> ATI began offering embedded GPUs with the E2400 in 2008. Since that time AMD has released regular updates to their embedded GPU lineup in 2009, 2011, 2015, and 2016; reflecting improvements in their GPU technology.<ref name"AMD_embedded" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastHodgin \|firstRick \|dateJuly 1, 2009 \|titleAMD releases ATI Radeon E4690 embedded GPU with 3x better performance \|publisherGeek.com \|urlhttps://www.geek.com/games/amd-releases-ati-radeon-e4690-embedded-gpu-with-3x-better-performance-792271/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017 \|archive-dateOctober 23, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171023065003/https://www.geek.com/games/amd-releases-ati-radeon-e4690-embedded-gpu-with-3x-better-performance-792271/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateOctober 1, 2015 \|titleAMD Updates Embedded Radeon GPU Line \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/9682/amd-updates-embedded-radeon-gpu-line-releases-radeon-e8950-e8870-e6465 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateSeptember 27, 2016 \|titleAMD Announces Embedded Radeon EE9260 & E9550 – Polaris for Embedded Markets \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/10710/amd-announces-embedded-radeon-e9260-e9550 \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Current product lines CPU and APU products AMD's portfolio of CPUs and APUs {{as of \| 2020 \| lc on}} * Athlon – brand of entry level CPUs (Excavator) and APUs (Ryzen) * A-series – Excavator-class consumer desktop and laptop APUs * G-series – Excavator- and Jaguar-class low-power embedded APUs * Ryzen – brand of consumer CPUs and APUs * Ryzen Threadripper – brand of prosumer/professional CPUs * R-series – Excavator class high-performance embedded APUs * Epyc – brand of server CPUs * Opteron – brand of microserver APUs<ref>{{cite web \|titleOpteron X and A-Series Processors \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/en/opteron \|access-dateApril 30, 2020 \|websiteamd.com}}</ref> Graphics products AMD's portfolio of dedicated graphics processors {{as of \| 2017 \| lc = on}} Radeon – brand for consumer line of graphics cards; the brand name originated with ATI. * Mobility Radeon offers power-optimized versions of Radeon graphics chips for use in laptops. Radeon Pro – Workstation graphics card brand. Successor to the FirePro brand. Radeon Instinct – brand of server and workstation targeted machine learning and GPGPU products Radeon-branded products RAM In 2011, AMD began selling Radeon branded DDR3 SDRAM to support the higher bandwidth needs of AMD's APUs.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastWalton \|firstJarred \|dateNovember 28, 2011 \|titleIntroducing AMD's Brand Memory \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5156/introducing-amds-memory-brand \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> While the RAM is sold by AMD, it was manufactured by Patriot Memory and VisionTek. This was later followed by higher speeds of gaming oriented DDR3 memory in 2013.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateMay 8, 2013 \|titleAMD Releases New Radeon Memory SKU \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/6940/amd-releases-new-radeon-memory-sku-rg2133-gamer-series \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Radeon branded DDR4 SDRAM memory was released in 2015, despite no AMD CPUs or APUs supporting DDR4 at the time.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastShilov \|firstAnton \|dateOctober 5, 2015 \|titleAMD begins to sell DDR4 memory modules for Intel and next-gen platforms \|publisherKitGuru \|urlhttps://www.kitguru.net/components/memory/anton-shilov/amd-quietly-begins-to-sell-ddr4-memory-modules-for-intel-and-next-gen-platforms/ \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> AMD noted in 2017 that these products are "mostly distributed in Eastern Europe" and that it continues to be active in the business.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastShah \|firstAgam \|dateMarch 16, 2017 \|titleAMD's Radeon memory business is slowing down \|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/3181787/components/amds-radeon-memory-business-is-slowing-down.html \|magazinePC World \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Solid-state drives AMD announced in 2014 it would sell Radeon branded solid-state drives manufactured by OCZ with capacities up to 480&nbsp;GB and using the SATA interface.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastHachman \|firstMark \|dateAugust 28, 2014 \|titleAMD announces Radeon R7 SSD product line, made by enthusiast manufacturer OCZ \|urlhttp://www.pcworld.com/article/2465944/amd-announces-radeon-r7-ssd-product-line-made-by-enthusiast-manufacturer-ocz.html \|magazinePC World \|access-dateJuly 11, 2017}}</ref> Technologies CPU hardware {{As of \| 2017}} technologies found in AMD CPU/APU and other products include: * HyperTransport – a high-bandwidth, low-latency system bus used in AMD's CPU and APU products * Infinity Fabric – a derivative of HyperTransport used as the communication bus in AMD's Zen microarchitecture Graphics hardware {{As of \| 2017}} technologies found in AMD GPU products include: * AMD Eyefinity – facilitates multi-monitor setup of up to 6 monitors per graphics card * AMD FreeSync – display synchronization based on the VESA Adaptive Sync standard * AMD TrueAudio – acceleration of audio calculations * AMD XConnect – allows the use of External GPU enclosures through Thunderbolt 3 * AMD CrossFire – multi-GPU technology allowing the simultaneous use of multiple GPUs * Unified Video Decoder (UVD) – acceleration of video decompression (decoding) * Video Coding Engine (VCE) – acceleration of video compression (encoding) Software AMD has made considerable efforts towards opening its software tools above the firmware level in the past decade.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://lists.freedesktop.org/archives/dri-devel/2015-April/081501.html \|titleInitial amdgpu driver release \|publisherLists.freedesktop.org \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?pagenews_item&pxRadeon-Rays-4.0-Going-Open\|titleAMD Rethinks Decision And Will Open-Source Most Of Radeon Rays 4.0\|websitephoronix.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.computer.org/publications/tech-news/heterogeneous-system-architecture/everything-you-need-to-know-about-why-amd-open-sourced-the-opencl-driver-stack-for-rocm \|titleEverything You Need to Know About Why AMD Open Sourced the OpenCL Driver Stack for ROCm &#124; IEEE Computer Society \|publisherComputer.org \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2022 \|archive-dateJanuary 23, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220123163432/https://www.computer.org/publications/tech-news/heterogeneous-system-architecture/everything-you-need-to-know-about-why-amd-open-sourced-the-opencl-driver-stack-for-rocm/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> For the following mentions, software not expressely stated as being free can be assumed to be proprietary. Distribution AMD Radeon Software is the default channel for official software distribution from AMD. It includes both free and proprietary software components, and supports both Microsoft Windows and Linux. Software by type CPU * AOCC is AMD's optimizing proprietary C/C++ compiler based on LLVM and available for Linux.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://developer.amd.com/amd-aocc/ \|titleAMD Optimizing C/C++ and Fortran Compilers (AOCC) – AMD \|publisherDeveloper.amd.com \|access-dateFebruary 20, 2022}}</ref> * AMDuProf is AMD's CPU performance and Power profiling tool suite, available for Linux and Windows.<ref>{{cite web \|titleNEW, AMD uProf 4.2 is now available\|urlhttps://www.amd.com/en/developer/uprof.html\|publisheramd.com \|access-dateJune 19, 2024 \|date=January 31, 2024}}</ref> * AMD has also taken an active part in developing coreboot, an open-source project aimed at replacing the proprietary BIOS firmware. This cooperation ceased in 2013, but AMD has indicated recently{{When\|dateMarch 2021}} that it is considering releasing source code so that Ryzen can be compatible with coreboot in the future.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.golem.de/news/freie-firmware-amd-prueft-coreboot-support-fuer-ryzen-1703-126524.html\|titleAMD prüft Coreboot-Support für Ryzen\|websitegolem.de}}</ref> GPU {{See also\|AMD Radeon Software}} Most notable public AMD software is on the GPU side. AMD has opened both its graphic and compute stacks: * GPUOpen is AMD's graphics stack, which includes for example FidelityFX Super Resolution. * ROCm (Radeon Open Compute platform) is AMD's compute stack for machine learning and high-performance computing, based on the LLVM compiler technologies. Under the ROCm project, AMDgpu is AMD's open-source device driver supporting the GCN and following architectures, available for Linux. This latter driver component is used both by the graphics and compute stacks. Other * AMD conducts open research on heterogeneous computing.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.amd.com/en/corporate/research-opensource\|titleAMD research Open-Source Projects\|websiteAmd.com\|access-dateFebruary 21, 2022}}</ref> * Other AMD software includes the AMD Core Math Library, and open-source software including the AMD Performance Library. * AMD contributes to open-source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and Sun xVM on the AMD platform.<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleAMD Expands Charter for the OpenSolaris OS and Sun xVM at the AMD Operating System Research Center \|dateMay 5, 2008 \|publisherAMD \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/gb-uk/Corporate/VirtualPressRoom/0,,51_104_543~125446,00.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090116054951/http://www.amd.com/gb-uk/Corporate/VirtualPressRoom/0%2C%2C51_104_543~125446%2C00.html \|archive-dateJanuary 16, 2009 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes its changes back to the community.<ref>{{cite web \|dateJuly 28, 2015 \|titlex86 Open64 Compiler Suite \|urlhttp://developer.amd.com/tools-and-sdks/cpu-development/x86-open64-compiler-suite/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131113100944/http://developer.amd.com/tools-and-sdks/cpu-development/x86-open64-compiler-suite/ \|archive-dateNovember 13, 2013 \|publisherAMD }}</ref> * In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards.<ref>{{Cite press release \|titleAMD Details Strategic Open Source Graphics Driver Development Initiative \|dateSeptember 7, 2007 \|publisherAMD \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us-en/Corporate/VirtualPressRoom/0,,51_104_543~119372,00.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleIndex of /docs/AMD \|urlhttp://www.x.org/docs/AMD/ \|publisher=x.org}}</ref> * Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the SSE5. * Codenamed SIMFIRE – interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware (DASH) open architecture. Production and fabrication {{Main\|GlobalFoundries}} Previously, AMD produced its chips at company-owned semiconductor foundries. AMD pursued a strategy of collaboration with other semiconductor manufacturers IBM and Motorola to co-develop production technologies.<ref name"vr1">{{Cite news \|lastKanellos \|firstMichael \|dateJuly 30, 1998 \|titleMotorola Ready to Make AMD Chips \|publisherCNET \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/motorola-ready-to-make-amd-chips/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name"vr2">{{Cite news \|agencyReuters \|dateSeptember 9, 2003 \|titleIBM, AMD team up in microprocessor market \|publisherIT Web \|urlhttp://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id83077 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017 }}{{Dead link\|dateMarch 2025 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> AMD's founder Jerry Sanders termed this the "Virtual Gorilla" strategy to compete with Intel's significantly greater investments in fabrication.<ref name"vr3">{{cite web \|lastMagee \|firstMike \|dateMay 4, 2000 \|titleAMD now a virtual gorilla – Sanders \|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2000/05/04/amd_now_a_virtual_gorilla/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017 \|website=The Register}}</ref> In 2008, AMD spun off its chip foundries into an independent company named GlobalFoundries.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateOctober 7, 2008 \|titleThe Business of Tech: Breaking Up is Hard to do- AMD goes Fabless \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/2635 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> This breakup of the company was attributed to the increasing costs of each process node. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi purchased the newly created company through its subsidiary Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC), purchasing the final stake from AMD in 2009.<ref>{{cite web \|lastShimpi \|firstAnand Lal \|titleGlobalFoundries Granted Independence, Acquires Remaining Stake from AMD \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/5627/globalfoundries-granted-independence-acquires-remaining-stake-from-amd \|access-dateDecember 8, 2012 \|website=AnandTech}}</ref> With the spin-off of its foundries, AMD became a fabless semiconductor manufacturer, designing products to be produced at for-hire foundries. Part of the GlobalFoundries spin-off included an agreement with AMD to produce some number of products at GlobalFoundries.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstRyan \|dateSeptember 1, 2016 \|titleAMD Amends GlobalFoundries Wafter Supply Agreement Through 2020, Gaining New Flexibility and New Costs \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/10631/amd-amends-globalfoundries-wafer-supply-agreement-through-2020 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> Both prior to the spin-off and after AMD has pursued production with other foundries including TSMC and Samsung.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastNystedt \|firstDan \|dateMay 22, 2007 \|titleAMD Cozies up to Contract Chip Maker TSMC \|workABC News \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/Technology/PCWorld/story?id3200207 \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name"samsung">{{Cite magazine \|lastMoorhead \|firstPatrick \|dateJuly 25, 2016 \|titleAMD Officially Diversifies 14nm Manufacturing With Samsung \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2016/07/25/amd-diversifies-14nm-manufacturing-with-samsung/ \|magazineForbes \|access-dateJuly 26, 2016}}</ref> It has been argued that this would reduce risk for AMD by decreasing dependence on any one foundry which has caused issues in the past.<ref name"samsung" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastShah \|firstAgam \|dateOctober 28, 2011 \|titleAMD records profit in Q3 despite manufacturing issues \|publisherARN \|urlhttps://www.arnnet.com.au/article/405600/amd_records_profit_q3_despite_manufacturing_issues/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017 \|archive-dateJuly 30, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170730201537/https://www.arnnet.com.au/article/405600/amd_records_profit_q3_despite_manufacturing_issues/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2018, AMD started shifting the production of their CPUs and GPUs to TSMC, following GlobalFoundries' announcement that they were halting development of their 7 nm process.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Shilov \|first1Anton \|last2Smith \|first2Ryan \|dateAugust 27, 2018 \|titleAMD Amends Wafer Supply Agreement with GlobalFoundries: 7nm Freed, 12nm+ Targets Set Through 2021 \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/13915/amd-amends-agreement-with-globalfoudries-set-to-buy-wafers-till-2021 \|access-dateMarch 25, 2020 \|websiteAnandTech}}</ref> AMD revised their wafer purchase requirement with GlobalFoundries in 2019, allowing AMD to freely choose foundries for 7&nbsp;nm nodes and below, while maintaining purchase agreements for 12&nbsp;nm and above through 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|lastShilov \|firstAnton \|dateJanuary 29, 2019 \|titleAMD Amends Wafer Supply Agreement with GlobalFoundries: 7nm Freed, 12nm+ Targets Set Through 2021 \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/13915/amd-amends-agreement-with-globalfoudries-set-to-buy-wafers-till-2021 \|access-dateMarch 25, 2020 \|websiteAnandTech}}</ref> Corporate affairs Business trends The key trends for AMD are (as of the financial year ending in late December):<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD Fundamentalanalyse {{!}} KGV {{!}} Kennzahlen \|urlhttps://www.boerse.de/fundamental-analyse/AMD-Aktie/US0079031078 \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteboerse.de \|language=de}}</ref> {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" ! !Revenue (US$ bn) !Net profit (US$ m) !Total assets (US$ bn) !Employees \|- \|2017 \|5.3 \|43 \|3.5 \|8,900 \|- \|2018 \|6.4 \|337 \|4.5 \|10,100 \|- \|2019 \|6.7 \|341 \|6.0 \|11,400 \|- \|2020 \|9.7 \|2,490 \|8.9 \|12,600 \|- \|2021 \|16.4 \|3,162 \|12.4 \|15,500 \|- \|2022 \|23.6 \|1,320 \|67.5 \|25,000 \|- \|2023 \|22.6 \|854 \|67.8 \|26,000 \|} Partnerships AMD uses strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests and to rival Intel's dominance and resources:<ref name"vr1" /><ref name"vr2" /><ref name="vr3" /> * A partnership between AMD and Alpha Processor Inc. developed HyperTransport, a point-to-point interconnect standard which was turned over to an industry standards body for finalization.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSpooner \|firstJohn G \|dateMarch 2, 2002 \|titlePromoter of storied Alpha to shut doors \|publisherCNET \|urlhttps://www.cnet.com/news/promoter-of-storied-alpha-to-shut-doors/ \|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> It is now used in modern motherboards that are compatible with AMD processors. * AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation. AMD announced that the partnership would extend to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication-related technologies.<ref>[https://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/DarylOstranderAMDAnalystDay.pdf AMD Analyst Day June 2006 Presentation], slide 10. {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090326033318/http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/DarylOstranderAMDAnalystDay.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/DarylOstranderAMDAnalystDay.pdf\|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022\|url-statuslive\|date=March 26, 2009}}.</ref> * To facilitate processor distribution and sales, AMD is loosely partnered with end-user companies, such as HP, Dell, Asus, Acer, and Microsoft.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastKennedy \|firstPatrick \|dateJuly 5, 2017 \|titleMost Impressive Part of the AMD EPYC Launch: The Ecosystem \|publisherServe the Home \|urlhttps://www.servethehome.com/impressive-part-amd-epyc-launch-ecosystem \|access-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref> * In 1993, AMD established a 50–50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC in 2003. The joint venture went public under the name Spansion and ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares dropping 37%. AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a non-competition agreement on December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including single-chip, multiple-chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory.<ref>[http://apps.shareholder.com/s/viewerContent.aspx?companyidSPSN&docid4095716] {{dead link\|dateMay 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> * On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by year's end, thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel.<ref>{{cite web \|lastVance \|firstAshlee \|dateMay 18, 2006 \|titleDell hooks up with AMD \|urlhttps://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/05/18/dell_picks_amd/ \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017 \|website=The Register}}</ref> In September 2006, Dell began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop lineup. * In June 2011, HP announced new business and consumer notebooks equipped with the latest versions of AMD APUs{{spaced ndash}}accelerated processing units. AMD will power HP's Intel-based business notebooks as well.<ref>Rik Myslewski, ChannelRegister. "[http://www.channelregister.co.uk/2011/06/14/amd_hp_notebooks/ Intel, AMD in HP notebook smackdown Which is faster? 'You tell me' says AMD]". June 17, 2011. Retrieved June 20, 2011.</ref> * In the spring of 2013, AMD announced that it would be powering all three major next-generation consoles.<ref>{{cite web \|lastPoeter \|firstDamon \|dateMay 21, 2013 \|titleAMD Hits Game Console Trifecta With Xbox One & Opinion \|urlhttps://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2419289,00.asp \|access-dateJune 14, 2013 \|workPC Magazine}}</ref> The Xbox One and Sony PlayStation 4 are both powered by a custom-built AMD APU, and the Nintendo Wii U is powered by an AMD GPU.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAMD Game Console Triple Crown: Will There Be Profits? \|urlhttp://seekingalpha.com/article/1446501-amd-game-console-triple-crown-will-there-be-profits \|access-dateJune 14, 2013 \|publisherSeeking Alpha}}</ref> According to AMD, having their processors in all three of these consoles will greatly assist developers with cross-platform development to competing consoles and PCs and increased support for their products across the board.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|dateJune 7, 2013 \|titleAMD say "PC ports of next-generation console titles are likely to struggle" on Intel tech &#124; News, Tech, Tech News \|urlhttp://www.pcgamer.com/2013/06/07/amd-say-pc-ports-of-next-generation-console-titles-are-likely-to-struggle-on-intel-tech/ \|magazinePC Gamer \|access-dateJune 14, 2013}}</ref> * AMD has entered into an agreement with Hindustan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (HSMC) for the production of AMD products in India.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastPTI \|dateApril 13, 2016 \|titleAMD plans to enter India in a big way, ties up with HSMC for chip manufacturing: Ravi Shankar Prasad \|workThe Economic Times \|urlhttp://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/cons-products/electronics/amd-plans-to-enter-india-in-a-big-way-ties-up-with-hsmc-for-chip-manufacturing-ravi-shankar-prasad/articleshow/51795523.cms \|access-dateJuly 10, 2017}}</ref> * AMD is a founding member of the HSA Foundation which aims to ease the use of a Heterogeneous System Architecture. A Heterogeneous System Architecture is intended to use both central processing units and graphics processors to complete computational tasks.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCutress \|firstIan \|dateMarch 16, 2015 \|titleHSA Foundation Launches 'HSA 1.0 Final' \|publisherAnandtech \|urlhttp://www.anandtech.com/show/9066/hsa-foundation-launches-hsa-10-final-architecture-programmers-reference-and-runtime-specifications \|access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref> * AMD announced in 2016 that it was creating a joint venture to produce x86 server chips for the Chinese market.<ref name"2018-toms-hardware">{{Cite news \|lastAlcorn \|firstPaul \|dateJuly 6, 2018 \|titleChina Finds Zen: Begins Production Of x86 Processors Based On AMD's IP \|publisherTom's Hardware \|urlhttps://www.tomshardware.com/news/china-zen-x86-processor-dryhana,37417.html \|access-dateJuly 9, 2018}}</ref> On May 7, 2019, it was reported that the U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Cray Inc., are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the Frontier exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 1.5 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut sometime in 2021.<ref>{{cite web \|titleU.S. Department of Energy and Cray to Deliver Record-Setting Frontier Supercomputer at ORNL \|urlhttps://www.energy.gov/articles/us-department-energy-and-cray-deliver-record-setting-frontier-supercomputer-ornl \|access-dateNovember 17, 2020 \|websiteEnergy.gov \|language=en}}</ref> On March 5, 2020, it was announced that the U.S. Department of Energy, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and HPE are working in collaboration with AMD to develop the El Capitan exascale supercomputer. Featuring the AMD Epyc CPUs and Radeon GPUs, the supercomputer is set to produce more than 2 exaflops (peak double-precision) in computing performance. It is expected to debut in 2023.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLLNL and HPE to partner with AMD on El Capitan, projected as world's fastest supercomputer {{!}} Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory \|urlhttps://www.llnl.gov/news/llnl-and-hpe-partner-amd-el-capitan-projected-worlds-fastest-supercomputer \|access-dateNovember 17, 2020 \|websitewww.llnl.gov}}</ref> * In the summer of 2020, it was reported that AMD would be powering the next-generation console offerings from Microsoft and Sony.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/7/28/21344881/amd-ps5-xbox-series-x-zen-3-cpu-rdna-2-gpu-2020-release-q2-earnings\|titleAMD says its PS5 and Xbox Series X chips, Zen 3 CPUs, and RDNA 2 GPUs will ship on time\|lastFaulkner\|firstCameron\|workThe Verge\|dateJuly 28, 2020\|access-date=March 22, 2020}}</ref> * On November 8, 2021, AMD announced a partnership with Meta to make the chips used in the Metaverse.<ref>{{Cite web \|dateNovember 28, 2022 \|titleAMD Partnership With Facebook (Meta) Company - Totoseek \|urlhttps://totoseek.com/amd-partnership-with-facebook-meta-company/ \|access-dateNovember 29, 2022 \|languageen-US \|archive-dateNovember 29, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221129205746/https://totoseek.com/amd-partnership-with-facebook-meta-company/ \|url-statusdead }}</ref> * In January 2022, AMD partnered with Samsung to develop a mobile processor to be used in future products. The processor was named Exynos 2022 and works with the AMD RDNA 2 architecture.<ref>{{Cite news \|dateJanuary 18, 2022 \|titleSamsung Partners With AMD to Power Up Mobile Chips \|languageen \|workBloomberg.com \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-01-18/samsung-partners-with-amd-to-power-up-mobile-chips \|access-dateNovember 29, 2022}}</ref> Litigation with Intel {{See also\|Intel Corp. v. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.\|Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. v. Intel Corp.}} AMD has a long history of litigation with former (and current) partner and x86 creator Intel.<ref name"litigation">{{cite web \|titleRyzen 7 2700X vs i7 8700K \|urlhttps://thesoftbest.com/ryzen-7-2700x-vs-i7-8700k/ \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070108093846/http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History.pdf \|archive-dateJanuary 8, 2007 \|access-dateJanuary 12, 2007 \|publisherAMD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/Documents/Complaint_summary.pdf \|titleAdvanced Micro Devices (AMD) vs. Intel Corporation Executive Summary of AMD Complaint \|access-dateAugust 23, 2017 \|archive-dateNovember 10, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110213450/http://www.amd.com/us/Documents/Complaint_summary.pdf \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/us/Documents/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.pdf \|titleArchived copy \|access-dateAugust 23, 2017 \|archive-dateNovember 10, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110213342/http://www.amd.com/us/Documents/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.pdf \|url-statusdead }}</ref> * In 1986, Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's microchips for IBM; AMD filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded damages for breach of contract. * In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in 1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486 generation. * In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the AMD K6 MMX processor. * In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty of a number of violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market. Since the start of this action, the court has issued subpoenas to major computer manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba. * In November 2009, Intel agreed to pay AMD $1.25 billion and renew a five-year patent cross-licensing agreement as part of a deal to settle all outstanding legal disputes between them.<ref name"amd suit">[http://www.foxbusiness.com/story/markets/industries/technology/amd-intel-settle-legal-disputes/] {{dead link\|dateMay 2016\|botmedic}}{{cbignore\|botmedic}}</ref> Guinness World Record achievement * On August 31, 2011, in Austin, Texas, AMD achieved a Guinness World Record for the "Highest frequency of a computer processor": 8.429&nbsp;GHz.<ref name"Record">Peter Clarke, EE Times. "[http://eetimes.com/electronics-news/4226949/AMD-clocks-FX-processor AMD 'clocks' FX processor at 8.429-GHz]". September 13, 2011. Retrieved September 15, 2011.</ref> The company ran an 8-core FX-8150 processor with only one active module (two cores), and cooled with liquid helium.<ref nameyoutube>{{Citation \|titleMaximum Speed AMD FX Processor Takes Guinness World Record \|dateSeptember 12, 2011 \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vUKN4VMOenNM \| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/UKN4VMOenNM\| archive-dateNovember 22, 2021 \| url-statuslive\|viaYouTube \|formatvideo \|access-dateNovember 7, 2012}}{{cbignore}}<br />During the video, cooling transitions from air to water to liquid nitrogen and finally to liquid helium.</ref> The previous record was 8.308&nbsp;GHz, with an Intel Celeron 352 (one core). * On November 1, 2011, geek.com reported that Andre Yang, an overclocker from Taiwan, used an FX-8150 to set another record: 8.461&nbsp;GHz.<ref name"record2">Matthew Humprhires, Geek.com. "[http://www.geek.com/articles/chips/amd-bulldozer-cpu-beats-world-record-again-achieving-8-461ghz-2011111/ AMD clocks FX-8150 at 8.461-GHz] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120428193028/http://www.geek.com/articles/chips/amd-bulldozer-cpu-beats-world-record-again-achieving-8-461ghz-2011111 \|date=April 28, 2012 }}". November 1, 2011. Retrieved November 1, 2011.</ref> * On November 19, 2012, Andre Yang used an FX-8350 to set another record: 8.794&nbsp;GHz.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCPU-Z Validator \|urlhttp://valid.canardpc.com/lpza4n \|publisherCPU-Z}}</ref> Acquisitions, mergers, and investments {\| class"wikitable" \|+ !Date !Company !Integration or division !Price \|- \|January 16, 1996 \|NexGen \|amd k6 \|$857 million in AMD shares<ref>{{cite web \|date1995-10-21 \|titleChip Maker AMD to Buy Nexgen for $857 Million \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-10-21-fi-59417-story.html \|agency=Bloomberg Business News}}</ref> \|- \|February 6, 2002 \|Alchemy Semiconductor<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEETimes \|dateFebruary 6, 2002 \|titleEETimes - AMD acquires Alchemy Semi to enter embedded RISC processor market \|urlhttps://www.eetimes.com/amd-acquires-alchemy-semi-to-enter-embedded-risc-processor-market/ \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|websiteEETimes}}</ref> \|Processors (embedded CPUs) \|Undisclosed \|- \|August 6, 2003 \|Coatue<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEETimes \|dateAugust 6, 2003 \|titleEETimes - Coatue secretly sold to AMD, folded into FASL \|urlhttps://www.eetimes.com/coatue-secretly-sold-to-amd-folded-into-fasl/ \|access-dateSeptember 13, 2024 \|websiteEETimes}}</ref> \|Memory (non-volatile polymer-based memory) \|Undisclosed \|- \|July 24, 2006 \|ATI Technologies<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSorkin \|firstAndrew Ross \|dateJuly 24, 2006 \|titleA.M.D. to Acquire ATI Technologies \|languageen-US \|workThe New York Times \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/24/technology/24cnd-semi.html \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> \|Graphics and 3D software (Radeon GPUs) \|$5,400 million \|- \|February 29, 2012 \|SeaMicro<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD Completes Acquisition of SeaMicro \|urlhttps://ir.amd.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/404/amd-completes-acquisition-of-seamicro \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|websiteAdvanced Micro Devices, Inc. \|languageen \|archive-dateApril 5, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220405210516/https://ir.amd.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/404/amd-completes-acquisition-of-seamicro \|url-statusdead}}</ref> \|Data center platform \|$334 million \|- \|June 29, 2016 \|HiAlgo<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD Acquires Software Company HiAlgo, Laying Groundwork for Future Gaming Innovation in Radeon Software \|urlhttps://ir.amd.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/696/amd-acquires-software-company-hialgo-laying-groundwork-for \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|websiteAdvanced Micro Devices, Inc. \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|dateJune 29, 2016 \|titleAMD's HiAlgo acquisition brings gamer-friendly tools to Radeon Software experience \|urlhttps://venturebeat.com/2016/06/29/amds-hialgo-acquisition-brings-gamer-friendly-tools-to-radeon-software-experience/ \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|websiteVentureBeat \|language=en-US}}</ref> \|Gaming experience (Radeon Chill, Radeon Boost and Radeon Swift) \|Undisclosed \|- \|April 10, 2017 \|Nitero<ref>{{Cite web \|lastMoorhead \|firstPatrick \|titleAMD Acquires IP And Acquihires Nitero Team, Maker Of 60 Ghz Wireless Chips For VR/AR \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/patrickmoorhead/2017/04/10/amd-acquires-ip-and-engineering-team-from-nitero-maker-of-60-ghz-wireless-chips-for-vrar/ \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|websiteForbes \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastShilov \|firstAnton \|titleAMD Acquires 60 GHz Wireless IP and Staff from Nitero \|urlhttps://www.anandtech.com/show/11268/amd-acquires-60ghz-ip-and-staff-from-nitero \|access-dateApril 5, 2022 \|website=anandtech.com}}</ref> \|60&nbsp;GHz wireless IP (headset AR and VR) \|Undisclosed \|- \|October 27, 2020 \|Xilinx<ref>{{Cite news \|lastLee \|firstJane Lanhee \|dateFebruary 14, 2022 \|titleAMD closes record chip industry deal with estimated $50 billion purchase of Xilinx \|languageen \|workReuters \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/amd-closes-biggest-chip-acquisition-with-498-bln-purchase-xilinx-2022-02-14/ \|access-dateApril 5, 2022}}</ref> \|Custom chips (FPGA, adaptive SoCs, system on modules, IA accelerator) \|$49,000 million \|- \|April 4, 2022 \|Pensando<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2022/04/04/amd-to-acquire-data-center-optimization-startup-pensando-for-2b/\|titleAMD to acquire data center optimization startup Pensando for $2B\|websiteTechCrunch\|dateApril 4, 2022\|authorRon Miller\|access-dateApril 10, 2022}}</ref> \|Data center, cloud solutions and DPUs \|$1,900 million \|- \|August 29, 2023 \|Mipsology<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-08-29 \|titleAMD acquires Mipsology to ramp up AI inference rivalry with Nvidia \|urlhttps://www.channelweb.co.uk/news/4123572/amd-acquires-mipsology-ramp-ai-inference-rivalry-nvidia \|access-date2023-08-29 \|websitewww.channelweb.co.uk \|languageen}}</ref> \|AI inference software \|Undisclosed \|- \|October 10, 2023 \|Nod.ai<ref nameTechCrunch/><ref nameCNBC>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/10/amd-acquires-nodai-ai-startup-as-it-seeks-to-catch-up-with-nvidia.html\|titleAMD to acquire AI software startup as it seeks to catch up with Nvidia\|websiteCNBC\|dateOctober 10, 2023\|authorHayden Field\|access-dateNovember 19, 2023}}</ref> \|Open-source AI software \|Undisclosed \|- \|July 10, 2024 \|Silo AI<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCherney \|firstMax A. \|dateJuly 10, 2024 \|titleAMD to acquire Finnish startup Silo AI for $665 mln to step up in AI race \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/markets/deals/amd-acquire-finnish-startup-silo-ai-665-mln-step-up-ai-race-2024-07-10/ \|publisherReuters}}</ref> \|AI software \|$665 million \|- \|August 19, 2024 \|ZT Systems<ref>{{Cite news \|lastCherney \|firstMax A. \|dateAugust 19, 2024 \|titleAMD to acquire server builder ZT Systems for $4.9 billion in cash and stock \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/amd-acquire-server-builder-zt-systems-49-billion-cash-stock-2024-08-19/ \|publisherReuters}}</ref> \|Data center hardware \|$4,900 million \|} Corporate responsibility * In its 2022 report, AMD stated that it aimed to embed environmental sustainability across its business, promote safe and responsible workplaces in its global supply chain and advance stronger communities.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/content/dam/amd/en/documents/corporate/cr/2022-23-amd-cr-report.pdf \|title2022–23 Corporate Responsibility Report \|publisherAMD \|access-dateJanuary 14, 2025}}</ref> * In 2022, AMD achieved a 19 percent reduction in its Scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions compared to 2020. Based on AMD calculations that are third-party verified (limited level assurance).<ref>{{Cite web \|dateAugust 2023 \|titleAMD Environmental Sustainability \|urlhttps://www.amd.com/en/corporate/corporate-responsibility/environmental-sustainability.html#goals \|access-date2024-03-25 \|websiteAMD Environmental Sustainability}}</ref> Other initiatives * The Green Grid,<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Green Grid \|urlhttps://www.thegreengrid.org/ \|websiteThegreengrid.org}}</ref> founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek lower power consumption for grids. Sponsorships AMD's sponsorship of Formula 1 racing began in 2002 and since 2020 has sponsored the Mercedes-AMG Petronas team.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastEllett \|firstJohn \|titleWhy Tech Marketing Leaders Are Racing To Sponsor Formula 1 \|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/johnellett/2022/03/01/why-tech-marketing-leaders-are-racing-to-sponsor-formula-1/ \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteForbes \|languageen}}</ref> AMD was also a sponsor of the BMW Sauber and Scuderia Ferrari Formula 1 teams together with Intel, Vodafone, AT&T, Pernod Ricard and Diageo.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSponsorship, the big business behind F1 - CNN.com \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2007/SPORT/09/18/behind.sponsorship/index.html \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteedition.cnn.com \|archive-dateAugust 28, 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240828100530/http://edition.cnn.com/2007/SPORT/09/18/behind.sponsorship/index.html \|url-statusdead }}</ref> On 18 April 2018, AMD began a multi-year sponsorship with Scuderia Ferrari.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2018-04-14 \|titleAMD is Proud to Present a Multi-Year Partnership with Scuderia Ferrari \|urlhttps://ir.amd.com/news-events/press-releases/detail/824/amd-is-proud-to-present-a-multi-year-partnership-with \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteAdvanced Micro Devices, Inc. \|languageen}}</ref> In February 2020, just prior to the start of the 2020 race season, the Mercedes Formula 1 team announced it was adding AMD to its sponsorship portfolio.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2020-02-05 \|titleMercedes signs innovation-focused deal with AMD, McLaren signs with AI brand Darktrace \|urlhttps://www.sportbusiness.com/news/mercedes-f1-team-signs-innovation-focused-deal-with-amd/ \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteSportBusiness \|languageen-US}}</ref> AMD began a sponsorship deal with Victory Five (V5) for the League of Legends Pro League (LPL) in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2022-09-08 \|titleAMD Ryzen sponsors Victory Five League of Legends team in China \|urlhttps://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Esports/Sections/Franchises/2022/09/AMD-Ryzen-Victory-Five-sponsorship-China.aspx \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websitewww.sportsbusinessjournal.com \|languageen}}</ref> AMD was a sponsor of the Chinese Dota Pro Circuit together with Perfect World.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAMD Becomes a Sponsor of the Victory Five League of Legends Roster \|urlhttps://egw.news/esports/news/19123/amd-becomes-a-sponsor-of-the-victory-five-league-o-GT3fVrKOk \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteegw.news}}</ref> In February 2024, AMD was a Diamond sponsor for the World Artificial Intelligence Cannes Festival (WAICF).<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSponsors {{!}} World AI Cannes Festival 2024 \|urlhttps://www.worldaicannes.com/ \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websitewww.worldaicannes.com \|language=en}}</ref> AMD was a Platinum sponsor for the HPE Discover 2024, an event hosted by Hewlett Packard Enterprise to showcase technology for government and business customers. The event was held from 17 to 20 June 2024 in Las Vegas.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHPE Discover 2024 Sponsors \|urlhttps://www.hpe.com/us/en/discover/sponsors/event-2024.html \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websitehpe.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|lastRichardson \|firstKelly \|titleHPE Discover 2024 news and conference guide {{!}} TechTarget \|urlhttps://www.techtarget.com/searchstorage/conference/HPE-Discover-news-and-conference-guide \|access-date2024-07-23 \|websiteStorage \|languageen}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Companies\|San Francisco Bay Area\|United States}} * 3DNow! * Cool'n'Quiet * Bill Gaede * List of AMD accelerated processing units * List of AMD chipsets * List of AMD graphics processing units * List of AMD processors * List of ATI chipsets * PowerNow! References {{Reflist}} Sources * Rodengen, Jeffrey L. (1998). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0945903219 The Spirit of AMD: Advanced Micro Devices]. Write Stuff. * Ruiz, Hector (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?idx01Ho5Y_dnoC ''Slingshot: AMD's Fight to Free an Industry from the Ruthless Grip of Intel'']. Greenleaf Book Group. External links {{Commons category}} * {{Official website}} {{Finance links \| name = Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. \| symbol = AMD \| reuters = AMD.O \| bloomberg = AMD:US \| sec_cik = 2488 \| yahoo = AMD \| google = AMD:NASDAQ }} {{AMD}} {{Navboxes \| title = AMD-related navigation boxes \| list = {{AMD processors}} {{AMD graphics\|state=autocollapse}} {{AMD platforms}} {{Electronics industry in the United States}} {{Major semiconductor companies}} {{Programmable Logic}} {{NASDAQ-100}} }} {{Authority control}} Category:1969 establishments in California Category:1970s initial public offerings Category:American companies established in 1969 Category:Fabless semiconductor companies Category:Companies based in Santa Clara, California Category:Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Companies listed on the Nasdaq Category:Companies in the Nasdaq-100 Category:Computer companies of the United States Category:Computer companies established in 1969 Category:Computer hardware companies Category:Electronics companies established in 1969 Category:Graphics hardware companies Category:HSA Foundation founding members Category:Manufacturing companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Motherboard companies Category:Semiconductor companies of the United States Category:Superfund sites in California Category:Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area Category:Technology companies established in 1969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD	2025-04-05T18:26:03.620243
2402	Albrecht Dürer	{{Short description\|German painter, printmaker and theorist (1471–1528)}} {{use dmy dates\|date=May 2020}} {{Infobox artist \| name = Albrecht Dürer \| image = Albrecht Dürer, Selbstbildnis mit 26 Jahren (Prado, Madrid).jpg \| caption = Dürer's Self-portrait at 26 at Prado Museum \| birth_name \| other_names {{hlist\|Adalbert Ajtósi\|Albrecht Durer\|Albrecht Duerer}} \| birth_date {{Birth date\|1471\|05\|21\|dfyes}} \| birth_place = Nuremberg, Free Imperial City of Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1528\|4\|6\|1471\|5\|21\|dfy}} \| death_place = Nuremberg, Free Imperial City of Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire \| nationality = German \| movement = {{hlist\|Northern Renaissance\|High Renaissance}} \| buried_in \| field {{hlist \|Painting \|printmaking}} \| works = {{hlist\|Paintings\|engravings\|woodcuts}} \| spouse = {{marriage\|Agnes Frey\|1494}} \| module {{Infobox person\|childyes \| signature = Signatur Albrecht Dürer.PNG}} }} Albrecht Dürer ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|dj\|ʊər\|ər}} {{respell\|DURE\|ər}},<ref name"LPD">{{citation\|lastWells\|firstJohn C.\|year2008\|titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary\|edition3rd\|publisherLongman\|isbn978-1405881180}}</ref> {{IPA\|de\|ˈalbʁɛçt ˈdyːʁɐ\|lang}};<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://de.langenscheidt.com/franzoesisch-deutsch/search?termAlbrecht\|titleAlbrecht – Deutsch – Langenscheidt Französisch-Deutsch Wörterbuch\|publisherLangenscheidt\|access-date22 October 2018\|languagede, fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Duerer\|titleDuden {{!}} Dürer {{!}} Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition\|workDuden\|access-date22 October 2018\|languagede}}</ref><ref name"LPD"/> 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528),<ref name=Mueller>Müller, Peter O. (1993) Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Dürers, Walter de Gruyter. {{ISBN\|3-11-012815-2}}.</ref> sometimes spelled in English as Durer, was a German painter, printmaker, and theorist of the German Renaissance. Born in Nuremberg, Dürer established his reputation and influence across Europe in his twenties due to his high-quality woodcut prints. He was in contact with the major Italian artists of his time, including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and Leonardo da Vinci, and from 1512 was patronized by Emperor Maximilian I. Dürer's vast body of work includes engravings, his preferred technique in his later prints, altarpieces, portraits and self-portraits, watercolours and books. The woodcuts series are stylistically more Gothic than the rest of his work, but revolutionised the potential of that medium, while his extraordinary handling of the burin expanded especially the tonal range of his engravings; well-known engravings include the three Meisterstiche (master prints) Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514), and Melencolia I (1514). His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs and of the nude into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, has secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatises, which involve principles of mathematics for linear perspective and body proportions. Biography Early life (1471–1490) silverpoint drawing by the thirteen-year-old Dürer, 1484. Albertina, Vienna.]] Dürer was born on 21 May 1471, the third child and second son of Albrecht Dürer the Elder and Barbara Holper, who married in 1467.<ref name"BPA11">Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 11.</ref><ref name":0" /> Albrecht Dürer the Elder (originally Albrecht Ajtósi) was a successful goldsmith who by 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Ajtós, near Gyula in Hungary.<ref name"heaton">{{Cite book\|lastHeaton\|firstMrs. Charles\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lifeofalbrechtdu00heat\|titleThe Life of Albrecht Dürer of Nürnberg: With a Translation of His Letters and Journal and an Account of His Works\|publisherSeeley, Jackson and Halliday\|year1881\|locationLondon\|pages[https://archive.org/details/lifeofalbrechtdu00heat/page/29 29], 31–32\|author-linkMary Margaret Heaton}}</ref> He married Barbara, his master's daughter, when he himself qualified as a master.<ref name":0" /> Her mother, Kinga Öllinger had some roots in Hungary too,<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.hungarianottomanwars.com/essays/albrecht-durer-1471-1528-and-hungary/ \| titleAlbrecht Dürer (1471 -1528) and Hungary - Hungarian-Ottoman Wars \| date4 May 2020 }}</ref> as she was born in Sopron. The couple had eighteen children together, of which only three survived. Hans Dürer (1490–1534), also became a painter, trained under the older Albrecht. The other surviving brother, Endres Dürer (1484–1555), took over their father's business and was a master goldsmith.<ref name"Br16">Brion (1960), 16.</ref> The German name "Dürer" is a translation from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi".<ref name"heaton"/> Initially, it was "Türer", meaning doormaker, which is "ajtós" in Hungarian (from "ajtó", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Younger later changed "Türer", his father's diction of the family's surname, to "Dürer", to adapt to the local Nuremberg dialect.<ref name=":0">Bartrum, 93, n. 1.</ref> Because Dürer left autobiographical writings and was widely known by his mid-twenties, his life is well documented. After a few years of school, Dürer learned the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he was allowed to start as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486.<ref name"BPA10">Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 10.</ref> A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) "when I was a child", as his later inscription says. The drawing is one of the earliest surviving children's drawings of any kind, and, as Dürer's Opus One, has helped define his oeuvre as deriving from, and always linked to, himself.<ref name"Koerner">Joseph Koerner, The Moment of Self-Portraiture in Renaissance Art, University of Chicago Press, 1993.</ref> Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was then an important and prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps.<ref name="Bartrum"/> Dürer's godfather Anton Koberger left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. He became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing-presses and a number of offices in Germany and abroad. Koberger's most famous publication was the Nuremberg Chronicle, published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (albeit with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. Dürer may have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut.<ref name"Bartrum">Giulia Bartrum, Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy, British Museum Press, 2002, {{ISBN\|0-7141-2633-0}}.</ref>Wanderjahre and marriage (1490–1494) (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum (Louvre, Paris)]] After completing his apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking Wanderjahre''—in effect gap years—in which the apprentice learned skills from other masters, their local tradition and individual styles; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, the leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. Later that year, Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg.{{refn\|Here he produced a woodcut of St Jerome as a frontispiece for Nicholaus Kessler's Epistolare beati Hieronymi. Erwin Panofsky argues that this print combined the "Ulmian style" of Koberger's Lives of the Saints (1488) and that of Wolgemut's workshop. Panofsky (1945), 21\|groupn}} In 1493 Dürer went to Strasbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancée in Nuremberg.<ref name"Bartrum"/> Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on 7 July 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey following an arrangement made during his absence. Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage, and with Albrecht the Dürer name died out. The marriage between Agnes and Albrecht was believed not to be a generally happy one, as indicated by a letter of Dürer in which he quipped to Willibald Pirckheimer in a rough tone about his wife, calling her an "old crow" and made other vulgar remarks. Pirckheimer also made no secret of his antipathy towards Agnes, describing her as a miserly shrew with a bitter tongue, who helped cause Dürer's death at a young age.<ref name"Wilmot-BuxtonPoynter1881">{{cite book\|author1Harry John Wilmot-Buxton\|author2Edward John Poynter\|titleGerman, Flemish and Dutch Painting\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/germanflemishan00bargoog\|year1881\|publisherScribner and Welford\|page[https://archive.org/details/germanflemishan00bargoog/page/n40 24]}}</ref> It has been hypothesized by many scholars that Albrecht was bisexual or homosexual, due to the recurrence of allegedly homoerotic themes in some of his works (e.g. ''The Men's Bath), and the nature of his correspondence with close friends.<ref name"Haggerty2013">{{cite book\|authorGeorge Haggerty\|titleEncyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPez9AQAAQBAJ\|date2013\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|isbn978-1-135-58513-6\|page262}}</ref><ref>Brisman, Shira, Albrecht Dürer and the Epistolary Mode of Address, University of Chicago Press, 2017, p. 179.</ref><ref>Mills, Robert, Seeing Sodomy in the Middle Ages'', University of Chicago Press, 2015, p. 332, n. 93.</ref><!--One might consider the Women's Bath as an immidiate counter argument, with a man as a voyeur. The joke with the water cock is childish, not especially homoerotic. And: what other works?-->First journey to Italy (1494–1495) Within three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis. In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world.<ref nameLee>Lee, Raymond L. & Alistair B. Fraser. (2001) The Rainbow Bridge, Penn State Press. {{ISBN\|0-271-01977-8}}.</ref> Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Schongauer and the Housebook Master.<ref nameLee /> He also would have had access to some Italian works in Germany, but the two visits he made to Italy had an enormous influence on him. He wrote that Giovanni Bellini was the oldest and still the best of the artists in Venice. His drawings and engravings show the influence of others, notably Antonio del Pollaiuolo, with his interest in the proportions of the body; Lorenzo di Credi; and Andrea Mantegna, whose work he produced copies of while training.<ref>Campbell, Angela and Raftery, Andrew. "Remaking Dürer: Investigating the Master Engravings by Masterful Engraving", [http://artinprint.org/article/remaking-durer-investigating-the-master-engravings/ Art in Print Vol. 2 No. 4] (November–December 2012).</ref> Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip.{{refn\|The evidence for this trip is not conclusive; the suggestion it happened is supported by Panofsky (1945) and is accepted by a majority of scholars, including the several curators of the large 2020–22 exhibition "Dürer's Journeys", but it has been disputed by other scholars, including Katherine Crawford Luber (in her Albrecht Dürer and the Venetian Renaissance, 2005)\|groupn}}Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505) On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years, his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Arguably his best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as ''The Men's Bath'' ({{Circa\|1496}}). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition. It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been performed by a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block. (1500). Alte Pinakothek, Munich.]] His series of sixteen designs for the Apocalypse<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.payer.de/christentum/apokalypse.htm\| title Johannesapokalypse in klassischen Comics}}</ref> is dated 1498, as is his engraving of St. Michael Fighting the Dragon. He made the first seven scenes of the Great Passion in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. The Seven Sorrows Polyptych, commissioned by Frederick III of Saxony in 1496, was executed by Dürer and his assistants c.&nbsp;1500. In 1502, Dürer's father died. Around 1503–1505 Dürer produced the first 17 of a set illustrating the Life of the Virgin, which he did not finish for some years. Neither these nor the Great Passion were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers.<ref name="Bartrum"/> During the same period Dürer perfected the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. Most likely he had learned this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. In 1496 he executed the Prodigal Son, which the Italian Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace ({{circa\|1501}}), with a highly detailed landscape background and animals. His landscapes of this period, such as Pond in the Woods and Willow Mill, are quite different from his earlier watercolours. There is a much greater emphasis on capturing atmosphere, rather than depicting topography. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years.<ref name="Bartrum"/> The Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him.<ref name"se" /> To Dürer it seemed that De' Barbari was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so he began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of Adam and Eve (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces.<ref name"Bartrum"/> This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name. Dürer created large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the Betende Hände (Praying Hands) from circa 1508, a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. He continued to make images in watercolour and bodycolour (usually combined), including a number of still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his Young Hare (1502) and the Great Piece of Turf (1503). <gallery widths"116" heights"155"> Albrecht Dürer - The Men’s Bath - Google Art Project.jpg\|The Men's Bath, {{Circa\|1496}}, woodcut, 39.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;28.3&nbsp;cm, (Art Institute of Chicago) 10 The Prodigal Son.jpg\|The Prodigal Son (1496), copper engraving, 24.7&nbsp;×&nbsp;19.1&nbsp;cm (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) Albrecht Dürer, Adam and Eve, 1504, Engraving.jpg\|Adam and Eve (1504), copper engraving, 29.8&nbsp;×&nbsp;21.1&nbsp;cm (Morgan Library & Museum, New York) File:Albrecht Dürer - Hare, 1502 - Google Art Project.jpg\|Young Hare, 1502, watercolour and gouache, 25&nbsp;×&nbsp;22.5&nbsp;cm, Albertina, Vienna Albrecht Dürer - The Large Piece of Turf, 1503 - Google Art Project.jpg\|Large Piece of Turf (1503), watercolour and gouache w/highlighting, 40,8&nbsp;×&nbsp;31,5&nbsp;cm, Albertina Albrecht Dürer - Praying Hands, 1508 - Google Art Project.jpg\|Praying Hands ({{circa\|1508}}), brush, ink and gray wash on blue paper, 29.1&nbsp;×&nbsp;19.7&nbsp;cm, Albertina </gallery> Second journey to Italy (1505–1507) (1506), oil on panel, 162&nbsp;×&nbsp;192&nbsp;cm, National Gallery Prague]] In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the Adoration of the Magi''. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507.<ref nameMueller /> It was in Venice that he took up the material of blue paper, which he used to execute preparatory drawing for paintings he completed there in 1505–1507.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastBrahms \|firstIris \|date2023 \|titleEcologies of Blue Paper. Dürer and Beyond \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.11588/xxi.2023.4 \|journal21: Inquiries into Art, History and the Visual \|issue4 \|pages603–638}}</ref> By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the Feast of the Rosary (or the Feast of Rose Garlands). It shows Pope Julius II and Emperor Maximilian I, peacefully kneeling in adoration before her throne, both with their crowns taken off. It also includes portraits of members of Venice's German community and of Dürer himself on the upper right holding a designation of his authorship. Besides the Flemish verism in the depiction of the greenery and the garments, and the use of his own hues, the altar-piece shows a strong Italian influence. It was later acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague.<ref>Kotková, Olga. "'The Feast of the Rose Garlands': What Remains of Dürer?". The Burlington Magazine, Volume 144, No. 1186, 2002. 4–13. {{JSTOR\|889418}}</ref>Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520) , 24.5 x 19.1 cm]] (1514), engraving]] (1515), National Gallery of Art]] Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with many of the major artists including Raphael.{{refn\|According to Vasari, Dürer sent Raphael a self-portrait in watercolour, and Raphael sent back multiple drawings. One is dated 1515 and has an inscription by Dürer (or one of his heirs) affirming that Raphael sent it to him. See {{cite book \|last1Salmi \|first1Mario \|author1-linkMario Salmi\|last2Becherucci \|first2Luisa \|last3Marabottini \|first3Alessandro \|last4Tempesti \|first4Anna Forlani \|last5Marchini \|first5Giuseppe \|last6Becatti \|author6-linkGiovanni Becatti \|first6Giovanni \|last7Castagnoli \|first7Ferdinando \|author7-linkFerdinando Castagnoli \|last8Golzio \|first8Vincenzo \|titleThe Complete Work of Raphael \|date1969 \|publisherReynal and Co., William Morrow and Company \|locationNew York \|pages278, 407}} Dürer describes Giovanni Bellini as "very old, but still the best in painting".<ref>[http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/2974/giovanni-bellini-italian-about-14311436-1516/ Giovanni Bellini], The J. Paul Getty Museum.</ref>\|group=n}} Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects,<ref>Panofsky (1945), 135.</ref> creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this period include the thirty-seven Little Passion woodcuts, published in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints,<ref>Panofsky (1945), p. 44.</ref> he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. In 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: Knight, Death and the Devil (1513, probably based on Erasmus's Handbook of a Christian Knight),<ref>"[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/43.106.2 Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513–14]". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 11 September 2020.</ref> St. Jerome in His Study, and the much-debated Melencolia&nbsp;I (both 1514, the year Dürer's mother died).{{refn\|In March of this year, two months before his mother died, he drew a portrait of her.<ref>Tatlock, Lynne. Enduring Loss in Early Modern Germany. Brill Academic Publishers, 2010. 116. {{ISBN\|90-04-18454-6}}.</ref>\|group=n}} Further outstanding pen and ink drawings of Dürer's period of art work of 1513 were drafts for his friend Pirckheimer. These drafts were later used to design Lusterweibchen chandeliers, combining an antler with a wooden sculpture. In 1515, he created his woodcut of a Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century.<ref name"Bartrum"/> In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including the woodblocks for the first western printed star charts in 1515<ref>{{cite web\| url http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/durer.html\| title Dürer's hemispheres of 1515 – the first European printed star charts \|workStar Tales \|first1Ian \|last1Ridpath \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030185707/http://ianridpath.com/startales/durer.html \|archive-dateOct 30, 2023 }}</ref> and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. His only experiments with etching came in this period, producing five between 1515–1516 and a sixth in 1518; a technique he may have abandoned as unsuited to his aesthetic of methodical, classical form.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Cohen \|first1Brian D \|urlhttp://artinprint.org/article/freedom-and-resistance-in-the-act-of-engraving-or-why-durer-gave-up-on-etching/ \|titleFreedom and Resistance in the Act of Engraving (or, Why Dürer Gave up on Etching) \|websiteArt in Print \|seriesVol. 7 No. 3 \|dateSeptember–October 2017 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221111185709/https://artinprint.org/article/freedom-and-resistance-in-the-act-of-engraving-or-why-durer-gave-up-on-etching/ \|archive-dateNov 11, 2022 }}</ref>Patronage of Maximilian I , Vienna (Inv.&nbsp;GG&nbsp;825)]] From 1512, Maximilian I became Dürer's major patron. He commissioned The Triumphal Arch, a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica. The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the architectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. The Arch was followed by The Triumphal Procession completed c. 1512. Dürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed prayer book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519. Maximilian was a very cash-strapped prince who sometimes failed to pay, yet turned out to be Dürer's most important patron.<ref>{{cite book \|last1McCorquodale \|first1Charles \|titleThe Renaissance: European Painting, 1400–1600 \|date1994 \|publisherStudio Editions \|isbn978-1-85891-892-1 \|page261 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh8JJAQAAIAAJ \|access-date3 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Cust \|first1Lionel \|titleThe Engravings of Albrecht Dürer \|date1905 \|publisherSeeley and Company, limited \|page66 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRSg_AQAAMAAJ&pgPA66 \|access-date3 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Brion \|first1Marcel \|titleDürer: His Life and Work \|date1960 \|publisherTudor Publishing Company \|page233 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnhANAQAAIAAJ \|access-date3 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref> In his court, artists and learned men were respected, which was not common at that time (later, Dürer commented that in Germany, as a non-noble, he was treated as a parasite).<ref>{{cite book \|last1Innes \|first1Mary \|last2Kay \|first2Charles De \|titleSchools of Painting \|date1911 \|publisherG. P. Putnam's sons \|page214 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOqQaAAAAYAAJ&pgPA214 \|access-date3 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Schäfer \|first1Sandra \|titleErfolgreiche Medienarbeit für die Nachwelt \|urlhttps://kulturfuechsin.com/at/albrecht-duerer-kaiser-maximilian-i-im-khm/ \|websiteKulturfüchsin \|access-date3 December 2021 \|languagede-DE \|date27 March 2019}}</ref> Pirckheimer (who he met in 1495, before entering the service of Maximilian) was also an important personage in the court and great cultural patron, who had a strong influence on Dürer as his tutor in classical knowledge and humanistic critical methodology, as well as collaborator.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Streissguth \|first1Tom \|titleThe Renaissance \|year2007 \|publisherGreenhaven Publishing LLC \|isbn978-0-7377-3216-0 \|page254 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZIJmDwAAQBAJ&pgPA254 \|access-date4 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Smith \|first1Jeffrey Chipps \|titleNuremberg, a Renaissance City, 1500–1618 \|year2014 \|publisherUniversity of Texas Press \|isbn978-1-4773-0638-3 \|page120 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAiYKBgAAQBAJ&pgPT120 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref> In Maximilian's court, Dürer also collaborated with a great number of other brilliant artists and scholars of the time who became his friends, like Johannes Stabius, Konrad Peutinger, Conrad Celtes, and Hans Tscherte (an imperial architect).<ref>{{cite book \|last1Co \|first1E. P. Goldschmidt & \|titleRare and Valuable Books ... \|date1925 \|publisherE.P. Goldschmidt & Company, Limited \|page125 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxbQ9AAAAIAAJ \|access-date4 December 2021 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Merback \|first1Mitchell B. \|titlePerfection's Therapy: An Essay on Albrecht Dürer's Melencolia I \|date2017 \|publisherMIT Press \|isbn978-1-942130-00-0 \|pages155, 258 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-e1LDwAAQBAJ&pgPA258 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Conway \|first1Sir William Martin \|last2Conway \|first2William Martin Sir \|last3Dürer \|first3Albrecht \|titleLiterary Remains of Albrecht Dürer \|date1889 \|publisherUniversity Press \|pages26–30 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLotPAAAAYAAJ&pgPA12 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Allen \|first1L. Jessie \|titleAlbrecht Dürer \|date1903 \|publisherMethuen \|page180 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLl2H8mF0jrcC&pgPA180 \|access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> Dürer was proud of his ability.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Bongard \|first1Willi \|last2Mende \|first2Matthias \|titleDürer Today \|date1971 \|publisherInter Nationes \|page25 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV4pGAQAAIAAJ \|access-date3 December 2021}}</ref> When the emperor tried to sketch Dürer an idea on charcoa, Dürer took the material from Maximilian's hand, finished the drawing and told him: "This is my scepter."<ref>{{cite book \|last1Headlam \|first1Cecil \|titleThe Story of Nuremberg \|date1900 \|publisherJ. M. Dent & Company \|page73 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddzNLAAAAMAAJ&pgPA73 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Seton-Watson \|first1Robert William \|titleMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor: Stanhope Historical Essay 1901 \|date1902 \|publisherConstable \|page96 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtNHDXFR6M-cC&pgPA96 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Bledsoe \|first1Albert Taylor \|last2Herrick \|first2Sophia M'Ilvaine Bledsoe \|titleThe Southern Review \|date1965 \|publisherAMS Press \|page114 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8_5IAQAAMAAJ \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref> On another occasion, Maximilian noticed that the ladder Dürer used was too short and unstable, thus told a noble to hold it for him. The noble refused, saying that it was beneath him to serve a non-noble. Maximilian then came to hold the ladder himself, and told the noble that he could make a noble out of a peasant any day, but he could not make an artist like Dürer out of a noble.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Nüchter \|first1Friedrich \|titleAlbrecht Dürer, His Life and a Selection of His Works: With Explanatory Comments by Dr. Friedrich Nüchter \|date1911 \|publisherMacmillan and Company, limited \|page22 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idROvVAAAAMAAJ&pgPA22 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Carl \|first1Klaus \|titleDürer \|year 2013 \|publisherParkstone International \|isbn978-1-78160-625-4 \|page36 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDSn3AAAAQBAJ&pgPT36 \|access-date4 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Landfester \|first1Manfred \|last2Cancik \|first2Hubert \|last3Schneider \|first3Helmuth \|last4Gentry \|first4Francis G. \|titleBrill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical tradition \|date2006 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-90-04-14221-3 \|page305 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDebXAAAAMAAJ \|access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref> )]] This story and a 1849 painting depicting it by {{ill\|August Siegert\|de}} have become relevant recently. This nineteenth-century painting shows Dürer painting a mural at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. Apparently, this reflects a seventeenth-century "artists' legend" about the previously mentioned encounter (in which the emperor held the ladder) – that this encounter corresponds with the period Dürer was working on the Viennese murals. In 2020, during restoration work, art connoisseurs discovered a piece of handwriting now attributed to Dürer, suggesting that the Nuremberg master had actually participated in creating the murals at St. Stephen's Cathedral. In the recent 2022 Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg (in which the drawing technique is also traced and connected to Dürer's other works), the identity of the commissioner is discussed. Now the painting of Siegert (and the legend associated with it) is used as evidence to suggest that this was Maximilian. Dürer is historically recorded to have entered the emperor's service in 1511, and the mural's date is calculated to be around 1505, but it is possible they have known and worked with each other earlier than 1511.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Cascone \|first1Sarah \|titleAstounded Scholars Just Found What Appears to Be a Previously Unknown Work by Albrecht Dürer in a Church's Gift Shop \|urlhttps://news.artnet.com/art-world/durer-discovery-vienna-souvenir-shop-1750233 \|access-date17 July 2022 \|workArtnet News \|date10 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleAlbrECHT DÜRER? (2022) \|urlhttp://museen.de/albr-echt-duerer-nuernberg.html \|websitemuseen.de \|access-date17 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleAlbrecht Dürer gibt weiter Rätsel auf \|urlhttps://www.mittelbayerische.de/region/nuernberg-nachrichten/albrecht-duerer-gibt-weiter-raetsel-auf-21503-art2138796.html \|access-date17 July 2022 \|workMittelbayerische Zeitung \|languagede}}</ref> Cartographic and astronomical works Dürer's exploration of space led to a relationship and cooperation with the court astronomer Johannes Stabius.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Crane \|first1Nicholas \|titleMercator: The Man who Mapped the Planet \|year 2010 \|publisherOrion \|isbn978-0-297-86539-1 \|page74 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRDhQIP5syucC&pgPT74 \|access-date7 November 2021}}</ref> Stabius also often acted as Dürer's and Maximilian's go-between for their financial problems.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Conway \|first1Sir William Martin \|last2Conway \|first2William Martin Sir \|last3Dürer \|first3Albrecht \|titleLiterary Remains of Albrecht Dürer \|date1889 \|publisherUniversity Press \|page27 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLotPAAAAYAAJ&pgPA27 \|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> In 1515 Dürer and Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere.{{sfn\|Crane\|2010\|p74}} Also in 1515, Stabius, Dürer and the astronomer {{interlanguage link\|Konrad Heinfogel\|de}} produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, as well as the first printed celestial maps, which prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Noflatscher \|first1Heinz \|titleMaximilian I. (1459–1519): Wahrnehmung – Übersetzungen – Gender \|date2011 \|publisherStudienVerlag \|isbn978-3-7065-4951-6 \|page245 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPqT5V2mq4SIC \|access-date7 November 2021 \|languagede}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Lachièze-Rey \|first1Marc \|last2Luminet \|first2Jean-Pierre \|last3France \|first3Bibliothèque nationale de \|titleCelestial Treasury: From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space \|year2001 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-80040-2 \|page86 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0ZFXiNn62ZEC&pgPA86 \|access-date7 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Nothaft \|first1C. Philipp E. \|titleScandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe \|year2018 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-252018-0 \|page278 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddz5MDwAAQBAJ&pgPA278 \|access-date7 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Sauter \|first1Michael J. \|titleThe Spatial Reformation: Euclid Between Man, Cosmos, and God \|year 2018 \|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press \|isbn978-0-8122-9555-9 \|page98 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1Qd7DwAAQBAJ&pgPA98 \|access-date7 November 2021}}</ref>Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521) '' (1521), oil on oakwood, 59.&nbsp;×&nbsp;48.5&nbsp;cm, Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon. Dürer's most important painting created during his fourth and last major journey.]] Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing "my sight and freedom of hand" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther.<ref>Bartrum, 204. Quotation from a letter to the secretary of the Elector of Saxony.</ref> In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to attending the coronation, he visited Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired Jan van Eyck's Ghent Altarpiece),<ref>Borchert (2011), 101.</ref> and Zeeland. Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented.<ref>Landau & Parshall: 350–354 and passim.</ref> While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Bernard van Orley, Jan Provoost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir and Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys.<ref>Panofsky (1945), 209.</ref> Having secured his pension, Dürer returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness, which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.<ref name"Bartrum"/>Final years, Nuremberg (1521–1528) , New York]] On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a crucifixion scene and a {{Lang\|it\|sacra conversazione}}, though neither was completed.<ref>Panofsky (1945), 223.</ref> This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification. However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter and St. Paul with St. Mark beside him. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return.<ref name="Panofsky"/> As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile. Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education, Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images.<ref>Corine Schleif (2010), "Albrecht Dürer between Agnes Frey and Willibald Pirckheimer", The Essential Dürer, ed. Larry Silver and Jeffrey Chipps Smith, Philadelphia, 85–205.</ref> He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. The Four Books on Measurement were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German,<ref name"Bartrum"/> as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. The Four Books on Human Proportion were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528.<ref nameMueller /> Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins – a considerable sum. He is buried in the Johannisfriedhof cemetery. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1539, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark.<ref name="Bartrum"/> in Nuremberg]] Dürer and the Reformation Dürer's writings suggest that he may have been sympathetic to Luther's ideas, though it is unclear if he ever left the Catholic Church. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties."<ref>Price (2003), 225.</ref> In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524, Dürer wrote, "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics". Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory ... but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council's mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts with various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's Babylonian Captivity in 1520.<ref>Price (2003), 225–248.</ref> Yet Erasmus and C. Grapheus are better said to be Catholic change agents. Also, from 1525, "the year that saw the peak and collapse of the Peasants' War, the artist can be seen to distance himself somewhat from the [Lutheran] movement..."<ref>Wolf (2010), 74.</ref> Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. His 1523 The Last Supper woodcut has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focusing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well as the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism,<ref>Strauss, 1981.</ref> although this interpretation has been questioned.<ref>Price (2003), 254.</ref> The delaying of the engraving of St. Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion.<ref>Harbison (1976).</ref> Theoretical works In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, {{Lang\|de\|Schneckenlinie}} ("snail-line") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.<ref name"Panofsky">Panofsky (1945).</ref>Four Books on Measurement{{more citations needed\|section\|dateMay 2017}} Dürer's work on geometry is called the Four Books on Measurement (Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt or Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler).<ref>A. Koyre, "The Exact Sciences", in The Beginnings of Modern Science, edited by Rene Taton, translated by A. J. Pomerans.</ref> The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's {{Lang\|la\|Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis}} of 1522. The second book moves onto two-dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons.<ref>Panofsky (1945), 255.</ref> Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention. Four Books on Human Proportion Dürer's work on human proportions is called the Four Books on Human Proportion (Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion) of 1528.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hierinnsindbegri00dure\|titleHierinn sind begriffen vier Bucher von menschlicher Proportion durch Albrechten Durer von Nurerberg\|lastDurer\|firstAlbrecht\|date1528\|publisherHieronymus Andreae Formschneider\|access-date6 August 2018}}</ref> The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of "two to three hundred living persons",<ref name"Panofsky"/> in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learned from Francesco di Giorgio's {{Lang\|la\|De harmonica mundi totius}} of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement.<ref name="se">Schaar, Eckhard. "A Newly Discovered Proportional Study by Dürer in Hamburg". Master Drawings, vol. 36, no. 1, 1998. pp. 59–66. {{JSTOR\|1554333}}</ref> Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ("Nutz"), naïve approval ("Wohlgefallen") and the happy medium ("Mittelmass"). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.<ref name="Panofsky"/> In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year".<ref>Panofsky (1945), 283.</ref> <gallery widths"140px" heights"140px"> File:AlbrechtDürer01.jpg\|Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of artist File:Durer foot.jpg\|Dürer often used multiview orthographic projections. File:Durer face transforms.jpg\|Dürer's study of human proportions </gallery> Book on Fortification In 1527, Dürer also published Various Lessons on the Fortification of Cities, Castles, and Localities (Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss und Flecken). It was printed in Nuremberg, probably by Hieronymus Andreae and reprinted in 1603 by Johan Janssenn in Arnhem. In 1535 it was also translated into Latin as On Cities, Forts, and Castles, Designed and Strengthened by Several Manners: Presented for the Most Necessary Accommodation of War (De vrbibus, arcibus, castellisque condendis, ac muniendis rationes aliquot : praesenti bellorum necessitati accommodatissimae), published by Christian Wechel (Wecheli/Wechelus) in Paris.<ref>For a French translation, see [https://books.google.com/books?idS0lGAAAAYAAJ Instruction sur la fortification des villes: bourgs et châteaux], trans A. Rathau (Paris 1870).</ref>FencingDürer created many sketches and woodcuts of soldiers and knights over the course of his life. His most significant martial works, however, were made in 1512 as part of his efforts to secure the patronage of Maximilian I. Using existing manuscripts from the Nuremberg Group as his reference, his workshop produced the extensive Οπλοδιδασκαλια sive Armorvm Tractandorvm Meditatio Alberti Dvreri ("Weapon Training, or Albrecht Dürer's Meditation on the Handling of Weapons", MS 26-232). Another manuscript based on the Nuremberg texts as well as one of Hans Talhoffer's works, the untitled Berlin Picture Book (Libr.Pict.A.83), is also thought to have originated in his workshop around this time. These sketches and watercolours show the same careful attention to detail and human proportion as Dürer's other work, and his illustrations of grappling, long sword, dagger, and messer are among the highest-quality in any fencing manual.<ref>{{cite book\|lastHaegedorn \|firstDierk \|date2021 \|titleAlbrecht Dürer – Das Fechtbuch \|publisher VST Verlag \|isbn978-3-932077-50-0}}</ref>Legacy and influence Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers to promote and distribute their work. His engravings seem to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors; the "Little Masters" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to also dominate Northern engraving. Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945.<ref name="Bartrum"/> The Lutheran Church commemorates Dürer annually on 6 April,<ref>Lutheranism 101 edited by Scot A. Kinnaman, CPH, 2010.</ref> along with Michelangelo,<ref>{{cite web\| url https://download.elca.org/ELCA%20Resource%20Repository/What_is_a_Commemoration_and_How_do_we_celebrate_them.pdf\| title 'What is a Commemoration...', ELCA}}</ref> Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Burgkmair. In 1993, two of Dürer's drawings – ''Women's Bathhouse, valued at about $10 million, and Sitting Mary With Child – along with other works of art were stolen from the National Art Museum of Azerbaijan. The drawings were later recovered.<ref>{{cite web \| url https://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/19/arts/twice-stolen-twice-found-a-case-of-art-on-the-lam.html\|titleTwice Stolen, Twice Found: A Case of Art On the Lam\|workNew York Times\|authorRalph Blumenthal\| date19 July 2001\| accessdate5 November 2020}}</ref> Gallery <gallery widths"116" heights"150" caption="Religious paintings"> File:Albrecht Dürer 012.jpg\|St Jerome in the Wilderness, {{circa\|1496}}, oil on pearwood, 23.1&nbsp;×&nbsp;17.4&nbsp;cm, National Gallery, London (NG6563) File:Albrecht Dürer - Jesus among the Doctors - Google Art Project.jpg\|Christ Among the Doctors, 1506, oil on poplar, 64.3&nbsp;×&nbsp;80.3&nbsp;cm, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid (134&nbsp;(1934.38) File:Dürer, Albrecht - Marter der zehntausend Christen - KHM.jpg\|Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand, 1508, oil from wood transferred to canvas, 99&nbsp;×&nbsp;87&nbsp;cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Wien (GG&nbsp;835) Albrecht Dürer, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie - Allerheiligenbild ("Landauer Altar") - GG 838 - Kunsthistorisches Museum.jpg\|Adoration of the Trinity (Landauer Altar), 1511, oil on poplar, 135&nbsp;×&nbsp;123.4&nbsp;cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum (GG&nbsp;838). The framework is a reconstruction of his design. </gallery> <gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Portraits"> File:1490 Duerer Bildnis von Barbara Duerer geb. Holper anagoria.JPG\|Portrait of Dürer’s Mother Barbara, née Holper, 1490, oil on fir wood, 47.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;35.7&nbsp;cm, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg (Gm 1160) File:Albrecht Dürer - Ritratto del padre - Google Art Project.jpg\|Albrecht Dürer the Elder with a Rosary, 1490, oil on panel, 47.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;39.5&nbsp;cm, Uffizi, Florence File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Oswolt Krel - WGA6934.jpg\|Portrait of Oswolt Krel, 1499, oil on limewood, 49.6&nbsp;×&nbsp;39&nbsp;cm, Alte Pinakothek, München. Krel was a merchant from Lindau. File:Albrecht Dürer - Bildnis einer jungen Venezianerin - Google Art Project.jpg\|Portrait of a Young Venetian Woman, 1506, oil on poplar, 28.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;21.5&nbsp;cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin (557G). The abstract background suggests the sea. File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen - Google Art Project.jpg\|Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen, 1521, 45.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;31.5&nbsp;cm, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden (1871) File:Dürer - Hieronymus Holzschuher (1469-1529) mit Deckel, 1526, 557E.jpg \|Portrait of Hieronymus Holzschuher, 1526, oil and paint on limewood, 51&nbsp;×&nbsp;37&nbsp;cm, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin (557E) </gallery> <gallery widths"116" heights"140" caption="Watercolours"> File:Innsbruck castle courtyard.jpg\|Innsbruck Castle Courtyard'', {{circa\|1495}}, watercolour and gouache, 36.8&nbsp;×&nbsp;26.9&nbsp;cm, Albertina, Vienna (3057) File:Vue du val d'Arco dans le Tyrol méridional - Musée du Louvre Arts graphiques INV 18579, Recto.jpg\|View of the Arco Valley in Tyrol, 1495, watercolour with highlights, 22.3&nbsp;×&nbsp;22.2&nbsp;cm, Louvre, Paris File:Albrecht Dürer - Der Weiher im Walde (ca. 1497).jpg\|Landscape with a Woodland Pool, {{circa\|1497}}, watercolour and gouache, 26.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;35.6&nbsp;cm, British Museum, London File:Albrecht Dürer - Der Flügel einer Blauracke (ca. 1500).jpg\|Wing of a European Roller, {{circa\|1500}} ("1512" by later hand), watercolour and gouache on parchment, 19.6&nbsp;×&nbsp;20&nbsp;cm, Albertina (4840) File:Albrecht Dürer - Mary among a Multitude of Animals, c. 1503 - Google Art Project.jpg\|Mary among a Multitude of Animals, {{circa\|1506}}, dark brown ink and watercolour, 31,9&nbsp;×&nbsp;24,1&nbsp;cm, Albertina (3066) File:Albrecht Dürer, Tuft of Cowslips, 1526, NGA 74162.jpg\|Tuft of Cowslips, 1526, gouache on vellum, 19.3&nbsp;×&nbsp;16.8&nbsp;cm, National Gallery of Art </gallery> <gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Drawings"> File:Dürer - Académie de femme debout, de dos, la main sur une hampe d'où part un voile, INV 19058, Recto.jpg\|Study of a Female Nude from Behind, 1495, brush and pen on paper, 31.6&nbsp;×&nbsp;21.2&nbsp;cm, Louvre, Paris (INV 19058 R) File:Dürer - Liegender weiblicher Akt, 1501.png\|Reclining Nude, 1501, brush and pen(?) w/ highlights and construction lines, 16.9&nbsp;×&nbsp;21.8&nbsp;cm, Albertina (3072) File:Dürer - Trois têtes d'enfants, btv1b100248711.jpeg\|''Three Children's Heads, 1506, pen and ink on blue paper with highlights in gouache, 21,8&nbsp;×&nbsp;37,9&nbsp;cm, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris File:Albrecht Dürer - Selbstbildnis als Akt. (Weimar).jpg\|Self-Portrait in the Nude, {{circa\|1509}}, pen and brush, black ink with white lead on green prepared paper, 29&nbsp;×&nbsp;15&nbsp;cm, Klassik Stiftung Weimar (KK106) File:Albrecht Dürer - Barbara Dürer, die Mutter des Künstlers (1514).jpg\|Portrait of the Artist's Mother at the Age of 63, spring 1514, charcoal on paper, 42.2&nbsp;×&nbsp;30.6&nbsp;cm, Kupferstichkabinett Berlin (KdZ&nbsp;22) File:Albrecht Dürer - Head of an Old Man, 1521 - Google Art Project.jpg\|Head of an 93-Year-Old Man, 1521, brush, ink, heightened w/ gouache, on gray-violet prepared paper, 41.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;28.2&nbsp;cm, Albertina (3167). Study for the St. Jerome </gallery> <gallery widths"116" heights"174" caption="Copper engravings and an etching"> File:Albrecht Dürer Druckplatte Christus am Ölberg.jpg\|Christ on the Mount of Olives, 1515, the only surviving printing plate, iron, 22.7&nbsp;×&nbsp;16.1&nbsp;cm, Bamberg State Library File:Albrecht Dürer, Nemesis (The Great Fortune), c. 1501-1502, NGA 6603.jpg\|Nemesis (The Great Fortune), {{circa\|1501}}/02, 33.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;23.3&nbsp;cm (National Gallery of Art) File:Saint Christopher Facing Left MET DP815920.jpg\|St. Christopher, 1521, 11.6&nbsp;×&nbsp;7.4&nbsp;cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art) File:Willibald Pirckheimer MET DP815931.jpg\|Portrait of Willibald Pirckheimer, 1524, 19&nbsp;×&nbsp;12.4&nbsp;cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art) File:Landscape with a Large Cannon MET MM7867.jpg\|The Cannon, 1518, etching, 21.7&nbsp;×&nbsp;32&nbsp;cm (Metropolitan Museum of Art) </gallery> <gallery widths"116" heights"155" caption="Woodcut prints"> File:The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine MET MM30203.jpg\|The Martyrdom of Saint Catherine, {{circa\|1498}}, carved pearwood block, 39.4&nbsp;×&nbsp;28.3&nbsp;×&nbsp;2.6&nbsp;cm, MET, New York File:Albrecht Dürer, The Flagellation, c. 1497, NGA 6736.jpg\|The Flagellation, from the Great Passion, {{circa\|1497}}, 39&nbsp;×&nbsp;28&nbsp;cm, (printed {{circa\|1498–1500}}, National Gallery of Art) File:Albrecht Dürer, The Four Horsemen, 1498, NGA 142352.jpg\|Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1498, 39.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;28.5&nbsp;cm (NGA, 142352) File:Albrecht Dürer - The Expulsion from Paradise (NGA 1943.3.3634).jpg\|The Expulsion from Paradise from the Small Passion, 1510, 12.5&nbsp;×&nbsp;9.8&nbsp;cm (NGA) File:Coat of Arms of Albrecht Dürer MET DP816462.jpg\|Coat of arms, which features a door as a pun on his name, and the winged bust of a Moor (1523), 35.1&nbsp;×&nbsp;26.1&nbsp;cm (MET) </gallery> List of works * List of paintings by Albrecht Dürer * List of engravings by Albrecht Dürer * List of woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer References Notes {{Reflist\|groupn}}Citations{{Reflist\|colwidth30em}} Sources Bartrum, Giulia. Albrecht Dürer and His Legacy''. London: British Museum Press, 2002. {{ISBN\|0-7141-2633-0}} Brand Philip, Lotte; Anzelewsky, Fedja. "The Portrait Diptych of Dürer's parents". Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Volume 10, No. 1, 1978–79, pp.&nbsp;5–18. Brion, Marcel. Dürer. London: Thames and Hudson, 1960 Harbison, Craig. "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, September 1976, pp.&nbsp;368–373. Koerner, Joseph Leo. The Moment of Self-Portraiture in German Renaissance Art. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1993. {{ISBN\|978-0226449999}}. Landau David; Parshall, Peter. The Renaissance Print. Yale, 1996. {{ISBN\|0-300-06883-2}}. Panofsky, Erwin. [https://monoskop.org/images/d/d0/Panofsky_Erwin_The_Life_and_Art_of_Albrecht_Duerer_1955.pdf The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer]. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. {{ISBN\|0-691-00303-3}} Price, David Hotchkiss. ''Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith. Michigan, 2003. {{ISBN\|978-0-4721-1343-9}}. Strauss, Walter L. (ed.). The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer. Mineola NY: Dover Publications, 1973. {{ISBN\|0-486-22851-7}} Borchert, Till-Holger. Van Eyck to Dürer: The Influence of Early Netherlandish painting on European Art, 1430–1530. London: Thames & Hudson, 2011. {{ISBN\|978-0-500-23883-7}} Wolf, Norbert. Albrecht Dürer. Cologne: Taschen, 2010. {{ISBN\|978-3-8365-1348-7}} {{cite book \|lastHoffmann \|firstRainer \|titleIm Paradies: Adam und Eva und der Sündenfall – Albrecht Dürers Darstellungen \|publication-placeWien \|date2021 \|isbn978-3-412-52385-5 \|oclc1288194477 \|languagede}} Further reading Brahms, Iris. Zwischen Licht und Schatten. Zur Tradition der Farbgrundzeichnung bis Albrecht Dürer. Wilhelm Fink Verlag, Paderborn 2016, {{ISBN\|978-3-7705-5899-5}}. Campbell Hutchison, Jane. Albrecht Dürer: A Biography. Princeton University Press, 1990. {{ISBN\|0-6-910-0297-5}}. Demele, Christine. Dürers Nacktheit – Das Weimarer Selbstbildnis. Rhema Verlag, Münster 2012, {{ISBN\|978-3-8688-7008-4}}. Dürer, Albrecht, Of the Just Shaping of Letters'', translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text, Dover Publ., New York 1965. {{ISBN\|0-486-21306-4}}. {{cite web \|urlhttps://blog.arthistoricum.net/beitrag/2020/02/28/schlaglicht-die-einzige-erhaltene-radierplatte-albrecht-duerers \|titleSchlaglicht: Die einzige erhaltene Radierplatte Albrecht Dürers \|lastEhrl \|firstFranziska \|publisherSaxon State and University Library Dresden and Heidelberg University Library \|dateFebruary 28, 2020 \|websiteblog.arthistoricum.net \|access-date2024-06-03 \|language=German}} {{cite journal \|authorHart, Vaughan Anthony \|date 2016\|titleNavel Gazing. On Albrecht Dürer's Adam and Eve (1504) \|urlhttps://doi.org/10.18848/2326-9960/CGP/v12i01/1-10 \|journalThe International Journal of Arts Theory and History \|volume12 \|issue1\|pages1–10\|doi= 10.18848/2326-9960/CGP/v12i01/1-10}} Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. "The Unconscious and Space: Venice and the Work of Albrecht Dürer", in Architecture and the Unconscious, eds. J. Hendrix and L.Holm, Farnham Surrey: Ashgate, 2016, pp.&nbsp;27–44, {{ISBN\|978-1-4724-5647-2}}. Schmidt, Sebastian. "'dan sӳ machten dy vürtrefflichen künstner reich'. Zur ursprünglichen Bestimmung von Albrecht Dürers Selbstbildnis im Pelzrock", in Anzeiger des Germanischen Nationalmuseums 2010, pp.&nbsp;65–82, {{ISSN\|1430-5496}}. Wilhelm, Kurth (ed.). The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications, 2000, {{ISBN\|0-486-21097-9}}. External links {{sister project links\|auto1\|commonscaty}} {{cite EB1911\|wstitleDürer,_Albrecht \|volume8 \|last1Colvin \|first1 Sidney \|author1-linkSidney Colvin \|pages 697&ndash;703\|short=x}} [http://www.clarkart.edu/exhibitions/durer/content/exhibition.cfm/ The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150714183808/http://www.clarkart.edu/exhibitions/durer/content/exhibition.cfm \|date14 July 2015 }} at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 14 November 2010 – 13 March 2011 [https://www.youtube.com/user/ClarkArtInstitute#g/c/E28247179CB5963C Dürer Prints Close-up] on YouTube, made to accompany The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer. [http://resource.nlm.nih.gov/2233015R Albrecht Dürer: Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1528)]. [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/durer_home.html Selected pages scanned] from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine. * {{Internet Archive author \|snameAlbrecht Dürer \|soptw}} * {{Gutenberg author \| id1135\| nameAlbrecht Dürer}} * [https://duerer.gnm.de/wiki/The_Early_Duerer_Research_Project The Early Duerer Research Project] of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg, with a comprehensive bibliography since 1971 (German). * [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/durr/hd_durr.htm "Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)".] In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art * {{PM20\|FID=pe/004307}} * [https://www.albertina.at/en/exhibitions/albrecht-duerer Albrecht Dürer, exhibition, Albertina, Vienna], 20 September 2019 – 6 January 2020. {{Albrecht Dürer}} {{Mathematical art\|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control (arts)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Durer, Albrecht}} Category:1471 births Category:1528 deaths Category:15th-century German engravers Category:15th-century German painters Category:16th-century German engravers Category:16th-century German painters Category:German animal artists Category:Artist authors Category:Artists from Nuremberg Category:Catholic decorative artists Category:Catholic engravers Category:Catholic painters Category:German draughtsmen Category:German Lutherans Category:German male painters Category:German people of Hungarian descent Category:German printmakers Category:German Renaissance painters Category:German Roman Catholics Category:Heraldic artists Category:Manuscript illuminators Category:Mathematical artists Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar Category:Renaissance engravers Category:Woodcut designers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Dürer	2025-04-05T18:26:03.656663
2403	Australian rules football	{{Short description\|Contact sport originating in Australia}} {{Redirect-multi\|2\|Australian rules\|Australian football\|the overview of all football codes in Australia\|Football in Australia\|other uses\|Australian rules (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2020}} {{Use Australian English\|date=July 2011}} {{Infobox sport \|name = Australian rules football \|image = Archie Smith.jpg \|caption = A ruckman leaps above his opponent to win the hit-out during a ball-up \|union = AFL Commission \|first = 15 June 1859 in Melbourne, Australia \|team = 22 (18 onfield, 4 interchange) \|mgender = Up to age 14 \|category = {{hlist\|Team sport\|ball game}} \|ball = Football \| glossary = Glossary of Australian rules football \| olympic = Demonstration sport, 1956 Melbourne Olympics \| nicknames = Australian football, Aussie rules, football, footy, AFL \| country/region = Australia \|venue=Australian rules football playing field}} Australian rules football, also called Australian football or Aussie rules,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.afl.com.au/afl-hq/the-afl-explained/about-the-afl \|titleAbout the AFL: Australian Football (Official title of the code) \|publisherAustralian Football League \|access-date20 June 2017 \|archive-date3 December 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203063621/http://www.afl.com.au/afl-hq/the-afl-explained/about-the-afl \|url-status=live }}</ref> or more simply football or footy, is a contact sport played between two teams of 18 players on an oval field, often a modified cricket ground. Points are scored by kicking the oval ball between the central goal posts (worth six points), or between a central and outer post (worth one point, otherwise known as a "behind"). During general play, players may position themselves anywhere on the field and use any part of their bodies to move the ball. The primary methods are kicking, handballing and running with the ball. There are rules on how the ball can be handled; for example, players running with the ball must intermittently bounce or touch it on the ground. Throwing the ball is not allowed, and players must not get caught holding the ball. A distinctive feature of the game is the mark, where players anywhere on the field who catch the ball from a kick (with specific conditions) are awarded unimpeded possession.<ref>[http://afl.com.au/Portals/0/2012/AM_6967_0112_AFL_laws.pdf 2012 Laws of the game] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120522111034/http://afl.com.au/Portals/0/2012/AM_6967_0112_AFL_laws.pdf \|date22 May 2012 }} Section 14, page 45</ref> Possession of the ball is in dispute at all times except when a free kick or mark is paid. Players can tackle using their hands or use their whole body to obstruct opponents. Dangerous physical contact (such as pushing an opponent in the back), interference when marking, and deliberately slowing the play are discouraged with free kicks, distance penalties, or suspension for a certain number of matches depending on the severity of the infringement. The game features frequent physical contests, spectacular marking, fast movement of both players and the ball, and high scoring. The sport's origins can be traced to football matches played in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1858, inspired by English public school football games. Seeking to develop a game more suited to adults and Australian conditions, the Melbourne Football Club published the first laws of Australian football in May 1859.<ref>[http://afl.com.au/Development/AFLExplained/History/tabid/10296/Default.aspx History] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071213143748/http://www.afl.com.au/Development/AFLExplained/History/tabid/10296/Default.aspx \|date13 December 2007 }} Official Website of the Australian Football League</ref><ref>{{cite book \| author1Wendy Lewis \| author2Simon Balderstone \| author3John Bowan \| titleEvents That Shaped Australia \| page61 \| publisherNew Holland \| year2006 \| isbn978-1-74110-492-9 }}</ref> Australian football has the highest spectator attendance and television viewership of all sports in Australia,<ref>Kwek, Glenda (26 March 2013). [http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/afl-leaves-other-codes-in-the-dust-20130326-2grkp.html "AFL leaves other codes in the dust"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161106000656/http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/afl-leaves-other-codes-in-the-dust-20130326-2grkp.html \|date6 November 2016 }}, The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 18 December 2016.</ref><ref>[http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/5488-sports-viewing-on-tv-201403140213 "AFL is clearly Australia's most watched Football Code, while V8 Supercars have the local edge over Formula 1"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806193952/http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/5488-sports-viewing-on-tv-201403140213 \|date6 August 2020 }} (14 March 2014), Roy Morgan. Retrieved 18 December 2016.</ref> while the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's only fully professional competition, is the nation's wealthiest sporting body.<ref>[http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/more-sports/the-richest-codes-in-world-sport-forget-the-medals-these-sports-are-chasing-the-gold/story-fnii0hmo-1226911413165 "The richest codes in world sport: Forget the medals, these sports are chasing the gold"] (8 May 2014). Courier Mail. Retrieved 9 October 2016.</ref> The AFL Grand Final, held annually at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, is the second-highest-attended club championship event in the world. The sport is also played at amateur level in many countries and in several variations. Its rules are governed by the AFL Commission with the advice of the AFL's Laws of the Game Committee. Name {{Further\|Names of Australian rules football}} Australian rules football is known by several nicknames, including Aussie rules, football and footy.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.footy.com.au/dags/FAQ1v1-5.html \|titleHistory website \|publisherFooty.com.au \|access-date19 February 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100219162755/http://www.footy.com.au/dags/FAQ1v1-5.html \|archive-date19 February 2010 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> In some regions, where other codes of football are more popular, the sport is most often called AFL after the Australian Football League, while the league itself also uses this name for local competitions in some areas.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/afl/afl-news/name-of-the-game-is-up-in-the-air-in-nsw-20120321-1vkbw.html \|titleName of the game is up in the air in NSW \|date22 March 2012 \|firstRohan \|lastConnolly \|workThe Age \|access-date4 April 2012 \|archive-date6 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131106000947/http://www.smh.com.au/afl/afl-news/name-of-the-game-is-up-in-the-air-in-nsw-20120321-1vkbw.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref>History{{Main\|History of Australian rules football}} Origins {{Main\|Origins of Australian football}} on the approximate site of the 1858 football match between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. Tom Wills is depicted umpiring behind two young players contesting the ball. The plaque reads that Wills "did more than any other person – as a footballer and umpire, co-writer of the rules and promoter of the game – to develop Australian football during its first decade."<ref>[http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/sport/display/32315-first-australian-rules-game First Australian Rules Game] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927234137/http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/culture/sport/display/32315-first-australian-rules-game \|date27 September 2013 }}, Monument Australia. Retrieved 18 June 2013.</ref>]] Primitive forms of football were played sporadically in the Australian colonies in the first half of the 19th century. Compared to cricket and horse racing, football was considered a mere "amusement" by colonists at the time, and while little is known about these early one-off games, evidence does not support a causal link with Australian football.{{sfn\|Hess\|2008\|pp1–3}} In Melbourne, in 1858, in a move that would help to shape Australian football in its formative years, private schools (then termed "public schools" in accordance with nomenclature in England) began organising football games inspired by precedents at English public schools.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p8}} The earliest match, held on 15 June, was between Melbourne Grammar and St Kilda Grammar.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|pp=13–14}} On 10 July 1858, the Melbourne-based ''Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle'' published a letter by Tom Wills, captain of the Victoria cricket team, calling for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter.{{sfn\|de Moore\|2011\|pp86–87}} Born in Australia, Wills played a nascent form of rugby football while a pupil at Rugby School in England, and returned to his homeland a star athlete and cricketer. Two weeks later, Wills' friend, cricketer Jerry Bryant, posted an advertisement for a scratch match at the Richmond Paddock adjoining the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG).{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p14}} This was the first of several "kickabouts" held that year involving members of the Melbourne Cricket Club, including Wills, Bryant, W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson. Trees were used as goalposts and play typically lasted an entire afternoon. Without an agreed-upon code of laws, some players were guided by rules they had learned in the British Isles, "others by no rules at all".{{sfn\|Blainey\|2010\|pp23–26}} Another milestone in 1858 was a 40-a-side match played under experimental rules between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College, held at the Richmond Paddock. Umpired by Wills and teacher John Macadam, it began on 7 August and continued over two subsequent Saturdays, ending in a draw with each side kicking one goal.<ref name"piesse">{{Cite book\| authorKen Piesse\| titleThe Complete Guide to Australian Football \| publisherPan Macmillan Australia \| year1995 \| isbn0-330-35712-3 \|page303}}</ref> It is commemorated with a statue outside the MCG, and the two schools have since competed annually in the Cordner–Eggleston Cup, the world's oldest continuous football competition.<ref>{{cite news \|lastPaproth \|firstDaniel \|date4 June 2012\|titleThe oldest of school rivals\|workThe Weekly Review Stonnington\|access-date19 June 2013 \|urlhttp://www.theweeklyreviewstonnington.com.au/story/286185/the-oldest-of-school-rivals/ \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203013042/http://www.theweeklyreviewstonnington.com.au/story/286185/the-oldest-of-school-rivals/ \|archive-date3 December 2013 \|url-statusdead}}</ref> Since the 1920s, it has been suggested that Australian football may have been derived from the Irish sport of Gaelic football.<ref>{{cite book \|lastCollins \|firstTony \|editor-firstStephen \|editor-lastWagg \|titleMyths and Milestones in the History of Sport \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|year2011 \|page14 \|chapterChapter 1: National Myths, Imperial Pasts and the Origins of Australian Rules Football \|isbn978-0-230-24125-1}}</ref> However, there is no archival evidence in favour of a Gaelic influence, and the style of play shared between the two modern codes appeared in Australia long before the Irish game evolved in a similar direction.{{sfn\|Blainey\|2010\|pp187–196}}{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p8}} Another theory, first proposed in 1983, posits that Wills, having grown up among Aboriginals in Victoria, may have seen or played the Aboriginal ball game of Marn Grook, and incorporated some of its features into early Australian football. There is only circumstantial evidence that he knew of the game, and according to biographer Greg de Moore's research, Wills was "almost solely influenced by his experience at Rugby School".{{sfn\|de Moore\|2011\|pp322–323}}First rules {{Further\|Laws of Australian rules football#Melbourne Rules of 1859}} A loosely organised Melbourne side, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p15}} The following year, on 14 May, the Melbourne Football Club was officially established, making it one of the world's oldest football clubs. Three days later, Wills, Hammersley, Thompson and teacher Thomas H. Smith met near the MCG at the Parade Hotel, owned by Bryant, and drafted ten rules: "The Rules of the Melbourne Football Club". These are the laws from which Australian football evolved.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p11}} The club aimed to create a simple code suited to the hard playing surfaces around Melbourne, and to eliminate the roughest aspects of English school games—such as "hacking" (shin-kicking) in Rugby School football—to reduce the risk of injuries to working men.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|pp14–15}} In another significant departure from English public school football, the Melbourne rules omitted any offside law.{{sfn\|Coventry\|2015\|p2}} "The new code was as much a reaction against the school games as influenced by them", writes Mark Pennings.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p9}} The rules were distributed throughout the colony; Thompson in particular did much to promote the new code in his capacity as a journalist.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p7}} Early competition in Victoria {{See also\|List of Australian rules football clubs by date of establishment}} , 1866. The MCG and its first pavilion are visible in the background, as are kick-off posts, the forerunner of today's behind posts.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p=17}}]] Following Melbourne's lead, Geelong and Melbourne University also formed football clubs in 1859.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|pp10–12}} While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition. A South Yarra club devised its own rules.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p11}} To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2012\|p25}} This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p20}} With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as "Victorian rules".{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|pp18–20}} In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison,{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|pp22–23}} an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.{{sfn\|Coventry\|2015\|pp=16–17, 20}} The game around this time was defensive and low-scoring, played low to the ground in congested rugby-style scrimmages. The typical match was a 20-per-side affair, played with a ball that was roughly spherical, and lasted until a team scored two goals.{{sfn\|Coventry\|2015\|p2}} The shape of the playing field was not standardised; matches often took place in rough, tree-spotted public parks, most notably the Richmond Paddock (Yarra Park), known colloquially as the Melbourne Football Ground.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2009\|p9}} Wills argued that the turf of cricket fields would benefit from being trampled upon by footballers in winter,{{sfn\|de Moore\|2011\|pp87, 288–289}} and, as early as 1859, football was allowed on the MCG.{{sfn\|Hess\|2008\|p44}} However, cricket authorities frequently prohibited football on their grounds until the 1870s, when they saw an opportunity to capitalise on the sport's growing popularity. Football gradually adapted to an oval-shaped field, and most grounds in Victoria expanded to accommodate the dual purpose—a situation that continues to this day.{{sfn\|Hess\|2008\|p44}}Spread to other colonies , 1879]] Football became organised in South Australia in 1860 with the formation of the Adelaide Football Club, the oldest football club in Australia outside Victoria.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal\|last1Pill\|first1Shane\|last2Frost\|first2Lionel\|date17 January 2016\|titleR.E.N. Twopeny and the Establishment of Australian Football in Adelaide\|journalThe International Journal of the History of Sport\|volume33\|issue8\|pages797–812\|doi10.1080/09523367.2016.1173033\|s2cid147807924}}</ref> It devised its own rules, and, along with other Adelaide-based clubs, played a variety of codes until 1876, when they uniformly adopted most of the Victorian rules, with South Australian football pioneer Charles Kingston noting their similarity to "the old Adelaide rules".{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2010\|pp22–24}} Similarly, Tasmanian clubs quarrelled over different rules until they adopted a slightly modified version of the Victorian game in 1879.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2010\|p24}} The South Australian Football Association (SAFA), the sport's first governing body, formed on 30 April 1877, firmly establishing Victorian rules as the preferred code in that colony.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2010\|pp22–23}} The Victorian Football Association (VFA) formed the following month. , one of the first players to attain Australia-wide celebrity]] Clubs began touring the colonies in the late 1870s, and in 1879 the first intercolonial match took place in Melbourne between Victoria and South Australia.{{sfn\|Blainey\|2010\|pp107–108}} In 1883, delegates representing the football associations of South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Queensland met to standardise the code across Australia.{{sfn\|Hibbins\|Ruddell\|2010\|p24}} New rules such as holding the ball led to a "golden era" of fast, long-kicking and high-marking football in the 1880s, a time which also saw players such as George Coulthard achieve superstardom, as well as the rise of professionalism, particularly in Victoria and Western Australia, where the code took hold during a series of gold rushes.{{sfn\|Pennings\|2013}} Likewise, when New Zealand experienced a gold rush, the sport arrived with a rapid influx of Australian miners. Now known as Australian rules or Australasian rules, the sport became the first football code to develop mass spectator appeal,{{sfn\|Blainey\|2010\|pp=107–108}} attracting world record attendances for sports viewing and gaining a reputation as "the people's game".{{sfn\|Pennings\|2013}} Australian rules football reached Queensland and New South Wales as early as 1866;{{sfn\|de Moore\|Hess\|Nicholson\|Stewart\|2021\|pp186–188}} the sport experienced a period of dominance in the former,<ref>Pramberg, Bernie (15 June 2015). [http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/opinion/love-of-the-game-aussie-rules-a-dominant-sport-in-early-queensland/news-story/bb66b40691563e07eef396719eaca23a "Love of the Game: Aussie rules a dominant sport in early Queensland"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220311200915/https://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/opinion/love-of-the-game-aussie-rules-a-dominant-sport-in-early-queensland/news-story/bb66b40691563e07eef396719eaca23a \|date11 March 2022 }}, The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 24 April 2016.</ref> and in the latter, several regions remain strongholds of Australian rules, such as the Riverina. However, by the late 1880s, rugby football had become the dominant code in both colonies, as well as in New Zealand. This shift was largely due to rugby's spread with British migration, regional rivalries and the lack of strong local governing bodies. In the case of Sydney, denial of access to grounds, the influence of university headmasters from Britain who favoured rugby, and the loss of players to other codes inhibited the game's growth.<ref>Healy, Matthew (2002). [https://nswfootballhistory.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/HardSell.pdf Hard Sell: Australian Football in Sydney] (PDF). {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180318215415/https://nswfootballhistory.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/HardSell.pdf \|date18 March 2018 }}. Melbourne, Vic.: Victoria University. pp. 20–28.</ref>Emergence of the VFLIn 1896, delegates from six of the wealthiest VFA clubs—Carlton, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne and South Melbourne—met to discuss the formation of a breakaway professional competition.{{sfn\|Nauright\|Parrish\|2012\|p351}} Later joined by Collingwood and St Kilda, the clubs formed the Victorian Football League (VFL), which held its inaugural season in 1897. The VFL's popularity grew rapidly as it made several innovations, such as instituting a finals system, reducing teams from 20 to 18 players, and introducing the behind as a score.{{sfn\|Nauright\|Parrish\|2012\|p351–352}} Richmond and University joined the VFL in 1908, and by 1925, with the addition of Hawthorn, Footscray and North Melbourne, it had become the preeminent league in the country and would take a leading role in many aspects of the sport.Interstate football and the World Wars {{Further\|Interstate matches in Australian rules football\|Australian rules football during the World Wars}} The time around the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901 saw Australian rules undergo a revival in New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland. In 1903, both the Queensland Australian Football League and the NSW Australian Football Association were established, and in New Zealand, as it moved towards becoming a dominion, leagues were also established in the major cities. This renewed popularity helped encourage the formation of the Australasian Football Council, which in 1908 in Melbourne staged the first national interstate competition, the Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival, with teams representing each state and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.australianfootball.com/articles/view/A%2Bfalse%2Bdawn%2B-%2B1908%2BMelbourne%2BCarnival%253A%2BNew%2BZealand%2Bv%2BNew%2BSouth%2BWales/57 \|titleA False Dawn \|publisherAustralianFootball.com \|date20 August 1908 \|access-date19 February 2010 \|archive-date14 July 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150714133922/http://australianfootball.com/articles/view/A+false+dawn+-+1908+Melbourne+Carnival%253A+New+Zealand+v+New+South+Wales/57 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The game was also established early on in the new territories. In the new national capital Canberra both soccer and rugby had a head start, but following the first matches in 1911, Australian rules football in the Australian Capital Territory became a major participation sport. By 1981 it had become much neglected and quickly lagged behind the other football codes. Australian rules football in the Northern Territory began shortly after the outbreak of the war in 1916 with the first match in Darwin. The game went on to become the most popular sport in the Territory and build the highest participation rate for the sport nationally. , published in 1915, questions the public's commitment to Australian football rather than the war.]] Both World War I and World War II had a devastating effect on Australian football and on Australian sport in general. While scratch matches were played by Australian "diggers" in remote locations around the world, the game lost many of its great players to wartime service. Some clubs and competitions never fully recovered. Between 1914 and 1915, a proposed hybrid code of Australian football and rugby league, the predominant code of football in New South Wales and Queensland, was trialled without success.<ref>{{Cite news \| title = Football in Australia \| work = Evening Post, Volume LXXXVIII, Issue 122 \| place = New Zealand \| page = 8 \| date = 19 November 1914 \| url http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?ad&clsearch&dEP19141119.2.81.6 \| access-date = 3 December 2009 \| archive-date = 1 April 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120401215052/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?ad&clsearch&dEP19141119.2.81.6 \| url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \| title = Football amalgamation \| work = Evening Post, Volume LXXXIX, Issue 27 \| place = New Zealand \| page = 8 \| date = 2 February 1915 \| url http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?ad&clsearch&dEP19150202.2.110 \| access-date = 3 December 2009 \| archive-date = 1 April 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120401215132/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?ad&clsearch&dEP19150202.2.110 \| url-status = live }}</ref> In Queensland, the state league went into recess for the duration of the war. VFL club University left the league and went into recess due to severe casualties. The WAFL lost two clubs and the SANFL was suspended for one year in 1916 due to heavy club losses. The Anzac Day match, the annual game between Essendon and Collingwood on Anzac Day, is one example of how the war continues to be remembered in the football community. The role of the Australian National Football Council (ANFC) was primarily to govern the game at a national level and to facilitate interstate representative and club competition. In 1968, the ANFC revived the Championship of Australia, a competition first held in 1888 between the premiers of the VFA and SAFA. Although clubs from other states were at times invited, the final was almost always between the premiers from the two strongest state competitions of the time—South Australia and Victoria—with Adelaide hosting most of the matches at the request of the SAFA/SANFL. The last match took place in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972. Between 1976 and 1987, the ANFC, and later the Australian Football Championships (AFC) ran a night series, which invited clubs and representative sides from around the country to participate in a knock-out tournament parallel to the premiership seasons, which Victorian sides still dominated. With the lack of international competition, state representative matches were regarded with great importance. Due in part to the VFL poaching talent from other states, Victoria dominated interstate matches for three-quarters of a century. State of Origin rules, introduced in 1977, stipulated that rather than representing the state of their adopted club, players would return to play for the state they were first recruited in. This instantly broke Victoria's stranglehold over state titles and Western Australia and South Australia began to win more of their games against Victoria. Both New South Wales and Tasmania scored surprise victories at home against Victoria in 1990. Towards a national league was a leading advocate of a national club-based competition.<ref>[https://www.afl.com.au/news/1033530/ron-barassi-afl-statement "Vale Ron Barassi"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230919194738/https://www.afl.com.au/news/1033530/ron-barassi-afl-statement \|date19 September 2023 }}, AFL. Retrieved 20 September 2023.</ref>]] The term "Barassi Line", named after VFL star Ron Barassi, was coined by scholar Ian Turner in 1978 to describe the "fictitious geographical barrier" separating the rugby-following parts of New South Wales and Queensland from the rest of the country, where Australian football reigned.<ref>Marshall, Konrad (26 February 2016). [http://www.smh.com.au/sport/where-do-rugby-codes-end-and-rules-begin-at-the-barassi-line-of-course-20160225-gn3lbe.html "Where do rugby codes' strongholds turn to rules? At the 'Barassi Line', of course..."] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170214151133/http://www.smh.com.au/sport/where-do-rugby-codes-end-and-rules-begin-at-the-barassi-line-of-course-20160225-gn3lbe.html/ \|date14 February 2017 }}, The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 21 April 2016.</ref> It became a reference point for the expansion of Australian football and for establishing a national league.<ref>Referenced in {{Cite book\| last Hutchinson \| first Garrie \| year 1983 \| title The Great Australian Book of Football Stories \| publisher Currey O'Neil \| location Melbourne }}</ref> The way the game was played had changed dramatically due to innovative coaching tactics, with the phasing out of many of the game's kicking styles and the increasing use of handball; while presentation was influenced by television.<ref>WICKS, B. M. Whatever Happened to Australian Rules? Hobart, Tasmania, Libra Books. 1980, First Edition. ({{ISBN\|0-909619-06-9}})</ref> and Sydney Swans line up for the national anthem at the 2005 AFL Grand Final.]] In 1982, in a move that heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne, relocated to Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans. In the late 1980s, due to the poor financial standing of many of the Victorian clubs, and a similar situation existing in Western Australia in the sport, the VFL pursued a more national competition. Two more non-Victorian clubs, West Coast and Brisbane, joined the league in 1987 generating more than $8&nbsp;million in license revenue for the Victorian clubs and increasing broadcast revenues which helped the Victorian clubs survive.{{sfn\|Nauright\|Parrish\|2012\|p342}} In their early years, the Sydney and Brisbane clubs struggled both on and off-field because the substantial TV revenues they generated by playing on a Sunday went to the VFL.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2021}} To protect these revenues the VFL granted significant draft concessions and financial aid to keep the expansion clubs competitive. The VFL changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) for the 1990 season, and over the next decade, three non-Victorian clubs gained entry: Adelaide (1991), Fremantle (1995) and the SANFL's Port Adelaide (1997), the only pre-existing club outside Victoria to join the league.{{sfn\|Nauright\|Parrish\|2012\|p342}} In 2011 and 2012, respectively, two new non-Victorian clubs were added to the competition: Gold Coast and Greater Western Sydney.{{sfn\|Nauright\|Parrish\|2012\|p341}} The AFL, currently with 18 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition and most powerful body. Following the emergence of the AFL, state leagues were quickly relegated to a second-tier status. The VFA merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998, adopting the VFL name. State of Origin also declined in importance, especially after an increasing number of player withdrawals. The AFL turned its focus to the annual International Rules Series against Ireland in 1998 before abolishing State of Origin the following year. State and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches, as do AFL Women players.<ref>[http://www.afl.com.au/news/2017-07-25/big-names-locked-in-for-aflw-state-of-origin Big names locked in for AFLW state of origin] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170728064517/http://www.afl.com.au/news/2017-07-25/big-names-locked-in-for-aflw-state-of-origin \|date28 July 2017 }}. AFL News, 25 July 2017</ref> In the 2010s, the AFL signalled further attempts at expanding into markets outside Australian football's traditional heartlands by hosting home-and-away matches in New Zealand,<ref>Cherny, Daniel; Wilson, Caroline (31 May 2016). [http://www.theage.com.au/afl/afl-news/afl-2016-st-kilda-want-two-2018-games-in-auckland-20160531-gp8kcu.html "AFL 2016: St Kilda want two 2018 games in Auckland"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161223074840/http://www.theage.com.au/afl/afl-news/afl-2016-st-kilda-want-two-2018-games-in-auckland-20160531-gp8kcu.html \|date23 December 2016 }}, The Age. Retrieved 1 November 2016.</ref> followed by China.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-26/afl-headed-to-china-for-port-adelaide-v-gold-coast-clash/7967558 "Port Adelaide, Gold Coast Suns take AFL to China in 2017 regular season"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161101164459/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-26/afl-headed-to-china-for-port-adelaide-v-gold-coast-clash/7967558 \|date1 November 2016 }} (26 October 2016), ABC News. Retrieved 1 November 2016.</ref> After several failed bids since the early 1990s for a Tasmania-based AFL team, the Tasmania Football Club secured the 19th AFL license in 2023, and is set to compete by 2028.<ref>Holmes, Adam (18 March 2024). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-18/afl-team-tasmanian-devils-name-colours-announcement/103572848 "Tasmania Devils AFL club launched with name, colours, logo and guernsey concept revealed"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240318072931/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-03-18/afl-team-tasmanian-devils-name-colours-announcement/103572848 \|date18 March 2024 }}, ABC News. Retrieved 19 March 2024.</ref> Laws of the game {{Main\|Laws of Australian rules football}} {{For\|terminology\|Glossary of Australian rules football}} {{See also\|Australian football tactics and skills}} {{See also\|Australian rules football positions}} Players and equipment , shorts, socks and boots.]] In a standard match, a team may consist of anywhere between 14 and 18 players who may be permitted on the playing surface at any given time. Each team may have up to four interchange (reserve) players who may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Teams and Players \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page21 \|workLaws of Australian Football 2022 \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page21 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Although some leagues in less populated areas may use as few as 12 players.<ref>{{cite news \|titleKick in hope \|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-04/king-islands-football-league-is-fighting-to-survive/102523518 \|first1Jeremy \|last1Story Carter \|newspaperABC News \|date3 August 2023 \|access-date27 March 2024 \|archive-date27 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240327074036/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-04/king-islands-football-league-is-fighting-to-survive/102523518 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In addition, some leagues notably including the AFL, have each team designate one additional player as a substitute who can be used to make a single permanent exchange of players during a game for either medical or tactical reasons.<ref>{{cite web \|titleNo vests: AFL reveals details of revamped sub rule \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/872015/no-vests-afl-reveals-details-of-revamped-sub-rule \|first1Michael \|last1Rogers \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|date21 December 2022 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://www.afl.com.au/news/872015/no-vests-afl-reveals-details-of-revamped-sub-rule \|url-status=live }}</ref> Players on the playing surface can be swapped with those on the interchange bench at any time. They must though pass through a designated "Interchange Area".<ref name"Interchange">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Interchange \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page25 \|workLaws of Australian Football 2022 \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page25 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> In the event a player fails to pass through this area correctly, or if too many players from one team are found to be on the ground at a time, a free kick will be awarded to the opposing side.<ref name"Interchange" /><ref>{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Counting of Players \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page23 \|workLaws of Australian Football 2022 \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page23 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> While there is no set uniform, the basic equipment for Australian football consists of a guernsey, shorts, socks and boots, with additional pieces of apparel such as headbands and gloves additionally being permitted.<ref>{{cite web \|titleClubs and Uniforms \|urlhttps://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL%20Regulations%20effective%209%20May%202019.pdf#page25 \|workAustralian Football League Regulations \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date11 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201111183616/https://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL%20Regulations%20effective%209%20May%202019.pdf#page25 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Players may wear certain pieces of protective equipment, such as helmets or arm guards, if approved by the relevant controlling body.<ref name"ProtectiveEquip">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Protective Equipment \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page30 \|workLaws of Australian Football 2022 \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page30 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Mouthguards are strongly recommended for all players.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRole of helmets & mouthguards in Australian Football \|urlhttps://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/Respect%20and%20Responsibility/Role_of_helmets_and_mouthgaurds.pdf \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240403011436/https://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/Respect%20and%20Responsibility/Role_of_helmets_and_mouthgaurds.pdf \|archive-dateApr 3, 2024 \|websiteAFL.com.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2006-07-31 \|titleMouthguards Insure Against Injury \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/536963/mouthguards-insure-against-injury \|first1Gordon S. \|last1Lynch \|websiteafl.com.au \|languageen \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240403011437/https://www.afl.com.au/news/536963/mouthguards-insure-against-injury \|archive-date= Apr 3, 2024 }}</ref> Players are not permitted to wear jewellery, or other materials which the field umpire has deemed to be either potentially dangerous or increase the risk of injury to other players.<ref name"ProtectiveEquip" />BallKangaroo Brand football. Sherrin is the official game ball of the Australian Football League.<ref>{{cite web \|titleCorporate Partners \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/about-afl/partners/corporate \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://www.afl.com.au/about-afl/partners/corporate \|url-status=live }}</ref>]] Australian rules football is played with an ellipsoid ball, between {{cvt\|72\|and\|73\|cm\|in}} in long circumference, and {{cvt\|54.5\|and\|55.5\|cm\|in}} in short circumference.<ref name"BallLaw">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – The Football \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page21 \|workLaws of Australian Football 2022 \|publisherAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page21 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> For women's competitions, a smaller ball size of {{cvt\|69\|and\|53\|cm\|in}} is used.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSize Chart \|urlhttps://www.sherrin.com.au/size-chart \|websiteSherrin \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143303/https://www.sherrin.com.au/size-chart \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The ball must be inflated to a pressure of {{convert\|69\|kPa\|psi\|1\|abbroff}}.<ref name"BallLaw" /> There are no defined laws regarding what material a ball must be made from, but standard AFL match-used balls are produced by Sherrin using cowhide leather.<ref>{{cite web \|titleFrequently Asked Questions \|urlhttps://www.sherrin.com.au/faq \|websiteSherrin \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143304/https://www.sherrin.com.au/faq \|url-status=live }}</ref> While there is no standard colour of the ball, red and yellow are most common and the only colours used at AFL level. Yellow is used for games beginning after 3&nbsp;pm or in an enclosed stadium, due to its greater visibility, and to assist score reviews.<ref>Ryan, Peter (21 August 2015). [https://www.afl.com.au/news/197406/is-red-nearly-dead-yellow-sherrins-making-their-move "Is red nearly dead? Yellow Sherrins making their move"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240327074413/https://www.afl.com.au/news/197406/is-red-nearly-dead-yellow-sherrins-making-their-move \|date27 March 2024 }}, AFL. Retrieved 27 March 2024.</ref><ref name"BallLaw" />Field {{Main\|Australian rules football playing field}} ]] Unlike other forms of football which are played on rectangular fields, Australian rules football playing fields are oval-shaped, and are between {{convert\|135\|and\|185\|m\|yd}} long and {{convert\|110\|and\|155\|m\|yd}} wide.<ref name"PlaySurface">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Playing Surface \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page18 \|websiteAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page18 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> At either end of the field, two sets of posts are erected in a straight line to indicate the scoring areas on the field, each with two kinds of posts, named the goal posts and the behind posts respectively. The goal posts are placed first, located {{convert\|6.4\|m\|yd}} apart from each other, with a behind post being placed a further 6.4 metres to the side of each goal post. The name for the field line between two goal posts is known as the Goal Line.<ref name="PlaySurface" /> Around the perimeter of the field, two white lines are drawn between the set of behind posts in an arc-shape, marking the field of play.<ref name="PlaySurface" /> Other field markings include:<ref name="PlaySurface" /> * An arc drawn {{convert\|50\|m\|yd}} from either end of the playing surface, known as the fifty metre arc. * A {{convert\|50 x 50\|m\|yd}} square located in the centre of the playing surface, known as the centre square. * A {{convert\|10 x 10\|m\|yd}} circle located in the centre of the playing surface, known as the centre circle * A rectangle drawn at either end of the ground, measuring {{convert\|9\|m\|yd}} out from each pair of goal posts. This is known as the goal square. The 50m arcs, centre square, centre circle and goal square are used at the beginning of each quarter or after each goal. With each team permitted a maximum of six players in each 50m arc, with one in the goal square and four players in the centre square with one in the centre circle. If this is breached, a free kick is awarded.<ref>{{cite web \|titleSTARTING POSITIONS \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page39 \|websiteAFL \|access-date28 March 2024 \|archive-date28 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240328080926/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page39 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Match durationA game lasts for 80 minutes, split into four-quarters consisting of 20 minutes playing time, with the clock being stopped for stoppages in play such as scores, or at the umpire's discretion, e.g. for serious injury.<ref name"Timing">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Match Timing \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page31 \|websiteAFL \|access-date3 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page31 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Leagues may choose to employ shorter quarters of play at their discretion, such as the AFLW using 17 minutes per quarter.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAFLW Rules \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/aflw/about-AFLW/rules \|websiteafl.com.au/aflw \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143302/https://www.afl.com.au/aflw/about-AFLW/rules \|url-status=live }}</ref> For any given match, two timekeepers are appointed to officiate the duration. The timekeepers record all relevant statistics for the match, such as total quarter duration and score by each team. Additionally timekeepers are required to sound a siren prior to and at the conclusion of each quarter until such time they are acknowledged by the field umpires. To stop and recommence the clock, the field umpires are required to signal to the timekeepers to indicate when the clock should be stopped or restarted.<ref name="Timing" /> Between each quarter, a break is observed to allow players a rest period. Two six-minute breaks are observed between the first and second quarters, and the third and fourth quarters. A longer 20-minute break is observed between the second and third quarter, commonly known as half-time.<ref name"Timing" /><ref>{{cite web \|titleTime to cut half-time breaks? AFL makes the call \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/368722/time-to-cut-half-time-breaks-afl-makes-the-call \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date3 March 2024 \|languageen \|date1 February 2020 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143308/https://www.afl.com.au/news/368722/time-to-cut-half-time-breaks-afl-makes-the-call \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Officiation ]] Each game is officiated by at least five match officials, known as an umpire.<ref name"Umpiring">{{cite web \|titlePre-Match Provisions – Umpires \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page27 \|websiteafl.com.au \|publisherAFL \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page27 \|url-status=live }}</ref> These match officials are placed into three categories based upon their roles and responsibilities, with varying minimum numbers of Umpires required depending on position: * Field umpire: Field umpires are positioned within the playing area contained within the Boundary Lines, and are the primary match officials.<ref name"Umpiring" /> A minimum of one field umpire is required to officiate the match, though it is common practice to employ more to reduce physical demand on individual umpires, and improve officiation quality.<ref name"Umpiring" /><ref>{{cite web \|titleAFL confirms four field umpires for 2023 season \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/878267/afl-confirms-four-field-umpires-for-2023-season \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|languageen \|date1 March 2023 \|archive-date11 March 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230311194749/https://www.afl.com.au/news/878267/afl-confirms-four-field-umpires-for-2023-season \|url-status=live }}</ref> * Boundary umpires: Boundary umpires are positioned along the two boundary lines upon either side of the field. Their primary duties include determining when the football is deemed to be outside of the field of play, and to throw the football back into play when directed. A minimum of two boundary umpires are required for a match.<ref name="Umpiring" /> * Goal umpires: Goal umpires are positioned at either end of the ground, with one stationed at either set of goal posts on the field. Their primary duties include judging what scores made by players, signalling scores, and recording scores made by each team during a match. A minimum of two goal umpires are required for a match.<ref name="Umpiring" /> At AFL level, a video score review system is utilised. Only umpires are permitted to request a review, and only scoring shots and potential scoring shots are permitted to be reviewed.<ref>{{cite web \|titleScore Review Powerpoint \|urlhttps://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL-Score-Review.pdf \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date28 March 2024 \|languageen \|archive-date28 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240328112518/https://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL-Score-Review.pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Game skills Ball movement {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| header_align = center \| total_width = 340 \| image1 = Tayla Harris 19.03.17 (2).jpg \| width1 = 1620 \| height1 = 2393 \| alt1 \| caption1 Kicking \| image2 = Jake Bartholomaeus handballing.1.jpg \| width2 = 777 \| height2 = 1166 \| alt2 \| caption2 Handballing }} An Australian rules football may only be propelled forward in a select few ways as defined by the Laws of Australian Football, published by the AFL. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a kick or a clenched fist (called a handball)—deemed a correct disposal.<ref name"Definitions">{{cite web \|titleDefinitions, Interpretations and Variation \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page12 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page12 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Failure to dispose of the ball in one of these two methods will result in a free kick to the opposing team.<ref name"FreeKickOther">{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Free Kicks (Other) \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page56 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page56 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> If the ball is not currently in a player's possession, it can be moved legally through the usage of other means, such as punching.<ref name"Definitions" /> While in possession of the ball, players may run with the ball, but are required to either bounce or touch the ball on the ground at least once every {{convert\|15\|m\|yd}}.<ref name"FreeKickOther" /> Tackling Tackling is a technique employed by players used to force opposition players to dispose of the ball when they are in possession. Failure to dispose of the ball when legally tackled may see the player penalised for 'holding the ball', except if the umpire deems there was a lack of prior opportunity to do so.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Holding the Ball \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page52 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page52 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The ball carrier may only be tackled between the shoulders and knees from the front or side.<ref name"Definitions" /> If the player forcefully contacts the opposing in the back while performing a tackle, the opposition player will be penalised for a push in the back. If the opposition tackles the player with possession below the knees (a low tackle or a trip) or above the shoulders (a high tackle), the team with possession of the football gets a free kick.<ref name"Prohibited">{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Prohibited Contact \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page50 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page50 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Furthermore, tackles deemed to be dangerous by the umpire and those conducted from front-on while an opposition player has their head over the football are deemed to be prohibited contact, and will incur a free kick against the offending player.<ref name"Prohibited" /><ref>{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Rough Conduct \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page53 \|websiteafl.com.au \|publisherAFL \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page53 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Additionally, players may perform a technique known shepherding when the ball is within {{convert\|5\|m\|yd}} of an opposition player. Shepherding involves the use of a player's body to push, bump or otherwise block an opposition player, providing they do not have possession of the ball.<ref name"Definitions" />Marking {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| header_align = center \| total_width = 340 \| image1 = Ben Warren marking.1.jpg \| width1 = 861 \| height1 = 1292 \| alt1 \| caption1 A player taking a mark on the chest \| image2 = Howe mark over McDonald.2.jpg \| width2 = 1710 \| height2 = 2570 \| alt2 \| caption2 A player leaping to take a spectacular mark }} If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than {{convert\|15\|m\|yd}} from another player's kick, by way of a catch within the field of play, it is deemed as a mark.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Marking \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page41 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page41 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> To be awarded a mark, it must be deemed that the player sufficiently controlled the ball and took possession prior to it being touched, touching the ground, or in the case of a contest, being spoiled by an opponent.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://play.afl/sites/default/files/2024-03/2024-Laws-of-Australian-Football-Mobile.pdf\|titleLaws of Australian Football 2024\|publisherAustralian Football League\|year2024\|accessdate13 November 2024\|page51}}</ref> Upon a mark being taken, one opposition player may choose to stand on the point on the field where the mark was taken, known as "the mark". When a mark is taken, a small protected zone is established on the field, extending {{convert\|10\|m\|yd}} either side of "the mark" and the player who marked the ball, with a small protected corridor between "the mark" and the player. The opposition player is permitted to jump, but is not allowed to move from their position on "the mark". Any other movements result in a distance penalty (50 metres in the AFL).<ref name"MarkDisposal">{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Disposal After Mark \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page58 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page58 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The player who was awarded the mark may then choose to either dispose of the ball over "the mark" or may choose to attempt disposal via a different method, in which case the field umpire will call "play on"—a verbal instruction to continue play.<ref name"MarkDisposal" /><ref name"Definitions" /> "Play on" may also be called if the umpire deems the player awarded the mark to be taking an unreasonable amount of time to dispose of the football.<ref name"MarkDisposal" /> Once the player has disposed of the ball, or "play on" is called, normal play resumes.<ref name"MarkDisposal" />Rucking {{see\|Ruck (Australian rules football)}} Rucking is the only specialist skill and is performed by a ruck, the term for designated players from each side to which umpire sends the ball to commence play.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://play.afl/sites/default/files/2024-03/2024-Laws-of-Australian-Football-Mobile.pdf\|titleLaws of Australian Football 2024\|publisherAustralian Football League\|year2024\|accessdate13 November 2024\|page38}}</ref> Only a nominated ruck may contest ball-ups and throw-ins.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://play.afl/sites/default/files/2024-03/2024-Laws-of-Australian-Football-Mobile.pdf\|titleLaws of Australian Football 2024\|publisherAustralian Football League\|year2024\|accessdate13 November 2024\|page40}}</ref> They are the only player allowed within the 10 metre circle at a centre bounce. Functionally the role is analogous to a basketball center and as such rucks are typically the tallest player on the team. Lifting teammates is not allowed<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://play.afl/sites/default/files/2024-03/2024-Laws-of-Australian-Football-Mobile.pdf\|titleLaws of Australian Football 2024\|publisherAustralian Football League\|year2024\|accessdate13 November 2024\|page58}}</ref> so the ruck may only jump to reach the ball. If the ruck does not take possession of the football, it must be tapped or fisted, which is known as a hit-out. An effective hit-out that passes the ball to a teammate is known as a hit-out to advantage.<ref>[https://www.afl.com.au/news/144837/stats-glossary-every-stat-explained Stats glossary: Every stat explained] from AFL 28 December 2017</ref> Misconduct In the event a player breaks a rule, a free kick is awarded to the opposing team, from the location that the misconduct occurred, or the ball's current location—whichever is closer to the team's scoring zone.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Free Kicks \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page49 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page49 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As when a mark is taken, this location is called "the mark", and the same protections regarding the space apply.<ref name"MarkDisposal" /> In the event a player engages in unsportsmanlike conduct after a free kick has been awarded or a mark has been paid to the opposing team, the umpire may instead award a 50-metre penalty. When imposed, the field umpire will advance "the mark" an additional {{convert\|50\|m\|yd}} down the field or to the goal line, whichever is closer. Additional 50-metre penalties may be awarded if the behaviour continues after the initial penalty.<ref>{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Fifty Metre Penalties \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page56 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page56 \|url-status=live }}</ref> The laws of the game allow umpires to send off players for egregious foul play, although this law does not apply to the AFL and is largely only used at the local level.<ref>{{cite news \|titleThe AFL says it has no plans for a 'red card' rule — but Tom Stewart's hit on Dion Prestia has put the spotlight back on the debate \|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-29/tom-stewarts-high-hit-dion-prestia-reignited-afls-red-card-talk/101186070 \|newspaperABC News \|date28 June 2022 \|access-date28 March 2024 \|archive-date28 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240328150357/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-06-29/tom-stewarts-high-hit-dion-prestia-reignited-afls-red-card-talk/101186070 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Scoring There are two types of scoring shots in Australian football: goals and behinds. A goal is worth six points, and is scored when the football is propelled between the goal posts and across the goal line at any height by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may touch the ground, but must not have been touched by any player from either team or a goalpost prior to crossing the goal line.<ref name"Scoring">{{cite web \|titleMatch Provisions – Scoring \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page43 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page43 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> A behind is worth one point and is scored when:<ref name="Scoring" /> * The ball passes between a goal post and a behind post at any height. * If the ball hits a goal post. * If any player sends the ball across the goal or behind line by touching it with any part of the body other than a foot or lower leg. A behind is also awarded to the team if the ball touches any part of an opposition player, including a foot, before passing across their goal or behind line.<ref name"Scoring" /> A free kick is awarded against any player who is deemed to have deliberately rushed a behind.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.foxsports.com.au/breaking-news/afl-rules-on-deliberate-rushed-behinds/story-e6frf33c-1111118325150\|titleAFL rules on deliberate rushed behinds\|access-date27 February 2011\|archive-date5 October 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121005223345/http://www.foxsports.com.au/breaking-news/afl-rules-on-deliberate-rushed-behinds/story-e6frf33c-1111118325150\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.heraldsun.com.au/sport/afl/all-clear-for-rushed-behind-rule/story-e6frf9jf-1225700531493\|titleAll clear for rushed behind rule<!-- Bot generated title -->\|websiteHerald Sun}}</ref> The team that has scored the most points at the end of play wins the game. If the scores are level on points at the end of play, then the game is a draw; extra time applies only during finals matches in some competitions.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLaws of Australian Football – Introduction \|urlhttps://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page10 \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|archive-date3 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240303143306/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2022/03/28/6d92ed7c-efc2-44dc-86bc-9fa1d9b338ad/2022-Laws-of-the-Game-Booklet.pdf#page10 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWhat happens if the Grand Final is a draw? The AFL explains \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/521166/what-happens-if-the-grand-final-is-a-draw-the-afl-explains \|websiteafl.com.au \|access-date4 March 2024 \|languageen \|date23 October 2020 \|archive-date4 March 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240304141518/https://www.afl.com.au/news/521166/what-happens-if-the-grand-final-is-a-draw-the-afl-explains \|url-statuslive }}</ref> As an example of a score report, consider a match between Sydney and Geelong with the former as the home team. Sydney's score of 17 goals and 5 behinds equates to 107 points. Geelong's score of 10 goals and 17 behinds equates to a 77-point tally. Sydney wins the match by a margin of 30 points. Such a result would be written as: :"Sydney 17.5 (107) defeated Geelong 10.17 (77)". And spoken as: :"Sydney, seventeen-five, one hundred and seven, defeated Geelong, ten-seventeen, seventy-seven". Additionally, it can be said that: :"Sydney defeated Geelong by 30 points". The home team is typically listed first and the visiting side is listed second. A draw would be written as: :"Greater Western Sydney 10.8 (68) drew with Geelong 10.8 (68)".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://afltables.com/afl/stats/games/2017/092120170701.html\|titleGreater Western Sydney v Geelong\|publisherAFL Tables\|date1 July 2017\|access-date13 September 2017\|archive-date13 September 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170913135328/https://afltables.com/afl/stats/games/2017/092120170701.html\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Structure and competitions The football season proper is from March to August (early autumn to late winter in Australia) with finals being held in September and October.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://mm.afl.com.au/afl_archive/cp2/c2/webi/article/304261bn.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070320220310/http://mm.afl.com.au/afl_archive/cp2/c2/webi/article/304261bn.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-date20 March 2007\|titleSchedule – By Round\|date20 March 2007}}</ref> In the tropics, the game is sometimes played in the wet season (October to March).<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.worldfootynews.com/article.php/20061130160918957\|titleBombers soaring on the Tiwi Islands\|websiteWorld Footy News\|last1Finlayson\|first1Sean\|date30 November 2006\|access-date11 November 2015\|archive-date13 July 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713204633/http://www.worldfootynews.com/article.php/20061130160918957\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The AFL is recognised by the Australian Sports Commission as being the National Sporting Organisation for Australian football.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ais.org.au/austrules/index.asp\|titleAustralian Institute of Sport – Australian football\|publisherAustralian Institute of Sport\|access-date19 February 2010\|archive-date24 July 2008\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080724192200/http://www.ais.org.au/austrules/index.asp\|url-statuslive}}</ref> There are also seven state/territory-based organisations in Australia, all of which are affiliated with the AFL.<ref>{{cite web \|titleInquiry into Country Football \|urlhttps://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/rrc/footy/cf_report.pdf#page71 \|access-date6 April 2021 \|archive-date8 March 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210308040316/https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/rrc/footy/cf_report.pdf#page71 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> These state leagues hold annual semi-professional club competitions, with some also overseeing more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are often affiliated to their state organisations.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLEAGUES & ASSOCIATIONS \|urlhttps://aflvic.com.au/leagues-associations/ \|websiteAFL Victoria \|access-date11 April 2021 \|languageen-AU \|archive-date11 April 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210411084815/https://aflvic.com.au/leagues-associations/ \|url-status=live }}</ref> In 2002, the AFL became the de facto world governing body for Australian football when it pushed for the closure of the International Australian Football Council. There are also a number of affiliated organisations governing amateur clubs and competitions around the world.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.afl.com.au/Development/International/tabid/10238/Default.aspx \|titleInternational – Official Website of the Australian Football League \|websiteAustralian Football League \|access-date19 February 2010 \|archive-date29 May 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100529031821/http://www.afl.com.au/development/international/tabid/10238/default.aspx \|url-statusdead }}</ref> For almost all Australian football club competitions, the aim is to win the Premiership. The premiership is typically decided by a finals series. The teams that occupy the highest positions on the ladder after the home-and-away season play-off in a "semi-knockout" finals series, culminating in a single Grand Final match to determine the premiers. Between four and eight teams contest a finals series, typically using the AFL final eight system<ref>{{cite web \|titleAustralian Football League Regulations \|urlhttps://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL%20Regulations%20effective%209%20May%202019.pdf#page19 \|access-date6 April 2021 \|archive-date11 November 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201111183616/https://s.afl.com.au/staticfile/AFL%20Tenant/AFL/Files/AFL%20Regulations%20effective%209%20May%202019.pdf#page19 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> or a variation of the McIntyre system.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAdelaide Footy League – Rules & Regulations \|urlhttps://websites.sportstg.com/get_file.cgi?id36414188#page29 \|access-date6 April 2021 \|archive-date24 September 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210924105023/https://websites.mygameday.app/get_file.cgi?id36414188#page29 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleExplaining the Final Six \|urlhttps://www.vafa.com.au/explaining-the-final-six/ \|websiteVAFA \|access-date6 April 2021 \|languageen-AU \|date22 July 2013 \|archive-date14 August 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210814104033/https://www.vafa.com.au/explaining-the-final-six/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The team which finishes first on the ladder after the home-and-away season is referred to as a "minor premier", but this usually holds little stand-alone significance, other than receiving a better draw in the finals.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Cellini \|first1Aiden \|titleChris Scott's wish granted as AFL "recognises the minor premier" in combined AFL, AFLW McClelland Trophy {{!}} Sporting News Australia \|urlhttps://www.sportingnews.com/au/afl/news/afl-2023-aflw-mcclelland-trophy/erdcxwpqgamdfvf3lq8esedr \|websitewww.sportingnews.com \|access-date4 March 2024 \|languageen-au \|date9 March 2023 \|archive-date6 July 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230706210749/https://www.sportingnews.com/au/afl/news/afl-2023-aflw-mcclelland-trophy/erdcxwpqgamdfvf3lq8esedr \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Some metropolitan leagues have several tiered divisions, with promotion of the lower division premiers and relegation of the upper division's last placed team at the end of each year.<ref>{{cite web \|titleRules of the Victorian Amateur Football Association \|urlhttps://www.vafa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/VAFA-Rules-23.3.2015.pdf#page2 \|access-date6 April 2021 \|archive-date13 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210713093857/https://www.vafa.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/VAFA-Rules-23.3.2015.pdf#page2 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Women and Australian football {{Further\|Women's Australian rules football}} between Bond University and Burleigh Heads]] The high level of interest shown by women in Australian football is considered unique among the world's football codes.{{sfn\|Mewett\|Toffoletti\|2008\|p2}} It was the case in the 19th century, as it is in modern times, that women made up approximately half of total attendances at Australian football matches—a far greater proportion than, for example, the estimated 10 per cent of women that comprise British soccer crowds.{{sfn\|Hess\|2008\|p66}} This has been attributed in part to the egalitarian character of Australian football's early years in public parks where women could mingle freely and support the game in various ways.<ref>Browne, Ashley (2008). "For Women, Too". In Weston, James. The Australian Game of Football: Since 1858. Geoff Slattery Publishing. pp. 253–259. {{ISBN\|978-0-9803466-6-4}}.</ref> In terms of participation, there are occasional 19th-century references to women playing the sport, but it was not until the 1910s that the first organised women's teams and competitions appeared.{{sfn\|Hess\|Lenkic\|2016\|pp1–6}} Women's state leagues emerged in the 1980s,{{sfn\|Pippos\|2017\|p191}} and in 2013, the AFL announced plans to establish a nationally televised women's competition.<ref>Lane, Samantha (27 March 2013). [http://www.theage.com.au/afl/afl-news/afl-sees-the-light-on-womens-footy-20130326-2gsd1.html "AFL sees the light on women's footy"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140823035633/http://www.theage.com.au/afl/afl-news/afl-sees-the-light-on-womens-footy-20130326-2gsd1.html \|date23 August 2014 }}, The Age. Retrieved 29 November 2014.</ref> Amidst a surge in viewing interest and participation in women's football, the AFL pushed the founding date of the competition, named AFL Women's, to 2017.<ref>Halloran, Jessica (29 January 2017). [https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/lifestyle/stellar/how-afl-womens-league-will-level-the-playing-field/news-story/0a9ab8e7ff5b154bc6eb41f4902ee38e "Will the AFL Women's League level the playing field?"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210924105025/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/lifestyle/stellar/how-afl-womens-league-will-level-the-playing-field/news-story/0a9ab8e7ff5b154bc6eb41f4902ee38e?nk3f9756af9fc22b2b78674ebd468edf65-1632480625 \|date24 September 2021 }}, The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 28 April 2018.</ref> Eight AFL clubs won licences to field sides in its inaugural season.<ref>Mark, David (17 June 2016). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-15/afl-provides-pathway-for-young-women-to-pursue-sporting-careers/7513338 "AFL women's competition provides a pathway for young women into professional sport"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180401102138/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-15/afl-provides-pathway-for-young-women-to-pursue-sporting-careers/7513338 \|date1 April 2018 }}, ABC. Retrieved 28 April 2018.</ref> By the seventh season, which began in August 2022, all 18 clubs fielded a women's side.Variations and related sports {{Further\|Variations of Australian rules football}} Many related games have emerged from Australian football, mainly with variations of contact to encourage greater participation. These include Auskick (played by children aged between 5 and 12), kick-to-kick (and its variants end-to-end footy and marks up), rec footy, 9-a-side footy, masters Australian football, handball and longest-kick competitions. Players outside Australia sometimes engage in related games adapted to available fields, like metro footy (played on gridiron fields) and Samoa rules (played on rugby fields). One such prominent example in use since 2018 is AFLX, a shortened variation of the game with seven players a side, played on a soccer-sized pitch.<ref name"AFLX1">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.afl.com.au/news/2017-11-17/aflx-revealed-who-your-club-plays-and-when\|titleAFLX revealed: Who your club plays\|date17 November 2017\|workAFL.com.au\|access-date17 November 2017\|archive-date17 November 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171117104844/http://www.afl.com.au/news/2017-11-17/aflx-revealed-who-your-club-plays-and-when\|url-statuslive}}</ref>International rules football {{Main\|International rules football}} {{See also\|Comparison of Gaelic football and Australian rules football}} The similarities between Australian football and the Irish sport of Gaelic football have allowed for the creation of a hybrid code known as international rules football. The first international rules matches were contested in Ireland during the 1967 Australian Football World Tour. Since then, various sets of compromise rules have been trialed, and in 1984 the International Rules Series commenced with national representative sides selected by Australia's state leagues (later by the AFL) and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA). The competition became an annual event in 1998, but was postponed indefinitely in 2007 when the GAA pulled out due to Australia's severe and aggressive style of play.<ref>Haxton, Nance (3 January 2007). [http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1821003.htm "Sounds of Summer: International Rules Series"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160731183225/http://www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2006/s1821003.htm \|date31 July 2016 }}. PM, ABC Radio National. Retrieved 1 May 2016.</ref> It resumed in Australia in 2008 under new rules to protect the player with the ball. Global reach {{Main\|Geography of Australian rules football}} in Nauru, where Australian football is the national sport]] , held triennially in Australia.]] During the colonial period, Australian rules was sometimes referred to as Australasian rules, reflecting its popularity in New Zealand. The game was played outside Australasia as early as 1888 when Australians studying at Edinburgh University and London University formed teams and competed in London.{{sfn\|Williamson\|2003\|pp138–140}} By the early 20th century, it had spread with the Australian diaspora to South Africa, the United States and other parts of the Anglosphere; however this growth went into rapid decline during and after World War I, leading also to a decades long hiatus in New Zealand. After World War II, it experienced growth in the Pacific region, particularly in Papua New Guinea and Nauru, where Australian football is now the national sport.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://afl.com.au/tabid/208/default.aspx?newsid64399 \|titleTeam Profile: Nauru Chiefs \|firstChelsea \|lastRoffey \|author-linkChelsea Roffey \|publisherAfl.com.au \|date30 July 2008 \|access-date19 February 2010 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090125142626/http://afl.com.au/tabid/208/default.aspx?newsid64399 \|archive-date25 January 2009}}</ref> Today, the sport is played at an amateur level in various countries throughout the world. Twenty-three countries have participated in the International Cup, the highest level of international competition, held triennially in Australia since 2002. Nine countries have also participated in the AFL Europe Championship with both competitions prohibiting Australian players. A fan of the sport since attending school in Victoria, King Charles is the Patron of AFL Europe. In 2013, participation across AFL Europe's 21 member nations was more than 5,000 players, the majority of which are European nationals rather than Australian expats.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/media/press-releases/the-prince-of-wales-becomes-patron-of-afl-europe \|titleThe Prince of Wales becomes Patron of AFL Europe \|date25 October 2013 \|publisherprinceofwales.gov.uk \|access-date3 November 2012 \|archive-date4 November 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131104183003/http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/media/press-releases/the-prince-of-wales-becomes-patron-of-afl-europe \|url-statuslive }}</ref> The sport also has a growing presence in India.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Rith Basu\|first1Ayan Paul\|titleSoccer city gets a taste of Aussie football\|urlhttp://www.telegraphindia.com/1151102/jsp/calcutta/story_50958.jsp\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106202859/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1151102/jsp/calcutta/story_50958.jsp\|url-statusdead\|archive-date6 November 2015\|access-date3 November 2015\|date2 November 2015}}</ref> Over 20 countries have either affiliation or working agreements with the AFL.<ref>[http://www.afl.com.au/GameDevelopment/International/tabid/285/Default.aspx AFL International Development] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081121141159/http://www.afl.com.au/GameDevelopment/International/tabid/285/Default.aspx \|date=21 November 2008 }}</ref> Most present-day international amateur clubs and leagues are based in North America, Europe and Asia, with the oldest typically having originated in the 1980s. That decade, the sport developed a cult following in the United States when matches were broadcast on the fledgling ESPN network.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1Delaney\|first1Tim\|last2Madigan\|first2Tim\|titleThe Sociology of Sports: An Introduction\|publisherMcFarland\|year2009\|pages284–285\|isbn978-0786453153}}</ref> Growing international interest has been assisted by exhibition matches, players switching between football codes, and Australia's multicultural makeup. Many VFL/AFL players were born overseas, with a growing number recruited through various initiatives. One notable example is the Irish experiment, which, since the 1980s, has seen many Gaelic footballers leave the amateur GAA to play Australian rules professionally, this has expanded to the AFLW, where it has grown from 1 Irish player in the debut 2017 season, to 36 in 2024.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Vinall\|first1Marnie\|titleAttacking flair, speed and a knack for scoring: How the Irish influx is shaping the AFLW\|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-10-28/aflw-irish-players-eilish-odowd/104513648\|access-date11 November 2024\|date=28 October 2024}}</ref> Although Australian rules football is not an Olympic sport, it was showcased at the MCG as part of the 1956 Summer Olympics, held in Melbourne. In addition, when Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games, an exhibition match was held at the Gabba.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Greenberg \|first1Tony \|titleWhen the Tigers won Games gold \|urlhttps://www.richmondfc.com.au/news/269610/when-the-tigers-won-games-gold \|websiteRichmondFC.com.au \|publisherRichmond Football Club \|date4 April 2018 \|access-date31 July 2022 \|archive-date31 July 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220731163644/https://www.richmondfc.com.au/news/269610/when-the-tigers-won-games-gold \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Cultural influence and popularity {{Main\|Australian rules football culture}} Australian football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other football code,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.sweeneyresearch.com.au/newsPDF/news_pdf_16.pdf \|titleSweeney Sport report for 2006–07 \|access-date31 March 2021\|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080527210104/http://www.sweeneyresearch.com.au/newsPDF/news_pdf_16.pdf \|archive-date27 May 2008 }}</ref> and, when compared with all sports throughout the nation, has consistently ranked first in the winter reports, and third behind cricket and swimming in summer.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttp://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/22/1053196670542.html \|firstPhilip \|lastDerriman \|workThe Sydney Morning Herald \|date22 May 2003 \|titleIf you can kick it, Australia will watch it \|access-date22 November 2005 \|archive-date27 February 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140227153552/http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/22/1053196670542.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> Over 1,057,572 fans were paying members of AFL clubs in 2019.<ref name"AFL Report 2019">{{cite web\| url https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2020/03/18/925fd047-a9b6-4f7d-8046-138a56ba36f4/2019-AFL-Annual-Report.pdf\| title AFL Annual Report 2019\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200322065653/https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2020/03/18/925fd047-a9b6-4f7d-8046-138a56ba36f4/2019-AFL-Annual-Report.pdf\| archive-date 22 March 2020\| url-status live }}</ref> The 2021 AFL Grand Final was the year's most-watched television broadcast in Australia, with an in-home audience of up to 4.11&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite web\|title2021 Toyota AFL Grand Final TV Audience\|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/682263/2021-toyota-afl-grand-final-tv-audience\|access-date2021-09-27\|websiteafl.com.au\|date26 September 2021\|languageen\|archive-date2 December 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211202064305/https://www.afl.com.au/news/682263/2021-toyota-afl-grand-final-tv-audience\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|lastBruce\|firstJasper\|date2021-09-26\|titleInsane stat proves AFL is king\|worknews.com.au\|urlhttps://www.news.com.au/sport/afl/2021-afl-grand-final-breaks-tv-viewership-records/news-story/e43379185435511f5e3a7520fc7b56a4\|access-date2021-09-27\|archive-date2 December 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211202064259/https://www.news.com.au/sport/afl/2021-afl-grand-final-breaks-tv-viewership-records/news-story/e43379185435511f5e3a7520fc7b56a4\|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2019, there were 1,716,276 registered participants in Australia<ref name"AFL Report 2019" /> including 586,422 females (34 per cent of the overall total) and more than 177,000 registered outside Australia including 79,000 females (45 per cent of the overall total).<ref name"AFL Report 2019" /> In the arts and popular culture {{Main\|Australian rules football in popular culture}} 's ruck combination of the 1920s, left to right: Mark Tandy, Fred Fleiter and Roy Cazaly. Fleiter coined the phrase "Up there, Cazaly!" as a signal for Cazaly to leap for the ball. It entered popular idiom as a phrase of encouragement, and was used as a battle cry by Australian soldiers during World War II. It remains well known through Mike Brady's 1979 Australian football anthem of the same name.]] Australian football has inspired many literary works,<ref name"double">{{Citation\|authorAlomes, Stephen \|year2007 \|titleThe Lie of the Ground: Aesthetics and Australian Football \|journalDouble Dialogues \|publisherDeakin University \|issue8 \|issn1447-9591 \|urlhttp://www.doubledialogues.com/archive/issue_eight/alomes.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150602204039/http://www.doubledialogues.com/archive/issue_eight/alomes.html \|archive-date2 June 2015}}</ref> from poems by C. J. Dennis and Peter Goldsworthy, to the fiction of Frank Hardy and Kerry Greenwood. Historians Manning Clarke and Geoffrey Blainey have also written extensively on the sport. Slang within Australian football has impacted Australian English more broadly, with a number of expressions taking on new meanings in non-sporting contexts, e.g., to "get a guernsey" is to gain recognition or approval, while "shirt-fronting" someone is to accost them.<ref>[https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/shirtfronting "Shirtfronting"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230327110815/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/shirtfronting \|date27 March 2023 }}, Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 29 March 2022.</ref> pointing to his skin in 1993 in protest of racial vilification, erected outside Perth Stadium in 2019]] In 1889, Australian impressionist painter Arthur Streeton captured football games en plein air for the 9 by 5 Impression Exhibition, titling one work The National Game.<ref>Clark, Jane (1985). Golden Summers: Heidelberg and Beyond, pp. 112–117</ref> Paintings by Sidney Nolan (Footballer, 1946) and John Brack (Three of the Players, 1953) helped to establish Australian football as a serious subject for modernists,<ref>McAullife, Chris (1995). "Eyes on the Ball: Images of Australian Rules Football", Art & Australia (Vol 32 No 4), pp. 490–500</ref> and many Aboriginal artists have explored the game, often fusing it with the mythology of their region.<ref>Heathcote, Christopher (August 2009). "Bush Football: The Kunoth Family", Art Monthly (Issue 222).</ref><ref>Angel, Anita (23 November 2009). [http://www.cdu.edu.au/advancement/artcollection/lookingatart_dec.html "Looking at Art"] {{webarchive \|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140523230557/http://www.cdu.edu.au/advancement/artcollection/lookingatart_dec.html \|date23 May 2014 }}, Charles Darwin University Art Collection & Art Gallery. Retrieved 23 May 2014.</ref> Vincent Namatjira won the 2020 Archibald Prize for his portrait of Adam Goodes.<ref>{{cite web \|lastSprague \|firstQuentin \|date1 February 2021 \|titleThe paintbrush is a weapon: Vincent Namatjira \|urlhttps://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2021/february/1612098000/quentin-sprague/paintbrush-weapon-vincent-namatjira \|access-date1 April 2025 \|website=The Monthly}}</ref> In cartooning, WEG's VFL/AFL premiership posters—inaugurated in 1954—have achieved iconic status among Australian football fans.<ref>Rielly, Stephen (30 December 2008). [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/cartoonist-spoke-to-afl-tribe/story-e6frg7mx-1111118433741 "Cartoonist William Ellis Green spoke to AFL tribe"], The Australian. Retrieved 5 December 2013.</ref> Australian football statues can be found throughout the country, some based on famous photographs, among them Haydn Bunton Sr.'s leap, Jack Dyer's charge and Nicky Winmar lifting his jumper.<ref>Green, Warwick (16 September 2018). [https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/from-photo-to-statue-winmar-s-stance-still-powerful-20180916-p5043f.html "From photo to statue: Winmar's stance still powerful"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220331170750/https://www.theage.com.au/sport/afl/from-photo-to-statue-winmar-s-stance-still-powerful-20180916-p5043f.html \|date31 March 2022 }}, The Age. Retrieved 31 March 2022.</ref> In the 1980s, a group of postmodern architects based in Melbourne began incorporating references to Australian football into their buildings, an example being Building 8 by Edmond and Corrigan.<ref>Reinmuth, Gerard (2019). "Reflection on Wars Past". In Sydney vs Melbourne. UTS Architecture, p. 54. {{isbn\|978-3-16-148410-0}}.</ref><ref>Van Schaik, Leon (1996). In Building 8: 10 Essays. Schwarz Transition, pp. 48–53. {{isbn\|978-1-863-95314-6}}.</ref> Dance sequences based on Australian football feature heavily in Robert Helpmann's 1964 ballet The Display, his first and most famous work for the Australian Ballet.<ref>Douglas, Tim (30 August 2012). [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/ballets-former-glories-show-footys-left-its-mark/story-e6frg8n6-1226461140091 "Ballet's former glories show footy's left its mark"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150121130512/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/arts/ballets-former-glories-show-footys-left-its-mark/story-e6frg8n6-1226461140091 \|date21 January 2015 }}, The Australian. Retrieved 8 June 2014.</ref> The game has also inspired well-known plays such as And the Big Men Fly (1963) by Alan Hopgood and David Williamson's The Club (1977), which was adapted into a 1980 film, directed by Bruce Beresford. Mike Brady's 1979 hit "Up There Cazaly" is considered an Australian football anthem, and references to the sport can be found in works by popular musicians, from singer-songwriter Paul Kelly to the alternative rock band TISM.<ref>Worrell, Shane (3 April 2010). [http://www.bendigoadvertiser.com.au/news/local/sport/general/modern-footy-not-in-tune/1793202.aspx?storypage2 "Modern footy not in tune"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210924105026/https://www.bendigoadvertiser.com.au/story/708100/modern-footy-not-in-tune/ \|date24 September 2021 }}, Bendigo Advertiser. Retrieved 5 December 2013.</ref> Others, such as Tame Impala's Kevin Parker, have written songs for their favourite AFL club.<ref>{{cite news \|lastNewstead \|firstAl \|date24 May 2021 \|titleTame Impala's Kevin Parker writes new song for Fremantle Dockers \|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/triplej/news/tame-impala-kevin-parker-new-afl-song-for-fremantle-dockers/13356372 \|workTriple J \|location \|publisherABC \|access-date1 April 2025}}</ref> Many Australian football video games have been released, notably the AFL series. Australian Football Hall of Fame {{Main\|Australian Football Hall of Fame}} For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the Australian Football Hall of Fame was established. That year, 136 significant figures across the various competitions were inducted into the Hall of Fame. Each years since the creation of the Hall of Fame, a panel selects a small group of players they deem worthy for this prestigious honour, resulting in a total number of more than 300 inductees as of 2024. In addition to the Hall of Fame, select members are chosen to receive the elite Legend status. Due to restrictions limiting the number of Legend status players to 10% of the total number of Hall of Fame inductees, there are currently only 32 players with the status in the Hall of Fame as of 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAFL – News, Fixtures, Scores & Results \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/hall-of-fame/legends \|access-date2023-11-12 \|websiteafl.com.au \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-04-15 \|titleHawks great Jason Dunstall joins Hall of Fame Legends \|urlhttps://www.afl.com.au/news/1110065/hawthorn-hawks-champion-jason-dunstall-elevated-to-legend-status-in-australian-football-hall-of-fame \|access-date2024-04-15 \|websiteafl.com.au \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2024-04-15 \|titleJason Dunstall's epic resume complete after elevation to Legend status in Australian Football Hall of Fame \|urlhttps://www.foxsports.com.au/afl/afl-2024-jason-dunstall-elevated-to-legend-status-in-the-australian-football-hall-of-fame-latest-news/news-story/66e5b534a7a4ef279dd1d0ce30bd0c1e \|access-date2024-04-15 \|websiteFox Sports \|languageen}}</ref> See also {{Portal\|Sports\|Australia}} * Australian rules football attendance records * Australian rules football positions * List of Australian rules football clubs * List of Australian rules football rivalries * List of Australian rules football terms References Citations {{Reflist}} Sources Books {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book \|last = Blainey \|first = Geoffrey \|author-link = Geoffrey Blainey \|title = A Game of Our Own: The Origins of Australian Football \|publisher = Black Inc. \|year = 2010 \|isbn = 9781863954853 }} * {{cite book \|last = Coventry \|first = James \|author-link = James Coventry \|title = Time and Space: The Tactics That Shaped Australian Rules and the Players and Coaches Who Mastered Them \|publisher = HarperCollins \|year = 2015 \|isbn = 978-0-7333-3369-9 }} * {{cite book \|last = de Moore \|first = Greg \|title = Tom Wills: First Wild Man of Australian Sport \|publisher = Allen & Unwin \|year = 2011 \|isbn = 978-1-74237-598-4 }} * {{cite book \|last1 = de Moore \|first1 = Greg \|last2 = Hess \|first2 = Rob \|last3 = Nicholson \|first3 = Matthew \|last4 = Stewart \|first4 = Bob \|title = Australia's Game: The History of Australian Football \|publisher = Hardie Grant Books \|year = 2021 \|isbn = 9781-74379-657-3 }} * {{cite book \|last = Hess \|first = Rob \|title = A National Game: The History of Australian Rules Football \|publisher = Viking \|year = 2008 \|isbn = 978-0-670-07089-3 }} * {{cite book \|last1 = Hess \|first1 = Rob \|last2 = Lenkic \|first2 = Brunette \|title = Play On! The Hidden History of Women's Australian Rules Football \|publisher = Bonnier Zaffre \|year = 2016 \|isbn = 9781760063160 }} * {{cite book \|last1 = Hibbins \|first1 = Gillian \|last2 = Mancini \|first2 = Anne \|title = Running with the Ball: Football's Foster Father \|publisher = Lynedoch Publications \|year = 1987 \|isbn = 978-0-7316-0481-4 \|url-access = registration \|url = https://archive.org/details/runningwithballf00harr }} * {{cite book \|last = Hibbins \|first = Gillian \|editor-first= James \|editor-last = Weston \|title = The Australian Game of Football: Since 1858 \|publisher = Geoff Slattery Publishing \|year = 2008 \|pages = 31–45 \|chapter = Men of Purpose \|isbn = 978-0-9803466-6-4 }} * {{cite book \|last = Hibbins \|first = Gillian \|editor-first= J. A. \|editor-last = Mangan \|title = The Cultural Bond: Sport, Empire, Society \|publisher = Routledge \|year = 2013 \|pages = 108–127 \|chapter = The Cambridge Connection: The English Origins of Australian Football \|isbn = 9781135024376 }} * {{cite book \|last1 = Nauright \|first1 = John \|last2 = Parrish \|first2 = Charles \|title = Sports Around the World: History, Culture, and Practice \|publisher = ABC-CLIO \|year = 2012 \|isbn = 9781598843002 }} * {{cite book \|last = Pennings \|first = Mark \|title = Origins of Australian Football: Victoria's Early History: Volume 1: Amateur Heroes and the Rise of Clubs, 1858 to 1876 \|publisher = Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd \|year = 2012 \|isbn = 9781921421471 }} * {{cite book \|last = Pippos \|first = Angela \|author-link = Angela Pippos \|title = Breaking the Mould \|publisher = Simon and Schuster \|year = 2017 \|isbn = 9781925475296 }} * {{cite book \|last = Williamson \|first = John \|editor-first= Mar \|editor-last = Bucknell \|title = Football's Forgotten Tour: The Story of the British Australian Rules Venture of 1888 \|publisher = Applegate \|year = 2003 \|isbn = 9780958101806 }} {{Refend}} Journal and conference articles {{Refbegin}} * {{cite journal \|first1 = Gillian \|last1 = Hibbins \|first2 = Trevor \|last2 = Ruddell \|title = 'A Code of Our Own': Celebrating 150 Years of the Rules of Australian Football \|url = http://www.mcc.org.au/~/media/Files/Yorker-Issue%2039_Autumn2009_low-res.pdf \|journal = The Yorker \|year = 2009 \|issue = 39 \|access-date = 3 March 2016 \|archive-date = 2 April 2015 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105523/http://www.mcc.org.au/~/media/Files/Yorker-Issue%2039_Autumn2009_low-res.pdf \|url-status = live }} * {{cite journal \|first1 = Gillian \|last1 = Hibbins \|first2 = Trevor \|last2 = Ruddell \|title = The Evolution of the Rules of Football From 1872 to 1877 \|url = https://www.mcc.org.au/~/media/files/mcc/library/the-yorker_issue_41_autumn_2010.pdf \|journal = The Yorker \|year = 2010 \|issue = 41 \|access-date = 6 June 2018 \|archive-date = 16 November 2019 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191116182933/https://www.mcc.org.au/~/media/files/mcc/library/the-yorker_issue_41_autumn_2010.pdf \|url-status = live }} * {{cite conference \| first1 = Peter \| last1 = Mewett \| first2 = Kim \| last2 = Toffoletti \| title = The Strength of Strong Ties: How Women Become Supporters of Australian Rules Football \| conference = Australian Sociological Association Conference \| publisher = University of Melbourne \| year = 2008 \| isbn = 9780734039842 }} * {{cite journal \|first = Mark \|last = Pennings \|title = Fuschias, Pivots, Same Olds and Gorillas: The Early Years of Football in Victoria \|url = http://eprints.qut.edu.au/61110/2/61110.pdf \|journal = Tablet to Scoreboard \|year = 2013 \|volume = 1 \|issue = 1 \|access-date = 29 March 2016 \|archive-date = 3 March 2016 \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235758/http://eprints.qut.edu.au/61110/2/61110.pdf \|url-status = live }} {{Refend}} External links {{Commons category\|Australian rules football}} {{Wikivoyage\|Australian Rules Football}} * [http://www.afl.com.au/ Australian Football League (AFL) official website] * [http://australianfootball.com/ Australian Football: Celebrating The History of the Great Australian Game] * [https://resources.afl.com.au/afl/document/2020/08/17/3c2fa0b0-79c5-45ad-bdb5-83e3be392691/2020-Laws-of-the-Game.pdf 2020 Laws of Australian Football] * [http://www.gators.com.au/Australian%20Football%20Explained%20in%2031%20Languages.pdf Australian Football explained in 31 languages] – a publication from [http://www.afl.com.au/ AFL.com.au] * [http://www.readingaustralianrulesfootball.org/ Reading Australian Rules Football – The Definitive Guide to the Game] * [https://guides.slv.vic.gov.au/australianfootball State Library of Victoria Research Guide to Australian Football] {{Australian rules football}} {{Australian rules football terminology}} {{Aussie Rules in the Australian Capital Territory}} {{Aussie Rules in New South Wales}} {{Aussie Rules in the Northern Territory}} {{Aussie Rules in Queensland}} {{Aussie Rules in South Australia}} {{Aussie Rules in Tasmania}} {{Aussie Rules in Victoria}} {{Aussie Rules in Western Australia}} {{Football codes}} {{Team sports}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Australian Rules Football}} Category:Australian rules football Category:1858 introductions Category:1859 establishments in Australia Category:Ball games Category:Football codes Category:Sports originating in Australia Category:Team sports Category:Turf sports	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_rules_football	2025-04-05T18:26:03.710585
2405	Aon (company)	{{short description\|Professional services firm}} {{Use British English\|date=January 2014}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox company \| name = Aon plc \| logo = Aon Corporation logo.svg \| logo_caption \| image 122 Leadenhall Street - geograph-3968154-by-Julian-Osley.jpg \| image_caption = Headquarters at 122 Leadenhall Street, London \| type = Public \| traded_as = {{ubl\|{{NYSE\|AON}} (Class A)\|S&P 500 component}} \| founder = Patrick Ryan \| founded = {{Start date and age\|1982}} \| location 122 Leadenhall Street, London, United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.aon.com/unitedkingdom/about-aon/the-aon-centre-london/about.jsp\|titleAbout\|publisherAon\|access-date=23 August 2022}}</ref> \| area_served = Worldwide \| key_people = {{unbulleted list\|Lester Knight (chairman)\|Eric Andersen (president)\|Greg Case (CEO)}} \| industry = Financial services \| services = {{unbulleted list\|Risk consulting\|Retirement consulting\|Health consulting}} \| revenue {{nowrap\|{{increase}} {{US$\|15.70 billion\|linkyes}} (2024)}} \| operating_income = {{increase}} US$3.835 billion (2024) \| net_income = {{increase}} US$2.654 billion (2024) \| assets = {{increase}} US$48.96 billion (2024) \| equity = {{increase}} US$6.121 billion (2024) \| num_employees = {{circa\|66,000}} (2024) \| website = {{Official URL}} \| footnotes <ref name"Aon 2024 Financials">{{cite web \|titleAon 2024 Annual Report (Form 10-K) \|urlhttps://www.sec.gov/ix?doc/Archives/edgar/data/315293/000162828025006093/aon-20241231.htm \|publisherUS Securities and Exchange Commission \|date18 February 2025 \|access-date19 February 2025 }}</ref> }} Aon plc ({{IPAc-en\|lang\|ˈ\|eɪ\|ɒ\|n}}) is a British-American<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.reinsurancene.ws/aon-names-alicia-goosen-to-head-of-professional-services-gbc-london/\|titleAon names Alicia Goosen to head of Professional Services GBC, London\|websitereinsurancene.ws}}</ref> professional services firm that offers a range of risk-mitigation products.<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhat We Do \|urlhttps://www.aon.com/home/what-we-do \|websitewww.aon.com \|access-date13 April 2023}}</ref> Aon has over 66,000 employees across 120 countries.<ref>{{cite web \|url https://www.aon.com/czechrepublic/about-aon/company-overview.jsp#:~:textThrough%20its%20more%20than%2066%2C000,global%20resources%20and%20technical%20expertise \|titleAbout Aon \|workAon \|access-date7 August 2017 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20170808011445/http://aon.com/about-aon/about-aon.jsp \|archive-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> Founded in Chicago by Patrick Ryan, Aon was created in 1982 when the Ryan Insurance Group merged with the Combined Insurance Company of America under W. Clement Stone. In 1987, the holding company was renamed Aon from aon, a Gaelic word meaning "one". The company is globally headquartered in London with its North America operations based in Chicago at the Aon Center. Aon is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under AON with a market cap of $65 billion in April 2023.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAON Stock Price {{!}} Aon PLC Stock Quote (U.S.: NYSE) \|urlhttps://www.marketwatch.com/investing/stock/aon \|websiteMarketWatch \|languageen}}</ref> History W. Clement Stone's mother bought a small Detroit insurance agency, and in 1918 brought her son into the business. Mr. Stone sold low-cost, low-benefit accident insurance, underwriting and issuing policies on-site. The next year he founded his own agency, the Combined Registry Co.<ref namewilson>{{cite web\|lastWilson\|firstMark R.\|urlhttp://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2619.html\|titleCombined Registry\|publisherDictionary of Leading Chicago Businesses 1820-2000}}</ref> As the Great Depression began, Stone reduced his workforce and improved training. Forced by his son's respiratory illness to winter in the South, Stone moved to Arkansas and Texas. In 1939 he bought American Casualty Insurance Co. of Dallas, Texas. It was consolidated with other purchases as the Combined Insurance Co. of America in 1947. The company continued through the 1950s and 1960s, continuing to sell health and accident policies. In the 1970s, Combined expanded overseas despite being hit hard by the recession.<ref name=wilson/> In 1982, after 10 years of stagnation under Clement Stone Jr., the elder Stone, then 79, resumed control until the completion of a merger with Ryan Insurance Co. allowed him to transfer control to Patrick Ryan. Ryan, the son of a Ford dealer in Wisconsin and a graduate of Northwestern University, had started his company as an auto credit insurer in 1964. In 1976, the company bought the insurance brokerage units of the Esmark conglomerate. Ryan focused on insurance brokering and added more upscale insurance products. He also trimmed staff and took other cost-cutting measures, and in 1987 he changed Combined's name to Aon. In 1992, he bought Dutch insurance broker Hudig-Langeveldt. In 1995, the company sold its remaining direct life insurance holdings to General Electric to focus on consulting.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/27/business/ge-capital-to-acquire-an-insurer.html\|titleGE Capital To Acquire An Insurer\|date27 December 1995\|workThe New York Times\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141102220859/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/27/business/ge-capital-to-acquire-an-insurer.html\|archive-date=2 November 2014}}</ref> Aon built a global presence through purchases. In 1997, it bought The Minet Group, as well as insurance brokerage Alexander & Alexander Services, Inc. in a deal that made Aon (temporarily) the largest insurance broker worldwide. The firm made no US buys in 1998, but doubled its employee base with purchases including Spain's largest retail insurance broker, Gil y Carvajal, and the formation of Aon Korea.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAon Korea 1st Foreign Broker Licensed in Nation\|urlhttps://www.joc.com/aon-korea-1st-foreign-broker-licensed-nation_19981015.html\|access-date2021-05-30\|websitewww.joc.com}}</ref> Responding to industry demands, Aon announced its new fee disclosure policy in 1999, and the company reorganised to focus on buying personal line insurance firms and to integrate its acquisitions. That year it bought Nikols Sedgwick Group, an Italian insurance firm, and formed RiskAttack (with Zurich US), a risk analysis and financial management concern aimed at technology companies. The cost of integrating its numerous purchases, however, hammered profits in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web\|authorMelissa Wahl\|titleTight Margins Help Take Toll on Aon Corp.\|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2000-02-09-0002090110-story.html\|access-date2021-05-30\|websiteChicago Tribune\|date9 February 2000 \|language=en-US}}</ref> Despite its troubles, in 2000 Aon bought Reliance Group's accident and health insurance business, as well as Actuarial Sciences Associates, a compensation and employee benefits consulting company. Later in that year, however, the company decided to cut 6% of its workforce as part of a restructuring effort.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastBrick\|firstMichael\|titleAon Tumbles After Restructuring\|urlhttps://www.thestreet.com/investing/stocks/aon-tumbles-after-restructuring-1154409\|access-date2021-05-30\|websiteTheStreet\|date2 November 2000 \|languageen-us}}</ref> In 2003, the company saw revenues increase primarily because of rate hikes in the insurance industry. Also that year, Endurance Specialty, a Bermuda-based underwriting operation that Aon helped to establish in November 2001 along with other investors, went public. The next year Aon sold most of its holdings in Endurance.<ref>{{Cite web \|date2023-01-10 \|titleABIR announces new officers with Pina Albo elected as new Chair - Reinsurance News \|urlhttps://www.reinsurancene.ws/abir-announces-new-officers-with-pina-albo-elected-as-new-chair/ \|access-date2023-01-18 \|websiteReinsuranceNe.ws \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|lastBarr\|firstAlistair\|titleAon sells most of its Endurance stake\|urlhttps://www.marketwatch.com/story/aon-cuts-ties-to-bermuda-insurer-endurance\|access-date2021-05-30\|websiteMarketWatch\|language=EN-US}}</ref> In the late 2007, Aon announced the divestiture of its underwriting business. With this move, the firm sold off its two major underwriting subsidiaries: Combined Insurance Company of America (acquired by ACE Limited for $2.4 billion) and Sterling Life Insurance Company (purchased by Munich Re Group for $352 million). The low margin and capital-intensive nature of the underwriting industry was the primary reason for the firm's decision to divest.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2007/12/17/85703.htm \|titleAon Sells Combined to ACE for $2.4 Billion; Sterling to Munich Re \|workInsurance Journal \|date17 December 2007 \|access-date14 March 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525204803/http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2007/12/17/85703.htm \|archive-date25 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-12-17-1549592899_x.htm \|titleAon sells two insurance units for $2.75B \|workUSA Today \|date17 December 2007\|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref> This growth strategy manifested in November 2008 when Aon announced it had acquired reinsurance intermediary and capital advisor Benfield Group Limited for $1.75 billion. The acquisition amplified the firm's broking capabilities, positioning Aon one of the largest players in the reinsurance brokerage industry.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2008/08/22/92993.htm\|titleAon to Acquire Broker Benfield for $1.75 Billion\|authorJerry Geisel\|workInsurance Journal\|date22 August 2008\|access-date14 March 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130525223414/http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2008/08/22/92993.htm\|archive-date=25 May 2013}}</ref> In 2010, Aon made its most significant acquisition to date with the purchase of Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.businessinsurance.com/article/20101001/NEWS/101009985 \|titleAon completes acquisition of Hewitt \|workBusiness Insurance \|date1 October 2010\|access-date15 March 2013}}</ref> Aside from drastically boosting Aon's human resources consulting capacity and entering the firm into the business process outsourcing industry, the move added 23,000 colleagues and more than $3 billion in revenue.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/13/business/13insure.html\|titleAon Buys Hewitt in Move to Expand Its Consulting Arm \|workThe New York Times\|date12 July 2010 \|access-date15 March 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130601015124/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/13/business/13insure.html?_r0 \|archive-date1 June 2013}}</ref> In January 2012, Aon announced that its headquarters would be moved to London, although North American operations and jobs remained in Chicago.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204542404577158633936346056\|titleAon Shifts Headquarters to London\|last1Tadena\|first1Nathalie\|date14 January 2013\|workThe Wall Street Journal\|access-date10 May 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150723003546/http://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204542404577158633936346056\|archive-date23 July 2015\|last2Dean\|first2Jason\|last3Scism\|first3Leslie\|url-accesssubscription}} — Note: only first hundred or so words archived, but that is sufficient to support fact here.</ref> .]] On 10 February 2017, Aon announced that it was selling its employee benefits outsourcing business to private equity firm The Blackstone Group for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion).<ref name"reuters.com">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/us-aon-benefits-blackstone-exclusive-idUSKBN15O2TV\|titleExclusive: Blackstone to acquire Aon's benefits outsourcing for...\|firstGreg\|lastRoumeliotis\|workReuters\|date9 February 2017 \|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170803211754/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-aon-benefits-blackstone-exclusive-idUSKBN15O2TV\|archive-date3 August 2017}}</ref> In February 2020, Aon named Eric Andersen as president of Aon after co-president Michael O'Connor departed the company to pursue new opportunities. He will be reporting to Greg Case, the firm's CEO.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2020/02/24/559233.htm\|titleAon Names Andersen President, While Former Co-President O'Connor Exits\|date2020-02-24\|websiteInsurance Journal\|languageen-US\|access-date2020-02-25}}</ref> In June 2020, Aon announced it was planning to repay the temporary 20% pay cut from 70% of employees that was published in a statement in April 2020 regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. On 30 June 2020, Aon announced it would repay staff in full, plus 5% of the withheld amount.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.insuranceage.co.uk/broker/7516666/aon-to-repay-20-pay-cuts\|titleAON to repay 20% pay cuts\|date2020-06-30\|websiteInsurance Age\|languageen-UK\|access-date2020-06-30}}</ref> In June 2020, Willis Towers Watson called its shareholders to two meetings to discuss its acquisition with Aon for August 26, 2020. It was revealed that the US Department of Justice has requested more information on the deal under antitrust rules.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.insuranceage.co.uk/broker/7517716/wtw-calls-shareholder-meeting-on-aon-deal\|titleWTW calls shareholder meeting on AON deal\|date2020-07-09\|websiteInsurance Age\|languageen-US\|access-date2020-07-11}}</ref> September 11 attacks Aon's New York offices were on the 92nd and 98th–105th floors of the South Tower of the World Trade Center at the time of the September 11 attacks. When the North Tower was struck by American Airlines Flight 11 at 8:46&nbsp;a.m., an evacuation of Aon's offices was quickly initiated by executive Eric Eisenberg, and 924 of the estimated 1,100 Aon employees present at the time managed to get below the 77th floor before United Airlines Flight 175 crashed between Floors 77 and 85 at 9:03&nbsp;a.m.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.marketwatch.com/story/update-on-dead-missing-at-world-trade-center-firms \|titleCompanies slowly add to WTC reports \|authorShawn Langlois \|workCBS.MarketWatch.com \|date14 September 2001 \|access-date23 February 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121013004109/http://www.marketwatch.com/story/update-on-dead-missing-at-world-trade-center-firms \|archive-date=13 October 2012}}</ref> Many, however, did not manage to get beneath in the 17 minutes they had between the two impacts. As a result, 176 employees of Aon were killed in the crash or died in the eventual collapse of the tower or from smoke inhalation. At 9:59&nbsp;a.m., the tower collapsed, killing any survivors still within,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://www.investmentnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID/20070911/REG/70911011 \|titleIndustry honors fallen on 9/11 anniversary \|publisherInvestmentNews \|authorAaron Siegel \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070915130042/http://www.investmentnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID%2F20070911%2FREG%2F70911011 \|archive-date15 September 2007 \|date11 September 2007 \|access-date23 February 2012 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> including Eisenberg and Kevin Cosgrove.<ref>{{cite news \|lastKiehl \|firstStephen \|dateSeptember 10, 2006 \|workThe Baltimore Sun \|urlhttp://www.baltimoresun.com/features/bal-911story091006,0,7382393.story \|title'I think we're getting hijacked' \|access-dateJuly 26, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20170726233436/http://www.baltimoresun.com/features/bal-911story091006-story.html \|archive-dateJuly 26, 2017 \|url-statuslive }}</ref>Spitzer investigationIn 2004–2005, Aon, along with other brokers including Marsh & McLennan and Willis, fell under regulatory investigation under New York Attorney General Eliot Spitzer and other state attorneys general. At issue was the practice of insurance companies' payments to brokers (known as contingent commissions). The payments were thought to bring a conflict of interest, swaying broker decisions on behalf of carriers, rather than customers. In the spring of 2005, without acknowledging any wrongdoing, Aon agreed to a $190&nbsp;million settlement, payable over 30 months.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/SB110994673832470654\|titleAon Settles Case On Commissions For $190 Million\|date7 March 2005\|newspaperThe Wall Street Journal\|access-date28 September 2021}}</ref> UK regulatory breach In January 2009, Aon was fined £5.69 million in the UK by the Financial Services Authority, who stated that the fine related to the company's inadequate bribery and corruption controls, claiming that between 14 January 2005 and 30 September 2007 Aon had failed to properly assess the risks involved in its dealings with overseas firms and individuals. The Authority did not find that any money had actually made its way to illegal organisations. Aon qualified for a 30% discount on the fine as a result of its cooperation with the investigation. Aon said its conduct was not deliberate, adding it had since "significantly strengthened and enhanced its controls around the usage of third parties".<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.ifaonline.co.uk/ifaonline/news/1348483/aon-hit-record-fsa-fine?pageifa2006_articleimport&tempPageName833667 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110725195637/http://www.ifaonline.co.uk/ifaonline/news/1348483/aon-hit-record-fsa-fine?pageifa2006_articleimport&tempPageName833667 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date25 July 2011 \|titleAon hit with record FSA fine \|publisherIfaonline.co.uk \|authorScott Sinclair \|date8 January 2009 \|access-date23 February 2012 }}</ref>US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violationsIn December 2011, Aon Corporation paid a $16.26 million penalty to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the U.S. Department of Justice for violations of the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.<ref>{{cite press release\| urlhttp://www.fbi.gov/washingtondc/press-releases/2011/aon-corporation-agrees-to-pay-a-1.76-million-criminal-penalty-to-resolve-violations-of-the-foreign-corrupt-practices-act\| titleAon Pays $1.76 Million Criminal Penalty\| authorThe FBI\| publisherThe FBI\| date20 December 2011\| url-statuslive\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120510003229/http://www.fbi.gov/washingtondc/press-releases/2011/aon-corporation-agrees-to-pay-a-1.76-million-criminal-penalty-to-resolve-violations-of-the-foreign-corrupt-practices-act\| archive-date=10 May 2012}}</ref> According to the Securities and Exchange Commission, Aon's subsidiaries made improper payments of over $3.6 million to government officials and third-party facilitators in Costa Rica, Egypt, Vietnam, Indonesia, the United Arab Emirates, Myanmar and Bangladesh, between 1983 and 2007, to obtain and retain insurance contracts.<ref>{{cite web \|url = https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/2011/lr22203.htm \|title = SEC Files Settled FCPA Charges Against AON Corporation \|author = US Securities and Exchange Commission \|publisher = US Securities and Exchange Commission \|date = 20 December 2011 \|url-status = live \|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170531054322/https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/2011/lr22203.htm \|archive-date = 31 May 2017 }}</ref> Major acquisitions On 5 January 2007, Aon announced that its Aon Affinity group had acquired the WedSafe Wedding Insurance program.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://aon.mediaroom.com/news-releases?item62692\|titleAon's Affinity Business Acquires WedSafe, Inc. Wedding Insurance and Private Event Insurance programs\|websiteAon plc Global Media Relations\|languageen\|access-date2019-02-11}}</ref> On 22 August 2008, Aon announced that it had acquired London-based Benfield Group. The acquiring price was US$1.75 billion or £935 million, with US$170 million of debt.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.marketwatch.com/story/aon-to-buy-benfield-for-14-billion \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140102223853/http://www.marketwatch.com/story/aon-to-buy-benfield-for-14-billion \|archive-date2 January 2014 \| titleAon to buy Benfield for $1.4 billion \| date22 August 2008 \| firstSteve \| lastGoldstein \| access-date15 November 2019 }}</ref> On 5 March 2010, Hewitt Associates announced that it acquired Senior Educators Ltd. The acquisition offers companies a new way to address retiree medical insurance commitments.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s114&item27 \|titleHewitt Associates Acquires Senior Educators Ltd \|workAon \|date5 March 2010 \|access-date23 February 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120322195405/http://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s114&item27 \|archive-date22 March 2012 }}</ref> On 12 July 2010, Aon announced that it had agreed to buy Lincolnshire, Illinois-based Hewitt Associates for $4.9 billion in cash and stock.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://chicagobreakingbusiness.com/2010/07/aon-agrees-to-buy-hewitt-associates.html \|titleAon agrees to buy Hewitt Associates \|publisherChicago Breaking Business \|authorBruce Japsen and Becky Yerak \|date12 July 2010 \|access-date24 February 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100715063324/http://chicagobreakingbusiness.com/2010/07/aon-agrees-to-buy-hewitt-associates.html \|archive-date=15 July 2010 }}</ref> On 7 April 2011, Aon announced that it had acquired Johannesburg, South Africa-based Glenrand MIB. Financial terms were not disclosed.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s25776&item64193 \|titleAon South Africa Receives Competition Commission Approval for Acquisition of Glenrand MIB \|workBloomberg BusinessWeek \|date7 April 2011 \|access-date18 March 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130530171512/http://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s25776&item64193 \|archive-date30 May 2013}}</ref> On 19 July 2011, Aon announced that it bought Westfield Financial Corp., the owner of insurance-industry consulting firm Ward Financial Group, from Ohio Farmers Insurance Co. Financial terms were not disclosed.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9OIPS5O0.htm \|titleAon buys Ward Financial; terms not disclosed \|workBloomberg BusinessWeek \|date19 July 2011 \|access-date24 February 2012 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121102082339/http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9OIPS5O0.htm \|archive-date2 November 2012}}</ref> On 22 October 2012, Aon announced that it agreed to buy OmniPoint, Inc, a Workday consulting firm. Financial terms were not disclosed.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://finance.yahoo.com/news/aon-corp-acqire-omnipoints-workday-130757002.html \|titleAon Corp. to acquire OmniPoint's Workday Services company \|date22 October 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160427004557/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/aon-corp-acqire-omnipoints-workday-130757002.html \|archive-date27 April 2016}}</ref> On 16 June 2014, Aon announced that it agreed to buy National Flood Services, Inc., a large processor of flood insurance, from Stoneriver Group, L.P.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nasdaq.com/article/aon-to-acquire-national-flood-services-boost-flood-insurance-biz-analyst-blog-cm362192 \|titleAon to Acquire National Flood Services, Boost Flood Insurance Biz - Analyst Blog \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140715124906/http://www.nasdaq.com/article/aon-to-acquire-national-flood-services-boost-flood-insurance-biz-analyst-blog-cm362192 \|archive-date=15 July 2014}}</ref> On 31 October 2016, Aon's Aon Risk Solutions completed acquisition of Stroz Friedberg LLC, a specialised risk management firm focusing on cybersecurity.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.strozfriedberg.com/press-release/aon-completes-acquisition-of-risk-management-firm-stroz-friedberg/ \|titleAon Completes Acquisition of Risk Management Firm Stroz Friedberg \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202005618/https://www.strozfriedberg.com/press-release/aon-completes-acquisition-of-risk-management-firm-stroz-friedberg/ \|archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref> On 14 November 2016, Aon acquired CoCubes an online Indian Assessment firm, facilitating hiring of entry-level engineering graduates.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/aon-hewitt-acquires-indias-cocubes/articleshow/55416397.cms\|titleAon Hewitt acquires India's CoCubes\|date14 November 2016\|newspaperThe Economic Times\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171021005741/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/small-biz/startups/aon-hewitt-acquires-indias-cocubes/articleshow/55416397.cms\|archive-date=21 October 2017}}</ref> On 10 February 2017, Aon plc agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for US$4.8 billion (£3.8 billion)<ref name="reuters.com"/> to Blackstone Group L.P. (BX.N), creating a new company called Alight Solutions.<ref>{{Citation \|last = Jamerson \|first = Joshua \|date = 10 February 2017 \|title = Blackstone to Buy Aon's Human Resources Outsourcing Platform for $4.3 Billion \|publisher = The Wall Street Journal \|location = New York City \|url https://www.wsj.com/articles/blackstone-to-buy-aons-human-resources-outsourcing-platform-for-4-3-billion-1486728608?teslay \|url-status = live \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20170211155103/https://www.wsj.com/articles/blackstone-to-buy-aons-human-resources-outsourcing-platform-for-4-3-billion-1486728608?teslay \|archive-date = 11 February 2017 }}</ref> In September 2017, Aon announced its intent to purchase real estate investment management firm The Townsend Group from Colony NorthStar for $475 million, expanding Aon's property investment management portfolio.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Roumeliotis\|first1Greg\|titleAon to buy real estate investment firm Townsend from Colony NorthStar\|urlhttps://in.reuters.com/article/us-townsend-m-a-aon-plc/aon-to-buy-real-estate-investment-firm-townsend-from-colony-northstar-idINKCN1BC5WD\|access-date5 September 2017\|workReuters\|issue1 September 2017\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170905043434/http://in.reuters.com/article/us-townsend-m-a-aon-plc/aon-to-buy-real-estate-investment-firm-townsend-from-colony-northstar-idINKCN1BC5WD\|archive-date5 September 2017}}</ref> On 9 March 2020, Aon announced its merger with Willis Towers Watson<ref>{{Cite news \|url https://www.wsj.com/articles/aon-to-merge-with-willis-towers-watson-in-all-stock-deal-valued-at-30-billion-11583758247 \|title Insurance Broker Aon Strikes Year's Biggest M&A Deal on Tumultuous Markets Day\| newspaperWSJ \| last1Dummett \| first1Ben }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.globallegalchronicle.com/aons-80-billion-merger-with-willis-towers-watson/\|titleAon's $80 Billion Merger With Willis Towers Watson – Global Legal Chronicle\|date11 March 2020 \|languageen-US\|access-date2020-03-11}}</ref> for nearly $30 billion in an all-stock deal that creates the world's largest insurance broker.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/ebauer/2020/03/09/aon-buys-willis-towers-watson-another-waypoint-in-the-demise-of-employer-pensions/\|titleAon Buys Willis Towers Watson: Another Waypoint in the Demise of Employer Pensions \|lastBauer\|firstElizabeth\|websiteForbes\|languageen\|access-date2020-03-27}}</ref> As of 21 May 2020, Willis board was under probe over merger agreement with Aon.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.insurancebusinessmag.com/uk/news/breaking-news/willis-towers-watson-board-under-probe-over-merger-agreement-with-aon-222934.aspx\|titleWillis Towers Watson board under probe over merger agreement with Aon\|lastGangcuangco\|firstTerry\|websiteInsurance Business Mag\|languageen\|access-date2020-05-21}}</ref> The deal was called off in July 2021.<ref>{{cite news \|author1Ben Dummett \|author2Leslie Scism \|author3Dave Sebastian \|titleAon, Willis Towers Scrap $30 Billion Merger Amid Antitrust Impasse \|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/aon-willis-towers-watson-scrap-roughly-30-billion-merger-11627302853?modhp_lead_pos1 \|access-date26 July 2021 \|workThe Wall Street Journal \|date=26 July 2021}}</ref> In December 2023, Aon agreed to acquire NFP, a middle-market provider of risk, benefits, wealth and retirement plan advisory services company, for $13.4&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{Cite news \|date2023-12-20 \|titleAon Agrees to Buy NFP for About $13.4 Billion in Cash and Stock \|languageen \|workBloomberg.com \|urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-12-20/aon-agrees-to-buy-nfp-for-about-13-4-billion-in-cash-and-stock \|access-date2023-12-20 \|last1Joshua \|first1Josyana \|last2Smith \|first2Alison Nicole \|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In March 2024, Aon plc acquired the technology assets and intellectual property of Humn.ai, an AI-powered platform. This will enhance its commercial fleet proposition. <ref>{{Cite news \|titleAon acquires Humn.ai’s technology assets \|languageen \| workCoverager.com\|urlhttps://coverager.com/aon-acquires-humn-ais-technology-assets/ \|access-date2024-03-07 \|last1Ben-Hutta\| first1Avi \|date 7 March 2024}}</ref> Operations Manchester United On 3 June 2009, it was reported that Aon had signed a four-year shirt sponsorship deal with English football giant Manchester United. On 1 June 2010, Aon replaced American insurance company AIG as the principal sponsor of the club. The Aon logo was prominently displayed on the front of the club's shirts until the 2014/2015 season when Chevrolet replaced them.<ref name"ManUtd">{{cite web \|urlhttp://espnfc.com/news/story?id652383&secengland&&cc5901 \|titleMan Utd announce new shirt deal with Aon \|workESPN Soccernet \|date3 June 2009 \|access-date24 February 2012 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140117203721/http://espnfc.com/news/story?id652383&secengland&&cc5901 \|archive-date17 January 2014}}</ref> The deal was said to be worth £80 million over four years, replacing United's deal with AIG as the most lucrative shirt deal in history at the time.<ref name"ManUtd" /> In April 2013, Aon signed a new eight-year deal with Manchester United to rename their training ground as the Aon Training Complex and sponsor the club's training kits, reportedly worth £180 million to the club.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Ogden\|first1Mark\|titleManchester United to sign £180m Aon deal to change name of Carrington training base\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/manchester-united/9977438/Manchester-United-to-sign-180m-Aon-deal-to-change-name-of-Carrington-training-base.html\|access-date29 July 2014\|newspaperThe Telegraph\|date7 April 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140315215033/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/teams/manchester-united/9977438/Manchester-United-to-sign-180m-Aon-deal-to-change-name-of-Carrington-training-base.html\|archive-date15 March 2014}}</ref> Awards * Aon was awarded Investment Consultancy of the Year and Fiduciary Manager of the Year at the FT's 2014 Pension and Investment Provider Awards<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.pensions-expert.com/Special-Features/Pension-and-Investment-Provider-Awards-2014-the-winners \|titlePension and investment provider awards 2014 \|access-date21 April 2015 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150419121120/http://www.pensions-expert.com/Special-Features/Pension-and-Investment-Provider-Awards-2014-the-winners \|archive-date19 April 2015}}</ref> * Aon received a perfect score on the Human Rights Campaign's 2013 Corporate Equality Index<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.hrc.org/files/assets/resources/CEI_2013_Final_low.pdf.pdf \|titleCorporate Equality Index 2013 \|workHuman Rights Campaign \|access-date24 May 2013 \|archive-date28 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728060656/https://hrc.org/files/assets/resources/CEI_2013_Final_low.pdf.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref> * Aon was named to Working Mother's list of the 100 Best Companies for 2012<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.workingmother.com/best-companies/aon-1 \|titleAon \|workWorking Mother \|access-date24 May 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130606151416/http://www.workingmother.com/best-companies/aon-1 \|archive-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> * Aon Risk Solutions was the most recommended broker in 2012 for service and expertise by middle market buyers in Business Insurance's Buyers Choice Awards<ref name"Awards & Accolades">{{cite web\|urlhttp://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s25792\|titleAwards & Accolades\|workAon Media Room\|access-date24 May 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130524013006/http://aon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s25792\|archive-date24 May 2013}}</ref> * Aon Risk Solutions was named Broker of the Year and Training Programme of the Year in 2012 by Insurance Times<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://aon.mediaroom.com/2012-12-5-An-award-winning-night-for-Aon-at-the-Insurance-Times-Awards \|titleAon Media Room \|workAon \|access-date24 May 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130525144814/http://aon.mediaroom.com/2012-12-5-An-award-winning-night-for-Aon-at-the-Insurance-Times-Awards \|archive-date=25 May 2013}}</ref> * Aon Benfield was named 2012 European Reinsurance Broker of the Year, Best European Property Reinsurance Broker and Best European Casualty Reinsurance Broker at the European Intelligent Insurer Awards<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.intelligentinsurer.com/article/on-top-of-the-world \|titleOn Top of the World \|workIntelligent Insurer \|access-date24 May 2013 \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131014024256/http://www.intelligentinsurer.com/article/on-top-of-the-world \|archive-date=14 October 2013}}</ref> * Aon Benfield was named Best Global Reinsurance Broking Company for Analytics at Reactions Global Awards 2012<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.reactionsnet.com/stub/awards.html \|titleAwards \|workReactions \|access-date24 May 2013 \|url-statususurped \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130328113804/http://www.reactionsnet.com/Stub/Awards.html \|archive-date=28 March 2013 }}</ref> * Aon Hewitt was named Top Retirement Consultant of 2012 by PLANSPONSOR Magazine2<ref name"Awards & Accolades"/><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.plansponsor.com/event/default.aspx?id6442482893\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120412133814/http://www.plansponsor.com/event/default.aspx?id6442482893\|url-statusdead\|archive-date12 April 2012\|titleAwards for Excellence 2012\|workPLANSPONSOR\|access-date2 January 2014}}</ref> * Aon Hewitt was named Actuarial and Investment Consultant of the Year for 2012 at the Professional Pensions Awards<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.professionalpensions.com/professional-pensions/news/2173708/uk-pensions-awards-2012-winners\|titleUK Pensions Awards 2012 – The Winners\|workProfessional Pensions\|date10 May 2012 \|access-date24 May 2013\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120830085233/http://www.professionalpensions.com/professional-pensions/news/2173708/uk-pensions-awards-2012-winners\|archive-date30 August 2012}}</ref> References {{Reflist}} External links * {{Official website}} {{Commons category\|Aon}} {{Finance links \| name = Aon plc \| symbol = AON \| sec_cik = 315293 \| yahoo = AON \| google = AON:NYSE }} {{Major insurance companies}} {{Consulting}} {{Authority control}} Category:Actuarial firms Category:Companies based in London Category:Financial services companies based in the City of London Category:Financial services companies established in 1982 Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange Category:Financial services companies of the United States Category:Consulting firms established in 1982 Category:Tax inversions Category:Risk management companies Category:Human resource management consulting firms Category:Insurance companies of the United Kingdom Category:International management consulting firms Category:Management consulting firms of the United Kingdom Category:Consulting firms of the United States Category:British brands Category:Dual-listed companies Category:1982 establishments in Michigan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aon_(company)	2025-04-05T18:26:03.740055
2406	Alban Berg	{{short description\|Austrian composer (1885–1935)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox person \| name = Alban Berg \| image = Alban Berg (1885–1935) ~1930 © Max Fenichel (1885–1942).jpg \| alt \| caption Berg {{circa\|1930}} \| birth_date {{birth date\|1885\|2\|9\|dfy}} \| birth_place = Vienna, Austria-Hungary \| death_date {{death date and age\|1935\|12\|24\|1885\|2\|9\|dfy}} \| death_place = Vienna, Federal State of Austria \| nationality \| other_names \| spouse = {{marriage\|{{ill\|Helene Nahowski\|de\|Helene Berg}}\|1911}} \| children \| education \| occupation = Composer \| works = List of compositions }} Alban Maria Johannes Berg ({{IPAc-en\|b\|ɛər\|g}} {{respell\|BAIRG}},<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.dictionary.com/browse/alban-berg?sts \|titleBerg \|websiteRandom House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary \|access-date4 December 2019 \|archive-date25 July 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725013512/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/alban-berg?sts \|url-status=dead }}</ref> {{IPA\|de\|ˈalbaːn ˈbɛʁk\|lang}}; 9 February 1885 – 24 December 1935) was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with the twelve-tone technique.{{sfn\|Baron\|2010}} Although he left a relatively small oeuvre, he is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century for his expressive style encompassing "entire worlds of emotion and structure".{{sfn\|Headlam\|2013}} Berg was born and lived in Vienna. He began to compose at the age of fifteen. He studied counterpoint, music theory and harmony with Arnold Schoenberg between 1904 and 1911, and adopted his principles of developing variation and the twelve-tone technique. Berg's major works include the operas Wozzeck (1924) and Lulu (1935, finished posthumously), the chamber pieces Lyric Suite and Chamber Concerto, as well as a Violin Concerto. He also composed a number of songs (lieder). He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system; his works are seen as more "emotional" than those of Schoenberg.{{sfn\|Ewen\|1952\|p20}} His music had a surface glamour that won him admirers when Schoenberg himself had few.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastNorwich\|firstJohn Julius\|author-linkJohn Julius Norwich\|oclc11814265\|titleOxford Illustrated Encyclopedia\|date1985–1993\|publisherOxford University Press\|othersJudge, Harry George., Toyne, Anthony.\|isbn978-0-19-869129-7\|locationOxford [England]\|page44}}</ref> Berg died from sepsis in 1935. Life and career Early life {{Quote box \| bgcolor = #FFFFF0 \| width = 30% \| salign = right \| quote [... T]here are things that can't be measured by the yardstick of Nature – – things that have sprung solely from the human spirit, towering far above the material world—things that are real only in our longing for them, 'when the sublime and beautiful things, the good and wise things, that we long for, turn into reality—not a reality that can be picked and put in the mouth or that can be counted and put in one's pocket!' ({{ill\|Otto Ernst (writer)\|de\|Otto Ernst (Schriftsteller)\|ltOtto Ernst}}). <br>{{in5\|5}}Music is like that – – – and quite a few literary works that are written from within a longing-filled heart! – – : – – <br>{{in5\|5}}– I've now got to ''A Doll's House''. ... ---- Berg wrote in a typically freewheeling manner to share his reading of Ibsen's ''A Doll's House'' with Watznauer on October 18, 1906,{{sfn\|Hailey\|2010a\|loc77}} here quoting from Ernst's [https://www.projekt-gutenberg.org/ernst/strandlb/strandlb.html Meersymphonie]{{sfn\|Hailey\|2010a\|loc89}} in relating music to dreams, fantasies, feelings, and desires, especially those of a counterfactual and universal nature.{{efn\|As Ernst continues, in fuller context: "Otherwise we would no longer have any longing, and that would be the end of us. It is a reality that one feels with sensuous certainty in one's brain and heart, eyes and ears, nose and tongue, hands and hair roots, blood and all the nerves and muscles of the body! ... An artist is a person who has heightened senses. ... And they see in words and sounds ... a happier world. And their eye can open a hundred thousand eyes ..." ("Dann hättet ihr keine Sehnsucht mehr, und das wäre das Ende der Menschheit. Aber doch ist es eine Wirklichkeit, die ihr im Hirn und im Herzen, in Augen und Ohren, in Nase und Zunge, in Händen und Haarwurzeln, in Blut und allen Nerven und Muskeln eures Leibes mit sinnlicher Gewißheit fühlt! ... Ein Künstler ist ein Mensch, der selige Sinne hat. ... Und sie sehen in Worten und Tönen ... einer beglückteren Welt. Und sein Auge vermag hunderttausend Augen aufzutun ...").}} Such themes predominate in Berg's often quasi-autobiographical and programmatic œuvre,<ref>{{harvnb\|Bruhn\|1998\|locxv–xvi}}; {{harvnb\|Johnson\|2006\|loc211–213}}.</ref> not only romantically{{efn\|Alwa, a semi-autobiographical role in Lulu, is defined above all by his infatuated idealization of Lulu, just as the Lyric Suite is defined by Berg's infatuation with the idea of Hanna Fuchs-Robettin; but unlike Berg, who did not consummate his affair with Hanna, Alwa "is unable to sublimate his sinful passion"{{sfn\|Perle\|1985\|loc190}} for his muse. On at least one occasion (likely spring 1907), echoing a passage from Frank Wedekind's Erdgeist, which he had seen in Vienna, Berg wrote to his wife {{ill\|Helene Karoline Berg\|de\|ltHelene}}: "Again and again I kiss that hand of yours, my most glorious Symphony in D minor";{{sfn\|Breivik\|1998\|loc113}} likewise Alwa sings, in a prominent episode full of kisses, a fanatical hymn comparing Lulu's features to music, with Wedekind's text modified to correspond roughly to music from the Lyric Suite (e.g., "these knees: a misterioso").{{sfn\|Perle\|1985\|loc59}}}} as in his Lyric Suite, but also socially as in Lulu,{{sfn\|Johnson\|2006\|loc211–213}} politically as in Wozzeck,{{efn\|At the very beginning as he shaves his Hauptmann, Wozzeck sings, "Poor folks like us! ... Money! If one has none! ... if I were a gentleman ... I'd be virtuous ... it must be a fine thing to be ... But ... our kind is unlucky in this world and in the next".<ref>{{harvnb\|Johnson\|2006\|loc211–213}}; {{harvnb\|Perle\|1980\|loc45}}.</ref> Like Wozzeck, Berg was a soldier and saw in him "a bit of me ... since I have been spending these war years just as dependent on people I hate, have been in chains, sick, captive, resigned, in fact humiliated" (letter to Helene, August 7, 1918).{{sfn\|Perle\|1980\|loc20}}}} and even mortally as in his Violin Concerto. By contrast, Webern, who also started studying with Schoenberg in 1904, took from an evening with Mahler in 1905 that: "Nature is for us the model ...."{{sfn\|Johnson\|1999\|loc=40}} }} Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Konrad Berg. His father ran a successful export business, and the family owned several estates in Vienna and the countryside. The family's financial situation turned to the worse after the death of Konrad Berg in 1900, and it particularly affected young Berg, who had to repeat both his sixth and seventh grade to pass the exams.{{sfn\|Jarman\|2001}} One of his closest lifelong friends and earliest biographer (under the pseudonym Hermann Herrenried), architect Hermann Watznauer, became a father figure (partly at Konrad's request),{{sfn\|Hailey\|2010a\|loc33}} being ten years Berg's senior. Berg wrote him letters as long as thirty pages, often in florid, dramatic prose with idiosyncratic punctuation.{{sfn\|Monson\|1979\|loc6, 42, 346}}{{efn\|These were habits that Berg sought to moderate in time, not only with maturity, but also especially under the increasing influence of Schoenberg.}} Berg was more interested in literature than music as a child and would consider a career as a writer several times, turning to music slowly and at times unconfidently{{efn\|The duress of Schoenberg's criticisms provoked crises of confidence.}} until the success of Wozzeck. He did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music, although he did take piano lessons from his sister's governess.{{sfn\|Perle\|1980\|loc=2}} With Marie Scheuchl, a maid in the family estate of Berghof in Carinthia and fifteen years his senior, he fathered a daughter, Albine, born 4 December 1902.{{sfn\|Jarman\|1990}} In 1906 Berg met the singer {{ill\|Helene Nahowski\|de\|Helene Berg}} (1885–1976), daughter of a wealthy family (rumoured to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Franz Joseph I from his liaison with Anna Nahowski).<ref>{{cite book\|lastMarkus\|firstGeorg\|author-link:de:Georg Markus\|titleDer Kaiser Franz Joseph I.: Bilder und Dokumente\|languagede\|publisherAmalthea\|year1985\|isbn9783850022057\|page{{page needed\|dateOctober 2023}}}}; {{cite book\|authorAnna Nahowski\|editorFriedrich Saathen\|titleAnna Nahowski und Kaiser Franz Joseph\|languagede\|publisherBöhlau\|year1986\|page{{page needed\|dateOctober 2023}}\|isbn978-3205050377}}</ref> Despite the outward hostility of her family, the couple married on 3 May 1911, although "her father insisted on a Protestant ceremony to facilitate the divorce he foresaw as inevitable."{{sfn\|Pople\|1997\|p260}} Early works (1907–1914) With little prior music education, Berg began studying counterpoint, music theory, and harmony under Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904.<ref>Schoenberg, Arnold. Trans. Joe Monzo.{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.sonic-arts.org/monzo/schoenberg/harm/monzo-intro.htm\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20030927035727/http://sonic-arts.org/monzo/schoenberg/harm/monzo-intro.htm\|archive-date27 September 2003\|titleSchoenberg's Harmonielehre\|url-statusdead\|access-date1 July 2016}}</ref> By 1906 he was studying music full-time; by 1907 he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas. He also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs (Sieben frühe Lieder), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that year.{{sfn\|Pople\|1997\|p=56}} The early sketches eventually culminated in the Piano Sonata, Op. 1, published in 1910 and likely composed 1908{{ndash}}1909;{{sfn\|Jarman\|1990\|p43}} it has been described as one of the most formidable "first" works ever written.{{sfn\|Lauder\|1986}} Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Among Schoenberg's teachings was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea; this idea was later known as developing variation. Berg passed this on to his students, one of whom, Theodor W. Adorno, stated: "The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different".{{sfn\|Adorno\|Berg\|2005\|p33}} The Piano Sonata is an example—the whole composition is derived from the work's opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.mariinsky-theatre.com/company/other/composer/Alban_Berg/\|titleAlban Berg – Composer\|websitewww.mariinsky-theatre.com\|access-date2 October 2018\|archive-date3 December 2019\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191203040945/https://www.mariinsky-theatre.com/company/other/composer/Alban_Berg/\|url-status=live}}</ref> Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. \|access-date=4 October 2023}}</ref>]] In 1913 two of Berg's Altenberg Lieder (1912) premiered in Vienna, conducted by Schoenberg in the infamous Skandalkonzert. Settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted. Berg effectively withdrew the work, and it was not performed in full until 1952. The full score remained unpublished until 1966.{{sfn\|Taruskin\|2010}} Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to structure several works. Various suggestions have been made as to the reason for this interest: that he took it from the biorhythms theory of Wilhelm Fliess, in which a 23-day cycle is considered significant,{{sfn\|Jarman\|1983\|pages218–223}} or because he first suffered an asthma attack on the 23rd of the month.{{sfn\|Jarman\|1985\|page228–230}} Wozzeck (1917–1924) and Lulu (1928–1929) From 1915 to 1918 Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army. During a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, Wozzeck. After the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run his Society for Private Musical Performances, which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeat performances, and the exclusion of professional critics. In 1924 three excerpts from Wozzeck were performed, which brought Berg his first public success. The opera, which Berg completed in 1922, was first performed on 14 December 1925, when Erich Kleiber conducted the first performance in Berlin. Today, Wozzeck is seen as one of the century's most important works. Berg made a start on his second opera, the three-act Lulu, in 1928 but interrupted the work in 1929 for the concert aria Der Wein which he completed that summer. Der Wein presaged Lulu in a number of ways, including vocal style, orchestration, design and text.{{sfn\|Antokoletz\|2014\|p[https://books.google.com/books?idqrkTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 55]}} Other well-known Berg compositions include the Lyric Suite (1926), which was later shown to employ elaborate cyphers to document a secret love affair; the post-Mahlerian Three Pieces for Orchestra (completed in 1915 but not performed until after Wozzeck); and the Chamber Concerto (Kammerkonzert, 1923–25) for violin, piano, and 13 wind instruments: this latter is written so conscientiously that Pierre Boulez has called it "Berg's strictest composition" and it, too, is permeated by cyphers and posthumously disclosed hidden programs.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://musopen.org/fr/education/instrument/piano/great-composers/20th-century-composers/alban-berg/\|titleAlban Berg\|websitemusopen.org\|languagefr\|access-date23 August 2018\|archive-date24 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180824002422/https://musopen.org/fr/education/instrument/piano/great-composers/20th-century-composers/alban-berg/\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It was at this time he began exhibiting tone clusters in his works after meeting with American avant-garde composer Henry Cowell, with whom he would eventually form a lifelong friendship.<ref>Sachs, Joel (2012). Henry Cowell: A Man Made of Music, pp. 191–192. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-19-510895-8}}</ref> Final years (1930–1935) ]] Life for the musical world was becoming increasingly difficult in the 1930s both in Vienna and Germany due to the rising tide of antisemitism and the Nazi cultural ideology that denounced modernity. Even to have an association with someone who was Jewish could lead to denunciation, and Berg's "crime" was to have studied with the Jewish composer Arnold Schoenberg. Berg found that opportunities for his work to be performed in Germany were becoming rare, and eventually his music was proscribed and placed on the list of degenerate music.{{sfn\|Notley\|2010}} In 1932 Berg and his wife acquired an isolated lodge, the Waldhaus on the southern shore of the Wörthersee, near Schiefling am See in Carinthia, where he was able to work in seclusion, mainly on Lulu and the Violin Concerto.{{sfn\|Hailey\|2010a}} At the end of 1934, Berg became involved in the political intrigues around finding a replacement for Clemens Krauss as director of the Vienna State Opera. As more of the performances of his work in Germany were cancelled by the Nazis, who had come to power in early 1933, he needed to ensure the new director would be an advocate for modernist music. Originally, the premiere of Lulu had been planned for the Berlin State Opera, where Erich Kleiber continued to champion his music and had conducted the premiere of Wozzeck in 1925, but now this was looking increasingly uncertain, and Lulu was rejected by the Berlin authorities in the spring of 1934. Kleiber's production of the Lulu symphonic suite on 30 November 1934 in Berlin was also the occasion of his resignation in protest at the extent of conflation of culture with politics. Even in Vienna, the opportunities for the Vienna School of musicians were dwindling.{{sfn\|Notley\|2010}} Berg had interrupted the orchestration of Lulu because of an unexpected (and financially much-needed) commission from the Russian-American violinist Louis Krasner for a Violin Concerto (1935). This profoundly elegiac work, composed at unaccustomed speed and posthumously premiered, has become one of Berg's frequently performed compositions. Like much of his mature work, it employs an idiosyncratic adaptation of Schoenberg's "dodecaphonic" or twelve-tone technique, that enables the composer to produce passages openly evoking tonality, including quotations from historical tonal music, such as a Bach chorale and a Carinthian folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated "to the memory of an Angel", Manon Gropius, the deceased daughter of architect Walter Gropius and Alma Mahler.{{sfn\|Pople\|1991\|page28}}Death Berg died aged 50 in Vienna, on Christmas Eve 1935, from blood poisoning apparently caused by a furuncle on his back, induced by an insect sting that occurred in November.<ref>Steinberg, Michael (1998). ''The Concerto: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 95</ref> He was buried at the Hietzing Cemetery in Vienna. Before he died, Berg had completed the orchestration of only the first two of the three acts of Lulu''. The completed acts were successfully premièred in Zürich in 1937. For personal reasons Helene Berg subsequently imposed a ban on any attempt to "complete" the final act, which Berg had in fact completed in short score.{{sfn\|Jarman\|1991\|p46}} An orchestration was therefore commissioned in secret from Friedrich Cerha and premièred in Paris (under Pierre Boulez) only in 1979, soon after Helene Berg's own death.Legacy , Carinthia, Austria]] Berg is remembered as one of the most important composers of the 20th century and the most widely performed opera composer among the Second Viennese School.{{sfn\|Jarman\|2001}} He is said to have brought more "human values" to the twelve-tone system, his works seen as more "emotional" than Schoenberg's.{{sfn\|Ewen\|1952\|p=20}} Critically, he is seen as having preserved the Viennese tradition in his music.{{sfn\|Jarman\|2001}} Berg scholar Douglas Jarman writes in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians that "[as] the 20th century closed, the 'backward-looking' Berg suddenly came as [George] Perle remarked, to look like its most forward-looking composer."{{sfn\|Jarman\|2001}} The Alban Berg Foundation, founded by the composer's widow in 1969, cultivates the memory and works of the composer, and awards scholarships.<ref>[https://absw.at/stiftung-geschichte "Geschichte der Alban Berg Stiftung"] Alban Berg Stiftung. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</ref> The Alban Berg Monument, situated next to the Vienna State Opera and unveiled in 2016, was funded by the Foundation.<ref>[http://www.absw.at/stiftung-denkmal "Das Alban Berg Denkmal vor der Wiener Staatsoper"] Alban Berg Stiftung. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</ref> The Alban Berg Quartett was a string quartet named after him, active from 1971 until 2008. The asteroid 4528 Berg is named after him (1983).<ref>{{cite book\|lastSchmadel\|firstLutz\|author-linkLutz D. Schmadel\|titleDictionary of Minor Planet Names\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVoJ5nUyIzCsC\|year2003\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-3-540-00238-3\|page390\|access-date4 December 2019\|archive-date14 November 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201114030533/https://books.google.com/books?idVoJ5nUyIzCsC\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Major compositions {{See also\|List of compositions by Alban Berg}} Piano :Piano Sonata, Op. 1 {{visible anchor\|Chamber}} :String Quartet, Op. 3 :Lyric Suite, string quartet :Chamber Concerto (1925) for piano, violin and 13 wind instruments Orchestral :Three Pieces for Orchestra, Op. 6 :Violin Concerto Vocal :Seven Early Songs :Vier Lieder (Four Songs), Op. 2 :Five Orchestral Songs on Postcard Texts of Peter Altenberg, Op. 4 :Der Wein :Schließe mir die Augen beide Operas :Wozzeck, Op. 7 (1925) :Lulu (1937) Notes and references Notes {{Notelist\|30em}} References {{reflist}} Sources {{div col\|colwidth=45em}} * {{cite book\|last1Adorno\|first1Theodor W.\|author-link1Theodor W. Adorno\|last2Berg\|first2Alban\|editor-lastLonitz\|editor-firstHenri\|titleBriefwechsel 1925–1935\|trans-titleCorrespondence 1925–1935\|date2005\|orig-year1997\|publisherPolity\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-0-7456-9496-2\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduh4-BQAAQBAJ\|othersHoban, Wieland – translator, originally published by Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073551/https://books.google.com/books?iduh4-BQAAQBAJ\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book\|lastAntokoletz\|firstElliott\|titleA History of Twentieth-Century Music in a Theoretic-Analytical Context\|date2014\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|locationHoboken\|isbn978-1-135-03730-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqrkTAwAAQBAJ\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073613/https://books.google.com/books?idqrkTAwAAQBAJ\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite book\|lastBaron\|firstJohn H.\|titleChamber Music: A Research and Information Guide\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddWKRAgAAQBAJ&pgPA301\|year2010\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-135-84828-6\|pages301ff\|access-date29 October 2016\|archive-date16 February 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170216103647/https://books.google.com/books?iddWKRAgAAQBAJ&pgPA301\|url-statuslive}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Breivik\|1998}}\|referenceBreivik, Magnar. 1998. "The Representation of Sleep and Death in Berg's Piano Songs, op.2". In Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music, ed. Siglind Bruhn, 109–136. Border Crossings Series. London: Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN\|978-1-136-52287-1}}.}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Bruhn\|1998}}\|referenceBruhn, Siglind. 1998. "Editor's Introduction". In Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music, ed. Siglind Bruhn, xv–xvi. Border Crossings Series. London: Taylor & Francis. {{ISBN\|978-1-136-52287-1}}.}} * {{cite book\|lastEwen\|firstDavid\|titleThe Complete Book of 20th Century Music\|editionrevised\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhPA5vQEACAAJ\|year1952\|publisherPrentice-Hall\|access-date4 December 2019\|archive-date25 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725015710/https://books.google.com/books?idhPA5vQEACAAJ\|url-status=live}} * {{cite book\|editor-lastHailey\|editor-firstChristopher\|titleAlban Berg and His World\|date2010\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|locationPrinceton, New Jersey\|isbn978-1-4008-3647-5\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDO04-IuTw1oC\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073510/https://books.google.com/books?idDO04-IuTw1oC\|url-statuslive}} * {{harvc\|lastHailey\|firstChristopher\|chapterBerg's Worlds\|anchor-year2010a\|year2010\|pages3–32\|in=Hailey}} * {{cite book\|lastHeadlam\|firstDave\|editor-firstMurray\|editor-lastSteib\|titleReader's Guide to Music: History, Theory and Criticism\|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSg1EAgAAQBAJ&pgPA78\|chapterBerg, Alban 1885–1935\|year2013\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-1-135-94262-5\|page78ff\|access-date2 December 2019\|archive-date25 July 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725015620/https://books.google.com/books?idSg1EAgAAQBAJ&pgPA78\|url-status=live}} * {{cite journal \|lastJarman \|firstDouglas \|titleAlban Berg, Wilhelm Fliess and the Secret Programme of the Violin Concerto \|journalThe Musical Times\|volume124 \|issue1682 \|dateApril 1983\|pages218–223 \|jstor962034 \|doi10.2307/962034 }} * {{cite book\|last1Jarman\|first1Douglas\|titleThe Music of Alban Berg\|date1985\|orig-year1979\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|locationBerkeley\|isbn978-0-520-04954-3\|editionRevised\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-84UtteI-F0C\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073708/https://books.google.com/books?id-84UtteI-F0C\|url-statuslive}} * {{Cite book\|lastJarman\|firstDouglas\|titleThe Berg Companion\|date1990\|publisherNortheastern University Press\|isbn978-1-55553-068-6\|locationBoston\|oclc19739582}} * {{cite book\|last1Jarman\|first1Douglas\|titleAlban Berg: Lulu\|date1991\|publisherCambridge University Press\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-0-521-28480-6\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNGY4AAAAIAAJ\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073621/https://books.google.com/books?idNGY4AAAAIAAJ\|url-statuslive}} * {{cite Grove\|lastJarman\|firstDouglas\|titleBerg, Alban (Maria Johannes)\|id02767\|year=2001}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Johnson\|1999}}\|referenceJohnson, Julian. 1999. Webern and the Transformation of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-66149-2}}.}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Johnson\|2006}}\|referenceJohnson, Julius. 2006. "Anton Webern, the Social Democratic Kunstelle and Musical Modernism." Austrian Studies 14(1):197–213.}} * {{cite thesis\|lastLauder\|firstRobert Neil\|titleTwo Early Piano Works of Alban Berg: A Stylistic and Structural Analysis\|typethesis\|locationChapel Hill\|publisherUniversity of North Carolina\|year=1986}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Monson\|1979}}\|referenceMonson, Karen. 1979. Alban Berg: A Biography. Reprinted, London: Macdonald and Jane's. 1980. {{ISBN\|978-0-354-04464-6}}.}} * {{harvc\|lastNotley\|firstMargaret\|chapter1934, Alban Berg, and the shadow of politics: documents of a troubled year\|year2010\|pages223–268\|inHailey}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Perle\|1980}}\|referencePerle, George. 1980. The Operas of Alban Berg, Vol. I: Wozzeck. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-520-06617-5}}.}} * {{wikicite\|ref{{harvid\|Perle\|1985}}\|referencePerle, George. 1985. The Operas of Alban Berg, Vol. II: Lulu. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN\|978-0-520-06616-8}}.}} * {{Cite book\|lastPople\|firstAnthony\|titleBerg: Violin Concerto\|date1991\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-39976-0\|locationCambridge\|page28\|oclc=22314162}} * {{cite book \|last1Pople \|first1Anthony \|titleThe Cambridge Companion To Berg \|date1997 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|locationCambridge \|ol=OL1000795M}} * {{Cite book\|lastTaruskin\|firstRichard\|author-linkRichard Taruskin\|titleMusic in the Early Twentieth Century\|date2010\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0-19-538484-0\|locationNew York\|pages196\|oclc261177783}} {{div col end}} Further reading {{div col\|colwidth=45em}} * Adorno, Theodor W. Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. * Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters. New York: Norton, 1987. * Carner, Mosco. Alban Berg: The Man and the Work. London: Duckworth, 1975. * dos Santos, Silvio J. ''Narratives of Identity in Alban Berg's 'Lulu'. Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press, 2014. * Floros, Constantin. Trans. by Ernest Bernhardt-Kabisch. [http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?cPath1037_3025_3071&products_id57669 Alban Berg and Hanna Fuchs] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080304153225/http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?cPath1037_3025_3071&products_id57669 \|date4 March 2008 }}. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007. * Grun, Bernard, ed. Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife. London: Faber and Faber, 1971. * Headlam, Dave. The Music of Alban Berg.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996. Jarman, Douglas. "Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu". Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970). Jarman, Douglas. "Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu". The Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970). Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Sketches". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978). Jarman, Douglas. "Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?". Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81). Jarman, Douglas. "Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu". In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. "Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure". Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981. Jarman, Douglas. "The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu{{'}}". International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982). {{cite book\|last1Jarman\|first1Douglas\|titleAlban Berg, Wozzeck\|date1989\|publisherCambridge University Press\|locationCambridge\|isbn978-0-521-28481-3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxGm2lGZh3wsC\|refnone\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073652/https://books.google.com/books?idxGm2lGZh3wsC\|url-status=live}} * Leibowitz, René. Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949. * Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. Alban Berg, the Man and His Music. London: John Calder, 1957. * Reich, Willi. The life and work of Alban Berg. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982. * Schmalfeldt, Janet. "Berg's Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1". Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pp.&nbsp;79–110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. * Schweizer, Klaus. Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970. * {{cite book\|lastSimms\|firstBryan R.\|titleAlban Berg\|date2013\|orig-year1996\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|locationHoboken\|isbn978-1-135-84674-9\|edition2nd\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvWJlcWfpebMC\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073701/https://books.google.com/books?idvWJlcWfpebMC\|url-statuslive\|ref=none}} * {{cite book \|last1Simms\|first1Bryan\|last2Erwin\|first2Charlotte\|titleBerg\|seriesMaster Musicians\| publisherOxford University Press\|year2021\| isbn978-0-19-093144-5\|refnone}} * {{cite book\|lastWalton\|firstChris\|titleLies and Epiphanies: Composers and Their Inspiration from Wagner to Berg\|date2014\|publisherUniversity of Rochester Press\|locationRochester, New York\|isbn978-1-58046-477-2\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idm0QlBQAAQBAJ\|refnone\|access-date29 August 2017\|archive-date29 April 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200429073704/https://books.google.com/books?idm0QlBQAAQBAJ\|url-status=live}} * Wilkey, Jay Weldon. Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965. {{div col end}} External links {{Archival records\|titleWilli Reich Collection on Alban Berg, 1912–1950\|locationMusic Division, Library of Congress\|description_URL=http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.music/eadmus.mu021011}} {{wikiquote}} * {{Commons category-inline\|Alban Berg}} * [http://www.universaledition.com/Alban-Berg/composers-and-works/composer/51 Alban Berg] biography and works on the UE website (publisher) * [http://www.lieder.net/lieder/get_settings.html?ComposerId=3386 Vocal texts used by Alban Berg with translations to various languages], LiederNet Archive * {{IMSLP\|Berg, Alban}} * [http://www.pytheasmusic.org/berg.html Alban Berg at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music] * [http://albanberg.resampled.de albanberg.resampled.de] The most comprehensive acoustic representation of Alban Bergs Works in digital realisations. * {{BrahmsOnline\|IRCAM-namealban-berg\|titleAlban Berg}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230929110046/http://www.schoenberg.at/scans/Clippings/C19351224_b.pdf Alban Berg's obituary in the 24 Dec. 1935 issue of The New York Times] {{Alban Berg}} {{Navboxes \|title=Links to related articles \|list1= {{Modernist composers}} {{Second Viennese School}} {{Twelve-tone composers}} }} {{Portal bar\|Classical music\|Opera\|Austria\|Biography\|Music}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Berg, Alban}} Category:1885 births Category:1935 deaths Category:19th-century Austrian people Category:20th-century Austrian musicians Category:20th-century Austrian male musicians Category:20th-century Austrian people Category:20th-century Austrian classical composers Category:Austrian male classical composers Category:Austrian opera composers Category:Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Category:Composers from Vienna Category:Deaths due to insect bites and stings Category:Deaths from sepsis Category:Expressionist music Category:Austrian male opera composers Category:Pupils of Arnold Schoenberg Category:Second Viennese School Category:Twelve-tone and serial composers Category:Lieder composers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alban_Berg	2025-04-05T18:26:03.764560
2408	Analytical chemistry	thumb\|right\|300 px\|Gas chromatography laboratory Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to separate, identify, and quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration. Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemical methods and modern analytical techniques. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Instrumental methods may be used to separate samples using chromatography, electrophoresis or field flow fractionation. Then qualitative and quantitative analysis can be performed, often with the same instrument and may use light interaction, heat interaction, electric fields or magnetic fields. Often the same instrument can separate, identify and quantify an analyte. Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools. Analytical chemistry has broad applications to medicine, science, and engineering. History thumb\|upright\|Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (right) Analytical chemistry has been important since the early days of chemistry, providing methods for determining which elements and chemicals are present in the object in question. During this period, significant contributions to analytical chemistry included the development of systematic elemental analysis by Justus von Liebig and systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups. The first instrumental analysis was flame emissive spectrometry developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff who discovered rubidium (Rb) and caesium (Cs) in 1860. Most of the major developments in analytical chemistry took place after 1900. During this period, instrumental analysis became progressively dominant in the field. In particular, many of the basic spectroscopic and spectrometric techniques were discovered in the early 20th century and refined in the late 20th century. The separation sciences follow a similar time line of development and also became increasingly transformed into high performance instruments. In the 1970s many of these techniques began to be used together as hybrid techniques to achieve a complete characterization of samples. Starting in the 1970s, analytical chemistry became progressively more inclusive of biological questions (bioanalytical chemistry), whereas it had previously been largely focused on inorganic or small organic molecules. Lasers have been increasingly used as probes and even to initiate and influence a wide variety of reactions. The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology. Modern analytical chemistry is dominated by instrumental analysis. Many analytical chemists focus on a single type of instrument. Academics tend to either focus on new applications and discoveries or on new methods of analysis. The discovery of a chemical present in blood that increases the risk of cancer would be a discovery that an analytical chemist might be involved in. An effort to develop a new method might involve the use of a tunable laser to increase the specificity and sensitivity of a spectrometric method. Many methods, once developed, are kept purposely static so that data can be compared over long periods of time. This is particularly true in industrial quality assurance (QA), forensic and environmental applications. Analytical chemistry plays an increasingly important role in the pharmaceutical industry where, aside from QA, it is used in the discovery of new drug candidates and in clinical applications where understanding the interactions between the drug and the patient are critical. Classical methods thumb\|The presence of copper in this qualitative analysis is indicated by the bluish-green color of the flame Although modern analytical chemistry is dominated by sophisticated instrumentation, the roots of analytical chemistry and some of the principles used in modern instruments are from traditional techniques, many of which are still used today. These techniques also tend to form the backbone of most undergraduate analytical chemistry educational labs. Qualitative analysis Qualitative analysis determines the presence or absence of a particular compound, but not the mass or concentration. By definition, qualitative analyses do not measure quantity. Chemical tests There are numerous qualitative chemical tests, for example, the acid test for gold and the Kastle-Meyer test for the presence of blood. Flame test Inorganic qualitative analysis generally refers to a systematic scheme to confirm the presence of certain aqueous ions or elements by performing a series of reactions that eliminate a range of possibilities and then confirm suspected ions with a confirming test. Sometimes small carbon-containing ions are included in such schemes. With modern instrumentation, these tests are rarely used but can be useful for educational purposes and in fieldwork or other situations where access to state-of-the-art instruments is not available or expedient. Quantitative analysis Quantitative analysis is the measurement of the quantities of particular chemical constituents present in a substance. Quantities can be measured by mass (gravimetric analysis) or volume (volumetric analysis). Gravimetric analysis The gravimetric analysis involves determining the amount of material present by weighing the sample before and/or after some transformation. A common example used in undergraduate education is the determination of the amount of water in a hydrate by heating the sample to remove the water such that the difference in weight is due to the loss of water. Volumetric analysis Titration involves the gradual addition of a measurable reactant to an exact volume of a solution being analyzed until some equivalence point is reached. Titration is a family of techniques used to determine the concentration of an analyte. Titrating accurately to either the half-equivalence point or the endpoint of a titration allows the chemist to determine the amount of moles used, which can then be used to determine a concentration or composition of the titrant. Most familiar to those who have taken chemistry during secondary education is the acid-base titration involving a color-changing indicator, such as phenolphthalein. There are many other types of titrations, for example, potentiometric titrations or precipitation titrations. Chemists might also create titration curves in order by systematically testing the pH every drop in order to understand different properties of the titrant. Instrumental methods thumb\|upright=1.2\|Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response Spectroscopy Spectroscopy measures the interaction of the molecules with electromagnetic radiation. Spectroscopy consists of many different applications such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, dual polarization interferometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, photoemission spectroscopy, Mössbauer spectroscopy and so on. Mass spectrometry thumb\|An accelerator mass spectrometer used for radiocarbon dating and other analysis Mass spectrometry measures mass-to-charge ratio of molecules using electric and magnetic fields. In a mass spectrometer, a small amount of sample is ionized and converted to gaseous ions, where they are separated and analyzed according to their mass-to-charge ratios. These methods can be categorized according to which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The four main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the transferred charge is measured over time), amperometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential). Potentiometry measures the cell's potential, coulometry measures the cell's current, and voltammetry measures the change in current when cell potential changes. Thermal analysis Calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis measure the interaction of a material and heat. Separation thumb\|Separation of black ink on a thin-layer chromatography plate Separation processes are used to decrease the complexity of material mixtures. Chromatography, electrophoresis and field flow fractionation are representative of this field. Chromatographic assays Chromatography can be used to determine the presence of substances in a sample as different components in a mixture have different tendencies to adsorb onto the stationary phase or dissolve in the mobile phase. Thus, different components of the mixture move at different speed. Different components of a mixture can therefore be identified by their respective Rƒ values, which is the ratio between the migration distance of the substance and the migration distance of the solvent front during chromatography. In combination with the instrumental methods, chromatography can be used in quantitative determination of the substances. Chromatography separates the analyte from the rest of the sample so that it may be measured without interference from other compounds. In Thin-layer chromatography, the analyte mixture moves up and separates along the coated sheet under the volatile mobile phase. In Gas chromatography, gas separates the volatile analytes. A common method for chromatography using liquid as a mobile phase is High-performance liquid chromatography. Hybrid techniques Combinations of the above techniques produce a "hybrid" or "hyphenated" technique. Several examples are in popular use today and new hybrid techniques are under development. For example, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, liquid chromatography-NMR spectroscopy, liquid chromatography-infrared spectroscopy, and capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry. Hyphenated separation techniques refer to a combination of two (or more) techniques to detect and separate chemicals from solutions. Most often the other technique is some form of chromatography. Hyphenated techniques are widely used in chemistry and biochemistry. A slash is sometimes used instead of hyphen, especially if the name of one of the methods contains a hyphen itself. Microscopy thumb\|Fluorescence microscope image of two mouse cell nuclei in prophase (scale bar is 5 μm) The visualization of single molecules, single cells, biological tissues, and nanomaterials is an important and attractive approach in analytical science. Also, hybridization with other traditional analytical tools is revolutionizing analytical science. Microscopy can be categorized into three different fields: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, and scanning probe microscopy. Recently, this field is rapidly progressing because of the rapid development of the computer and camera industries. Lab-on-a-chip Devices that integrate (multiple) laboratory functions on a single chip of only millimeters to a few square centimeters in size and that are capable of handling extremely small fluid volumes down to less than picoliters. Errors Error can be defined as numerical difference between observed value and true value. The experimental error can be divided into two types, systematic error and random error. Systematic error results from a flaw in equipment or the design of an experiment while random error results from uncontrolled or uncontrollable variables in the experiment. In error the true value and observed value in chemical analysis can be related with each other by the equation \varepsilon_{\rm a} = \|x - \bar{x}\| where \varepsilon_{\rm a} is the absolute error. x is the true value. \bar{x} is the observed value. An error of a measurement is an inverse measure of accurate measurement, i.e. smaller the error greater the accuracy of the measurement. Errors can be expressed relatively. Given the relative error(\varepsilon_{\rm r}): \varepsilon_{\rm r} \frac{\varepsilon_{\rm a}}{\|x\|} \left \| \frac{x - \bar{x}}{x} \right \| The percent error can also be calculated: \varepsilon_{\rm r} \times 100\% If we want to use these values in a function, we may also want to calculate the error of the function. Let f be a function with N variables. Therefore, the propagation of uncertainty must be calculated in order to know the error in f: \varepsilon_{\rm a} (f) \approx \sum_{i 1}^N \left \| \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_i} \right \| \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_i) \left \| \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_1} \right \| \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_1) + \left \| \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_2} \right \| \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_2) + \ldots + \left \| \frac{\partial f}{\partial x_N} \right \| \varepsilon_{\rm a}(x_N) Standards Standard curve thumb\|upright=1.2\|A calibration curve plot showing limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), dynamic range, and limit of linearity (LOL) A general method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a calibration curve. This allows for the determination of the amount of a chemical in a material by comparing the results of an unknown sample to those of a series of known standards. If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method, a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample. Internal standards Sometimes an internal standard is added at a known concentration directly to an analytical sample to aid in quantitation. The amount of analyte present is then determined relative to the internal standard as a calibrant. An ideal internal standard is an isotopically enriched analyte which gives rise to the method of isotope dilution. Standard addition The method of standard addition is used in instrumental analysis to determine the concentration of a substance (analyte) in an unknown sample by comparison to a set of samples of known concentration, similar to using a calibration curve. Standard addition can be applied to most analytical techniques and is used instead of a calibration curve to solve the matrix effect problem. Signals and noise One of the most important components of analytical chemistry is maximizing the desired signal while minimizing the associated noise. The analytical figure of merit is known as the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N or SNR). Noise can arise from environmental factors as well as from fundamental physical processes. Thermal noise Thermal noise results from the motion of charge carriers (usually electrons) in an electrical circuit generated by their thermal motion. Thermal noise is white noise meaning that the power spectral density is constant throughout the frequency spectrum. The root mean square value of the thermal noise in a resistor is given by and electric motors. Many of these noise sources are narrow bandwidth and, therefore, can be avoided. Temperature and vibration isolation may be required for some instruments. Noise reduction Noise reduction can be accomplished either in computer hardware or software. Examples of hardware noise reduction are the use of shielded cable, analog filtering, and signal modulation. Examples of software noise reduction are digital filtering, ensemble average, boxcar average, and correlation methods. In the direct elemental analysis of solid samples, the new leaders are laser-induced breakdown and laser ablation mass spectrometry, and the related techniques with transfer of the laser ablation products into inductively coupled plasma. Advances in design of diode lasers and optical parametric oscillators promote developments in fluorescence and ionization spectrometry and also in absorption techniques where uses of optical cavities for increased effective absorption pathlength are expected to expand. The use of plasma- and laser-based methods is increasing. An interest towards absolute (standardless) analysis has revived, particularly in emission spectrometry. Great effort is being put into shrinking the analysis techniques to chip size. Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. (micro total analysis system (μTAS) or lab-on-a-chip). Microscale chemistry reduces the amounts of chemicals used. Many developments improve the analysis of biological systems. Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are genomics, DNA sequencing and related research in genetic fingerprinting and DNA microarray; proteomics, the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stressors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body, metabolomics, which deals with metabolites; transcriptomics, including mRNA and associated fields; lipidomics - lipids and its associated fields; peptidomics - peptides and its associated fields; and metallomics, dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules. Analytical chemistry has played a critical role in the understanding of basic science to a variety of practical applications, such as biomedical applications, environmental monitoring, quality control of industrial manufacturing, forensic science, and so on. The recent developments in computer automation and information technologies have extended analytical chemistry into a number of new biological fields. For example, automated DNA sequencing machines were the basis for completing human genome projects leading to the birth of genomics. Protein identification and peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry opened a new field of proteomics. In addition to automating specific processes, there is effort to automate larger sections of lab testing, such as in companies like Emerald Cloud Lab and Transcriptic. Analytical chemistry has been an indispensable area in the development of nanotechnology. Surface characterization instruments, electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes enable scientists to visualize atomic structures with chemical characterizations. See also Calorimeter Clinical chemistry Environmental chemistry Ion beam analysis List of chemical analysis methods Important publications in analytical chemistry List of materials analysis methods Measurement uncertainty Metrology Microanalysis Nuclear reaction analysis Quality of analytical results Radioanalytical chemistry Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy Sensory analysis - in the field of Food science Virtual instrumentation Working range References Further reading Gurdeep, Chatwal Anand (2008). Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis Himalaya Publishing House (India) Ralph L. Shriner, Reynold C. Fuson, David Y. Curtin, Terence C. Morill: The systematic identification of organic compounds - a laboratory manual, Verlag Wiley, New York 1980, 6. edition, . Bettencourt da Silva, R; Bulska, E; Godlewska-Zylkiewicz, B; Hedrich, M; Majcen, N; Magnusson, B; Marincic, S; Papadakis, I; Patriarca, M; Vassileva, E; Taylor, P; Analytical measurement: measurement uncertainty and statistics, 2012, . External links Infografik and animation showing the progress of analytical chemistry aas Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer Category:Materials science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry	2025-04-05T18:26:03.818108
2411	A cappella	{{short description\|Group or solo singing without instrumental sound}} {{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=January 2020}} {{Infobox music genre \| name = A cappella \| native_name \| etymology \| other_names \| image Roskilde Cathedrals Boys Choir.jpg \| alt \| caption \| stylistic_origins = {{hlist\|Church music\|Gregorian chanting\|madrigals}} \| cultural_origins = Jewish and Christian worship \| instruments = none \| derivatives \| subgenres {{hlist\|Barbershop music\|collegiate a cappella\|puirt à beul}} \| subgenrelist \| fusiongenres \| regional_scenes \| local_scenes \| other_topics \| footnotes \| current_year = }} Music performed a cappella ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|ɑː\|_\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|p\|ɛ\|l\|ə}} {{respell\|AH\|_\|kə\|PEL\|ə}}, {{IPAc-en\|UKalso\|ˌ\|æ\|_\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|p\|ɛ\|l\|ə}} {{respell\|AK\|_\|ə\|PEL\|ə}}, {{IPA\|it\|a kkapˈpɛlla\|lang}};<ref nameHolmes>{{harvnb\|Holmes\|2007}}</ref> {{lit\|in [the style of] the chapel}}), less commonly spelled a capella in English,<ref>[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/a%20cappella "A cappella"] in Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, accessed 5 December 2023.</ref> is music performed by a singer or a singing group without instrumental accompaniment. The term a cappella was originally intended to differentiate between Renaissance polyphony and Baroque concertato musical styles. In the 19th century, a renewed interest in Renaissance polyphony, coupled with an ignorance of the fact that vocal parts were often doubled by instrumentalists, led to the term coming to mean unaccompanied vocal music.<ref nameHolmes/> The term is also used, rarely, as a synonym for alla breve.<ref>{{harvnb\|Arnold\|1998\|p314}}</ref> Early history Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleDid early humans, or even animals, invent music?\|urlhttp://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20140907-does-music-pre-date-modern-man\|date7 September 2014\|lastBarras\|firstColin\|websitebbc.com\|languageen\|access-date23 April 2020}}</ref> The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000&nbsp;BC,<ref name":0">{{Cite web\|titleWhat is the oldest known piece of music?\|urlhttps://www.history.com/news/what-is-the-oldest-known-piece-of-music\|date18 December 2015\|lastAndrews\|firstEvan\|websiteHISTORY\|languageen\|access-date21 April 2020}}</ref> while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph.<ref name":0" />Religious originsA cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially church music as well as anasheed and zemirot. Gregorian chant is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of secular vocal music from the Renaissance. The madrigal, up until its development in the early Baroque into an instrumentally accompanied form, is also usually in a cappella form. The Psalms note that some early songs were accompanied by string instruments, though Jewish and Early Christian music was largely a cappella;<ref>{{Cite book\|titleMusic in ancient Judaism and early Christianity\|lastSmith\|first John Arthur\|isbn978-1409421610\|locationFarnham, Surrey\|oclc715159344}}</ref> the use of instruments has subsequently increased within both of these religions as well as in Islam.ChristianThe polyphony of Christian (predominantly Catholic) a cappella music began to develop in Europe around the 9th century AD with the practice of organum, reaching its height between the 14th and 16th centuries with compositions by composers of the Franco-Flemish school (such as Guillaume Du Fay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Josquin des Prez).<ref nameEB>{{harvnb\|Hoiberg\|2010\|p1}}</ref> The early a cappella polyphonies were sometimes doubled with other instruments, which were often wind or string instruments, or organs. By the 16th century, a cappella polyphony had further developed, but gradually, the cantata began to take the place of a cappella forms.<ref nameEB/> Sixteenth-century a cappella polyphony, nonetheless, continued to influence church composers throughout this period and to the present day. Recent evidence has shown that some of the early pieces by Palestrina, such as those written for the Sistine Chapel, were intended to be accompanied by an organ "doubling" for some or all of the voices.<ref name=EB/> Other composers that utilized the a cappella style, if only for the occasional piece, were Claudio Monteverdi and his ''Lagrime d'amante al sepolcro dell'amata'' (A lover's tears at his beloved's grave), which was composed in 1610,<ref>{{harvnb\|Taruskin\|2005a\|p6}}</ref> and Andrea Gabrieli when upon his death many choral pieces were discovered, one of which was in the unaccompanied style.<ref>{{harvnb\|Taruskin\|2005\|p780}}</ref> Learning from the preceding two composers, Heinrich Schütz utilized the a cappella style in numerous pieces; chief among these were the pieces in the oratorio style, which were traditionally performed during the Easter week and dealt with the religious subject matter of that week, such as the Passion. Five of Schutz's Historien were Easter pieces, and of these the latter three, which dealt with the passion from three different viewpoints, those of Matthew, Luke and John, were all done a cappella style. The parts of the crowd were sung while the solo parts which were the quoted parts from either Christ or the authors were performed in a plainchant.<ref>{{harvnb\|Taruskin\|2005a\|p=73}}</ref> In the Byzantine Rite of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the music performed in the liturgies is exclusively sung without instrumental accompaniment. Early Russian musika which started appearing in the late 17th century, in what was known as khorovïye kontsertï (choral concertos) made a cappella adaptations of Venetian-styled pieces, such as the treatise, Grammatika musikiyskaya (1675), by Nikolai Diletsky.<ref>{{harvnb\|Taruskin\|2005b\|p=234}}</ref> Divine Liturgies and Western Rite Masses composed by famous composers such as Peter Tchaikovsky, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alexander Arkhangelsky, and Mykola Leontovych are examples. Instruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Roman Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of Protestant Reformers, including Martin Luther,<ref nameM&S>{{harvnb\|M'Clintock\|Strong\|1894\|p762}}</ref> Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin,<ref nameCalvin>{{harvnb\|Calvin\|2009}}</ref> and John Wesley.<ref nameClarke>{{harvnb\|Clarke\|1844\|p684}}</ref> Opponents of musical instruments in the Christian worship believe that such opposition is supported by the Christian scriptures and Church history.<ref namekurfees>{{harvnb\|Kurfees\|1911}}</ref> There is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries.<ref nameMcKinnon>{{harvnb\|McKinnon\|1965\|pp263, 265}}</ref><ref nameBales>{{harvnb\|Bales\|1973\|p351}}</ref> Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship.{{refn\|group="nb"\|The absence of instrumental music is rooted in various hermeneutic principles (ways of interpreting the Bible) which determine what is appropriate for worship. Among such principles are the regulative principle of worship (Ulrich Zwingli), Sola scriptura (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli), and the history of hymn in "Christianity". Dispensationalism emphasizes the differences between the old (Law of Moses) and the new (Jesus and the Apostles) covenants, emphasizing that the majority of the practices from the Law of Moses were replaced by the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. The absence of instrumental music in early church worship is significant given the abundance of Hebrew Bible references and commands to worship God with harp, lyre and cymbal. After several hundred years of Tabernacle worship without references to instrumental music, King David (c. 1500 BC) introduced musical instruments into Temple worship reportedly because of a commandment from God, complete with who was to sing, who was to play, and what instruments were to be used.<ref>{{bibleverse\|2\|Chronicles\|29:25-29}}</ref>}} Those who do not adhere to the regulative principle of interpreting Christian scripture, believe that limiting praise to the unaccompanied chant of the early church is not commanded in scripture, and that churches in any age are free to offer their songs with or without musical instruments. Those who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33–180 AD).<ref nameMcKinnon2>{{harvnb\|McKinnon\|1989\|p2}}</ref> The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves.<ref nameMcKinnon3>{{harvnb\|McKinnon\|1998\|p72}}</ref> Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church,<ref>{{Cite web \|titleLibrary : The Meaning of the Patristic Polemic Against Musical Instruments \|urlhttps://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum9134 \|access-date2024-05-19 \|website=www.catholicculture.org}}</ref> but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today. * Modern Christians typically believe it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions.<ref nameMcKinnon3/> Since the New Testament never condemns instruments themselves, much less in any of these settings, it is believed that "the church Fathers go beyond the New Testament in pronouncing a negative judgment on musical instruments."<ref>{{harvnb\|Ferguson\|1972\|p74}}</ref> * Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century.<ref>{{harvnb\|Ferguson\|1972\|pp52, 53}}</ref> Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers,{{refn\|group"nb"\|Rather than calling the use of instruments "evil", modern opposition typically uses terms like "unspiritual"<ref>{{harvnb\|Ferguson\|1972\|p88}}</ref> or an Old Testament "shadow".<ref>{{harvnb\|Ferguson\|Lewis\|West\|1984\|p109}}</ref>}} who argued that God had allowed David the "evil" of using musical instruments in praise.<ref>{{harvnb\|McKinnon\|1989\|p7}}</ref> While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments,<ref name"bibleverse\|2\|Chronicles\|29:25">{{bibleverse\|2\|Chronicles\|29:25}}</ref> modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament. Since "a cappella" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony.<ref>{{harvnb\|Weiss\|Taruskin\|1984\|p107}}</ref> While Zwingli was destroying organs in Switzerland&nbsp;– Luther called him a fanatic&nbsp;– the Church of England was burning books of polyphony.<ref>{{harvnb\|Weiss\|Taruskin\|1984\|p109}}</ref> Some Holiness Churches such as the Free Methodist Church opposed the use of musical instruments in church worship until the mid-20th century. The Free Methodist Church allowed for local church decision on the use of either an organ or piano in the 1943 Conference before lifting the ban entirely in 1955. The Reformed Free Methodist Church and Evangelical Wesleyan Church were formed as a result of a schism with the Free Methodist Church, with the former retaining a cappella worship and the latter retaining the rule limiting the number of instruments in the church to the piano and organ.<ref name="Jones1974"/> Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include many Oriental Orthodox Churches (such as the Coptic Orthodox Church),<ref>{{cite web \|titleFrequently Asked Questions \|urlhttps://www.stpauloc.org/New-Visitors \|publisherSt. Paul American Coptic Orthodox Church \|access-date28 July 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> many Anabaptist communities (including Old Order Anabaptist groups—such as the Amish, Old German Baptist Brethren, Old Order Mennonites, as well as Conservative Anabaptist groups—such as the Dunkard Brethren Church and Conservative Mennonites),<ref name"DBC2021">{{cite book \|titleDunkard Brethren Church Polity \|date1 November 2021 \|publisherDunkard Brethren Church \|page9}}</ref> some Presbyterian churches devoted to the regulative principle of worship, Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Plymouth Brethren, Churches of Christ, Church of God, the Reformed Free Methodists,<ref name"Jones1974">{{cite book \|last1Jones \|first1Charles Edwin \|titleA guide to the study of the holiness movement \|date1974 \|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn978-0810807037 \|page[https://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char/page/685 685] \|languageen \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char/page/685 }}</ref> Doukhobors, and the Byzantine Rite of Eastern Christianity.<ref nameWare>{{harvnb\|Ware\|1997\|p268}}</ref> Certain high church services and other musical events in liturgical churches (such as the Roman Catholic Mass and the Lutheran Divine Service) may be a cappella, a practice remaining from apostolic times. Many Mennonites also conduct some or all of their services without instruments. Sacred Harp, a type of folk music, is an a cappella style of religious singing with shape notes, usually sung at singing conventions. Jewish While worship in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments,<ref>{{bibleverse\|2\|Chronicles\|29:25–29:27}}</ref> traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments<ref>{{harvnb\|Price\|2005\|p68}}</ref> given the practice of scriptural cantillation.<ref>{{harvnb\|McKinnon\|1998\|p85}}</ref> The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time.<ref>{{harvnb\|Melamed\|2013}}</ref> This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music.<ref name="Shircago">{{harvnb\|Shircago\|2013}}</ref> The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BC. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still.<ref>{{harvnb\|Ferguson\|1972\|pp39–41}}</ref> This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command<ref name"bibleverse\|2\|Chronicles\|29:25"/> The shofar is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue,<ref>{{harvnb\|Olson\|1967\|p562}}</ref> and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service.<ref>{{harvnb\|Alleman\|2011}}</ref> However, silver trumpets, as described in Numbers 10:1-18,<ref>{{bibleverse\|Numbers\|10:1-10}}</ref> have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the Western Wall.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.jewishpress.com/news/silver-trumpets-pierce-the-heavens-in-prayer-rally-opposite-temple-mount/2016/03/23/ \|titleSilver Trumpets Pierce the Heavens in Prayer Rally Opposite Temple Mount \|date23 March 2016\|websiteJewishPress.com }}</ref>In the United States , were featured in the movie Pitch Perfect]] Peter Christian Lutkin, dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was "the first permanent organization of its kind in America."<ref>{{harvnb\|Wittman\|1978}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|van Camp\|1965}}</ref> An a cappella tradition was begun in 1911 by F. Melius Christiansen, a music faculty member at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minnesota.<ref name'Norwegian Americans'>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleNorwegian Americans \|encyclopediaWorldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life \|edition3rd \|pages477–481 \|volume2 \|sectionAmericas \|locationFarmington Hills, Michigan \|publisherGale \|year2017 \|viaMinneapolis Community & Technical College Library \|access-date24 September 2018 \|urlhttp://link.galegroup.com.mctproxy.mnpals.net/apps/doc/CX3648200207/GVRL?u%3Dmnaminncom&amp;sid%3DGVRL&amp;xid%3Dcecfcc81 \|url-accessregistration }}</ref> The St. Olaf College Choir was established as an outgrowth of the local St. John's Lutheran Church, where Christiansen was organist and the choir was composed, at least partially, of students from the nearby St. Olaf campus. The success of the ensemble was emulated by other regional conductors, and a tradition of a cappella choral music was born in the region at colleges like Concordia College (Moorhead, Minnesota), Augustana College (Rock Island, Illinois), Waldorf University (Forest City, Iowa), Luther College (Decorah, Iowa), Gustavus Adolphus College (St. Peter, Minnesota), Augustana College (Sioux Falls, South Dakota), and Augsburg University (Minneapolis, Minnesota). The choirs typically range from 40 to 80 singers and are recognized for their efforts to perfect blend, intonation, phrasing and pitch in a large choral setting.<ref>{{Citation\|lastPrieto\|firstPilar\|chapterThe intonational phonology of Catalan \|date2014\|pages43–80\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn978-0199567300\|doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199567300.003.0003\|titleProsodic Typology II}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.van.org/choirauditions.htm\|titleVocal Area Network Choir Auditions\|websitewww.van.org\|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Movements in modern a cappella over the past century include barbershop and doo wop. The Barbershop Harmony Society, Sweet Adelines International, and Harmony Inc. host educational events including Harmony University, Directors University, and the International Educational Symposium, and international contests and conventions, recognizing international champion choruses and quartets. Many a cappella groups can be found in high schools and colleges. There are amateur Barbershop Harmony Society and professional groups that sing a cappella exclusively. Although a cappella is technically defined as singing without instrumental accompaniment, some groups use their voices to emulate instruments; others are more traditional and focus on harmonizing. A cappella styles range from gospel music to contemporary to barbershop quartets and choruses. The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) is a membership option for former students, whose funds support hosted competitions and events.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastSchluntz\|firstRoger L.\|date1982\|titleDesign Competitions: For Whose Benefit Now?\|journalJournal of Architectural Education\|volume35\|issue4\|pages2–9\|doi10.2307/1424700\|issn0149-2993\|jstor1424700}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.music.org/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id1059:the-contemporary-a-cappella-society-casa&catid109&Itemid101\|titleThe Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA)\|websitewww.music.org\|access-date14 June 2019}}</ref> A cappella music was popularized between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s with media hits such as the 2009–2014 TV show The Sing-Off and the musical comedy film series Pitch Perfect. Recording artists In July 1943, as a result of the American Federation of Musicians boycott of US recording studios, the a cappella vocal group The Song Spinners had a best-seller with "Comin' In on a Wing and a Prayer". In the 1950s, several recording groups, notably The Hi-Los and the Four Freshmen, introduced complex jazz harmonies to a cappella performances. The King's Singers are credited with promoting interest in small-group a cappella performances in the 1960s. Frank Zappa loved doo wop and a cappella, so Zappa released The Persuasions' first album from his label in 1970.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.trunkworthy.com/the-persuasions-frank-zappas-pitch-perfect-gift-to-a-cappella-harmony/ \|publisherTrunkworthy \|access-date2 December 2017 \|titleThe Persuasions: Frank Zappa's Pitch Perfect Gift to a Cappella Harmony }}</ref> Judy Collins recorded "Amazing Grace" a cappella.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/JudyCollinsInterview.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-recording-preservation-board/documents/JudyCollinsInterview.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|titleJudy Collins interview\|websiteLibrary of Congress\|date12 April 2017\|access-date17 June 2021}}</ref> In 1983, an a cappella group known as The Flying Pickets had a Christmas 'number one' in the UK with a cover of Yazoo's (known in the US as Yaz) "Only You". A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late 1980s onward, spurred by the success of Top 40 recordings by artists such as The Manhattan Transfer, Bobby McFerrin, Huey Lewis and the News, All-4-One, The Nylons, Backstreet Boys, Boyz II Men, and NSYNC.{{citation needed\|date=March 2008}} Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal groups and bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock/gospel sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. Examples of such professional groups include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, The House Jacks, Rockapella, Mosaic, Home Free and M-pact. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6, Glad and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment. A cappella can also describe the isolated vocal track(s) from a multitrack recording that originally included instrumentation. These vocal tracks may be remixed or put onto vinyl records for DJs, or released to the public so that fans can remix them. One such example is the a cappella release of Jay-Z's Black Album, which Danger Mouse mixed with the Beatles' White Album to create The Grey Album.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastChapman \|firstOwen \|date1 July 2005 \|titleThe Affect of Selection in Digital Sound Art \|urlhttps://journal.media-culture.org.au/index.php/mcjournal/article/view/2357 \|journalM/C Journal \|volume8 \|issue3 \|doi10.5204/mcj.2357 \|issn1441-2616\|doi-access=free }}</ref> On their 1966 album titled Album, Peter, Paul and Mary included the song "Norman Normal". All the sounds on that song, both vocals and instruments, were created by Paul's voice, with no actual instruments used.<ref>Stookey, Paul. Liner Notes. The Peter, Paul, and Mary Album. Warner Bros Record, 1966. Vinyl.</ref> In 2013, an artist by the name Smooth McGroove rose to prominence with his style of a cappella music.<ref>{{harvnb\|Futter\|2013}}</ref> He is best known for his a cappella covers of video game music tracks on YouTube.<ref>{{harvnb\|Hilliard\|2013}}</ref> in 2015, an a cappella version of Jerusalem by multi-instrumentalist Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre "The Game Starts Here" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/england-rugby-captain-stars-beats-dre-campaign/1364614\|titleEngland rugby captain stars in Beats By Dre campaign\|access-date28 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vp-gOvn67d_8\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/p-gOvn67d_8\| archive-date22 November 2021 \| url-statuslive\|titleJerusalem – Jacob Collier (Soundtrack for Beats by Dre: "The Game Starts Here")\| websiteYouTube\| date22 September 2015\|access-date28 June 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Musical theatre A cappella has been used as the sole orchestration for original works of musical theatre that have had commercial runs Off-Broadway (theatres in New York City with 99 to 500 seats) only four times. The first was Avenue X which opened on 28 January 1994, and ran for 77 performances. It was produced by Playwrights Horizons with book by John Jiler, music and lyrics by Ray Leslee. The musical style of the show's score was primarily doo-wop as the plot revolved around doo-wop group singers of the 1960s.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2002}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|1993}}</ref> In 2001, The Kinsey Sicks, produced and starred in the critically acclaimed off-Broadway hit, DRAGAPELLA! Starring the Kinsey Sicks at New York's Studio 54. That production received a nomination for a Lucille Lortel award as Best Musical and a Drama Desk nomination for Best Lyrics. It was directed by Glenn Casale with original music and lyrics by Ben Schatz.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2008}}</ref> The a cappella musical Perfect Harmony, a comedy about two high school a cappella groups vying to win the national championship, made its Off Broadway debut at Theatre Row's Acorn Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City in October 2010 after a successful out-of-town run at the Stoneham Theatre, in Stoneham, Massachusetts. Perfect Harmony features the hit music of The Jackson 5, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, Marvin Gaye, Scandal, Tiffany, The Romantics, The Pretenders, The Temptations, The Contours, The Commodores, Tommy James & the Shondells and The Partridge Family, and has been compared to a cross between Altar Boyz and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee.<ref>{{harvnb\|Finkle\|Bacalzo\|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Jacobs\|2006}}</ref> The fourth a cappella musical to appear Off-Broadway, In Transit, premiered October 5, 2010, and was produced by Primary Stages with book, music, and lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez, James-Allen Ford, Russ Kaplan, and Sara Wordsworth. Set primarily in the New York City subway system its score features an eclectic mix of musical genres (including jazz, hip hop, Latin, rock, and country). In Transit incorporates vocal beat boxing into its contemporary a cappella arrangements through the use of a subway beat boxer character. Beat boxer and actor Chesney Snow performed this role for the 2010 Primary Stages production.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2010a}}</ref> According to the show's website, it is scheduled to reopen for an open-ended commercial run in the Fall of 2011. In 2011, the production received four Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Musical, Outer Critics Circle and Drama League nominations, as well as five Drama Desk nominations including Outstanding Musical and won for Outstanding Ensemble Performance. In December 2016, In Transit became the first a cappella musical on Broadway.<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttp://www.playbill.com/article/in-transit-new-a-cappella-musical-opens-on-broadway \|magazinePlaybill \|date11 December 2016\|firstAndrew \|lastGans \|titleIn Transit, New A Cappella Musical, Opens on Broadway \|quoteIn Transit, Broadway's first a cappella musical, officially opens December 11}}</ref>Barbershop style {{main\|Barbershop music}} {{More citations needed section\|date=May 2018}} Barbershop music is one of several uniquely American art forms. The earliest reports of this style of a cappella music involved African Americans. The earliest documented quartets all began in barber shops. In 1938, the first formal men's barbershop organization was formed, known as the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America (S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A), and in 2004 rebranded itself and officially changed its public name to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS). Today the BHS has about 22,000 members in approximately 800 chapters across the United States and Canada,<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.lakegeorgeexaminer.com/barbershop-harmony-society-keep-whole-world-singing-lake-george/ \|newspaperThe Lake George Examiner \|date19 April 2017 \|access-date2 December 2017 \|titleBarbershop Harmony Society to 'keep the whole world singing' in Lake George \|firstGillian \|lastBurdett \|quotethe Society has 22,000 members }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.tnecd.com/blog/36/finding-harmony-in-nashville \|publisherTennessee Department of Economic & Community Development \|date13 July 2015 \|access-date2 December 2017 \|websitetnecd.com \|quote800 chapters across the U.S. and Canada \|titleFinding Harmony in Nashville }}</ref> and the barbershop style has spread around the world with organizations in many other countries.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.barbershop.org/about-us/affiliates/ \|titleBarbershop is universal; here are the contacts for our official affiliates \|access-date2 December 2017 \|publisher=Barbershop Harmony Society }}</ref> The Barbershop Harmony Society provides a highly organized competition structure for a cappella quartets and choruses singing in the barbershop style. In 1945, the first formal women's barbershop organization, Sweet Adelines, was formed. In 1953, Sweet Adelines became an international organization, although it did not change its name to Sweet Adelines International until 1991. The membership of nearly 25,000 women, all singing in English, includes choruses in most of the fifty United States as well as in Australia, Canada, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the organization encompasses more than 1,200 registered quartets and 600 choruses. In 1959, a second women's barbershop organization started as a break off from Sweet Adelines due to ideological differences. Based on democratic principles which continue to this day, [http://www.harmonyinc.org Harmony, Inc.] is smaller than its counterpart, but has an atmosphere of friendship and competition. With about 2,500 members in the United States and Canada, Harmony, Inc. uses the same rules in contest that the Barbershop Harmony Society uses. Harmony, Inc. is registered in Providence, Rhode Island. Amateur and high school The popularity of a cappella among high schools and amateurs was revived by television shows and movies such as Glee and Pitch Perfect. High school groups may have conductors or student leaders who keep the tempo for the group, or beatboxers/vocal percussionists. Since 2013, summer training programs have appeared, such as A Cappella Academy in Los Angeles, California (founded by Ben Bram, Rob Dietz, and Avi Kaplan) and Camp A Cappella in Dayton, Ohio (founded by Deke Sharon and Brody McDonald).<ref>{{Cite news\|titlePentatonix Talks Holiday Album, Touring Goals and Teaching A Cappella to Teens\|workThe Hollywood Reporter\|urlhttps://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/pentatonix-talks-holiday-album-touring-742679}}</ref> These programs teach about different aspects of a cappella music, including vocal performance, arranging, and beatboxing/vocal percussion.In other countries{{expand section\|dateMay 2013}} Afghanistan The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan has no official anthem because of views by the Taliban of music as un-Islamic.<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSalahuddin \|firstSayed \|date18 August 2005 \|titleTwo regimes later, God still great for Afghans: New national anthem \|pagesA2 \|workNational Post \|urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/330335766\|id{{ProQuest\|330335766}} }}</ref> However, the de facto national anthem of Afghanistan is an a cappella nasheed, as musical instruments are virtually banned as corrupting and un-Islamic.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBaily \|firstJohn \|urlhttps://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Creference_article%7C1000227522. \|titleGarland Encyclopedia of World Music \|publisherRoutledge \|year1999 \|editor-lastArnold \|editor-firstAlison \|volume5 \|chapterAfghanistan {{!}} Music and the State}}</ref> Iran The first a cappella group in Iran is the Damour Vocal Band, which was able to perform on national television despite a ban on women singing.<ref>{{Cite news\|titleیک تابوشکنی دیگر در صدا و سیمای این دوران / حضور پررنگ خانم‌ها با گروه موسیقی "دامور" در تلویزیون + تصویر\|languagefa\|workنامه نیوز\|urlhttps://www.namehnews.com/fa/tiny/news-138560\|access-date20 January 2022}}</ref>PakistanThe musical show Strepsils Stereo is credited for introducing the art of a cappella in Pakistan.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://images.dawn.com/news/1178175 \|titleStrepsils Stereo brings A Capella to Pakistan for the first time \|workDawn \|date11 August 2017 \|access-date9 December 2017}}</ref> Sri Lanka Composer Dinesh Subasinghe became the first Sri Lankan to write a cappella pieces for SATB choirs. He wrote "The Princes of the Lost Tribe" and "Ancient Queen of Somawathee" for Menaka De Sahabandu and Bridget Helpe's choirs, respectively, based on historical incidents in ancient Sri Lanka.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2010b}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Chanmugam\|2010}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Perera\|2010}}</ref> Voice Print is also a professional a cappella music group in Sri Lanka.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.music.lk/showcase.php?search_keywordvoice+print&buttonSearch\|titleSearching for Songs and Music Videos – voice print\|date4 October 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161004185445/http://www.music.lk/showcase.php?search_keywordvoice+print&buttonSearch\|archive-date4 October 2016\|access-date19 March 2018}}</ref> Sweden {{more citations needed section\|date=May 2014}} The European a cappella tradition is especially strong in the countries around the Baltic and perhaps most so in Sweden as described by Richard Sparks in his doctoral thesis The Swedish Choral Miracle in 2000.<ref name="SCM">{{harvnb\|Sparks\|2000}}</ref> Swedish a cappella choirs have over the last 25 years won around 25% of the annual prestigious European Grand Prix for Choral Singing (EGP) that despite its name is open to choirs from all over the world (see list of laureates in the Wikipedia article on the EGP competition). The reasons for the strong Swedish dominance are as explained by Richard Sparks manifold; suffice to say here that there is a long-standing tradition, an unusually large proportion of the populations (5% is often cited) regularly sing in choirs, the Swedish choral director Eric Ericson had an enormous impact on a cappella choral development not only in Sweden but around the world, and finally there are a large number of very popular primary and secondary schools ('music schools') with high admission standards based on auditions that combine a rigid academic regimen with high level choral singing on every school day, a system that started with Adolf Fredrik's Music School in Stockholm in 1939 but has spread over the country. United Kingdom , the oldest a cappella group at the University of Oxford in the UK]] {{unreferenced section\|date=May 2014}} A cappella has gained attention in the UK in recent years, with many groups forming at British universities by students seeking an alternative singing pursuit to traditional choral and chapel singing. This movement has been bolstered by organisations such as The Voice Festival UK and the integration of the United Kingdom into the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella. Western collegiate {{main\|Collegiate a cappella\|List of collegiate a cappella groups in the United States\|List of university a cappella groups in the United Kingdom}} {{more citations needed section\|date=May 2014}} It is not clear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873 is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group.<ref>{{cite magazine \|urlhttps://issuu.com/tcdigitalrepository/docs/2014spring \|magazineTrinity Reporter \|dateSpring 2014 \|page18\|titlePerfect Harmony \|viaissu.com \|quotefounded in the 19th century \|firstJim H. \|lastSmith }}</ref>{{additional citation needed\|dateDecember 2017\|reasonRPI glee club founding year not specified}} The longest continuously singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University,<ref nameYale>{{harvnb\|Anon\|1999}}</ref> which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member.<ref name=Yale /> Collegiate a cappella groups grew throughout the 20th century. Some notable historical groups formed along the way include Colgate University's The Colgate 13 (1942), Dartmouth College's Aires (1946), Harvard University's Krokodiloes (1946), Cornell University's Cayuga's Waiters (1949) and The Hangovers (1968), the University of Maine Maine Steiners (1958), the Columbia University Kingsmen (1949), the [http://www.jabberwocks.com Jabberwocks] of Brown University (1949), and the University of Rochester YellowJackets (1956). All-women a cappella groups followed shortly, frequently as a parody of the men's groups: the Smiffenpoofs of Smith College (1936), the Night Owls of Vassar College (1942), The Shwiffs of Connecticut College (The She-Whiffenpoofs, 1944), and The Chattertocks of Brown University (1951). A cappella groups exploded in popularity beginning in the 1990s, fueled in part by a change in style popularized by the Tufts University Beelzebubs and the Boston University Dear Abbeys.{{Citation needed\|date=May 2024}} The new style used voices to emulate modern rock instruments, including vocal percussion/"beatboxing". Some larger universities now have multiple groups. Groups often join one another in on-campus concerts, such as the Georgetown Chimes' Cherry Tree Massacre, a 3-weekend a cappella festival held each February since 1975, where over a hundred collegiate groups have appeared, as well as International Quartet Champions The Boston Common and the contemporary commercial a cappella group Rockapella. Co-ed groups have produced many up-and-coming and major artists, including John Legend, an alumnus of the Counterparts at the University of Pennsylvania, Sara Bareilles, an alumna of Awaken A Cappella at University of California, Los Angeles, Mindy Kaling, an alumna of the Rockapellas at Dartmouth College, and Mira Sorvino, an alumna of the Harvard-Radcliffe Veritones of Harvard College. Jewish-interest groups such as Queens College's Tizmoret, Tufts University's Shir Appeal, University of Chicago's Rhythm and Jews, Binghamton University's Kaskeset, Ohio State University's Meshuganotes, Rutgers University's Kol Halayla, New York University's Ani V'Ata, University of California, Los Angeles's Jewkbox, and Yale University's Magevet are also gaining popularity across the U.S.<ref>{{harvnb\|Ginsberg\|2015}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Altshuler\|2013}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Shapiro\|2011}}</ref> Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the Contemporary A Cappella Society) and competitions such as the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella for college groups and the Harmony Sweepstakes for all groups. In December 2009, a new television competition series called The Sing-Off aired on NBC. The show featured eight a cappella groups from the United States and Puerto Rico vying for the prize of $100,000 and a recording contract with Epic Records/Sony Music. The show was judged by Ben Folds, Shawn Stockman, and Nicole Scherzinger and was won by an all-male group from Puerto Rico called Nota. The show returned for a second, third, fourth, and fifth season, won by Committed, Pentatonix, Home Free, and The Melodores from Vanderbilt University respectively. Each year, hundreds of collegiate a cappella groups submit their strongest songs in a competition to be on The Best of College A Cappella (BOCA), an album compilation of tracks from the best college a cappella groups around the world. The album is produced by Varsity Vocals&nbsp;–which also produces the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella&nbsp;– and Deke Sharon.). According to ethnomusicologist Joshua S. Dunchan, "BOCA carries considerable cache and respect within the field despite the appearance of other compilations in part, perhaps, because of its longevity and the prestige of the individuals behind it."<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastDunchan\|firstJoshua\|date2012\|titleRecordings, Technology, and Discourse in Collegiate A Cappella\|urlhttps://muse.jhu.edu/article/490098\|journalJournal of American Folklore\|volume125\|issue498\|pages488–502\|viaProject MUSE\|doi10.5406/jamerfolk.125.498.0488\|s2cid162252124}}</ref> Collegiate a cappella groups may also submit their tracks to Voices Only, a two-disc series released at the beginning of each school year. A Voices Only album has been released every year since 2005.<ref>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2014}}</ref> In addition, from 2014 to 2019, female-identifying a cappella groups had the opportunity to send their strongest song tracks to the Women's A Cappella Association (WACA) for its annual best of women's a cappella album. WACA offered another medium for women's voices to receive recognition and released an album every year from 2014 to 2019, featuring female-identifying groups from across the United States.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWomen's A Cappella Association \|urlhttp://www.womensacappella.org/#!recordings/cfpt \|websiteWomen's A Cappella Association \|access-date4 February 2016 }}</ref> The Women's A Cappella Association hosted seven annual festivals in California before ending operations in 2019.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://lisaforkish.com/womens-a-cappella-association/ \| titleWomen's a Cappella Association \|websiteLisa Forkish \|access-date2 October 2022 }}</ref> South Asian South Asian a cappella features a fusion of music from the Indian subcontinent, which places it in the category of South Asian fusion music. A cappella is gaining popularity among South Asians with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English college groups. The first South Asian a cappella group was Penn Masala, an all-male group founded in 1996 at the University of Pennsylvania.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePenn Masala Concert Combines Music, Charity, and Culture {{!}} Arts {{!}} The Harvard Crimson \|urlhttps://www.thecrimson.com/article/2016/10/18/penn-masala/ \|access-date2024-04-30 \|websitewww.thecrimson.com}}</ref> The first co-ed South Asian a cappella was Anokha, from the University of Maryland, formed in 2001. The first South Asian A Cappella competition was "Anahat," hosted by the Indus student organization at UC Berkeley. Maize Mirchi, the co-ed a cappella group from the University of Michigan became the first South Asian group to advance to ICCA finals in 2023.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastVanderMolen \|firstAbigail \|date2023-04-12 \|titleMaize Mirchi is first South Asian group to go to ICCA internationals \|urlhttp://www.michigandaily.com/news/campus-life/maize-mirchi-becomes-first-south-asian-a-capella-group-to-advance-to-icca-finals/ \|access-date2024-04-30 \|websiteThe Michigan Daily \|languageen-US}}</ref> The South Asian a cappella competitive circuit is governed by the Association of South-Asian A Cappella (ASA),<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAssociation of South-Asian A Cappella {{!}} Fusion Through Voices \|urlhttps://desiacappella.org/ \|access-date2024-04-30 \|languageen-US}}</ref> a non-profit organization formed in 2016. The competitive circuit consists of qualifier "bid" competitions all over the United States, as well as the national championship, All-American Awaaz.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHome - All-American Awaaz \|urlhttps://allamericanawaaz.com/ \|access-date2024-04-30 \|languageen-US}}</ref> The first winner of the championship title was Swaram A Cappella at Texas A&M University, who won 1st place at All-American Awaaz in 2017 in New York City<ref>{{Cite AV media \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vwsX5Yjj5yp0 \|titleTexas A&M Swaram {{!}} All American Awaaz 2017 {{!}} 1st Place \|languageen \|access-date2024-04-30 \|viawww.youtube.com}}</ref> as well as in 2018 in Chicago.<ref>{{Cite AV media \|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vfTxxKDjBK7Q \|titleTexas A&M Swaram {{!}} All American Awaaz 2018 {{!}} 1st Place \|languageen \|access-date2024-04-30 \|viawww.youtube.com}}</ref> Dhamakapella currently holds the record for most All-American Awaaz championships, winning three consecutive championships in 2022, 2023, and 2024.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleInstagram \|urlhttps://www.instagram.com/allamericanawaaz/p/C5ue-rJshdW/ \|access-date2024-04-28 \|websitewww.instagram.com}}</ref> Emulating instruments {{more citations needed section\|date=May 2014}} In addition to singing words, some a cappella singers also emulate instrumentation by reproducing instrumental sounds with their vocal cords and mouth, often pitched using specialised pitch pipes. One of the earliest 20th century practitioners of this method were The Mills Brothers whose early recordings of the 1930s clearly stated on the label that all instrumentation was done vocally. More recently, "Twilight Zone" by 2 Unlimited was sung a cappella to the instrumentation on the comedy television series Tompkins Square. Another famous example of emulating instrumentation instead of singing the words is the theme song for The New Addams Family series on Fox Family Channel (now Freeform). Groups such as Vocal Sampling and Undivided emulate Latin rhythms a cappella. In the 1960s, the Swingle Singers used their voices to emulate musical instruments to Baroque and Classical music. Vocal artist Bobby McFerrin is famous for his instrumental emulation. A cappella group Naturally Seven recreates entire songs using vocal tones for every instrument.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleHome \|urlhttps://www.naturallyseven.com/ \|access-date2024-05-19 \|websiteNaturally 7 \|language=en}}</ref> Beatboxing, more accurately known as vocal percussion, is a technique used in a cappella music popularized by the hip-hop community, where rap is often performed a cappella. The advent of vocal percussion added new dimensions to the a cappella genre and has become very prevalent in modern arrangements.<ref>{{harvnb\|Pauley\|2012}}</ref> Beatboxing is performed often by shaping the mouth, making pops and clicks as pseudo-drum sounds. See also Lists of a cappella groups List of professional a cappella groups List of collegiate a cappella groups in the United States ** List of university a cappella groups in the United Kingdom Notes <references group"nb" />Footnotes{{reflist}}References {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite web\|lastAlleman\|firstAnnie\|urlhttp://heraldnews.suntimes.com/entertainment/8071132-421/chicago-a-cappella-sings-music-of-high-holidays.html\|titleChicago a cappella sings music of high holidays\|year2011\|workChicago Sun times\|locationChicago, Illinois\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120124121724/http://heraldnews.suntimes.com/entertainment/8071132-421/chicago-a-cappella-sings-music-of-high-holidays.html\|archive-date=24 January 2012}} * {{cite news \|lastAltshuler \|firstGeorge \|urlhttp://www.jweekly.com/article/full/67365/singers-find-sure-appeal-of-jewish-a-cappella-groups/ \|titleSingers find sure appeal of Jewish a cappella groups \|newspaperJweekly \|date3 January 2013 \|access-date=18 January 2016 }} * {{cite news\|authorAnon\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1993/06/11/theater/last-chance.html\|workThe New York Times\|titleLast Chance\|date=11 June 1993}} * {{cite web\|authorAnon\|urlhttp://www.singers.com/collegiate/whiffenpoofs.html\|titleThe Yale Whiffenpoofs\|access-date14 September 2007\|websiteUnited Singers International\|year1999}} * {{cite web\|authorAnon\|urlhttp://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_byshow&titleAvenue%20X\|titleAvenue X\|publisherLortel.org\|year2002\|access-date28 May 2011\|seriesLortel Archives-The Internet Off-Broadway Database\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120321112452/http://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_byshow&titleAvenue%20X\|archive-date=21 March 2012}} * {{cite web\|authorAnon\|urlhttp://www.kinseysicks.com/about\|titleWho are the Kinsey Sicks?\|access-date11 May 2013\|year=2008}} * {{cite web \|authorAnon \|urlhttp://www.take40.com/news/20335/2010-ARIA-Nominations-Announced---Full-List-Here! \|title2010 ARIA Nominations Announced&nbsp;– Full List Here! \|publisherTake 40 \|date28 September 2010 \|access-date28 May 2011 \|websiteMCM Entertainment \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101002004145/http://www.take40.com/news/20335/2010-aria-nominations-announced---full-list-here%21 \|archive-date=2 October 2010 }} * {{cite web\|authorAnon\|urlhttp://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_byshow&titleIn%20Transit\|titleIn Transit\|publisherLortel.org\|access-date28 May 2011\|year2010a\|seriesLortel Archives-The Internet Off-Broadway Database\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120321073747/http://www.lortel.org/lla_archive/index.cfm?search_byshow&titleIn%20Transit\|archive-date=21 March 2012}} * {{cite news\|authorAnon\|urlhttp://sundaytimes.lk/100822/Plus/plus_22.html\|titleManaka Singers on song\|newspaperThe Sunday Times\|locationColombo, Sri Lanka\|year2010b\|access-date=27 April 2012}} * {{cite web\|authorAnon\|titleVoices Only A Cappella\|urlhttp://www.voicesonlyacappella.com/VO/\|access-date31 July 2014\|year=2014}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|editor-lastArnold\|editor-firstDenis\|titleCappella\|encyclopediaThe New Oxford Companion to Music\|volumeI: A-J\|isbn0-19-311316-3\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationOxford, UK\|year=1998}} * {{cite book\|lastBales\|firstJames D.\|titleInstrumental Music and New Testament Worship\|locationSearcy, AR\|publisherTruth for Today World Mision School\|year1973\|asin=B0006CBMTU}} * {{cite book\|lastCalvin\|firstJohn\|titleCalvin's Commentaries\|volume8\|chapterPsalms 33:2\|year2009\|orig-date16th century\|isbn978-0801013317\|author1-link=John Calvin}} * {{cite news\|lastChanmugam\|firstMano\|urlhttp://www.island.lk/index.php?page_catarticle-details&pagearticle-details&code_title7551\|titleMenaka singers – 'September Song' – Satisfies!\|newspaperThe Island\|locationColombo, Sri Lanka\|date25 September 2010\|access-date=27 April 2012}} * {{cite book\|lastClarke\|firstAdam\|titleThe New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the Text Carefully Printed From the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorized Version Including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts with a Commentary and Critical Notes With a Commentary and Critical Notes Designed As a Help to a Better Understanding of the Sacred Writings (Clarke's Commentary)\|volumeVI\|publisherAbingdon Press, n.d.\|locationNashville, TN\|author1-linkAdam Clarke\|year1844}} * {{cite book\|lastFerguson\|firstEverett\|titleA Cappella Music in the Public Worship of the Church\|seriesThe Way of Life Series\|locationAbilene, TX\|publisherBiblical Research Press\|year1972\|asinB001D08SDM\|issue=125}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastFerguson\|firstEverett\|titleInstrumental Music\|encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement\|editor1-firstDouglas A.\|editor1-lastFoster\|editor2-firstPaul M.\|editor2-lastBlowers\|editor3-firstAnthony L.\|editor3-lastDunnavant\|editor4-firstD. Newell\|editor4-lastWilliams\|locationGrand Rapids, MI\|publisherEerdmans\|year2004\|isbn0-8028-3898-7}} * {{cite book\|last1Ferguson\|first1Everett\|last2Lewis\|first2Jack P.\|last3West\|first3Earl\|titleThe Instrumental Music Issue\|publisherGospel Advocate Co.\|year1984\|isbn978-0892252954}} * {{cite web\|last1Finkle\|first1David\|last2Bacalzo\|first2Dan\|urlhttp://www.theatermania.com/new-york-city-theater/reviews/08-2006/fringenyc-2006-roundup-3_8876.html\|titleFringeNYC 2006 Roundup 3: Reports on Perfect Harmony, t.l.c., The Infliction of Cruelty, and Don't Ask.\|publisherTheaterMania\|access-date30 January 2013\|date=22 August 2006}} * {{cite magazine\|lastFutter\|firstMike\|urlhttp://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2013/10/21/smooth-mcgroove-leads-us-to-final-fantasy-7-victory.aspx\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131021211610/http://www.gameinformer.com/b/news/archive/2013/10/21/smooth-mcgroove-leads-us-to-final-fantasy-7-victory.aspx\|url-statusdead\|archive-date21 October 2013\|titleSmooth McGroove Leads Us To Final Fantasy VII Victory\|magazineGame Informer\|date21 October 2013\|access-date16 February 2014\|publisher=gamestop}} * {{cite news \|lastGinsberg \|firstJohanna \|urlhttp://njjewishnews.com/article/26081/on-campus-a-perfect-pitch-for-pluralism \|titleOn campus, a perfect pitch for pluralism \|newspaperNew Jersey Jewish News \|date4 February 2015 \|access-date=18 January 2016 }} * {{cite magazine\|lastHilliard\|firstKyle\|titleHow Smooth Got His McGroove – The Introverted Acapella YouTube Artist\|urlhttp://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2013/09/09/how-smooth-got-his-mcgroove-the-introverted-acapella-youtube-artist.aspx\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130912045435/http://www.gameinformer.com/b/features/archive/2013/09/09/how-smooth-got-his-mcgroove-the-introverted-acapella-youtube-artist.aspx\|url-statusdead\|archive-date12 September 2013\|magazineGame Informer\|date9 September 2013\|access-date16 February 2014}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|editor-lastHoiberg\|editor-firstDale H.\|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica\|titleA Cappella\|edition15th\|year2010\|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.\|volumeI: A–Ak&nbsp;– Bayes\|locationChicago\|isbn978-1-59339-837-8\|url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency}} * {{cite book\|lastHolmes\|firstWilliam C.\|titleA cappella\|publisherGrove Music Online. Oxford Music Online\|access-date21 September 2008\|urlhttp://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/00091\|year=2007}} * {{cite news\|lastJacobs\|firstLeonard\|urlhttp://www.backstage.com/review/ny-theater/perfect-harmony_2/\|titlePerfect Harmony\|publisherBackstage\|access-date17 April 2013\|date=24 August 2006}} * {{cite book\|lastKurfees\|firstMarshall C.\|titleInstrumental music in the worship or the Greek verb psallo philologically and historically examined together with a full discussion of kindred matters relating to music in Christian worship\|locationNashville\|publisherMcQuiddy Print Co.\|year1911\|asin=B00088QFHQ}} * {{cite web \|lastLevin \|firstNick \|urlhttp://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/singlesreviews/a214731/kelis-acapella.html \|titleMusic Reviews: Kelis Acapella \|websiteDigital Spy \|date16 April 2010 \|access-date17 April 2010 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100418203740/http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/singlesreviews/a214731/kelis-acapella.html \|archive-date18 April 2010 \|url-statuslive }} * {{cite news\|lastMacpherson\|firstAlex\|titleBrandy: Human\|date5 December 2008\|workThe Guardian\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/dec/05/urban-brandy-norwood-human/\|access-date2 February 2009\|locationLondon}} * {{cite book\|lastMcKinnon\|firstJames William\|titleThe Church Fathers and Musical Instruments\|publisherColumbia University\|seriesColumbia University Dissertations\|asinB001F2LQJ6\|year=1965}} * {{cite book\|lastMcKinnon\|firstJames\|titleMusic in Early Christian Literature\|year1989\|orig-date1987\|locationCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn0-521-37624-6}} * {{cite book\|lastMcKinnon\|firstJames\|titleThe Temple, the Church Fathers, and Early Western Chant\|locationAldershot\|publisherAshgate Publishing Limited\|year1998\|isbn=978-0860786887}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|editor1-lastM'Clintock\|editor1-firstJohn\|editor2-lastStrong\|editor2-firstJames\|encyclopediaCyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature\|volumeVI: Me-Nev\|publisherHarper and Brothers Publishers\|locationNew York, NY\|year1894\|titleMusic}} * {{cite web\|lastMelamed\|firstRabbi Eliezer\|urlhttp://www.yeshiva.org.il/midrash/Shiur.asp?id2262\|titleMourning Customs During the Omer\|access-date3 January 2009\|workyeshiva.org.il\|publisherBet El Yeshiva Center\|year2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070614114259/http://www.yeshiva.org.il/midrash/shiur.asp?id2262\|archive-date14 June 2007}} * {{cite encyclopedia\|lastOlson\|firstLee G.\|titleMusic and Musical Instruments of the Bible\|encyclopediaZondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary\|editor-linkMerrill C. Tenney\|editor-firstMerrill C.\|editor-lastTenney\|locationGrand Rapids, MI\|publisherZondervan Publishing House\|year1967\|isbn978-0310331605\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/zondervanpictori00tenn}} * {{cite news\|lastPareles\|firstJon\|titleCritic's Choice&nbsp;– Brandy (Human)\|newspaperThe New York Times\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/29/arts/music/29choi.html\|year2008\|access-date=2 January 2010}} * {{cite web \|lastPauley \|firstJared \|titleFreestyle rap [Freestyling] \|urlhttp://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2224354?qbeatboxing&searchquick&pos2&_start1 \|access-date22 October 2014 \|websiteoxfordmusiconline \|date10 July 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240527040754/https://www.webcitation.org/6TWK0wE3K?urlhttp://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2224354%3Fqbeatboxing&searchquick&pos2&_start1 \|archive-date27 May 2024 \|url-status=live }} * {{cite news\|lastPerera\|firstMahes\|urlhttps://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2010/08/29/mon50.asp\|titleSeptember Song\|newspaperSunday Observer\|locationColombo, Sri Lanka\|date29 August 2010\|access-date27 April 2012\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121120214247/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/08/29/mon50.asp\|archive-date=20 November 2012}} * {{cite book\|lastPrice\|firstJohn\|titleOld Light on New Worship: Musical Instruments and The Worship of God, A Theological, Historical, and Psychological Study\|locationAvinger, TX\|publisherSimpson Publishing Company\|year2005\|isbn=978-1881095019}} * {{cite book\|lastScott\|firstWalter\|urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/files/6944/6944.txt\|titleThe Heart of Mid-Lothian\|author-linkWalter Scott\|year1818\|publisherArchibald Constable and Company\|locationEdinburgh, Scotland}} * {{cite news \|lastShapiro \|firstGary \|urlhttp://forward.com/culture/art/135458/shir-enjoyment-of-vocal-music/ \|titleShir Enjoyment of Vocal Music \|newspaperThe Forward \|date16 February 2011 \|access-date=18 January 2016 }} * {{cite web\|authorShircago\|urlhttp://www.shircago.com/jewish-a-cappella-omer.php\|publisherShircago\|titleJewish A Cappella and Sefirat Omer\|access-date11 May 2013\|year2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130201084421/http://shircago.com/jewish-a-cappella-omer.php\|archive-date1 February 2013}} * {{cite book\|lastSparks\|firstRichard\|author-linkRichard Sparks\|titleThe Swedish Choral Miracle: Swedish A Capella Music Since 1945\|publisherWalton Music\|year2000\|locationChapel Hill, NC\|isbn978-0-9703134-0-9}} * {{cite book\|lastStebbins \|firstRobert A. \|titleThe Barbershop Singer: Inside the Social World of a Musical Hobby \|locationToronto \|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press \|year1996 \|isbn=0-8020-0844-5}} * {{cite book\|lastTaruskin\|firstRichard\|titleThe Oxford History of Western Music\|year2005\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|isbn0-19-522270-9\|volume1}} * {{cite book\|lastTaruskin\|firstRichard\|titleThe Oxford History of Western Music\|year2005a\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|isbn0-19-522271-7\|volume2}} * {{cite book\|lastTaruskin\|firstRichard\|titleThe Oxford History of Western Music\|year2005b\|publisherOxford University Press\|locationNew York\|isbn0-19-522272-5\|volume3}} * {{cite journal\|lastvan Camp\|firstLeonard\|titleThe Formation of A Cappella Choirs at Northwestern University, St. Olaf College, and Westminster College\|journalJournal of Research in Music Education\|volume13\|issue4\|year1965\|pages227–238\|doi10.2307/3344375\|jstor3344375\|s2cid=220635936}} * {{cite book\|lastWare\|firstTimothy\|year1997\|titleThe Orthodox Church: New Edition\|locationLondon\|publisherPenguin Books\|isbn978-0140146561\|edition2nd}} * {{cite book\|last1Weiss\|first1Piero\|last2Taruskin\|first2Richard\|titleMusic in the Western World\|locationNew York\|publisherShirmer Books\|year1984\|isbn978-0028729008\|url-accessregistration\|url=https://archive.org/details/musicinwesternwo0000unse}} * {{citation\|lastWittman\|firstElisabeth\|seriesPeter Christian Lutkin Papers\|year1978\|placeEvanston, IL\|publisherNorthwestern University\|urlhttp://files.library.northwestern.edu/findingaids/lutkin_papers.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://files.library.northwestern.edu/findingaids/lutkin_papers.pdf \|archive-date9 October 2022 \|url-statuslive\|title=Biography of Peter Christian Lutkin}} {{refend}} External links {{commons category}} {{Wiktionary\|a cappella}} * [https://ACappellaMusicAwards.com A Cappella Music Awards] {{Singing}} {{Authority control}} Category:Singing Category:Vocal music Category:Musical terminology Category:Medieval music genres Category:16th-century music genres Category:20th-century music genres Category:21st-century music genres Category:Italian words and phrases Category:Choral music genres	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella	2025-04-05T18:26:03.853072
2414	Arrangement	thumb\|John Philip Sousa's manuscript arrangement of Richard Wagner's The Flying Dutchman overture (page 25 of 37). In music, an arrangement is a musical adaptation of an existing composition. Differences from the original composition may include reharmonization, melodic paraphrasing, orchestration, or formal development. Arranging differs from orchestration in that the latter process is limited to the assignment of notes to instruments for performance by an orchestra, concert band, or other musical ensemble. Arranging "involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings. Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety". In jazz, a memorized (unwritten) arrangement of a new or pre-existing composition is known as a head arrangement. Classical music Arrangement and transcriptions of classical and serious music go back to the early history of classical music. Eighteenth century J. S. Bach frequently made arrangements of his own and other composers' pieces. One example is the arrangement that he made of the Prelude from his Partita No. 3 for solo violin, BWV 1006.thumb\|Bach Partita 3 for Violin Prelude thumb\|center\|500px\|Bach Partita 3 for Violin Prelude Bach transformed this solo piece into an orchestral Sinfonia that introduces his Cantata BWV29. "The initial violin composition was in E major but both arranged versions are transposed down to D, the better to accommodate the wind instruments".thumb\|Bach Cantata 29 Sinfonia thumb\|center\|600px\|Bach Cantata 29 Sinfonia "The transformation of material conceived for a single string instrument into a fully orchestrated concerto-type movement is so successful that it is unlikely that anyone hearing the latter for the first time would suspect the existence of the former". Nineteenth and twentieth centuries Piano music In particular, music written for the piano has frequently undergone this treatment, as it has been arranged for orchestra, chamber ensemble, or concert band. Beethoven made an arrangement of his Piano Sonata No. 9 for string quartet. Conversely, he also arranged his Grosse Fuge (one of his late string quartets) for piano duet. The American composer George Gershwin, due to his own lack of expertise in orchestration, had his Rhapsody in Blue arranged and orchestrated by Ferde Grofé. Erik Satie wrote his three Gymnopédies for solo piano in 1888.thumb\|Satie Gymnopedie No. 3 for piano solo thumb\|center\|500px\|Satie Gymnopedie No. 3 for piano solo Eight years later, Debussy arranged two of them, exploiting the range of instrumental timbres available in a late 19th-century orchestra. "It was Debussy whose 1896 orchestrations of the Gymnopédies put their composer on the map."thumb\|Debussy Gymnopedie 1, arrangement of Satie's Gymnopedie 3. thumb\|center\|500px thumb\|center\|500px\|Debussy Gymnopedie 1, arrangement of Satie's Gymnopedie 3 Pictures at an Exhibition, a suite of ten piano pieces by Modest Mussorgsky, has been arranged over twenty times, notably by Maurice Ravel. Ravel's arrangement demonstrates an "ability to create unexpected, memorable orchestral sonorities". In the second movement, "Gnomus", Mussorgsky's original piano piece simply repeats the following passage:thumb\|Mussorgsky Gnomus original bars 19-24 thumb\|center\|500px\|Mussorgsky "Gnomus", original bars 19–25Ravel initially orchestrates it as follows:thumb\|Mussorgsky-Ravel "Gnomus", first orchestration thumb\|center\|500px\|Mussorgsky-Ravel "Gnomus", first orchestration Repeating the passage, Ravel provides a fresh orchestration "this time with the celesta (replacing the woodwinds) accompanied by string glissandos on the fingerboard".thumb\|Schubert "Erlkönig", piano introduction thumb\|center\|500px\|Schubert "Erlkönig", piano introduction The arrangement of this song by Hector Berlioz uses strings to convey faithfully the driving urgency and threatening atmosphere of the original.thumb\|"Erlkönig", arrangement by Berlioz thumb\|center\|500px Berlioz adds colour in bars 6–8 through the addition of woodwind, horns, and a timpani. With typical flamboyance, Berlioz adds spice to the harmony in bar 6 with an E flat in the horn part, creating a half-diminished seventh chord which is not in Schubert's original piano part.thumb\|center\|500px\|"Erlkönig", arrangement by Berlioz There are subtle differences between this and the arrangement of the song by Franz Liszt. The upper string sound is thicker, with violins and violas playing the fierce repeated octaves in unison and bassoons compensating for this by doubling the cellos and basses. There are no timpani, but trumpets and horns add a small jolt to the rhythm of the opening bar, reinforcing the bare octaves of the strings by playing on the second main beat.thumb\|Erl King - arrangement by Liszt opening bars thumb\|center\|500px\|Erl King – arrangement by Liszt, bars 1–4 Unlike Berlioz, Liszt does not alter the harmony, but changes the emphasis somewhat in bar 6, with the note A in the oboes and clarinets grating against rather than blending with the G in the strings.thumb\|center\|500px\|Erl King – arrangement by Liszt, bars 5–8 "Schubert has come in for his fair share of transcriptions and arrangements. Most, like Liszt's transcriptions of the Lieder or Berlioz's orchestration for Erlkönig, tell us more about the arranger that about the original composer, but they can be diverting so long as they are in no way a replacement for the original". Gustav Mahler's Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen ("Songs of a Wayfarer") were originally written for voice with piano accompaniment. The composer's later arrangement of the piano part shows a typical ear for clarity and transparency in rewriting for an ensemble. Below is the original piano version of the closing bars of the second song, "Gieng heit' Morgen über's Feld".thumb\|Mahler Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld final bars of the piano version thumb\|center\|500px\|Mahler "Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld", final bars of the piano version The orchestration shows Mahler's attention to detail in bringing out differentiated orchestral colours supplied by woodwind, strings and horn. He uses a harp to convey the original arpeggios supplied by the left hand of the piano part. He also extracts a descending chromatic melodic line, implied by the left hand in bars 2–4 (above), and gives it to the horn.thumb\|Mahler Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld final bars of the orchestral arrangement thumb\|center\|500px\|Mahler "Gieng heut' Morgen uber's feld", final bars of the orchestral arrangement Popular music Popular music recordings often include parts for brass horn sections, bowed strings, and other instruments that were added by arrangers and not composed by the original songwriters. Some pop arrangers even add sections using full orchestra, though this is less common due to the expense involved. Popular music arrangements may also be considered to include new releases of existing songs with a new musical treatment. These changes can include alterations to tempo, meter, key, instrumentation, and other musical elements. Well known examples include Joe Cocker's version of the Beatles' "With a Little Help from My Friends", Cream's "Crossroads", and Ike and Tina Turner's version of Creedence Clearwater Revival's "Proud Mary". The American group Vanilla Fudge and the British group Yes based their early careers on radical rearrangements of contemporary hits. Bonnie Pointer performed disco and Motown-styled versions of "Heaven Must Have Sent You". Remixes, such as in dance music, can also be considered arrangements. Jazz Arrangements for small jazz combos are usually informal, minimal, and uncredited. Larger ensembles have generally had greater requirements for notated arrangements, though the early Count Basie big band is known for its many head arrangements, so called because they were worked out by the players themselves, memorized ("in the player's head"), and never written down. Most arrangements for big bands, however, were written down and credited to a specific arranger, as with arrangements by Sammy Nestico and Neal Hefti for Count Basie's later big bands. Don Redman made innovations in jazz arranging as a part of Fletcher Henderson's orchestra in the 1920s. Redman's arrangements introduced a more intricate melodic presentation and soli performances for various sections of the big band. Benny Carter became Henderson's primary arranger in the early 1930s, becoming known for his arranging abilities in addition to his previous recognition as a performer. Duke Ellington's and Billy Strayhorn's arrangements for the Duke Ellington big band were usually new compositions, and some of Eddie Sauter's arrangements for the Benny Goodman band and Artie Shaw's arrangements for his own band were new compositions as well. It became more common to arrange sketchy jazz combo compositions for big band after the bop era. After 1950, the big bands declined in number. However, several bands continued and arrangers provided renowned arrangements. Gil Evans wrote a number of large-ensemble arrangements in the late 1950s and early 1960s intended for recording sessions only. Other arrangers of note include Vic Schoen, Pete Rugolo, Oliver Nelson, Johnny Richards, Billy May, Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Brookmeyer, Lou Marini, Nelson Riddle, Ralph Burns, Billy Byers, Gordon Jenkins, Ray Conniff, Henry Mancini, Ray Reach, Vince Mendoza, and Claus Ogerman. In the 21st century, the big-band arrangement has made a modest comeback. Gordon Goodwin, Roy Hargrove, and Christian McBride have all rolled out new big bands with both original compositions and new arrangements of standard tunes. For instrumental groups Strings The string section is a body of instruments composed of various bowed stringed instruments. By the 19th century orchestral music in Europe had standardized the string section into the following homogeneous instrumental groups: first violins, second violins (the same instrument as the first violins, but typically playing an accompaniment or harmony part to the first violins, and often at a lower pitch range), violas, cellos, and double basses. The string section in a multi-sectioned orchestra is sometimes referred to as the "string choir". The harp is also a stringed instrument, but is not a member of nor homogeneous with the violin family, and is not considered part of the string choir. Samuel Adler classifies the harp as a plucked string instrument in the same category as the guitar (acoustic or electric), mandolin, banjo, or zither. Like the harp, these instruments do not belong to the violin family and are not homogeneous with the string choir. In modern arranging these instruments are considered part of the rhythm section. The electric bass and upright string bass—depending on the circumstance—can be treated by the arranger as either string section or rhythm section instruments. A group of instruments in which each member plays a unique part—rather than playing in unison with other like instruments—is referred to as a chamber ensemble. A chamber ensemble made up entirely of strings of the violin family is referred to by its size. A string trio consists of three players, a string quartet four, a string quintet five, and so on. In most circumstances the string section is treated by the arranger as one homogeneous unit and its members are required to play preconceived material rather than improvise. A string section can be utilized on its own (this is referred to as a string orchestra) or in conjunction with any of the other instrumental sections. More than one string orchestra can be utilized. A standard string section (vln., vln 2., vla., vcl, cb.) with each section playing unison allows the arranger to create a five-part texture. Often an arranger will divide each violin section in half or thirds to achieve a denser texture. It is possible to carry this division to its logical extreme in which each member of the string section plays his or her own unique part. Size of the string section Artistic, budgetary and logistical concerns, including the size of the orchestra pit or hall will determine the size and instrumentation of a string section. The Broadway musical West Side Story, in 1957, was booked into the Winter Garden theater; composer Leonard Bernstein disliked the playing of "house" viola players he would have to use there, and so he chose to leave them out of the show's instrumentation; a benefit was the creation of more space in the pit for an expanded percussion section. George Martin, producer and arranger for the Beatles, warns arrangers about the intonation problems when only two like instruments play in unison: "After a string quartet, I do not think there is a satisfactory sound for strings until one has at least three players on each line . . . as a rule two stringed instruments together create a slight 'beat' which does not give a smooth sound." Different music directors may use different numbers of string players and different balances between the sections to create different musical effects. While any combination and number of string instruments is possible in a section, a traditional string section sound is achieved with a violin-heavy balance of instruments. +Suggested string section sizesReferenceAuthorSection sizeViolinsViolasCelliBasses"Arranged By Nelson Riddle"Nelson Riddle12 players822015 players933016 players1033020 players1244030 players18660"The Contemporary Arranger"Don Sebesky9 players702012 players822016 players1204020 players12440 Further reading NameAuthorInside the score: A detailed analysis of 8 classic jazz ensemble charts by Sammy Nestico, Thad Jones and Bob BrookmeyerRayburn WrightSounds and Scores: A Practical Guide to Professional OrchestrationHenry ManciniThe Contemporary ArrangerDon SebeskyThe Study of OrchestrationSamuel AdlerArranged by Nelson RiddleNelson RiddleInstrumental Jazz Arranging: A Comprehensive and Practical GuideMike TomaroModern Jazz Voicings: Arranging for Small and Medium EnsembleTed Pease, Ken PulligArranging for Large Jazz EnsembleTed Pease, Dick LowellArranging concepts complete: the ultimate arranging course for today's musicDick GroveThe complete arrangerSammy NesticoArranging Songs: How to Put the Parts TogetherRikky Rooksby See also Transcription (music) Instrumentation (music) Orchestration Reduction (music) Musical notation Musical setting American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers Electronic keyboard (or Electronic Music Arranger), which allows for live music arrangement List of music arrangers List of jazz arrangers :Category:Music arrangers References Sources Kers, Robert de (1944). Harmonie et orchestration pour orchestra de danse. Bruxelles: Éditions musicales C. Bens. vii, 126 p. Kidd, Jim (1987). Unsung Heroes, the Jazz Arrangers, from Don Redman to Sy Oliver: [text with recorded examples for a presentation] Prepared on the Occasion of the 16th Annual Canadian Collectors' Congress, 25 April 1987, Toronto, Ont. Toronto: Canadian Collectors' Congress. Photo-reproduced text ([6] leaves) with audiocassette of recorded illustrative musical examples. Randel, Don Michael (2002). The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians. . External links An oral history of pop music arranging, compiled by Richard Niles: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 Category:Arrangement	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrangement	2025-04-05T18:26:03.881790
2416	Athanasian Creed	thumb\|Athanasius of Alexandria was traditionally thought to be the author of the Athanasian Creed, and gives his name to its common title. The Athanasian Creed—also called the Quicunque Vult (or Quicumque Vult), which is both its Latin name and its opening words, meaning "Whosoever wishes"—is a Christian statement of belief focused on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. Used by Christian churches since the early sixth century, it was the first creed to explicitly state the equality of the three hypostases of the Trinity. It differs from the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and the Apostles' Creed in that it includes anathemas condemning those who disagree with its statements, as does the original Nicene Creed. Widely accepted in Western Christianity, including by the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheran Churches (it is part of the Lutheran confessions set out in the Book of Concord), Anglican Churches, Reformed Churches, and ancient liturgical churches, the Athanasian Creed has been used in public worship less frequently, with exception of Trinity Sunday. However, part of it can be found as an "Authorized Affirmation of Faith" in the main volume of the Common Worship liturgy of the Church of England published in 2000. Despite falling out of liturgical use, the creed's influence on current Protestant understanding of trinitarian doctrine is clear. Designed to distinguish Nicene Christianity from Arianism, the Athanasian Creed traditionally was recited at the Sunday Office of Prime in the Western Church. It has not been commonly used in the Eastern Church. Origin thumb\|The Shield of the Trinity, a visual representation of the doctrine of the Trinity, derived from the Athanasian Creed There is a possible allusion to the Creed in Gregory Nazianzen's Oration in praise of Athanasius: "For, when all the rest who sympathised with us were divided into three parties, and many were faltering in their conception of the Son, and still more in that of the Holy Ghost, (a point on which to be only slightly in error was to be orthodox) and few indeed were sound upon both points, he was the first and only one, or with the concurrence of but a few, to venture to confess in writing, with entire clearness and distinctness, the Unity of Godhead and Essence of the Three Persons, and thus to attain in later days, under the influence of inspiration, to the same faith in regard to the Holy Ghost, as had been bestowed at an earlier time on most of the Fathers in regard to the Son. This confession, a truly royal and magnificent gift, he presented to the Emperor, opposing to the unwritten innovation, a written account the orthodox faith, so that an emperor might be overcome by an emperor, reason by reason, treatise by treatise." (Oration 21, p. 33) A medieval account credited Athanasius of Alexandria, the famous defender of Nicene theology, as the author of the Creed. According to that account, Athanasius composed it during his exile in Rome and presented it to Pope Julius I as a witness to his orthodoxy. The traditional attribution of the Creed to Athanasius was first called into question in 1642 by the Dutch Protestant theologian Gerhard Johann Vossius. It has since been widely accepted by modern scholars that the creed was not authored by Athanasius, that it was not originally called a creed at all and that Athanasius's name was not originally attached to it. Athanasius's name seems to have become attached to the creed as a sign of its strong declaration of Trinitarian faith. The reasoning for rejecting Athanasius as the author usually relies on a combination of the following: The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, but Athanasius composed in Greek. Neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed. It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils. It appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died (including the filioque). It was most widely circulated among Western Christians. The use of the creed in a sermon by Caesarius of Arles, as well as a theological resemblance to works by Vincent of Lérins, point to Southern Gaul as its origin. In the late 19th century, there was a great deal of speculation about who might have authored the creed, with suggestions including Ambrose of Milan, Venantius Fortunatus and Hilary of Poitiers. The 1940 discovery of a lost work by Vincent of Lérins, which bears a striking similarity to much of the language of the Athanasian Creed, has led many to conclude that the creed originated with Vincent or his students. For example, in the authoritative modern monograph about the creed, J. N. D. Kelly asserts that Vincent of Lérins was not its author but that it may have come from the same milieu, the area of Lérins in southern Gaul. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Athanasian Creed date from the late 8th century. Content The Athanasian Creed is usually divided into two sections: lines 1–28 address the doctrine of the Trinity, and lines 29–44 address the doctrine of Christology. Enumerating the three persons of the Trinity (Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the first section of the creed ascribes the divine attributes to each individually. Thus, each person of the Trinity is described as uncreated (increatus), limitless (Immensus), eternal (æternus), and omnipotent (omnipotens). While ascribing the divine attributes and divinity to each person of the Trinity, thus avoiding subordinationism, the first half of the Athanasian Creed also stresses the unity of the three persons in the one Godhead, thus avoiding a theology of tritheism. The text of the Athanasian Creed is as follows: in Latin English translationWhosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith. Which faith unless every one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. And the catholic faith is this: that we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Essence. For there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal. Such as the Father is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost. The Father uncreated; the Son uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated. The Father infinite; the Son infinite; and the Holy Ghost infinite. The Father eternal; the Son eternal; and the Holy Ghost eternal. And yet they are not three eternals; but one eternal. As also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one uncreated; and one infinite. So likewise the Father is Almighty; the Son Almighty; and the Holy Ghost Almighty. And yet they are not three Almighties; but one Almighty. So the Father is God; the Son is God; and the Holy Ghost is God. And yet they are not three Gods; but one God. So likewise the Father is Lord; the Son Lord; and the Holy Ghost Lord. And yet not three Lords; but one Lord. For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity; to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord; So are we forbidden by the catholic religion; to say, There are three Gods, or three Lords. The Father is made of none; neither created, nor begotten. The Son is of the Father alone; not made, nor created; but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten; but proceeding. So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts. And in this Trinity none is before, or after another; none is greater, or less than another. But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal. So that in all things, as aforesaid; the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped. He therefore that will be saved, let him thus think of the Trinity. Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation; that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man; God, of the Substance [Essence] of the Father; begotten before the worlds; and Man, of the Substance [Essence] of his mother, born in the world. Perfect God; and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting. Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead; and inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood. Who although he is God and Man; yet he is not two, but one Christ. One; not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh; but by assumption of the Manhood into God. One altogether; not by confusion of Substance [Essence]; but by unity of Person. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so God and Man is one Christ; Who suffered for our salvation; descended into hell; rose again the third day from the dead. He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty, from whence he will come to judge the living and the dead. At whose coming all men will rise again with their bodies; And shall give account for their own works. And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; and they that have done evil, into everlasting fire. This is the catholic faith; which except a man believe truly and firmly, he cannot be saved. The Christology of the second section is more detailed than that of the Nicene Creed and reflects the teaching of the First Council of Ephesus in 431, and the creed of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Athanasian Creed uses the term substantia (a Latin translation of the Nicene ousia: 'being' or 'substance') with respect to the relation of the Son to the Father according to his divine nature, but it also says that the Son is substantia of his mother Mary according to his human nature. The Creed's wording thus excludes Sabellianism and Arianism and the Christological heresies of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. A need for a clear confession against Arianism arose in Western Europe when the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, who had Arian beliefs, invaded at the beginning of the 5th century. The final section of this Creed also moved beyond the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds in making negative statements about the people's fate: "They that have done good shall go into life everlasting: and they that have done evil into everlasting fire." That caused considerable debate in England in the mid-19th century, centred on the teaching of Frederick Denison Maurice. Uses thumb\|Detail of a 13th century manuscript illustration for William Perault's Summa Vitiorum, depicting a knight carrying the "Shield of the Trinity" Composed of 44 rhythmic lines, the Athanasian Creed appears to have been intended as a liturgical document, the original purpose of the creed being for it to be spoken or sung as a part of worship. The creed itself uses the language of public worship by speaking of the worship of God rather than the language of belief ("Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God"). In the medieval Catholic Church, the creed was recited following the Sunday sermon or at the Sunday Office of Prime. The creed was often set to music and used in the place of a Psalm. Protestantism Early Protestants inherited the late medieval devotion to the Athanasian Creed, and it is considered to be authoritative in many Protestant churches. The statements of Protestant belief (confessional documents) of various Reformers commend the Athanasian Creed to their followers, including the Augsburg Confession, the Formula of Concord, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Belgic Confession, the Bohemian Confession and the Thirty-nine Articles. A metric version, "Quicumque vult", with a musical setting, was published in The Whole Booke of Psalmes printed by John Day in 1562. Among modern Lutheran and Reformed churches adherence to the Athanasian Creed is prescribed by the earlier confessional documents, but the creed does not receive much attention outside occasional use, especially on Trinity Sunday. In the successive Books of Common Prayer of the reformed Church of England, from 1549 to 1662, its recitation was provided for on 19 occasions each year, a practice that continued until the 19th century, when vigorous controversy regarding its statement about 'eternal damnation' saw its use gradually decline. It remains one of the three Creeds approved in the Thirty-Nine Articles, and it is printed in several current Anglican prayer books, such as A Prayer Book for Australia (1995). As with Roman Catholic practice, its use is now generally only on Trinity Sunday or its octave. An Anglican devotional manual published by The Church Union, A Manual of Catholic Devotion: For Members of the Church of England, includes the Athanasian Creed with the prayers for Mattins, with the note: "Said on certain feasts at Mattins instead of the Apostles' Creed". The Episcopal Church, based in the United States, has never provided for its use in worship, but added it to its Book of Common Prayer for the first time in 1979, where it is included in small print in a reference section, "Historical Documents of the Church". The Anglo-Catholic devotional manual Saint Augustine's Prayer Book, first published in 1947 and revised in 1967, includes the Athanasian Creed under "Devotions to the Holy Trinity". Lutheranism In Lutheranism, the Athanasian Creed is, along with the Apostles' and the Nicene Creed, one of the three ecumenical creeds and is placed at the beginning of the 1580 Book of Concord, the historic collection of authoritative doctrinal statements (confessions) of the Lutheran Church. It is still used in the liturgy on Trinity Sunday. Catholicism In Roman Catholic churches, it was traditionally said at Prime on Sundays when the Office was of the Sunday. The 1911 reforms reduced that to Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost and on Trinity Sunday, except when a commemoration of a double feast or a day within an Octave occurred. The 1960 reforms further reduced its use to once a year, on Trinity Sunday. It has been effectively dropped from the Catholic liturgy since the Second Vatican Council. It is maintained in the rite of exorcism of the Roman Rite. Opus Dei members recite it on the third Sunday of every month. Consistent with its presence in Anglican prayer books, it is preserved in Divine Worship: Daily Office, the official breviary approved for use in the personal ordinariates for former Anglicans. A common visualization of the first half of the Creed is the Shield of the Trinity. References Citations Sources Category:Book of Concord Category:Ecumenical creeds Category:5th-century Christian texts Category:Texts in Latin Category:Trinitarianism Category:Christian statements of faith Category:Christian terminology Category:Western Christianity Category:Nature of Jesus Christ	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasian_Creed	2025-04-05T18:26:03.916223
2417	Alicante	{{Short description\|Municipality in Valencian Community, Spain}} {{About\|the city in Spain\|the Alicante province\|Province of Alicante\|the Alicante wine region\|Alicante (DO)\|other uses}} {{pp-move-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=August 2017}} {{Infobox settlement \| name = Alicante \| native_name = {{Native name\|es\|Alicante}} <br /> {{Native name\|ca-valencia\|Alacant}} \| official_name = Alicante / Alacant {{No bold\|(official)}} \| settlement_type = Municipality \| image_skyline = {{Multiple image \| perrow = 1/3/2/1 \| border = infobox \| total_width = 280 \| caption_align = center \| image1 = Alicante, Spain.jpg{{!}}Puerto de Alicante desde el Castillo de Santa Bárbara \| caption1 = View of the harbour with the Castle of Santa Bárbara in the foreground \| image2 = Explanada de España.jpg{{!}}Explanada de España \| caption2 = Explanada de España \| image3 = Alacant 021.jpg{{!}}Edificio Gran Sol Alicante \| caption3 = Gran Sol \| image4 = Alacant 043.jpg{{!}}Concatedral de San Nicolás de Bari \| caption4 = Co-cathedral \| image5 = Alacant 231.jpg{{!}}Casa Carbonell \| caption5 = Casa Carbonell \| image6= Alicante Stadhuis.JPG{{!}}Casa Consistorial de Alicante \| caption6 = City hall \| image7 = Playa del Postiguet, Alicante, España, 2014-07-04, DD 47.JPG{{!}}Playa del Postiguet \| caption7 = Beach of El Postiguet }} \| image_flag = Bandera d'Alacant.svg \| flag_alt \| image_shield Coat of Arms of Alicante City.svg \| shield_alt \| nickname \| motto \| image_map {{Maplink\|frameyes\|plainy\|frame-width285\|frame-height180\|frame-aligncenter\|frame-coordinates{{Coord\|39.5\|N\|3.7\|W}}\|zoom4\|typepoint\|titleAlicante\|markercity\|type2shape\|stroke-width22\|stroke-color2#808080\|textInteractive map of Alicante.}} \|map_caption = Location of Alicante \| pushpin_map = Spain Valencia#Spain#Europe \| pushpin_label_position = right \| coordinates {{Coord\|38\|20\|43\|N\|0\|28\|59\|W\|region:ES-VC_type:city\|displayit}} \| coordinates_footnotes \| subdivision_type Country \| subdivision_name = Spain \| subdivision_type1 = Autonomous Community \| subdivision_name1 = Valencian Community \| subdivision_type2 = Province \| subdivision_name2 = Alicante / Alacant \| subdivision_type3 = Comarca \| subdivision_name3 = Alacantí \| established_title = Founded \| established_date = 324 BC \| leader_party = PP \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Luis Barcala \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 201.27 \| elevation_footnotes = &nbsp;(AMSL) \| elevation_m = 3 \| population_as_of = 2022-1-1 \| population_footnotes = {{Spain metadata Wikidata\|population_footnotes}} \| population_total = 348,901 \| population_rank = 10 \| population_density_km2 = auto \| population_demonyms = • alicantino, -na (es) <br /> • alacantí, -ina (va) \| demographics_type2 = GDP \| demographics2_footnotes <ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/met_10r_3gdp/default/table?langen\|titleGross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by metropolitan regions\|last\|first\|date\|websiteec.europa.eu\|archive-url\|archive-date\|access-date=}}</ref> \| demographics2_title1 = Metro \| demographics2_info1 = €34.014 billion (2020) \| timezone1 = CET \| utc_offset1 = +1 \| timezone1_DST = CEST \| utc_offset1_DST = +2 \| postal_code_type = Postal code \| postal_code = 03000–03016 \| area_code = +34 (ES) + 96 (A) \| twin1 \| twin1_country \| blank_name_sec1 = Administrative Divisions \| blank_info_sec1 = 12 \| blank1_name_sec1 = Neighborhoods \| blank1_info_sec1 = 45 \| blank2_name_sec1 = Climate \| blank2_info_sec1 = BSh \| website = {{official website\|http://www.alicante.es/\|www.alicante.es}} \| module \| footnotes }} Alicante ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|æ\|l\|ᵻ\|ˈ\|k\|æ\|n\|t\|i}}, {{IPAc-en\|alsoUK\|-\|t\|eɪ}},<ref>{{Cite dictionary \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Alicante \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210716122004/https://www.lexico.com/definition/Alicante \|archive-date2021-07-16 \|titleAlicante \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press}}</ref> {{IPAc-en\|US\|ˌ\|æ\|l\|ᵻ\|ˈ\|k\|ɑː\|n\|t\|i\|,_\|ˌ\|ɑː\|l\|-}};<ref>{{Cite dictionary \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/en/definition/Alicante \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210716122003/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/Alicante \|archive-date2021-07-16 \|titleAlicante \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary US English Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press}}</ref> {{IPA\|es\|aliˈkante\|lang}}; {{langx\|ca-valencia\|Alacant}} {{IPA\|ca-valencia\|alaˈkant\|}}; officially: {{lang\|es\|Alicante}} / {{lang\|ca-valencia\|Alacant}}) is a city and municipality in the Valencian Community, Spain. It is the capital of the province of Alicante and a historic Mediterranean port. The population of the city was 337,482 {{as of\|2020\|lcon}}, the second-largest in the Valencian Community.<ref name"INE">{{cite web\|titleList of place name: Population of the Continuous Municipal Register by Population Unit\|urlhttp://www.ine.es/nomen2/index.do?accionbusquedaAvanzada&entidad_ambno&codProv3&codMun\|websiteIne.es\|publisherInstituto Nacional de Estadística (INE)\|access-date15 April 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160415003327/http://www.ine.es/nomen2/index.do?accionbusquedaAvanzada&entidad_ambno&codProv3&codMun \|archive-date15 April 2016\|date2016}}</ref>{{efn\|The conurbation includes Alicante, San Vicente del Raspeig, Sant Joan d'Alacant, Mutxamel and El Campello. See Área metropolitana de Alicante-Elche for data and methodology.}} Toponymy The name of the city echoes the Arabic name Laqant ({{lang\|ar\|لَقَنْت}}), al-Laqant (اللَّقَنْت) or Al-qant ({{lang\|ar\|القنت}}),<ref>{{Cite book \|lastArslan \|firstShakib \|titleالحلل السندسية في الأخبار والآثار الأندلسية - Sindhis solutions in Andalusian news and effects \|year1936 \|languageArabic}}</ref> which in turn reflects the Latin Lucentum<ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleLaqant \|encyclopediaGran Enciclopedia Temática de la Comunidad Valenciana \|volumeHistoria \|year2009 \|publisherEditorial Prensa Valenciana \|languageca-valencia}}</ref> and Greek root Leuké (or Leuka), meaning "white".History {{Main\|History of Alicante\|Timeline of Alicante}} The area around Alicante has been inhabited for over 7,000 years. The first tribes of hunter-gatherers moved gradually from Central Europe between 5000 and 3000 BC. Some of the earlier settlements were made on the slopes of Mount Benacantil. By 1000 BC, Greek and Phoenician traders had begun to visit the eastern coast of Spain, establishing small trading ports and introducing the native Iberian tribes to the alphabet, iron, and the pottery wheel. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca established the fortified settlement of Akra Leuké (Greek: {{lang\|grc\|Ἄκρα Λευκή}}, meaning "White Mountain" or "White Point"), in the mid-230s BC, which is generally presumed to have been on the site of modern Alicante. –Carthaginian–Roman city of Akra Leuké or Lucentum]] Although the Carthaginians conquered much of the land around Alicante, the Romans eventually ruled Hispania Tarraconensis for over 700 years. By the 5th century AD, Rome was in decline, and the Roman predecessor town of Alicante, known as Lucentum (Latin), was more or less under the control of the Visigothic warlord Theudimer and thereafter under Visigothic rule from 400 to 700 A.D. The Goths did not put up much resistance to the Arab conquest of Medina Laqant at the beginning of the 8th century. The Moors ruled southern and eastern Spain until the 13th century Reconquista (Reconquest). Alicante was conquered again in 1247 by the Castilian king Alfonso X, but later passed to the Crown of Aragon in 1296 with King James II of Aragon. It gained the status of Royal Village (Vila Reial) with representation in the medieval Valencian Parliament (Corts Valencianes). After several decades of being the battlefield where the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon clashed, Alicante became a major Mediterranean trading station exporting rice, wine, olive oil, oranges, and wool. But between 1609 and 1614 King Felipe III expelled thousands of Moriscos who had remained in Valencia after the Reconquista, due to their cooperation with Barbary pirates who continually attacked coastal cities and caused much harm to trade. This act cost the region dearly; with so many skilled artisans and agricultural labourers gone, the feudal nobility found itself sliding into bankruptcy. Conditions worsened in the early 18th century; after the War of Spanish Succession, Alicante went into a long, slow decline, surviving through the 18th and 19th centuries by making shoes and growing agricultural produce such as oranges and almonds, and thanks to its fisheries. The end of the 19th century witnessed a sharp recovery of the local economy with increasing international trade and the growth of the city harbour leading to increased exports of several products (particularly during World War I when Spain was a neutral country). During the early 20th century, Alicante was a minor capital that took profit from the benefit of Spain's neutrality during World War I, and it provided new opportunities for local industry and agriculture. The Rif War in the 1920s saw numerous alicantinos drafted to fight in the long and bloody campaigns in the former Spanish protectorate (northern Morocco) against the Rif rebels. The political unrest of the late 1920s led to the victory of Republican candidates in local council elections throughout the country, and the abdication of King Alfonso XIII. The proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic was much celebrated in the city on 14 April 1931. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936. Alicante was the last city loyal to the Republican government to be occupied by General Franco's troops on 1 April 1939, and its harbour saw the last Republican government officials fleeing the country. Vicious air bombings were targeted on Alicante during the three years of civil conflict, most notably the bombing by the Italian Aviazione Legionaria of the Mercado on 25 May 1938 in which more than 300 civilians perished. The port of Alicante was the site of the heroic episode of the British ship SS Stanbrook in 1939 at the end of the Spanish Civil War. Her captain Archibald Dickson decided to rescue thousands of Spanish Republicans families during the night of 28 March 1939 under the bombing of the Nazis.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.cwgc.org/find-records/find-war-dead/casualty-details/2782442/archibald-dickson/ \| titleMaster Archibald Dickson &#124; War Casualty Details 2782442 }}</ref> From 1954 onward, many pied-noirs settled in the city (as many as 30,000, although other sources decrease the amount tenfold).{{Sfn\|Garrigós Monerris\|Daniel Villa\|2009\|p60}} Alicante had fostered strong links with Oran in the past, and a notable share of the population of the latter city during the French colonial period had ancestry in the province of Alicante.{{Sfn\|Garrigós Monerris\|Daniel Villa\|2009\|p60}} The immigration process accelerated after the independence of Algeria in 1962.{{Sfn\|Garrigós Monerris\|Daniel Villa\|2009\|p=60}} in 1957]] The late 1950s and early 1960s saw the onset of a lasting transformation of the city by the tourist industry. Large buildings and complexes rose in nearby Albufereta, e.g. El Barco, and Playa de San Juan de Alicante, with the benign climate being the biggest draw to attract prospective buyers and tourists who kept the hotels reasonably busy. New construction benefited the whole economy, as the development of the tourism sector also spawned new businesses such as restaurants, bars, and other tourist-oriented enterprises. Also, the old airfield at Rabasa was closed and air traffic moved to the new El Altet Airport, which made a more convenient and modern facility for charter flights bringing tourists from northern European countries. When Franco died in 1975, his successor Juan Carlos I played his part as the living symbol of the transition of Spain to a democratic constitutional monarchy. The governments of regional communities were given constitutional status as nationalities, and their governments were given more autonomy, including that of the Valencian region, the Generalitat Valenciana. The Port of Alicante has been reinventing itself since the industrial decline the city suffered in the 1980s (with most mercantile traffic lost to Valencia's harbour). In recent years, the Port Authority has established it as one of the most important ports in Spain for cruises, with 72 calls to port made by cruise ships in 2007 bringing some 80,000 passengers and 30,000 crew to the city each year.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.panorama-actual.es/noticias/not226759.htm \|titleEl puerto de Alicante registrará 72 escalas de cruceros durante 2007 \|workDiariocrítico de la Comunidad Valenciana \|languagees\|date16 May 2007 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720143417/http://www.panorama-actual.es/noticias/not226759.htm \|archive-date20 July 2011}}</ref> The moves to develop the port for more tourism have been welcomed by the city and its residents, but the latest plans to develop an industrial estate in the port have caused great controversy. Geography Alicante is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula, on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Some orographic features rise over the largely flat terrain where the city is built on including the Cabo de la Huerta, the Serra Grossa, the Tosal and the Benacantil hills. Located in an arid territory, Alicante lacks any meaningful permanent water stream.{{Sfn\|Martínez Martínez\|2014\|p87}} There are however several stream beds correspondent to intermittent ramblas.{{Sfn\|Martínez Martínez\|2014\|p87}} There was a swamp area in the northeast of the municipality, ''l'Albufereta'', yet it was dried up in 1928.{{Sfn\|Martínez Martínez\|2014\|p=87}} The municipality has two exclaves in the mainland: Monnegre (between the municipalities of San Vicente del Raspeig, Mutxamel, Busot and Jijona),<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.alicante.es/sites/default/files/documentos/noticias/catalogo-proteccion-alicante-version-modificada/anejo-1-estudio-paisaje-version-modificada-24012017.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.alicante.es/sites/default/files/documentos/noticias/catalogo-proteccion-alicante-version-modificada/anejo-1-estudio-paisaje-version-modificada-24012017.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|publisherAyuntamiento de Alicante\|titleEstudio de paisaje del municipio de alicante\|page34}}</ref> and Cabeçó d'Or; the latter comprises part of the namesake Cabeçó d'Or mountain (including the summit, 1209 metres above sea level).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://alicantepress.com/art/42027/busot-reparara-el-vertice-geodesico-del-cabeco-dor\|websiteAlicante Press\|titleBusot reparará el vértice geodésico del Cabeçó D'Or\|date7 April 2019}}</ref> The small island of Tabarca, 8 nautical miles to the south of the city, also belongs to the municipality.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://info.igme.es/ielig/LIGInfo.aspx?codigoBE003\|titleIsla de Tabarca\|publisher=Instituto Geológico y Minero de España}}</ref> The foot of the main staircase of the City Hall Building (Ayuntamiento) is the zero point (cota cero), used as the point of reference for measuring the height above or below sea level of any point in Spain, due to the marginal tidal variations of the Mediterranean sea at Alicante.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.alicante-ayto.es/cultura/edificios_singulares/ayuntamiento_alicante.html \|titleAyuntamiento de Alicante, Edificios Singulares \|workalicante-ayto.es \|languagees \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090610190844/http://www.alicante-ayto.es/cultura/edificios_singulares/ayuntamiento_alicante.html \|archive-date10 June 2009 \|dfdmy-all }}</ref>Economy Until the Great Recession, Alicante was one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. The boom depended partly on tourism directed to the beaches of the Costa Blanca and particularly on the second residence-construction boom which started in the 1960s and revived again by the late 1990s. Services and public administration also play a major role in the city's economy. The construction boom has raised many environmental concerns and both the local autonomous government and city council are under scrutiny by the European Union. The construction surge was the subject of hot debates among politicians and citizens alike. The latest of many public battles concerns the plans of the Port Authority of Alicante to construct an industrial estate on reclaimed land in front of the city's coastal strip, in breach of local, national, and European regulations. (See Port of Alicante for details). The city serves as the headquarters of the European Union Intellectual Property Office and a sizeable population of European public workers live there. The campus of the University of Alicante lies in San Vicente del Raspeig, bordering the city of Alicante to the north. More than 25,000 students attend the university.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://memoria.ua.es/es/comunidad-universitaria/alumnado.html \|titleAnnual Report for academic year 2018–19 \|workUniversity of Alicante \|languagees}}</ref> Between 2005 and 2012 Ciudad de la Luz (Ciutat de la Llum), one of the largest film studios in Europe, had its base in Alicante. The studio shot Spanish and international movies such as Asterix at the Olympic Games by Frédéric Forestier and Thomas Langmann, and Manolete by Menno Meyjes. It was shut down in 2012 for violating European competition law.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.cineytele.com/2019/02/14/adios-definitivo-a-ciudad-de-la-luz/\|titleAdiós a los estudios de cine Ciudad de la Luz {{!}} Cine y Tele\|date14 February 2019 \|access-date2019-02-27}}</ref> Government and administration {{See also\|List of mayors of Alicante}} Luis Barcala of the People's Party has been the mayor of Alicante since 19 April 2018. He became mayor after the resignation of Gabriel Echávarri, when the councillor Nerea Belmonte defected from Guanyar Alacant and refused to support the Socialist Party replacement candidate Eva Montesinos.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.elconfidencial.com/espana/comunidad-valenciana/2018-04-19/pp-recupera-alicante-fracaso-psoe-transfuga-podemos_1552189/\|titleEl PP recupera Alicante al fracasar el pacto del PSOE con la tránsfuga de Podemos. Noticias de Comunidad Valenciana\|date2018-04-20\|websiteEl Confidencial\|languagees\|access-date2019-02-27}}</ref> Gabriel Echávarri of the Socialist Party (PSOE) was the mayor of the city from 13 June 2015 until April 2018, following the municipal elections on 24 May 2015. He was supported by the votes from his group (6), plus those from leftist parties Guanyar Alacant (6) and Compromís (3), as well as from the centre-right party Ciudadanos (6). The People's Party (Partido Popular, PP), with only 8 elected seats, lost the majority. On April he resigned due to various judicial issues and was temporarily substituted by the councillor Eva Montesinos.<ref>{{cite news\|lastSánchez\|firstManrique C.\|titleEl alcalde de Alicante firma su dimisión, que hará efectiva el 9 de abril\|urlhttps://elpais.com/ccaa/2018/03/23/valencia/1521811043_325775.html\|date23 March 2018\|access-date18 April 2018\|workEl País\|issn1134-6582\|language=es}}</ref> In the previous municipal elections of May 2011, Sonia Castedo of People's Party won the elections with an absolute majority, but resigned in December 2014 due to her involvement in several corruption scandals, at present being under investigation. Her fellow party member Miguel Valor went on to become mayor up until Echávarri's election. Climate Alicante has mild winter temperatures, hot and sultry summers, and little rain, concentrated in equinoctial periods. Like the rest of the Province of Alicante itself, which has a range of dry climate types, the city has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) according to the Köppen climate classification.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/divulgacion/publicaciones/Atlas-climatologico/Atlas.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/divulgacion/publicaciones/Atlas-climatologico/Atlas.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleIberian Climate Atlas \|websitewww.aemet.es \|access-date9 August 2021}}</ref> It is one of the driest cities in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastiAgua \|firstredaccion \|date2017-03-22 \|title¿Cuáles son las zonas más áridas de España? \|urlhttps://www.iagua.es/noticias/espana/eltiempoes/17/03/22/cuales-son-zonas-mas-aridas-espana \|access-date2024-03-19 \|websiteiAgua \|languagees}}</ref> Daily variations in temperature are generally small because of the stabilising influence of the sea, although occasional periods of westerly wind can produce temperature changes of {{convert\|15\|C-change\|0\|abbron}} or more. Seasonal temperature variations are also relatively small, meaning that winters are mild and summers are hot. During the summer, due to the evaporation of warm Mediterranean waters, air humidity levels are high, making the day and night stuffy for much of the season. These high humidity levels increase the heat index. The average rainfall is {{convert\|284.5\|mm\|1\|abbron}} per year. The cold drop means that September and October are the wettest months. Rarely, the rainfall can be torrential, reaching over {{convert\|100\|mm\|0\|abbron}} in a 24-hour period, leading to severe flooding. Because of this irregularity, only 35 rainy days are observed on average per year, and the annual number of sunshine hours is more than 3,000. The record maximum temperature of {{convert\|42.0\|°C\|1\|abbron}} was observed on 13 August 2022.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w0&kval&l8019&datosdet&x8019&m13&vTMX \|titleAlicante/Alacant Aeropuerto \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date15 January 2017}}</ref> The record minimum temperature of {{convert\|-4.6\|°C\|1\|abbron}} was recorded on 12 February 1956.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w0&kval&l8025&datosdet&x8025&m13&vtodos \|titleValores extremos. Alicante/Alacant \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date15 January 2017}}</ref> The worst flooding in the city's modern history occurred on 30 September 1997 when {{convert\|270.2\|mm\|1\|abbron}} of rain fell within six hours.<ref nameDesalination2001>{{cite journal\|author1D. Prats Rico \|author2M.F. Chillón Arias \|titleA reverse osmosis potable water plant at Alicante University: first years of operation \|journalDesalination \|date1 May 2001 \|volume137 \|issue1–3 \|page92 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/244143317 \|doi10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00215-6 \|quoteAs can be observed, torrential rain was registered in Alicante on 30th September 1997 (270L/m2). This occurred during an interval of only 6h, causing widespread flooding in the city.}}</ref> Temperatures below {{convert\|2\|°C\|0\|abbron}} are very rare; the last recorded snowfall occurred in 1926.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://alicarte.myartsonline.com/nievealicante.html \|titleNieve en la Ciudad de Alicante \|trans-titleSnow in the City of Alicante \|workmyartsonline.com \|access-date15 January 2017 \|languagees \|archive-date7 February 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170207231654/http://alicarte.myartsonline.com/nievealicante.html }}</ref> Alicante enjoys one of the sunniest and warmest winter daytime temperatures in mainland Europe.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.airport-alicante.net/time-and-weather#:~:textDue%20to%20the%20fact%20that,seen%20in%20Alicante%20since%201926.\|titleAlicante Airport Time and Weather - ALC Airport Time and Weather\|access-date20 June 2020\|archive-date21 June 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200621175913/https://www.airport-alicante.net/time-and-weather#:~:textDue%20to%20the%20fact%20that,seen%20in%20Alicante%20since%201926.\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Alicante also recorded the highest temperature ever recorded in peninsular Spain and one of the highest in Europe for a month of January, which was {{convert\|29.8\|C\|F}}.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://elpais.com/clima-y-medio-ambiente/2024-01-26/records-de-calor-en-enero-espana-bate-68-marcas-de-temperatura.html\|titleRecord temperatures in Spain in January\|publisherelpais.com\|languagees\|access-date21 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.elespanol.com/alicante/vivir/20240125/record-temperaturas-enero-provincia-alicante-zonas-calidas-europa/827667605_0.html\|titleRecord temperature in January in Alicante\|access-date21 January 2025\|publisherelespanol.com\|languagees}}</ref> {{Weather box \|location = Alicante 81m (1991–2020), extremes (1960-present) \|metric first = Yes \|single line = Yes \|Jan record high C = 29.8 \|Feb record high C = 29.4 \|Mar record high C = 32.6 \|Apr record high C = 33.8 \|May record high C = 37.0 \|Jun record high C = 38.4 \|Jul record high C = 41.4 \|Aug record high C = 42.0 \|Sep record high C = 38.4 \|Oct record high C = 36.2 \|Nov record high C = 30.6 \|Dec record high C = 26.6 \|year record high C = 42.0 \|Jan high C = 17.2 \|Feb high C = 17.7 \|Mar high C = 19.6 \|Apr high C = 21.6 \|May high C = 24.5 \|Jun high C = 28.3 \|Jul high C = 30.7 \|Aug high C = 31.1 \|Sep high C = 28.5 \|Oct high C = 25.0 \|Nov high C = 20.5 \|Dec high C = 17.9 \|year high C \|Jan mean C 12.0 \|Feb mean C = 12.4 \|Mar mean C = 14.4 \|Apr mean C = 16.5 \|May mean C = 19.6 \|Jun mean C = 23.4 \|Jul mean C = 26.0 \|Aug mean C = 26.5 \|Sep mean C = 23.7 \|Oct mean C = 19.9 \|Nov mean C = 15.4 \|Dec mean C = 12.7 \|year mean C \|Jan low C 6.7 \|Feb low C = 7.2 \|Mar low C = 9.1 \|Apr low C = 11.4 \|May low C = 14.6 \|Jun low C = 18.5 \|Jul low C = 21.3 \|Aug low C = 21.8 \|Sep low C = 18.8 \|Oct low C = 14.8 \|Nov low C = 10.3 \|Dec low C = 7.5 \|year low C \|Jan record low C -2.6 \|Feb record low C = -1.8 \|Mar record low C = -1.0 \|Apr record low C = 2.6 \|May record low C = 4.8 \|Jun record low C = 10.4 \|Jul record low C = 13.4 \|Aug record low C = 13.2 \|Sep record low C = 9.4 \|Oct record low C = 4.0 \|Nov record low C = 0.2 \|Dec record low C = -2.5 \|year record low C = -2.6 \|Jan precipitation mm = 23.9 \|Feb precipitation mm = 17.3 \|Mar precipitation mm = 28.7 \|Apr precipitation mm = 28.6 \|May precipitation mm = 18.9 \|Jun precipitation mm = 8.4 \|Jul precipitation mm = 3.2 \|Aug precipitation mm = 13.4 \|Sep precipitation mm = 51.1 \|Oct precipitation mm = 33.1 \|Nov precipitation mm = 32.8 \|Dec precipitation mm = 25.1 \|year precipitation mm \|Jan precipitation days 3.1 \|Feb precipitation days = 2.6 \|Mar precipitation days = 3.8 \|Apr precipitation days = 3.8 \|May precipitation days = 2.9 \|Jun precipitation days = 1.4 \|Jul precipitation days = 0.4 \|Aug precipitation days = 1.5 \|Sep precipitation days = 3.4 \|Oct precipitation days = 4.2 \|Nov precipitation days = 4.0 \|Dec precipitation days = 3.6 \|year precipitation days \|unit precipitation days 1 mm \|Jan humidity = 66 \|Feb humidity = 65 \|Mar humidity = 64 \|Apr humidity = 62 \|May humidity = 62 \|Jun humidity = 61 \|Jul humidity = 63 \|Aug humidity = 65 \|Sep humidity = 68 \|Oct humidity = 69 \|Nov humidity = 67 \|Dec humidity = 68 \|year humidity \|Jan sun 191 \|Feb sun = 193 \|Mar sun = 236 \|Apr sun = 259 \|May sun = 300 \|Jun sun = 322 \|Jul sun = 345 \|Aug sun = 320 \|Sep sun = 260 \|Oct sun = 228 \|Nov sun = 185 \|Dec sun = 175 \|year sun \|Jan percentsun 63 \|Feb percentsun = 64 \|Mar percentsun = 63 \|Apr percentsun = 65 \|May percentsun = 68 \|Jun percentsun = 73 \|Jul percentsun = 77 \|Aug percentsun = 76 \|Sep percentsun = 70 \|Oct percentsun = 66 \|Nov percentsun = 61 \|Dec percentsun = 59 \|year percentsun \|precipitation color green \|source 1 Agencia Estatal de Meteorología (AEMET OpenData)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://opendata.aemet.es/centrodedescargas/inicio \|titleAEMET OpenData \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=14 October 2024}}</ref> \|source 2 Agencia Estatal de Meteorología<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w0&kval&l8025&datosdet \|titleValores Extremos \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=14 October 2024}}</ref> \|date=October 2024}} {{Weather box \|location Alicante 81m (1981–2010)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/detalles/guia_resumida_2010 \|titleGuía resumida del clima en España (1981-2010) \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=15 January 2017}}</ref> \|metric first = Yes \|single line = Yes \|collapsed= Yes \|Jan high C = 17.0 \|Feb high C = 17.6 \|Mar high C = 19.6 \|Apr high C = 21.3 \|May high C = 24.1 \|Jun high C = 27.8 \|Jul high C = 30.3 \|Aug high C = 30.8 \|Sep high C = 28.5 \|Oct high C = 24.9 \|Nov high C = 20.5 \|Dec high C = 17.7 \|year high C = 23.3 \|Jan mean C = 11.7 \|Feb mean C = 12.3 \|Mar mean C = 14.2 \|Apr mean C = 16.1 \|May mean C = 19.1 \|Jun mean C = 22.9 \|Jul mean C = 25.5 \|Aug mean C = 26.0 \|Sep mean C = 23.5 \|Oct mean C = 19.7 \|Nov mean C = 15.4 \|Dec mean C = 12.6 \|year mean C = 18.3 \|Jan low C = 6.3 \|Feb low C = 7.1 \|Mar low C = 8.9 \|Apr low C = 10.9 \|May low C = 14.1 \|Jun low C = 18.1 \|Jul low C = 20.7 \|Aug low C = 21.2 \|Sep low C = 18.5 \|Oct low C = 14.5 \|Nov low C = 10.3 \|Dec low C = 7.4 \|year low C = 13.2 \|Jan precipitation mm = 23 \|Feb precipitation mm = 22 \|Mar precipitation mm = 23 \|Apr precipitation mm = 29 \|May precipitation mm = 28 \|Jun precipitation mm = 12 \|Jul precipitation mm = 4 \|Aug precipitation mm = 7 \|Sep precipitation mm = 56 \|Oct precipitation mm = 47 \|Nov precipitation mm = 36 \|Dec precipitation mm = 25 \|year precipitation mm = 311 \|Jan precipitation days = 3.6 \|Feb precipitation days = 3 \|Mar precipitation days = 3.4 \|Apr precipitation days = 4.1 \|May precipitation days = 4 \|Jun precipitation days = 1.8 \|Jul precipitation days = 0.6 \|Aug precipitation days = 1.1 \|Sep precipitation days = 3.3 \|Oct precipitation days = 4.5 \|Nov precipitation days = 4.2 \|Dec precipitation days = 3.8 \|year precipitation days \|unit precipitation days 1 mm \|Jan humidity = 67 \|Feb humidity = 66 \|Mar humidity = 65 \|Apr humidity = 63 \|May humidity = 64 \|Jun humidity = 63 \|Jul humidity = 65 \|Aug humidity = 67 \|Sep humidity = 69 \|Oct humidity = 70 \|Nov humidity = 69 \|Dec humidity = 68 \|year humidity = 66 \|Jan sun = 181 \|Feb sun = 180 \|Mar sun = 227 \|Apr sun = 247 \|May sun = 277 \|Jun sun = 302 \|Jul sun = 330 \|Aug sun = 304 \|Sep sun = 250 \|Oct sun = 217 \|Nov sun = 173 \|Dec sun = 164 \|year sun = 2851 \|precipitation color=green \|source 1 Agencia Estatal de Meteorología<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l8025&kval \|titleValores climatológicos normales. Alicante/Alacant \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=26 September 2014}}</ref> \|source 2 Agencia Estatal de Meteorología<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/detalles/guia_resumida_2010 \|titleGuía resumida del clima en España. Alicante/Alacant \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> \|date=June 2020}} {\| class"wikitable collapsible plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" \|+ Climatological normals for Alicante (period 1981–2010)<ref name"AEMET">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l8025&kval \|titleValores climatológicos normales. Alicante/Alacant \|workAgencia Estatal de Meteorología \|access-date=26 September 2014}}</ref> \|- style="vertical-align:middle;" ! Parameter ! Jan ! Feb ! Mar ! Apr ! May ! Jun ! Jul ! Aug ! Sep ! Oct ! Nov ! Dec \|- ! Average number of Storm days \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.2 \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.4 \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.4 \| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"\|1.6 \| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"\|2.3 \| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"\|1.5 \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.7 \| style="background-color: #E5FFCC; color: black;"\|1.1 \| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"\|2.7 \| style="background-color: #E0FFC0; color: black;"\|2.1 \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.5 \| style="background-color: #F0FFF0; color: black;"\|0.4 \|- \|- ! Mean number of days with fog \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.2 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.5 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.6 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.2 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.1 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.1 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.1 \| style="background-color: #FEFEFA; color: black;"\|0.1 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \|- ! Average number of frost days \| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"\|0.4 \| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"\|0.3 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #FFFFFF; color: black;"\|0.0 \| style="background-color: #F0F8FF; color: black;"\|0.1 \|- ! Average number of clear days \|8 \|6.1 \|6.5 \|5.5 \|5.4 \|9.9 \|15.2 \|12.7 \|6.5 \|5.4 \|5.7 \|7 \|} {\|class="wikitable" \|+Average sea temperature:<ref nameseatemperature>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.seatemperature.org/europe/spain/alicante-september.htm \|titleAlicante Climate \|workSeatemperature.org}}</ref> \|- !Jan !Feb !Mar !Apr !May !Jun !Jul !Aug !Sep !Oct !Nov !Dec !Year \|- \|style"background: #CCFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|15\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #CCFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|14\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #CCFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|14\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #CCFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|16\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|19\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|22\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|25\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|26\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|25\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFCC66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|23\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFFF66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|19\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #CCFF99; color: black;"\|{{convert\|17\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|style"background: #FFFF66; color: black;"\|{{convert\|19.6\|°C\|°F\|abbron}} \|} Demographics {{Historical populations \|align = center \|source = Historical population data sources: 1250–1609: estimates by historians; 1646: Vecindario del archivo del Reino de Valencia; 1717–1803: various censuses prepared by the governments of Spain; from 1857: national census. \|cols = 3 \|1250\|2500 \|1350\|3250 \|1418\|1539 \|1609\|5040 \|1646\|6174 \|1717\|11019 \|1735\|12604 \|1754\|14394 \|1768\|17213 \|1786\|17345 \|1797\|19313 \|1803\|21447 \|1857\|27550 \|1860\|31162 \|1877\|34926 \|1887\|40115 \|1897\|49463 \|1900\|50495 \|1910\|55116 \|1920\|63382 \|1930\|71271 \|1940\|89198 \|1950\|101791 \|1960\|121832 \|1970\|181550 \|1981\|245963 \|1991\|265473 \|2001\|284580\|2011\|329325\|2021\|338768}} The official population of Alicante in 2022 was 338,577 inhabitants and 768,194 in the metropolitan area "Alicante-Elche".<ref name"INE"/> As of 2022, about 17.7% of the population is foreign, 62195 people, most of them immigrants who have arrived in the previous 20 years.<ref name"Inh">{{cite web\|titlePoblación de Alicante\|date4 March 2015\|publisherAyuntamiento de Alicante\|urlhttps://www.alicante.es/es/documentos/estadisticas-poblacion-alicante\|access-date2023-03-11\|archive-date16 May 2022\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220516054107/https://www.alicante.es/es/documentos/estadisticas-poblacion-alicante\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Besides which, there is an estimation of additional thousands coming from countries outside the EU (mostly from the African continent) that are under illegal alien status and therefore are not accounted for in official population figures.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.elespanol.com/alicante/20210601/pateras-alicante-tendencia-todavia-lejos-convertirse-caliente/585442254_0.html \|titlePateras en Alicante: una tendencia al alza pero todavía lejos de convertirse en 'punto caliente' \|workEl Español\|dateJune 2021 }}</ref> {\|class"wikitable" style"float:right; text-align:right;" \|+Nationalities with more than 1000 inhabitants (2022)<ref name="Inh" /> \|- !Country of Birth !! Men !! Women !! Total \|- \| style=text-align:left; \| {{flag\|Algeria}} \|\| 4845 \|\| 3047 \|\| 7892 \|- \| style=text-align:left; \| {{flag\|Colombia}} \|\| 2695 \|\| 3234 \|\| 5929 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Italy}} \|\| 2720 \|\| 2104 \|\| 4824 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Morocco}} \|\| 2252 \|\| 1819 \|\| 4071 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Romania}} \|\| 1829 \|\| 2097 \|\| 3926 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Russia}} \|\| 1176 \|\| 1799 \|\| 2975 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Venezuela}} \|\| 1075 \|\| 1404 \|\| 2479 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|France}} \|\| 1239 \|\| 1226 \|\| 2465 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Ukraine}} \|\| 946 \|\| 1285 \|\| 2231 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Argentina}} \|\| 1037 \|\| 1092 \|\| 2129 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|China}} \|\| 940 \|\| 960 \|\| 1900 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|United Kingdom}} \|\| 801 \|\| 616 \|\| 1417 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Bulgaria}} \|\| 646 \|\| 621 \|\| 1267 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Ecuador}} \|\| 642 \|\| 448 \|\| 1090 \|- \| style=text-align:left;\| {{flag\|Germany}} \|\| 543 \|\| 542 \|\| 1085 \|} Transportation Alicante Airport outranks the Valencia Airport, being the busiest airport in the Valencian Community, and among the busiest airports in Spain after Madrid, Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca and Málaga. It is connected with Madrid and Barcelona by frequent Iberia and Vueling flights, and with many Western European cities through carriers such as Ryanair, EasyJet and Jet2. There are also regular flights to Algeria. Alicante railway station is used by Cercanías Murcia/Alicante commuter rail services linking Alicante with suburbs and Murcia.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.renfe.com/EN/viajeros/cercanias/murciaalicante/ \|titleMurcia/Alicante \|workRENFE Cercanías}}</ref> Long-range Renfe trains run frequently to Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://horarios.renfe.es/hir/index.jsp?pagehjhir120.jsp&O60911&D?AFAA&MFMM&DFDD&SFNaN&IDi&PGMhir1 \|titleRENFE destinations from ALACANT-TERMINAL \|publisherHorarios.renfe.es \|access-date11 March 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720143355/http://horarios.renfe.es/hir/index.jsp?pagehjhir120.jsp&O60911&D%3F&AFAA&MFMM&DFDD&SFNaN&IDi&PGMhir1 \|archive-date20 July 2011 \|dfdmy-all }}</ref> In 2013, the Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network was extended to Alicante station, allowing AVE high-speed rail services to link to Madrid via Villena AV, Albacete-Los Llanos and Cuenca-Fernando Zóbel. Alicante Metropolitan-Tram connects different parts within the city, its metropolitan area and with outlying settlements along Costa Blanca as well. {{As of\|2020}}, electric tram-trains run up to Benidorm, and diesel trains go further to Dénia.<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.fgvalicante.com/page.php?idioma_en \|titleTRAM Alicante \|workFerrocarrils de la Generalitat Valenciana }}{{Dead link\|dateAugust 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The city has regular ferry services to the Balearic Islands and Algeria.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.aferry.co.uk/alicante-ferry-uk.htm \|titleAlicante Ferry Port \|workAferry.co.uk \|access-date11 March 2011 \|archive-date26 February 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110226224904/http://www.aferry.co.uk/alicante-ferry-uk.htm }}</ref> The city is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbour. Main sights Amongst the most notable features of the city are the Castle of Santa Bárbara and the port of Alicante. The latter was the subject of bitter controversy in 2006–2007 as residents battled, successfully, to keep it from being changed into an industrial estate. The Santa Bárbara castle is situated on Mount Benacantil, overlooking the city. The tower (La Torreta) at the top, is the oldest part of the castle, while part of the lowest zone and the walls were constructed later in the 18th century. The promenade Explanada de España, lined by palm trees, is paved with 6.5 million marble floor tiles creating a wavy form. The Promenade extends from the Port of Alicante to the Gran Vía and ends at the famous statue of Mark Hersch. For the people of Alicante, the promenade is the meeting place for the traditional Spanish paseo, or stroll along the waterfront in the evenings, and a venue for outdoor musical concerts. At the end of the promenade is a monument by the artist Bañuls of the 19th century. Barrio de la Santa Cruz is a colourful quarter of the old city, situated southwest of Santa Bárbara castle. Its small houses climb up the hill leading to the walls and the castle, through narrow streets decorated with flags and tubs of flowers. ''L'Ereta Park is situated on the foothills of Mount Benacantil. It runs from the Santa Bárbara castle down to the old part of Alicante and consists of several levels, routes, decks, and rest stops which offer a panoramic view overlooking the city. El Palmeral Park'' is one of the favourite parks of Alicante's citizens. It includes walking trails, children's playgrounds, ponds and brooks, picnic tables, and an auditorium for concerts. Just a few kilometers from Alicante on the Mediterranean Sea lies Tabarca island. What was once a haven for Barbary pirates is now a tourist attraction. Other sights include: * Basilica of Santa María (14th–16th centuries), built-in Gothic style over the former main mosque. Other features include the high altar, in Rococo style, and the portal, in Baroque style, both from the 18th century. * Co-cathedral of St. Nicholas of Bari (15th–18th centuries), also built over a mosque. It is the main church of Alicante and the bishop's seat. * Monastery of Santa Faz (15th century), located {{convert\|5\|km\|0\|abbr=off}} outside the city, in Baroque style. * Defence towers of the Huerta de Alicante (15th–18th centuries), built to defend against the Barbary pirates. Today some 20 towers are still extant. * Baroque Casa de La Asegurada (1685), the most ancient civil building in the city. (c. XVII). Today it is home to the Museum of Contemporary Art of Alicante. * Casa consistorial de Alicante (18th century), also in Baroque style. * Convent of the Canónigas de San Agustín (18th century). * Gravina Palace (1748–1808), nowadays hosting Gravina Museum of Fine Arts. * Castle of San Fernando. There are a dozen museums in Alicante. On exhibition at the Archaeological Museum of Alicante (MARQ) are local artifacts dating from 100,000 years ago until the early 20th century. The collection is divided into different rooms representing three divisions of archaeological methodology: ground, urban and underwater archaeology, with dioramas, audiovisual and interactive zones. The archaeological museum won the European Museum of the Year Award in 2004. Gravina Museum of Fine Arts presents several paintings and sculptures from the 16th century to the 19th century. Asegurada Museum of Contemporary Art houses a major collection of twentieth-century art, composed mainly of works donated by Eusebio Sempere. Festivals The most important festival, the Bonfires of Saint John (Hogueras de San Juan / Fogueres de Sant Joan), takes place during the summer solstice. This is followed a week later by five nights of firework and pyrotechnic contests between companies on the urban beach Playa del Postiguet. Another well-known festival is Moors and Christians (Moros y Cristianos) in Altozano or San Blas district. Overall, the city boasts a year-round nightlife for the enjoyment of tourists, residents, and a large student population of the University of Alicante. The nightlife social scene tends to shift to nearby Playa de San Juan during the summer months. Every summer in Alicante, a two-month-long programme of music, theatre and dance is staged in the Paseo del Puerto.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.alicante.com/v/festivals/ \|titleAlicante Festivals \|workAlicante.com \|access-date11 March 2011}}</ref> Sport For the 2023/24 season Alicante has two football clubs in the top 4 levels of Spanish football; Hércules CF and CF Intercity. For the 2023/24 season Hércules compete in Segunda Federación, the 4th level and are well known as they played in La Liga (the Spanish Premier Division) during the 1996/1997 season and again in 2010/2011. They have had many famous players such as David Trezeguet, Royston Drenthe and Nelson Valdez. Hércules are also known for their victory over Barcelona in 1997 which led to Real Madrid winning the league. Home games are played at the 30,000-capacity José Rico Pérez Stadium. The city's other club, Alicante CF, who played in the Third Division, was dissolved in 2014 due to economic problems. They were replaced the same year by newly formed club CFI Alicante. Basketball club (HLA Alicante) Lucentum Alicante participates in the Spanish basketball league. It plays in the Centro de Tecnificación de Alicante. Alicante serves as headquarters and the starting point of the Volvo Ocean Race, a yacht race around the world. The latest race sailed in January 2023. Notable people {{See also\|List of Alicante citizens}} Twin towns – sister cities {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain}} Alicante is twinned with:<ref>{{cite web \|titleCuriosas anécdotas de la ciudad de Alicante\|urlhttps://lalonja-alicante.com/curiosas-anecdotas-la-ciudad-alicante/\|websitelalonja-alicante.com\|publisherLa Lonja\|languagees\|date2020-04-06\|access-date=2020-12-03}}</ref> {{div col\|colwidth=20em}} {{flagicon\|EGY}} Alexandria, Egypt {{flagicon\|ENG}} Brighton and Hove, England, UK {{flagicon\|ITA}} Carloforte, Italy<ref>{{cite web\|titleEl Alcalde recibe a una delegación de la ciudad de Carloforte hermanada con Alicante\|urlhttps://12endigital.es/2018/09/05/el-alcalde-recibe-a-una-delegacion-de-la-ciudad-de-carloforte-hermanada-con-alicante/\|website12endigital.es\|publisher12 en digital\|languagees\|date2018-09-05\|access-date2020-12-03\|archive-date24 October 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211024071637/https://12endigital.es/2018/09/05/el-alcalde-recibe-a-una-delegacion-de-la-ciudad-de-carloforte-hermanada-con-alicante/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> {{flagicon\|ISR}} Herzliya, Israel<ref>{{cite web \|titleערים תאומות\|urlhttps://www.herzliya.muni.il/twin-cities/\|websiteherzliya.muni.il\|publisherHerzliya\|languagehe\|access-date2020-12-03}}</ref> {{flagicon\|NCA}} León, Nicaragua {{flagicon\|CUB}} Matanzas, Cuba {{flagicon\|FRA}} Nice, France {{flagicon\|ALG}} Oran, Algeria {{flagicon\|JPN}} Toyooka, Japan (1996) {{flagicon\|CHN}} Wenzhou, China<ref>{{cite news \|titleLa ciudad china de Wenzhou, hermanada con Alicante, ofrece un avión cargado de material sanitario\|urlhttps://www.informacion.es/alicante/2020/03/20/ciudad-china-wenzhou-hermanada-alicante-4771595.html\|newspaperInformación\|languagees\|date2020-03-20\|access-date2020-12-03 \|last1Pascual \|first1C. }}</ref> {{div col end}} See also Castrum Album Saint Nicholas Day Notes {{notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{Cite journal\|titleInmigración y proyectos migratorios. El caso de una pied-noir en Alicante\|pages59–77\|journalPapers\|year2009\|first1José Ignacio\|first2Aurora\|last1Garrigós Monerris\|last2Daniel Villa\|volume94\|urlhttps://ddd.uab.cat/pub/papers/02102862n94/02102862n94p59.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/papers/02102862n94/02102862n94p59.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|doi10.5565/rev/papers/v94n0.689\|issue94\|issn 2013-9004\|doi-access=free}} {{Cite journal\|urlhttps://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/40931/3/Investigaciones_Geograficas_62_06.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/40931/3/Investigaciones_Geograficas_62_06.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|issue62\|year2014\|pages83–99\|journalInvestigaciones Geográficas\|issn0213-4691\|doi10.14198/INGEO2014.62.06\|publisherUniversidad de Alicante\|locationAlicante\|titleEstudio de la isla de calor de la ciudad de Alicante\|firstJorge\|lastMartínez Martínez\|doi-accessfree}} External links [http://www.ladipu.com/ Official website of the Diputación Provincial de Alicante] {{in lang\|ca-valencia\|es}} [https://www.postalcodigo.com/alicante Postal codes in Alicante] {{sister bar\|auto=y}} <!--navigation boxes--> {{Navboxes \|title=Articles related to Alicante / Alacant \|list= {{Alacantí}} {{Cities in Spain}} {{Capitals of Provinces in Spain}} {{Costas}} {{European Capital of Sport}} {{Phoenician cities and colonies}} {{Municipalities in Alicante\|state=autocollapse}} {{Greek colonies of the Iberian peninsula}} {{Authority control}} }} Category:Populated places in the Province of Alicante Category:Mediterranean port cities and towns in Spain Category:Municipalities in the Province of Alicante Category:Seaside resorts in Spain Category:Tourism in Spain Category:Greek colonies in Iberia Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Spain Category:Populated coastal places in Spain Category:Populated places established in the 4th century BC Category:Roman sites in Spain Category:324 BC Category:320s BC establishments	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicante	2025-04-05T18:26:03.955967
2418	August 4	{{pp-move}} {{pp-pc}} {{calendar}} {{This date in recent years}} {{Day}} Events Pre-1600 * 598 &ndash; Goguryeo-Sui War: In response to a Goguryeo (Korean) incursion into Liaoxi, Emperor Wéndi of Sui orders his youngest son, Yang Liang (assisted by the co-prime minister Gao Jiong), to conquer Goguryeo during the Manchurian rainy season, with a Chinese army and navy.<ref name="Samguk Sagi, Vol. 20">Samguk Sagi, Vol. 20.</ref> 1265 &ndash; Second Barons' War: Battle of Evesham: The army of Prince Edward (the future king Edward I of England) defeats the forces of rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, killing de Montfort and many of his allies. 1327 &ndash; First War of Scottish Independence: James Douglas leads a raid into Weardale and almost kills Edward III of England. 1578 &ndash; Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir: The Moroccans defeat the Portuguese. King Sebastian of Portugal is killed in the battle, leaving his elderly uncle, Cardinal Henry, as his heir. This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal. 1601–1900 1693 &ndash; Date traditionally ascribed to Dom Perignon's invention of champagne; it is not clear whether he actually invented champagne, however he has been credited as an innovator who developed the techniques used to perfect sparkling wine. 1701 &ndash; Great Peace of Montreal between New France and First Nations is signed. 1704 &ndash; War of the Spanish Succession: Gibraltar is captured by an English and Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir George Rooke and allied with Archduke Charles. 1781 &ndash; Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, a fleet of six East India Company ships sets sail from Fort Marlborough to raid the Dutch VOC factories on the West coast of Sumatra including the major port of Padang.<ref name"I&AQR">{{cite journal \|titleThe English Connection with Sumatra \|journalImperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record \|date1968 \|page427 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=h-ZGAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> 1783 &ndash; Mount Asama erupts in Japan, killing about 1,400 people (Tenmei eruption). The eruption causes a famine, which results in an additional 20,000 deaths. 1789 &ndash; France: abolition of feudalism by the National Constituent Assembly. 1790 &ndash; A newly passed tariff act creates the Revenue Cutter Service (the forerunner of the United States Coast Guard). 1791 &ndash; The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars. 1796 &ndash; French Revolutionary Wars: Napoleon leads the French Army of Italy to victory in the Battle of Lonato. 1821 &ndash; The Saturday Evening Post is published for the first time as a weekly newspaper. 1854 &ndash; The Hinomaru is established as the official flag to be flown from Japanese ships. 1863 &ndash; Matica slovenská, Slovakia's public-law cultural and scientific institution focusing on topics around the Slovak nation, is established in Martin. 1873 &ndash; American Indian Wars: While protecting a railroad survey party in Montana, the United States 7th Cavalry, under Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer clashes for the first time with the Cheyenne and Lakota people near the Tongue River; only one man on each side is killed. 1887 &ndash; Granny, a sea anemone, died in Edinburgh after nearly 60 years in captivity. Her death was reported in The Scotsman and The New York Times.<ref namememoriam>{{cite news \|titleIn Memoriam – Granny \|urlhttps://en.wikisource.org/wiki/In_Memoriam_-_%22Granny%22 \|workThe Scotsman \|date11 October 1887 \|locationEdinburgh \|page5 \|access-date21 July 2021 \|archive-date21 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210721091848/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/In_Memoriam_-_%22Granny%22 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|titleAn Aged Sea Anemone \|workNew York Times \|date2 November 1887 \|page2 \|urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/81777774/death-of-granny/ \|access-date19 July 2021 \|archive-date19 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210719195430/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81777774/death-of-granny/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> 1889 &ndash; The Great Fire of Spokane, Washington destroys some 32 blocks of the city, prompting a mass rebuilding project. 1892 &ndash; The father and stepmother of Lizzie Borden are found murdered in their Fall River, Massachusetts home. She will be tried and acquitted for the crimes a year later. 1901–present 1914 &ndash; World War I: In response to the German invasion of Belgium, Belgium and the British Empire declare war on Germany. The United States declares its neutrality. 1915 &ndash; World War I: The German 12th Army occupies Warsaw during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive and the Great Retreat of 1915. 1921 &ndash; Bolshevik–Makhnovist conflict: Mikhail Frunze declares victory over the Makhnovshchina.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Malet \|first1Michael \|titleNestor Makhno in the Russian Civil War \|date1982 \|languageEnglish \|isbn978-0-333-25969-6 \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|locationLondon]\|oclc8514426 \|page79}}</ref> 1924 &ndash; Diplomatic relations between Mexico and the Soviet Union are established. 1936 &ndash; Prime Minister of Greece Ioannis Metaxas suspends parliament and the Constitution and establishes the 4th of August Regime. 1944 &ndash; The Holocaust: A tip from a Dutch informer leads the Gestapo to a sealed-off area in an Amsterdam warehouse, where they find and arrest Jewish diarist Anne Frank, her family, and four others. 1944 &ndash; Under the state of emergency law, the Finnish Parliament elects Marshal C. G. E. Mannerheim as the President of Finland to replace the resigned Risto Ryti.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMannerheim \|urlhttps://suomenpresidentit.fi/mannerheim/ \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websiteSuomen presidentit \|languagefi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.apu.fi/artikkelit/suomen-presidentit-sarja-mannerheim-oli-vaaran-ajan-paamies\|titleSuomen presidentit – sarja: Mannerheim oli väärän ajan päämies\|workArtikkelit\|dateDecember 6, 2017\|publisherApu–lehti\|access-dateAugust 3, 2021\|languagefi}}</ref> 1946 &ndash; An earthquake of magnitude 8.0 hits northern Dominican Republic. One hundred are killed and 20,000 are left homeless. 1947 &ndash; The Supreme Court of Japan is established. 1964 &ndash; Civil rights movement: Civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman and James Chaney are found dead in Mississippi after disappearing on June 21. 1964 &ndash; Second Gulf of Tonkin Incident: U.S. destroyers {{USS\|Maddox\|DD-731\|6}} and {{USS\|Turner Joy\|DD-951\|6}} mistakenly report coming under attack in the Gulf of Tonkin. 1965 &ndash; The Constitution of the Cook Islands comes into force, giving the Cook Islands self-governing status within New Zealand. 1969 &ndash; Vietnam War: At the apartment of French intermediary Jean Sainteny in Paris, American representative Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese representative Xuân Thuỷ begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail. 1972 &ndash; Ugandan President Idi Amin announces that Uganda is no longer responsible for the care of British subjects of Asian origin, beginning the expulsions of Ugandan Asians.<ref>{{citation\|lastJørgensen\|firstJan Jelmert\|titleUganda: a modern history\|year1981\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|isbn978-0-85664-643-0\|pages=285–290}}</ref> 1974 &ndash; A bomb explodes in the Italicus Express train at San Benedetto Val di Sambro, Italy, killing 12 people and wounding 22. 1975 &ndash; The Japanese Red Army takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA Building housing several embassies in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The hostages include the U.S. consul and the Swedish Chargé d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to Libya. 1977 &ndash; U.S. President Jimmy Carter signs legislation creating the United States Department of Energy. 1983 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo, president of the military government of Upper Volta, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Captain Thomas Sankara.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/08/06/world/13-killed-in-coup-in-upper-volta.html\|title13 Killed in Coup in Upper Volta \|workThe New York Times\|dateAugust 6, 2023\|access-date=January 6, 2023}}</ref> 1984 &ndash; The Republic of Upper Volta changes its name to Burkina Faso. 1987 &ndash; The Federal Communications Commission rescinds the Fairness Doctrine which had required radio and television stations to give equal time to opposing views. 1995 &ndash; Operation Storm begins in Croatia. 2006 &ndash; A massacre is carried out by Sri Lankan government forces, killing 17 employees of the French INGO Action Against Hunger (known internationally as Action Contre la Faim, or ACF). 2007 &ndash; NASA's Phoenix spacecraft is launched. 2018 &ndash; Syrian civil war: The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) expel the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) from the Iraq–Syria border, concluding the second phase of the Deir ez-Zor campaign.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.almasdarnews.com/article/isis-fully-expelled-from-syria-iraq-border/\|titleISIS fully expelled from Syria-Iraq border\|authorLeith Aboufadel\|date4 August 2018\|publisherAl-Masdar News\|access-date4 August 2018\|archive-date4 August 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180804231713/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/isis-fully-expelled-from-syria-iraq-border/\|url-status=dead}}</ref> 2018 – Crisis in Venezuela: Seven people are injured when two drones detonate explosives on Avenida Bolívar, Caracas while president Nicolás Maduro is giving a speech to the Venezuelan National Guard.<ref name"theguardian12">{{cite news \|authorDaniels \|firstJoe Parkin \|date5 August 2018 \|titleVenezuela's Nicolás Maduro survives apparent assassination attempt \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/04/nicolas-maduros-speech-cut-short-while-soldiers-scatter \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231005123439/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/04/nicolas-maduros-speech-cut-short-while-soldiers-scatter \|archive-date5 October 2023 \|access-date5 August 2018 \|workThe Guardian \|issn0261-3077}}</ref> 2019 &ndash; Nine people are killed and 26 injured in a shooting in Dayton, Ohio. This comes only 13 hours after another mass shooting in El Paso, Texas, where 23 people were killed.<ref>{{cite web\|websiteCNN\|titleMass shooting in Dayton, Ohio \|urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/us/live-news/ohio-shooting/index.html\|authorIvanna Kottasova\|dateAugust 4, 2019\|access-dateAugust 4, 2019}}</ref><ref name"NYT23">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/04/26/business/ap-mass-shooting-texas.html\|titleEl Paso Shooting Victim Dies Months Later, Death Toll Now 23\|workThe New York Times\|dateApril 26, 2020\|access-dateApril 26, 2020}}</ref> 2020 &ndash; Beirut Port explosion: At least 220 people are killed and over 5,000 are wounded when 2,700 tons of ammonium nitrate explodes in Beirut, Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web \|titleBeirut explosion: Lebanon's government 'to resign' as death toll rises \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53720383 \|websiteBBC \|access-dateAugust 11, 2020 \|date10 August 2020}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600 1222 &ndash; Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Gloucester, English soldier (d. 1262) 1281 &ndash; Külüg Khan, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (d. 1311) 1290 &ndash; Leopold I, Duke of Austria (d. 1326) 1463 &ndash; Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, Florentine patron of the arts (d. 1503)<ref>{{cite web \| titleMEDICI, Lorenzo de’ \| websiteDizionario Biografico degli Italiani \| urlhttps://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/lorenzo-de-medici_res-07f8fd0e-dcdf-11df-9ef0-d5ce3506d72e_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ \| languageit \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1469 &ndash; Margaret of Saxony, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1528) 1470 &ndash; Bernardo Dovizi, Italian cardinal (d. 1520)<ref>{{cite web \| titleDOVIZI, Bernardo, detto il Bibbiena \| websiteDizionario Biografico degli Italiani\| urlhttps://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dovizi-bernardo-detto-il-bibbiena_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ \| languageit \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> * 1470 &ndash; Lucrezia de' Medici, Italian noblewoman (d. 1553)<ref>{{cite web \| titleMEDICI, Lucrezia de’ \| websiteDizionario Biografico degli Italiani \| urlhttps://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/lucrezia-de-medici_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ \| languageit \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1521 &ndash; Pope Urban VII (d. 1590)<ref>{{cite web \| titleURBANO VII, papa \| websiteDizionario Biografico degli Italiani\| urlhttps://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/papa-urbano-vii_(Dizionario-Biografico)/ \| languageit \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1522 &ndash; Udai Singh II, King of Mewar (d. 1572)<ref>{{cite book \|titleProceedings - Indian History Congress, Volume 35 \|date1974 \|page142 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvgpDAAAAYAAJ&q%22Udai+Singh%22+1522 \|access-date2025-03-10\|last1Congress \|first1Indian History }}</ref>1601–1900 1604 &ndash; François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac, French cleric and author (d. 1676) 1623 &ndash; Friedrich Casimir, Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg (1641–1680) and Hanau-Münzenberg (1642–1680) (d. 1685) 1701 &ndash; Thomas Blackwell, Scottish historian and scholar (d. 1757) 1704 &ndash; Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (d. 1752) 1719 &ndash; Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German mineralogist and geologist (d. 1767) 1721 &ndash; Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1803) 1755 &ndash; Nicolas-Jacques Conté, French soldier, painter, balloonist, and inventor (d. 1805) 1792 &ndash; Percy Bysshe Shelley, English poet and playwright (d. 1822) 1805 &ndash; William Rowan Hamilton, Irish physicist, astronomer, and mathematician (d. 1865) 1821 &ndash; Louis Vuitton, French fashion designer, founded Louis Vuitton (d. 1892) 1821 &ndash; James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (d. 1881) 1834 &ndash; John Venn, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1923) 1836 &ndash; Jens Vilhelm Dahlerup, Danish architect (d. 1907) 1839 &ndash; Walter Pater, English author, critic, and academic (d. 1894) 1844 &ndash; Henri Berger, German composer and bandleader (d. 1929) 1853 &ndash; John Henry Twachtman, American painter, etcher, and academic (d. 1902) 1859 &ndash; Knut Hamsun, Norwegian novelist, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1952) 1861 &ndash; Daniel Edward Howard, 16th president of Liberia (d. 1935)<ref>{{cite book \|last1Dunn\|first1 Elwood D.\|last2Beyan\|first2Amos J.\|last3Burrowes\|first3Carl Patrick\|author-link\|date2000\|titleHistorical Dictionary of Liberia \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqt0_RrW8ghkC\|locationLanham, MD\|publisherScarecrow Press \|isbn9781461659310\|pages=167–168}}</ref> 1867 &ndash; Jake Beckley, American baseball player and coach (d. 1918) 1868 &ndash; Master C. V. V., Indian philosopher, yogi and guru (d. 1922) 1870 &ndash; Harry Lauder, Scottish actor and singer (d. 1950) 1871 &ndash; William Holman, English-Australian politician, 19th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1934) 1876 &ndash; Giovanni Giuriati, Italian lawyer and politician (d. 1970) 1876 &ndash; John Scaddan, Australian politician, 10th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1934) 1877 &ndash; Dame Laura Knight, English artist (d. 1970)<ref>{{cite ODNB \|id34349 \|titleKnight [née Johnson], Dame Laura}}</ref> 1884 &ndash; Béla Balázs, Hungarian poet and critic (d. 1949) 1884 &ndash; Henri Cornet, French cyclist (d. 1941) 1887 &ndash; Albert M. Greenfield, Ukrainian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1967) 1888 &ndash; Taher Saifuddin, Indian religious leader, 51st Da'i al-Mutlaq (d. 1965) 1890 &ndash; Dolf Luque, Cuban baseball player and manager (d. 1957) 1893 &ndash; Fritz Gause, German historian and curator (d. 1973) 1898 &ndash; Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (d. 1975) 1899 &ndash; Ezra Taft Benson, American religious leader, 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (d. 1994) 1900 &ndash; Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (d. 2002) 1901–present 1901 &ndash; Louis Armstrong, American trumpet player and singer (d. 1971)<ref>{{cite book\|page[https://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd/page/21 21]\|authorGary Giddins\|titleSatchmo: The Genius of Louis Armstrong\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/satchmogeniusofl00gidd\|url-accessregistration\|publisherDa Capo\|year2001\|isbn978-0-306-81013-8}}</ref> 1902 &ndash; Bill Hallahan, American baseball player (d. 1981)<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/bill-hallahan/ \|titleBill Hallahan \|first1Gregory H. \|last1Wolf \|websitesabr.org \|publisherSociety for American Baseball Research \|access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1904 &ndash; Witold Gombrowicz, Polish author and playwright (d. 1969)<ref>{{cite web \| titleWitold Gombrowicz \| websiteCulture.pl \| urlhttps://culture.pl/en/artist/witold-gombrowicz \| access-date2025-03-10}}</ref> 1905 &ndash; Abeid Karume, 1st President of Zanzibar (d. 1972)<ref>{{cite book\|author1Annie Smyth\|author2Adam Seftel\|titleTanzania: the story of Julius Nyerere through the pages of Drum\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIsJyAAAAMAAJ\|year1998\|publisherMkuki na Nyota Publishers\|isbn9789970021536}}</ref> 1906 &ndash; Eugen Schuhmacher, German zoologist, director, and producer (d. 1973) 1908 &ndash; Kurt Eichhorn, German conductor (d. 1994) 1909 &ndash; Glenn Cunningham, American runner and academic (d. 1988) 1910 &ndash; Anita Page, American actress (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite book\|authorGary D. Keller\|titleA Biographical Handbook of Hispanics and United States Film\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1LwUAQAAIAAJ\|date1997\|publisherBilingual Press/Editorial Bilingüe\|isbn=978-0-927534-65-9}}</ref> * 1910 &ndash; William Schuman, American composer and educator (d. 1992)<ref>{{cite web \| titleWilliam Schuman \| websiteThe Kennedy Center \| urlhttps://www.kennedy-center.org/artists/s/sa-sn/william-schuman/ \| access-date2025-03-10}}</ref> * 1910 &ndash; Hedda Sterne, Romanian-American painter and photographer (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite web \| lastMcNay \| firstMichael \| titleHedda Sterne obituary \| websitethe Guardian \| date2011-04-14 \| urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/apr/14/hedda-sterne-obituary \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1912 &ndash; Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov, Russian mathematician, physicist, and mountaineer (d. 1999) 1912 &ndash; David Raksin, American composer and educator (d. 2004)<ref>{{cite book\|titleCommunist infiltration of Hollywood motion-picture industry\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAekvAAAAMAAJ\|year1951}}</ref> * 1912 &ndash; Raoul Wallenberg, Swedish architect and diplomat (d. ~1947)<ref>{{cite web \| titleRaoul Wallenberg and the Rescue of Jews in Budapest \| websiteHolocaust Encyclopedia \| urlhttps://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/raoul-wallenberg-and-the-rescue-of-jews-in-budapest \| access-date2025-03-10}}</ref> 1913 &ndash; Wesley Addy, American actor (d. 1996) 1913 &ndash; Robert Hayden, American poet and educator (d. 1980) 1915 &ndash; Warren Avis, American businessman, founded Avis Rent a Car System (d. 2007) 1917 &ndash; John Fitch, American race car driver and engineer (d. 2012) 1918 &ndash; Brian Crozier, Australian-English historian and journalist (d. 2012) 1919 &ndash; Michel Déon, French novelist, playwright, and critic (d. 2016) 1920 &ndash; Helen Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news \|titleHelen Thomas Fast Facts \|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2013/01/29/us/helen-thomas-fast-facts \|access-date31 July 2020 \|workCNN \|date=5 May 2017}}</ref> 1921 &ndash; Herb Ellis, American guitarist (d. 2010) * 1921 &ndash; Maurice Richard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2000)<ref>{{cite web \| titleMaurice "Rocket" Richard \| websiteThe Canadian Encyclopedia \| urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rocket-richard \| access-date2025-03-10}}</ref> 1922 &ndash; Mayme Agnew Clayton, American librarian (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite journal\|lastKerr\|firstLeah M.\|titleCollectors' Contributions to Archiving Early Black Films\|journalBlack Camera\|dateFall 2013\|pages283–284}}</ref> 1922 &ndash; Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (d. 2012) 1926 &ndash; George Irving Bell, American physicist, biologist, and mountaineer (d. 2000) 1926 &ndash; Perry Moss, American football player and coach (d. 2014) * 1928 &ndash; Gerard Damiano, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008) 1928 &ndash; Nadežka Mosusova, Serbian composer 1928 &ndash; Clarke Reed, American businessman and politician (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastRisen \|firstClay \|dateDecember 12, 2024 \|titleClarke Reed, Who Helped the G.O.P. Conquer the South, Dies at 96 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/12/us/politics/clarke-reed-dead.html \|access-dateJanuary 5, 2025 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> 1929 &ndash; Kishore Kumar, Indian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1987) 1929 &ndash; Vellore G. Ramabhadran, Mridangam artiste from Tamil Nadu, India (d. 2012) 1930 &ndash; Ali al-Sistani, Iranian-Iraqi cleric and scholar 1931 &ndash; Naren Tamhane, Indian cricketer (d. 2002) 1932 &ndash; Frances E. Allen, American computer scientist and academic (d. 2020) 1932 &ndash; Liang Congjie, Chinese environmentalist, founded Friends of Nature (d. 2010) 1934 &ndash; Dallas Green, American baseball player and manager (d. 2017) 1935 &ndash; Carol Arthur, American actress and producer (d. 2020) * 1935 &ndash; Hans-Walter Eigenbrodt, German footballer and coach (d. 1997) * 1935 &ndash; Michael J. Noonan, Irish farmer and politician, 25th Minister of Defence for Ireland (d. 2013) 1936 &ndash; Giorgos Zographos, Greek singer and actor (d. 2005) 1937 &ndash; David Bedford, English keyboard player, composer, and conductor (d. 2011) 1938 &ndash; Ellen Schrecker, American historian and academic 1939 &ndash; Jack Cunningham, Baron Cunningham of Felling, English politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office * 1939 &ndash; Frankie Ford, American R&B/rock and roll singer (d. 2015) 1940 &ndash; Coriún Aharonián, Uruguayan composer and musicologist (d. 2017)<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Herrera \|first1Eduardo \|titleAharonián, Coriún (1940–) \|journalRoutledge Encyclopedia of Modernism \|date2016 \|doi10.4324/9781135000356-REM1071-1\|isbn=9781135000356 }}</ref> 1940 &ndash; Robin Harper, Scottish academic and politician * 1940 &ndash; Larry Knechtel, American bass player and pianist (d. 2009) * 1940 &ndash; Frances Stewart, English economist and academic * 1940 &ndash; Timi Yuro, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004) 1941 &ndash; Martin Jarvis, English actor 1941 &ndash; Andy Smillie, English footballer * 1941 &ndash; Cliff Nobles, American musician (d. 2008)<ref name"Obit">[http://www.timesherald.com/articles/2008/10/15/obituaries/20164492.prt] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120305121851/http://www.timesherald.com/articles/2008/10/15/obituaries/20164492.prt\|date=March 5, 2012}}</ref> * 1941 &ndash; Ted Strickland, American psychologist and politician, 68th Governor of Ohio 1942 &ndash; Don S. Davis, American actor (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite news\|lastBurson\|firstJeff\|titleStargate and Twin Peaks Actor Don S. Davis\|workBirmingham Star\|dateJuly 6, 2008\|access-dateAugust 4, 2018\|url=http://blog.al.com/finaltaxi/2008/07/stargate_and_twin_peaks_actor.html}}</ref> 1942 &ndash; Cleon Jones, American baseball player * 1942 &ndash; David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 2005) 1943 &ndash; Vicente Álvarez Areces, Spanish politician, 6th President of the Principality of Asturias (d. 2019) 1943 &ndash; Barbara Saß-Viehweger, German politician, lawyer and civil law notary * 1943 &ndash; Bjørn Wirkola, Norwegian ski jumper and footballer 1944 &ndash; Richard Belzer, American actor (d. 2023) 1944 &ndash; Doudou Ndoye, Senegalese lawyer and politician 1945 &ndash; Paul McCarthy, American painter and sculptor 1945 &ndash; Alan Mulally, American engineer and businessman 1946 &ndash; Aleksei Turovski, Estonian zoologist and ethologist 1947 &ndash; Klaus Schulze, German keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2022) 1948 &ndash; Johnny Grubb, American baseball player and coach 1949 &ndash; John Riggins, American football player, sportscaster, and actor 1950 &ndash; Caldwell Jones, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014) 1950 &ndash; N. Rangaswamy, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Chief Minister of Puducherry 1951 &ndash; Peter Goodfellow, English geneticist and academic<ref>{{cite book\|urlhttp://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-17486\|titleGoodfellow, Prof. Peter Neville \|publisherWho's Who 2018\|doi10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U17486 \|isbn978-0-19-954088-4 \|access-date2 November 2018}}</ref> 1952 &ndash; James Arbuthnot, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills * 1952 &ndash; Moya Brennan, Irish singer-songwriter and harp player * 1952 &ndash; Gábor Demszky, Hungarian sociologist, lawyer, and politician 1953 &ndash; Hiroyuki Usui, Japanese footballer and manager 1954 &ndash; Anatoliy Kinakh, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Ukraine * 1954 &ndash; Steve Phillips, English footballer * 1954 &ndash; François Valéry, Algerian-French singer-songwriter 1955 &ndash; Alberto Gonzales, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 80th United States Attorney General 1955 &ndash; Billy Bob Thornton, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1957 &ndash; Rupert Farley, British actor and voice actor 1957 &ndash; Brooks D. Simpson, American historian and author * 1957 &ndash; Valdis Valters, Latvian basketball player and coach * 1957 &ndash; John Wark, Scottish footballer and sportscaster 1958 &ndash; Allison Hedge Coke, American-Canadian poet and academic 1958 &ndash; Mary Decker, American runner * 1958 &ndash; Silvan Shalom, Tunisian-Israeli sergeant and politician, 30th Deputy Prime Minister of Israel * 1958 &ndash; Brian Voss, American bowler<ref>"The Natural", an interview with Brian Voss in Bowling Digest, February 2002.</ref> 1959 &ndash; Robbin Crosby, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2002) 1959 &ndash; John Gormley, Irish politician, Minister for the Environment, Community and Local Government 1960 &ndash; Chuck C. Lopez, American jockey 1960 &ndash; Dean Malenko, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web \|last1Thomas \|first1Jeremy \|titleAEW News: Dean Malenko Wished a Happy Birthday, Matt Cardona On AEW Deal, Sonny Kiss AEW Unrestricted Video \|urlhttps://411mania.com/wrestling/aew-dean-malenko-birthday-matt-cardona-sonny-kiss-unrestricted/ \|publisher411Mania \|access-date5 August 2023 \|date=4 August 2020}}</ref> * 1960 &ndash; José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Spanish academic and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Spain * 1960 &ndash; Bernard Rose, English director, screenwriter, and cinematographer * 1960 &ndash; Tim Winton, Australian author and playwright 1961 &ndash; Barack Obama, American lawyer and politician, 44th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate<ref>{{cite web \|titlePresident Barack Obama \|urlhttps://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/barack-obama/ \|publisherThe White House \|access-date1 August 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091026043047/http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president-obama \|archive-date26 October 2009 \|url-statuslive \|date26 October 2009}}</ref> 1962 &ndash; Roger Clemens, American baseball player and actor * 1962 &ndash; Paul Reynolds, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1963 &ndash; Keith Maurice Ellison, 30th Attorney General of Minnesota 1964 &ndash; Andrew Bartlett, Australian social worker and politician 1965 &ndash; Vishal Bhardwaj, Indian film director, screenwriter, producer, music composer and playback singer<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/vishal-bhardwaj-mn0001985521\|titleVishal Bhardwaj Songs, Albums, Reviews, Bio & More\|websiteAllMusic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.freepressjournal.in/cmcm/vishal-bhardwaj-birthday-special-his-films-views-and-upcoming-projects\|titleVishal Bhardwaj birthday special: His films, views and upcoming projects\|websiteFree Press Journal}}</ref> 1965 &ndash; Adam Afriyie, English businessman and politician * 1965 &ndash; Dennis Lehane, American author, screenwriter, and producer * 1965 &ndash; Fredrik Reinfeldt, Swedish soldier and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Sweden<ref>{{cite news \|titleFactbox – Swedish PM Fredrik Reinfeldt \|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLP724099 \|workReuters \|date26 June 2009 \|access-date1 August 2020 \|languageen}}</ref> * 1965 &ndash; Michael Skibbe, German footballer and manager 1967 &ndash; Michael Marsh, American sprinter 1968 &ndash; Daniel Dae Kim, South Korean-American actor * 1968 &ndash; Lee Mack, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter 1969 &ndash; Max Cavalera, Brazilian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1970 &ndash; John August, American director and screenwriter * 1970 &ndash; Bret Baier, American journalist * 1970 &ndash; Kate Silverton, English journalist 1971 &ndash; Jeff Gordon, American race car driver and actor 1972 &ndash; Stefan Brogren, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1973 &ndash; Eva Amaral, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1973 &ndash; Xavier Marchand, French swimmer * 1973 &ndash; Marek Penksa, Slovak footballer * 1973 &ndash; Marcos Roberto Silveira Reis, Brazilian footballer 1974 &ndash; Kily González, Argentine footballer 1975 &ndash; Andy Hallett, American actor and singer (d. 2009)<ref>{{cite book\|lastLentz\|firstHarris M.\|titleObituaries in the Performing Arts, 2009: Film, Television, Radio, Theatre, Dance, Music, Cartoons and Pop Culture\|locationJefferson, N.C.\|publisherMcFarland and Company\|date2010\|isbn978-0-7864-4174-7\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idR3T-E7U8MW0C\|page221}}</ref> * 1975 &ndash; Nikos Liberopoulos, Greek footballer * 1975 &ndash; Jutta Urpilainen, Finnish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Finland * 1975 &ndash; Daniella van Graas, Dutch model and actress 1976 &ndash; Paul Goldstein, American tennis player<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.atptour.com/en/players/paul-goldstein/g333/overview\|titlePaul Goldstein {{pipe}} Overview {{pipe}} ATP Tour {{pipe}} Tennis\|website=ATP Tour}}</ref> 1976 &ndash; Andrew McLeod, Australian footballer * 1976 &ndash; Trevor Woodman, English rugby player and coach 1977 &ndash; Frankie Kazarian, American wrestler 1977 &ndash; Luís Boa Morte, Portuguese footballer and manager 1978 &ndash; Jeremy Adduono, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1978 &ndash; Luke Allen, American baseball player (d. 2022) * 1978 &ndash; Kurt Busch, American race car driver * 1978 &ndash; Agnė Eggerth, Lithuanian sprinter * 1978 &ndash; Ricardo Serrano, Spanish cyclist * 1978 &ndash; Per-Åge Skrøder, Norwegian ice hockey player * 1978 &ndash; Satoshi Hino, Japanese voice actor 1979 &ndash; Robin Peterson, South African cricketer 1980 &ndash; Richard Dawson, English cricketer and coach 1981 &ndash; Marques Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor 1981 &ndash; Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, American member of British Royal Family, media personality and actress<ref>{{cite web \| titleProfile: Duchess of Sussex \| websiteBBC News \| date2016-11-08 \| urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-37908788 \| access-date=2025-03-10}}</ref> 1983 &ndash; Greta Gerwig, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1984 &ndash; Terry Campese, Australian rugby league player * 1984 &ndash; Mardy Collins, American basketball player 1985 &ndash; Crystal Bowersox, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1985 &ndash; Robbie Findley, American soccer player * 1985 &ndash; Mark Milligan, Australian footballer * 1985 &ndash; Ha Seung-jin, South Korean basketball player * 1985 &ndash; Antonio Valencia, Ecuadorean footballer 1986 &ndash; Nick Augusto, American drummer 1986 &ndash; Leon Camier, English motorcycle racer * 1986 &ndash; Cicinho, Brazilian footballer * 1986 &ndash; Iosia Soliola, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player * 1986 &ndash; David Williams, Australian rugby league player 1987 &ndash; Marreese Speights American basketball player 1988 &ndash; Kelley O'Hara, American soccer player<ref>{{Cite web\|titleKelley O'Hara USWNT {{!}} U.S. Soccer Official Website\|urlhttps://www.ussoccer.com/players/o/kelley-ohara\|access-date2021-01-14\|websitewww.ussoccer.com\|language=en}}</ref> 1989 &ndash; Jessica Mauboy, Australian singer-songwriter and actress<ref>{{cite web \| titleJessica Mauboy Biography \| websiteAllMusic \| urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/artist/jessica-mauboy-mn0002329586#biography \| access-date2025-03-12}}</ref> 1989 &ndash; Wang Hao, Chinese chess grandmaster<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://ratings.fide.com/apps/4140.jpg \|titleGM norm certificate \|websiteFIDE \|access-date2025-03-12}}</ref> 1992 &ndash; Daniele Garozzo, Italian fencer<ref>{{cite web \| titleDaniele Garozzo \| websiteOlympedia \| urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/134617 \| access-date2025-03-12}}</ref> 1992 &ndash; Domingo Germán, Dominican baseball player<ref>{{cite web \|titleDomingo Germán \|urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/domingo-german-593334 \|publisherMajor League Baseball \|access-date5 August 2023}}</ref> * 1992 &ndash; Cole Sprouse, American actor<ref name"Sprouse">{{cite book\|author((Editors of Chase's))\|titleChase's Calendar of Events 2019: The Ultimate Go-to Guide for Special Days, Weeks and Months\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJVJtDwAAQBAJ&pgPA399\|date2018\|publisherRowman & Littlefield\|isbn978-1-64143-264-1\|page399}}</ref> * 1992 &ndash; Dylan Sprouse, American actor<ref name="Sprouse"/> 1994 &ndash; Bobby Shmurda, American rapper<ref>{{cite web \|titleBobby Shmurda \|urlhttps://music.apple.com/us/artist/bobby-shmurda/902809133 \|websiteApple Music \|access-dateAugust 2, 2024}}</ref> 1995 &ndash; Bruna Marquezine, Brazilian actress 1998 &ndash; Lil Skies, American rapper <ref>{{Cite web \|titleLil Skies Finds His Truth On 'Unbothered': 'I Always Feel The Pressure' \|urlhttps://www.mtv.com/news/4gv6rp/lil-skies-unbothered-interview \|access-date2023-01-17 \|websiteMTV \|languageen \|archive-dateJanuary 5, 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230105185939/https://www.mtv.com/news/4gv6rp/lil-skies-unbothered-interview \|url-statusdead }}</ref> <!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Deaths Pre-1600 221 &ndash; Lady Zhen, Chinese empress (b. 183) * 966 &ndash; Berengar II of Italy (b. 900) 1060 &ndash; Henry I of France (b. 1008) 1113 &ndash; Gertrude of Saxony, countess and regent of Holland (b. c. 1030)<ref>Vice, Tyranny, Violence, and the Usurpation of Flanders (1071) in Flemish Historiography from 1093 to 1294, Jeff Rider, Violence and the Writing of History in the Medieval Francophone World, ed. Noah D. Guynn, Zrinka Stahuljak, (Boydell & Brewer, 2013), 65.</ref> 1265 &ndash; Peter de Montfort, English politician (b. 1215) 1265 &ndash; Henry de Montfort (b. 1238) * 1265 &ndash; Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, French-English soldier and politician, Lord High Steward (b. 1208) * 1265 &ndash; Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer, English politician (b. 1223) 1266 &ndash; Eudes of Burgundy, Count of Nevers (b. 1230) 1306 &ndash; Wenceslaus III of Bohemia (b. 1289)<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Shorter Cambridge\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7L88AAAAIAAJ&pgPA742\|publisherCUP Archive\|pages742}}</ref> 1345 &ndash; As-Salih Ismail, Sultan of Egypt (b. 1326) 1378 &ndash; Galeazzo II Visconti, Lord of Milan (b. c. 1320) 1430 &ndash; Philip I, Duke of Brabant (b. 1404) 1526 &ndash; Juan Sebastián Elcano, Spanish explorer and navigator (b. 1476) 1578 &ndash; Sebastian of Portugal (b. 1554) 1598 &ndash; William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, English academic and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1520) 1601–1900 1612 &ndash; Hugh Broughton, English scholar and theologian (b. 1549) 1639 &ndash; Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Mexican actor and playwright (b. 1581) 1718 &ndash; René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian founder of Rimouski (b. 1656) 1727 &ndash; Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie, French general (b. 1647) 1741 &ndash; Andrew Hamilton, Scottish-American lawyer and politician (b. 1676)<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Nix \|first1Foster C. \|titleAndrew Hamilton's Early Years in the American Colonies \|journalThe William and Mary Quarterly \|dateJuly 1964 \|volume21 \|issue3 \|pages390–407 \|doi10.2307/1918453 \|jstor1918453 \|issn=0043-5597}}</ref> 1778 &ndash; Pierre de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, Canadian-French politician, Governor General of New France (b. 1698) 1792 &ndash; John Burgoyne, English general and politician (b. 1723) 1795 &ndash; Timothy Ruggles, American lawyer, jurist, and politician (b. 1711) 1804 &ndash; Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan, Scottish admiral (b. 1731) 1822 &ndash; Kristjan Jaak Peterson, Estonian poet and author (b. 1801) 1844 &ndash; Jacob Aall, Norwegian economist, historian, and politician (b. 1773) 1859 &ndash; John Vianney, French priest and saint (b. 1786) 1873 &ndash; Viktor Hartmann, Russian architect and painter (b. 1834) 1875 &ndash; Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (b. 1805) 1886 &ndash; Samuel J. Tilden, American lawyer and politician, 25th Governor of New York (b. 1814)<ref>{{cite news \|titleTilden Dead. The Great Statesman Passes Away\|urlhttps://cdnc.ucr.edu/?ad&dLAH18860805.2.2&e-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1 \|access-date2 August 2020 \|workLos Angeles Herald \|date5 August 1886 \|location=California Digital Newspaper Collection}}</ref> 1900 &ndash; Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and educator (b. 1860) 1901–present 1914 &ndash; Jules Lemaître, French playwright and critic (b. 1853) 1919 &ndash; Dave Gregory, Australian cricketer and umpire (b. 1845) 1922 &ndash; Enver Pasha, Ottoman general and politician (b. 1881) 1932 &ndash; Alfred Henry Maurer, American painter (b. 1868) 1938 &ndash; Pearl White, American actress (b. 1889) 1940 &ndash; Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Ukrainian-American general, journalist, and activist (b. 1880) 1941 &ndash; Mihály Babits, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1883) 1942 &ndash; Alberto Franchetti, Italian composer and educator (b. 1860) 1944 &ndash; Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Polish soldier and poet (b. 1921) 1957 &ndash; John Cain Sr., Australian politician, 34th Premier of Victoria (b. 1882) * 1957 &ndash; Washington Luís, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 13th President of Brazil (b. 1869) 1958 &ndash; Ethel Anderson, Australian poet, author, and painter (b. 1883)<ref>{{cite book\|lastAdelaide\|firstDebra\|titleAustralian Women Writers: A Bibliographic Guide\|locationLondon\|publisherPandora\|year1986\|page3\|isbn978-0-86358-148-9}}</ref> 1959 &ndash; József Révai, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1898) 1961 &ndash; Margarito Bautista, Nahua-Mexican evangelizer, theologian, and religious founder (b. 1878)<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastMurphy\|firstThomas W.\|dateFall 2000\|titleOther Mormon Histories: Lamanite Subjectivity in Mexico\|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23288220\|journalJournal of Mormon History\|volume26\|issue2\|pages179–214\|jstor23288220 \|url-accesssubscription\|postscript. "Bautista's death on 4 August 1961" (206)}}</ref> 1962 &ndash; Marilyn Monroe, American model and actress (b. 1926) 1964 &ndash; Nätti-Jussi, Finnish lumberjack and forest laborer (b. 1890)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.rovaniemi.fi/fi/Palvelut/Kylat-ja-kaupunginosat/Alakemijoen---ja-Ranuantien-suunta/Muurola/Natti-Jussi\|titleNätti-Jussi\|websiteRovaniemi.fi\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150513141038/https://www.rovaniemi.fi/fi/Palvelut/Kylat-ja-kaupunginosat/Alakemijoen---ja-Ranuantien-suunta/Muurola/Natti-Jussi \|access-date31 August 2022\|archive-date2015-05-13 \|language=fi}}</ref> 1967 &ndash; Peter Smith, English cricketer (b. 1908) 1976 &ndash; Enrique Angelelli, Argentinian bishop and martyr (b. 1923) * 1976 &ndash; Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet, Canadian-English publisher (b. 1894) 1977 &ndash; Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1889) 1981 &ndash; Melvyn Douglas, American actor (b. 1901) 1982 &ndash; Bruce Goff, American architect, designed the Boston Avenue Methodist Church (b. 1904) 1985 &ndash; Don Whillans, English rock climber and mountaineer (b. 1933) 1990 &ndash; Ettore Maserati, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1894) 1992 &ndash; Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese author (b. 1909) 1996 &ndash; Geoff Hamilton, English gardener, author, and television host (b. 1936) 1997 &ndash; Jeanne Calment, French super-centenarian; holds records for the world's substantiated longest-lived person (b. 1875) 1998 &ndash; Yury Artyukhin, Russian colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930) 1999 &ndash; Victor Mature, American actor (b. 1913) 2003 &ndash; Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1916) 2004 &ndash; Mary Sherman Morgan, American chemist and engineer (b. 1921) * 2004 &ndash; Hossein Panahi (Persian: حسین پناهی), Iranian actor and poet (b. 1956) 2005 &ndash; Anatoly Larkin, Russian-American physicist and theorist (b. 1932) 2005 &ndash; Iván Szabó, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Finance of Hungary (b. 1934) 2007 &ndash; Lee Hazlewood, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929) 2007 &ndash; Raul Hilberg, Austrian-American political scientist and historian (b. 1926) 2008 &ndash; Craig Jones, English motorcycle racer (b. 1985) 2009 &ndash; Blake Snyder, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1957) 2011 &ndash; Naoki Matsuda, Japanese footballer (b. 1977) 2012 &ndash; Johnnie Bassett, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1935) * 2012 &ndash; Brian Crozier, Australian-English journalist and historian (b. 1918) * 2012 &ndash; Bud Riley, American football player and coach (b. 1925) 2013 &ndash; Keith H. Basso, American anthropologist and academic (b. 1940) 2013 &ndash; Art Donovan, American football player and radio host (b. 1925) * 2013 &ndash; Olavi J. Mattila, Finnish engineer and politician, Finnish Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1918) * 2013 &ndash; Renato Ruggiero, Italian lawyer and politician, Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1930)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWTO {{!}} 2013 Press Releases – Renato Ruggiero, Former Director-General, Dies in Milan – Press/693 \|urlhttps://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres13_e/pr693_e.htm \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websitewww.wto.org}}</ref> * 2013 &ndash; Tony Snell, English lieutenant and pilot (b. 1922)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSmith \|firstAnthony \|date2013-08-21 \|titleTony Snell obituary \|languageen-GB \|workThe Guardian \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/aug/21/tony-snell-obituary \|access-date2023-08-09 \|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> * 2013 &ndash; Sandy Woodward, English admiral (b. 1932)<ref>{{Cite news \|date2013-08-05 \|titleFalklands War admiral Sandy Woodward dies aged 81 \|languageen-GB \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-23575534 \|access-date2023-08-09}}</ref> 2014 &ndash; James Brady, American activist and politician, 15th White House Press Secretary (b. 1940)<ref>{{Cite news \|date2014-08-04 \|titleTaking a Bullet, Gaining a Cause: James S. Brady Dies at 73 (Published 2014) \|workThe New York Times \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/05/us/politics/james-s-brady-symbol-of-fight-for-gun-control-dies-at-73.html \|access-date2023-08-09 \|last1Barron \|first1James }}</ref> 2014 &ndash; Chester Crandell, American lawyer and politician (b. 1946)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleState Sen. Chester Crandell found dead \|urlhttps://www.azcentral.com/story/news/arizona/politics/2014/08/04/chester-crandell-arizona-senator-found-dead/13605613/ \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websiteThe Arizona Republic \|language=en-US}}</ref> * 2014 &ndash; Jake Hooker, Israeli-American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1953)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastKelley \|firstKen \|date2014-08-07 \|titleJake Hooker, Co-Author of 'I Love Rock 'n' Roll,' Dies at 61 \|urlhttps://ultimateclassicrock.com/jake-hooker-dies/ \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websiteUltimate Classic Rock \|languageen}}</ref> 2015 &ndash; Elsie Hillman, American philanthropist and politician (b. 1925)<ref>{{Cite news \|date2015-08-06 \|titleElsie Hillman, Who Bolstered Moderate Republicans, Dies at 89 (Published 2015) \|workThe New York Times \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/06/us/politics/elsie-hillman-who-bolstered-moderate-republicans-dies-at-89.html \|access-date2023-08-09}}</ref> 2015 &ndash; Les Munro, New Zealand soldier and pilot (b. 1919)<ref>{{Cite news \|date2015-08-04 \|titleDambusters pilot Les Munro dies in New Zealand aged 96 \|languageen-GB \|workBBC News \|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-33769486 \|access-date2023-08-09}}</ref> * 2015 &ndash; John Rudometkin, American basketball player (b. 1940)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHiserman \|firstMike \|date2015-08-06 \|titleJohn Rudometkin, USC basketball All-American, succumbs to lung disease at 75 \|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/sports/usc/uscnow/la-sp-usc-john-rudometkin-obit-20150805-story.html \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websiteLos Angeles Times \|languageen-US}}</ref> * 2015 &ndash; Billy Sherrill, American songwriter and producer (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite news \|date2015-08-11 \|titleBilly Sherrill, Producer, Dies at 78; Promoted a 'Countrypolitan' Sound (Published 2015) \|workThe New York Times \|languageen \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/11/arts/music/billy-sherrill-producer-who-brought-new-sound-to-country-music-dies-at-78.html \|access-date2023-08-09 \|last1Caramanica \|first1Jon }}</ref> 2019 &ndash; Nuon Chea, Cambodian politician and theorist for the Khmer Rouge (b. 1926)<ref>{{cite web\|websiteCNN\|titleKhmer Rouge leader Nuon Chea dies at 93\|dateAugust 5, 2019\|access-dateAugust 5, 2019\|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/04/asia/cambodia-nuon-chea-death-intl-hnk/index.html}}</ref> 2023 &ndash; Dalia Fadila, Israeli educator (b. 1971/1972)<ref>{{Cite web \|titleVisionary educator Dalia Fadila, Presidential Medal of Honor winner, drowns at 51 \|urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/visionary-educator-dalia-fadila-presidential-medal-of-honor-winner-drowns-at-51/ \|access-date2023-08-09 \|websitewww.timesofisrael.com \|language=en-US}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Charles Cyphers, American actor (b. 1939)<ref>{{Cite web \|lastZee \|firstMichaela \|date2024-08-06 \|titleCharles Cyphers, 'Halloween' Actor, Dies at 85 \|urlhttps://variety.com/2024/film/news/charles-cyphers-dead-halloween-1236096596/ \|access-date2024-08-08 \|websiteVariety \|languageen-US}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Tsung-Dao Lee, Chinese-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1926)<ref>{{Cite news \|dateAugust 6, 2024 \|titleNobel Prize-winning physicist Tsung-Dao Lee has died at age 97 \|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2024/08/06/nx-s1-5065675/chinese-american-physicist-tsung-dao-lee-dies \|access-dateAugust 6, 2024 \|work=NPR}}</ref> 2024 &ndash; Duane Thomas, American football player (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite news \|lastSandomir \|firstRichard \|date2024-08-08 \|titleDuane Thomas, Enigmatic Running Back for the Cowboys, Dies at 77 \|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/08/sports/football/duane-thomas-dead.html \|access-date2024-08-14 \|workThe New York Times \|languageen-US \|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> <!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.--> Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Aristarchus Euphronius Blessed Frédéric Janssoone John Vianney Molua (or Lua) Raynerius of Split Sithney, patron saint of mad dogs August 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) * Coast Guard Day (United States) * Constitution Day (Cook Islands); first Monday in August<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHfywxU2EnFwC&pgPA183\|titleThe World Factbook 2016–17\|last1Agency\|first1United States Central Intelligence\|last2Office\|first2Government Publications\|date2016\|publisherGovernment Printing Office\|isbn9780160933271\|languageen}}</ref> * Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia) * Barack Obama Day in Illinois in the United States 2020 Beirut explosion commemoration day in Lebanon References {{Reflist}} External links {{commons}} {{cite web \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/4 \|titleOn This Day \|publisher=BBC}} * {{NYT On this day\|month08\|day04}} * {{cite web \|urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/4 \|titleHistorical Events on August 4 \|publisher=OnThisDay.com}} {{months}} {{DEFAULTSORT:August 04}} Category:Days of August	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_4	2025-04-05T18:26:04.040563
2422	Ann Widdecombe	{{short description\|British politician and media personality (born 1947)}} {{use British English\|date=October 2019}} {{use dmy dates\|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox officeholder \| honorific-prefix = The Right Honourable \| name = Ann Widdecombe \| honorific-suffix {{Post-nominals\|countryGBR\|size=100%\|DSG}} \| image = Annewidde.jpg \| caption = Widdecombe in 2009 \| office = Minister of State for Prisons \| primeminister = John Major \| term_start = 28 February 1995 \| term_end = 2 May 1997 \| predecessor = Michael Forsyth \| successor = Joyce Quin \| office1 = Minister of State for Employment{{efn\|Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State (1993–94)}} \| primeminister1 = John Major \| term_start1 = 27 May 1993 \| term_end1 = 5 July 1995 \| predecessor1 = Patrick McLoughlin \| successor1 = Lord Henley \| office2 = Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security \| primeminister2 = John Major \| term_start2 = 30 November 1990 \| term_end2 = 27 May 1993 \| predecessor2 = Gillian Shephard \| successor2 = William Hague \| office3 = Member of the European Parliament<br />for South West England \| term_start3 = 2 July 2019 \| term_end3 = 31 January 2020 \| predecessor3 = Julia Reid \| successor3 = Constituency abolished \| office4 = Member of Parliament<br />for Maidstone and The Weald<br />{{nobold\|Maidstone (1987–1997)}} \| term_start4 = 11 June 1987 \| term_end4 = 12 April 2010 \| predecessor4 = John Wells \| successor4 = Helen Grant \| office5 = Shadow Cabinet offices \| suboffice5 = Shadow Secretary of State for Health \| subterm5 = 1998–1999 \| suboffice6 = Shadow Home Secretary \| subterm6 = 1999–2001 \| birth_name = Ann Noreen Widdecombe \| birth_date {{birth date and age\|1947\|10\|4\|dfy}} \| birth_place = Bath, Somerset, England \| residence = London, England<br />Sutton Valence, Kent, England<br />Haytor Vale, Dartmoor, Devon, England \| party Reform UK (2023–present)<ref>{{cite news \|last1Langford \|first1Eleanor \|titleNigel Farage insists 'Brexit is not completely done' as Reform UK calls on Tory MPs to defect \|urlhttps://inews.co.uk/news/politics/reform-uk-tory-mps-defect-nigel-farage-brexit-not-done-2221151 \|access-date20 March 2023 \|workinews.co.uk \|date20 March 2023 \|language=en}}</ref> \| otherparty = Conservative (1976–2019)<br>Brexit Party (2019–2021)<br>Independent (2021–2023) \| alma_mater = University of Birmingham<br />Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford }} Ann Noreen Widdecombe {{Post-nominals\|countryGBR\|DSG}} (born 4 October 1947) is a British politician and television personality who has been Reform UK's Immigration and Justice spokesperson since 2023.<ref name"spokespeople">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.reformparty.uk/departmental_responsibilities_of_reform_uk_spokespeople\|titleReform UK Departmental Team Responsibilities\|websiteReform UK\|dateMarch 2023\|accessdate15 June 2024}}</ref> Originally a member of the Conservative Party, she was Member of Parliament (MP) for Maidstone and The Weald, and the former Maidstone constituency, from 1987 to 2010. She was a member of the Brexit Party from 2019 until it was renamed Reform UK in 2021, and served as Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for South West England from 2019 to 2020;<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vxSH8U3bftwY \| titleAnn Widdecombe demands Tories 'end cancel culture' in the lead-up to the leadership election \| website=YouTube }}</ref> she rejoined Reform UK in 2023. Born in Bath, Somerset, Widdecombe read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later studied philosophy, politics and economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She is a religious convert from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, and was a member of the Conservative Christian Fellowship. She served as Minister of State for Employment from 1994 to 1995 and Minister of State for Prisons from 1995 to 1997. She later served in the Shadow Cabinet of William Hague as Shadow Secretary of State for Health from 1998 to 1999 and Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001. She was appointed to the Privy Council in 1997. Widdecombe stood down from the House of Commons at the 2010 general election. Since 2002, she has made numerous television and radio appearances, including as a television presenter. A prominent Eurosceptic, in 2016 she supported the Vote Leave campaign to withdraw the United Kingdom from the European Union (EU). Widdecombe returned to politics as the lead candidate for the Brexit Party in South West England at the 2019 European Parliament election, winning the seat in line with results nationally, serving until the country left the EU on 31 January 2020. In the general election of December 2019 &ndash; as with all other candidates for the Commons fielded by the Brexit Party &ndash; she did not win the seat she contested (Plymouth Sutton and Devonport), but retained her deposit and came third. Ideologically, Widdecombe identifies herself as a social conservative and stresses the importance of traditional values and conservatism. As a member of the House of Commons, she opposed the legality of abortion, opposed granting LGBT people legal rights such as the same age of consent as heterosexuals, and opposed the repeal of Section 28. She supported reintroduction of the death penalty for murder, though more narrowly applied than previously. She is opposed to all forms of assisted dying. She has a history of supporting rigorous laws on animal protection and opposition to fox hunting. Early life Ann Noreen Widdecombe was born in Bath, Somerset, the daughter of Rita Noreen (née Plummer; 1911–2007) and Ministry of Defence civil servant James Murray Widdecombe. Widdecombe's maternal grandfather, James Henry Plummer, was born to a Catholic family of English descent in Crosshaven, County Cork, Ireland in 1874. She attended the Royal Naval School in Singapore,<ref name"BBCRet">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7032992.stm Ann Widdecombe set to stand down]; BBC News, 7 October 2007</ref> and La Sainte Union Convent School in Bath.<ref nameAboutAnn>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.annwiddecombe.com/text.aspx?id52\|titleAbout Ann\|publisherannwiddecombe.com\|access-date8 October 2009\|archive-date24 March 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100324103448/http://www.annwiddecombe.com/text.aspx?id52\|url-statusdead}}</ref> She then read Latin at the University of Birmingham and later attended Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, to read philosophy, politics and economics.<ref name"auto">{{cite web\|titleLMH, Oxford – Prominent Alumni\|urlhttp://www.lmh.ox.ac.uk/Alumni/Prominent-alumni.aspx\|access-date20 May 2015}}</ref> In 1971, she was the secretary of the Oxford Union for one term, and became its treasurer for one term in 1972.<ref name"Roth2"/> While studying at Oxford, she lived next door to Mary Archer, Edwina Currie, and Gyles Brandreth's wife Michèle Brown.<ref>{{cite news\|titleHave I Got News For You, Series 25 Episode 6 with Hugh Dennis, Gyles Brandreth & Martin Freeman}}</ref> She worked for Unilever (1973–75) and then as an administrator at the University of London (1975–87) before entering Parliament.<ref nameAboutAnn /> Political career In 1974, Widdecombe was personal assistant to Michael Ancram in the February and October general elections of that year.<ref name"Roth2"/> From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a councillor on Runnymede District Council in Surrey.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/nov/03/uk.conservatives\|titleSeeing something of the light at the end of the tunnel\|date3 November 2003\|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date6 December 2008 \| firstJackie \| last=Ashley}}</ref> She contested the seat of Burnley in Lancashire in the 1979 general election and then, against David Owen, the Plymouth Devonport seat in the 1983 general election.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.psr.keele.ac.uk/area/uk/ge79/i04.htm\|titleUK General Election results May 1979\|date3 May 1979\|workPolitical Science Resources\|publisherRichard Kimber\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060925040210/http://www.psr.keele.ac.uk/area/uk/ge79/i04.htm\|archive-date25 September 2006\|access-date16 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.psr.keele.ac.uk/area/uk/ge83/i16.htm\|titleUK General Election results June 1983\|date9 June 1983\|workPolitical Science Resources\|publisherRichard Kimber\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080320065802/http://www.psr.keele.ac.uk/area/uk/ge83/i16.htm\|archive-date20 March 2008\|access-date16 November 2008}}</ref> In 1983 she, with Lady Olga Maitland and Virginia Bottomley, co-founded Women and Families for Defence, a group founded in opposition to the anti-nuclear Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Martin \|first1Lorna \|titleThe battle of Greenham Common is over. But their spirit still burns \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/aug/20/lornamartin.theobserver \|workThe Guardian \|date19 August 2006}}</ref> Widdecombe was first elected to the House of Commons, for the Conservatives, in the 1987 general election as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became Maidstone and The Weald in 1997).<ref>[http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/maidstoneandtheweald Maidstone and The Weald] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220527023141/http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/maidstoneandtheweald/ \|date27 May 2022 }}, UKPollingReport</ref> In government Widdecombe joined Prime Minister John Major's government as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security in 1990. In 1993, she was moved to the Department of Employment, and she was promoted to Minister of State the following year. In 1995, she joined the Home Office as Minister of State for Prisons and visited every prison in the UK.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/talking_politics/104160.stm\|titleAnn Widdecombe&nbsp;– political sketch \|workBBC Online \|access-date17 June 2009 \|date2 June 1998 \|locationLondon}}</ref> In 1996, Widdecombe, as prisons minister, defended the Government's policy to shackle pregnant prisoners with handcuffs and chains when in hospital receiving prenatal care. Widdecombe told the Commons that the restrictions were needed to prevent prisoners from escaping the hospital. "Some MPs may like to think that a pregnant woman would not or could not escape. Unfortunately this is not true. The fact is that hospitals are not secure places in which to keep prisoners, and since 1990, 20 women have escaped from hospitals". Jack Straw, Labour's Home Affairs spokesman at the time, said it was "degrading and unnecessary" for a woman to be shackled at any stage.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chaining-women-backed-1323238.html\|titleChaining women backed\|date10 January 1996\|workThe Independent\|access-date20 October 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101012143641/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chaining-women-backed-1323238.html\|archive-date12 October 2010 \|url-statuslive\|locationLondon}}</ref><ref name"Hague's head girl">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2000/mar/18/fiction1\|titleHague's head girl\|date18 March 2000\|workThe Guardian\|access-date20 October 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100916011112/http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2000/mar/18/fiction1\|archive-date16 September 2010 \|url-statuslive\|locationLondon}}</ref>Shadow CabinetIn May 1997, in the context of an inquiry into a series of prison escapes, Widdecombe remarked of former Home Secretary Michael Howard, under whom she had served, that there was "something of the night about him".<ref>{{cite news\|titleWiddecombe goes for the jugular\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/widdecombe-goes-for-the-jugular-1261224.html?amp\|last1Sengupta\|first1Kim\|date12 May 1997\|workThe Independent\|last2Abrams\|first2Fran\|access-date3 April 2017}}</ref> This much-quoted comment is thought to have contributed to the failure of Howard's 1997 campaign for the Conservative Party leadership, a sentiment shared by both Howard himself and Widdecombe. It led to him being caricatured as a vampire, in part due to his Romanian ancestry.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8435904.stm\|titleAnn Widdecombe 'tested out' Howard quip\|workBBC News\|date31 December 2009\|access-date3 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|lastCrick\|firstMichael\|urlhttp://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/mission-accomplished-how-howard-was-knifed-757lktbmgdt\|title'Mission accomplished': how Howard was knifed\|workThe Times\|date30 March 2005\|access-date3 April 2017}} {{subscription required}} Extract from Crick's book In search of Michael Howard.</ref><ref>{{cite news\|last1Holland\|first1David\|titleInterview with a Vampire\|urlhttp://thetab.com/uk/cambridge/2011/05/03/interview-with-a-vampire-2630\|workThe Tab\|date3 May 2011}}</ref> Howard became the official party leader in 2003, and Widdecombe then stated, "I explained fully what my objections were in 1997 and I do not retract anything I said then. But ... we have to look to the future and not the past."<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/ann-widdecombe-fury-mep-says-16242224\|titleAnn Widdecombe: Fury as MEP says 'science may produce an answer' to being gay\|date2 June 2019\|workDaily Mirror\|access-date2 June 2019\|locationUK}}</ref> After the Conservative landslide defeat at the 1997 general election, she served as Shadow Health Secretary between 1998 and 1999 and later as Shadow Home Secretary from 1999 to 2001 under the leadership of William Hague.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/person/5516/ann-widdecombe\|titleAnn Widdecombe: Electoral history and profile\|workThe Guardian \|locationLondon \|access-date22 August 2009 }}</ref>Leadership contest and backbenches During the 2001 Conservative leadership election, she could not find sufficient support amongst Conservative MPs for her leadership candidacy. She first supported Michael Ancram, who was eliminated in the first round, and then Kenneth Clarke, who lost in the final round. She afterwards declined to serve in Iain Duncan Smith's Shadow Cabinet (although she indicated on the television programme When Louis Met..., prior to the leadership contest, that she wished to retire to the backbenches anyway). In 2001, when Michael Portillo was running for leader of the Conservative Party, Widdecombe described him and his allies as "backbiters" due to his alleged destabilising influence under Hague.<ref name"news.bbc.co.uk" /><ref name"Heppell2007">{{cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4G0AAwAAQBAJ&pgPA143\|titleChoosing the Tory Leader: Conservative Party Leadership Elections from Heath to Cameron\|authorTimothy Heppell\|date28 November 2007\|publisherI.B.Tauris\|isbn978-0-85771-134-2\|page143}}</ref> She went on to say that, should he be appointed leader, she would never give him her allegiance.<ref name"news.bbc.co.uk" /> This was amidst a homophobic campaign led by socially conservative critics of Portillo.<ref name="Heppell2007" /> In the 2005 leadership election, she initially supported Kenneth Clarke again. Once he was eliminated, she turned support towards Liam Fox. Following Fox's subsequent elimination, she took time to reflect before finally declaring for David Davis. She expressed reservations over the eventual winner David Cameron, feeling that he did not, like the other candidates, have a proven track record, and she was later a leading figure in parliamentary opposition to his A-List policy.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/10899823/Ann-Widdecombe-Id-rather-form-my-own-party-than-join-Ukip.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/10899823/Ann-Widdecombe-Id-rather-form-my-own-party-than-join-Ukip.html \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|titleAnn Widdecombe: 'I'd rather form my own party than join Ukip' \|lastLlewellyn Smith \|firstJulia \|date15 June 2014 \|websiteThe Telegraph \|access-dateSeptember 8, 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> At the October 2006 Conservative Conference, she was Chief Dragon in a political version of the television programme ''Dragons' Den'', in which A-list candidates were invited to put forward a policy proposal, which was then torn apart by her team of Rachel Elnaugh, Oliver Letwin and Michael Brown.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Dale\|first1Iain\|titleTaking the media beast to the dragon's den\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2006/oct/03/whenyouvegotnothingtowrit\|access-date17 February 2018\|workThe Guardian\|date3 October 2006}}</ref> In an interview with Metro in September 2006 she stated that if Parliament were of a normal length, it was likely she would retire at the next general election.<ref>{{cite news \|authorAndrew Williams \|title60 Seconds: Ann Widdecombe \|urlhttp://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id19578&in_page_id11 \|workMetro \|date11 September 2006 \|access-date6 September 2007\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070926225229/http://www.metro.co.uk/fame/interviews/article.html?in_article_id19578&in_page_id11\| archive-date 26 September 2007 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> She confirmed her intention to stand down to The Observer's Pendennis diary in September 2007,<ref name"Pendennis">{{cite news \|lastMarre \|firstOliver \|titleWiddy knows the way to a man's heart \|urlhttp://observer.guardian.co.uk/7days/story/0,,2160786,00.html \|workThe Observer \|locationLondon \|date2 September 2007 \|access-date7 October 2007 }}</ref> and again in October 2007 after Prime Minister Gordon Brown quashed speculation of an autumn 2007 general election.<ref name"news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7032992.stm \|workBBC News \|titleAnn Widdecombe set to stand down \| date8 October 2007 \|access-date25 April 2010}}</ref> In November 2006, she moved into the house of an Islington Labour Councillor to experience life on a council estate, her response to her experience being "Five years ago I made a speech in the House of Commons about the forgotten decents. I have spent the last week on estates in the Islington area finding out that they are still forgotten."<ref>{{cite web \| titleAnne gets taste of council estate life \| date22 November 2006 \| access-date28 November 2006 \| workIslington Gazette \|urlhttp://www.islingtongazette.co.uk/content/islington/gazette/news/story.aspx?brandISLGOnline&categorynews&tBrandnorthlondon24&tCategorynewsislg&itemidWeED22%20Nov%202006%2013%3A00%3A30%3A717}}</ref> In 2007 Widdecombe was one of the 98 MPs who voted to keep their expense details secret.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article1816072.ece\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090508020947/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article1816072.ece\|archive-date8 May 2009\|workThe Times \|locationLondon \|titleHow your MP voted on the FOI Bill \|date20 May 2007\|first1Philippe \|last1Naughton \|first2Miles \|last2Costello}}</ref> When the expenses claims were leaked, however, Widdecombe was described by The Daily Telegraph as one of the "saints" amongst all MPs.<ref name"TGEx">{{cite news \|title MPs' expenses: The saints (Part i) \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|locationLondon \|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mps-expenses/5342811/MPs-expenses-The-saints-Part-i.html?image5\|date18 May 2009\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090521124714/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mps-expenses/5342811/MPs-expenses-The-saints-Part-i.html?image5\| archive-date21 May 2009 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> In May 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin as Speaker of the House of Commons, it was reported that Widdecombe was gathering support for election as interim Speaker until the next general election.<ref>{{cite news \|titleSpeaker: Runners and riders\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8057450.stm \|workBBC \|date21 May 2009 \|access-date21 May 2009 \|locationLondon\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090521094143/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8057450.stm\| archive-date 21 May 2009 \| url-statuslive}}</ref> On 11 June 2009, she confirmed her bid to be the Speaker,<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8094377.stm \|workBBC News \| titleAnn Widdecombe seeks Speaker role \| date11 June 2009 \| access-date25 April 2010}}</ref> but came last in the second ballot and was eliminated.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8111887.stm \|titleTwo left in Commons Speaker race \|access-date22 June 2009 \|date22 June 2009 \|publisherBBC online \|locationLondon\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090622191726/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8111887.stm\| archive-date 22 June 2009 \| url-status= live}}</ref> Widdecombe retired from politics at the 2010 general election. It was rumoured that she would be a Conservative candidate for Police and Crime Commissioner in 2012, but she refused. She since spoke about her opposition to the Coalition Government and her surprise at not being given a peerage by David Cameron.<ref name"chorley">{{cite news\|urlhttp://blogs.independent.co.uk/2012/04/15/ann-widdecombe-on-hating-the-coalition-doing-big-brother-and-her-rude-autobiography/ \|titleAnn Widdecombe on hating the coalition, doing Big Brother and her rude autobiography \|workindependent.co.uk \|locationLondon \|firstMatt \|lastChorley \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120622114535/http://blogs.independent.co.uk/2012/04/15/ann-widdecombe-on-hating-the-coalition-doing-big-brother-and-her-rude-autobiography/ \|archive-date22 June 2012 }}</ref> In 2016, she supported Brexit during the 2016 EU referendum and, following the resignation of David Cameron, endorsed Andrea Leadsom in her candidacy for election for the leadership of the governing Conservative Party.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/comment/columnists/ann-widdecombe/652956/Why-I-back-Brexit-Ann-Widdecombe\|titleHere's why I back Brexit – says ANN WIDDECOMBE\|firstAnn\|lastWiddecombe\|date16 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/comment/columnists/ann-widdecombe/686700/Andrea-Leadsom-picked-Tory-prime-minister-MPs-Brexit\|titleTories NEED to pick Angela Leadsom as leader: ANN WIDDECOMBE calls for LEAVE-backing PM\|firstAnn\|lastWiddecombe\|date6 July 2016}}</ref> Return to politics – Brexit Party In 2019 she returned to politics as a candidate for the Brexit Party in the European parliament elections in South West England, which were held on 23 May, though she maintained that she would still vote for the Conservatives in the local elections that took place three weeks before.<ref name"BBC">{{cite web\|date24 April 2019\|titleAnn Widdecombe to stand for Brexit Party\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-48034732\|access-date24 April 2019\|workBBC News}}</ref> She was expelled by the Conservative Party immediately after her announcement.<ref name"expelled">{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1118490/Brexit-news-UK-Brexit-Party-Ann-Widdecombe-Conservative-Party-Farage-European-elections \|titleAnn Widdecombe reveals she has been EXPELLED from Tories after defection to Brexit Party \|workExpress online \|date24 April 2019 \|access-date14 May 2019}}</ref> Widdecombe had considered joining the Brexit Party in March 2019, but joined later, in May.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vbDF9o0aBtRE\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/bDF9o0aBtRE\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|titleIain Dale Interviews: Ann Widdecombe\|via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Widdecombe said that her decision to stand resulted from the Government's failure to deliver Britain's departure from the EU on schedule. "Both major parties need a seismic shock," she said, "to see the extent of public disgust."<ref name"expelled" /><ref name"BBC" /> She subsequently won her seat.<ref>{{cite news \|titleBrexit Party's Ann Widdecombe wins South West seat \|workBBC News \|date27 May 2019 \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-48417344 \|access-date=14 June 2019}}</ref> Widdecombe became a member of the European Parliament Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs (LIBE).<ref>{{Cite web\|titleEUROPEAN PARLIAMENT - PARLEMENT EUROPEEN - Conference of Presidents - C01 AFET\|urlhttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/news/flash/22641/List%20of%20committees_for%20CoP_rev3_en.pdf\|url-statusdead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190704204137/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sed/doc/news/flash/22641/List%20of%20committees_for%20CoP_rev3_en.pdf\|archive-date4 July 2019\|websiteEuropean Parliament}}</ref> Widdecombe stood as a candidate for Plymouth Sutton and Devonport in the 2019 UK general election, coming a distant third but just retaining her deposit with 5.5% of the vote. Nigel Farage said that she was told by the Conservative Party that she would be part of their Brexit negotiations if she stood down as a candidate.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/nov/14/nigel-farage-says-he-is-unlikely-to-vote-for-any-party-in-election\|titleAnn Widdecombe 'was offered Brexit talks role to stand down as Farage candidate'\|workThe Guardian\|date14 November 2019 \|access-date22 November 2019}}</ref>Political viewsSocial issuesAs an MP, Widdecombe expressed socially conservative views, including opposition to abortion; it was understood during her time in frontline politics that she would not become Health Secretary as long as this involved responsibility for abortions. Although a committed Christian, she characterised the issue as one of life and death on which her view had been the same when she was agnostic<ref name"BBC-1999">{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/280692.stm\|titleAnn Widdecombe answers your questions\|date16 February 1999\|workBBC News\|access-date30 April 2010}}</ref> and was a member of the Society for the Protection of Unborn Children<!-- source says "society for the protection of the unborn child", but most likely refers to SPUC --> while studying at Oxford.<ref name"Roth">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/mar/20/profiles.parliament16\|titleAnn Widdecombe\|last1Roth\|first1Andrew\|date20 March 2001\|workThe Guardian\|access-date31 August 2018}}</ref> During Parliament, Widdecombe was a member of the Pro-Life All Party Parliamentary Group, which met with SPUC over concerns the organisation's more strident approach to abortion policy could alienate Protestant and atheist supporters.<ref>{{cite news \|titleBBC News {{!}} UK Politics {{!}} MPs enter pro-life group row \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/398033.stm \|worknews.bbc.co.uk}}</ref> She converted from the Church of England (CoE) to the Roman Catholic Church following the CoE decision to ordain women as priests.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/112152.stm\|titleWiddecombe rejects abortion role\|date13 June 1998\|workBBC News\|access-date=25 April 2010}}</ref> She is an opponent of assisted dying in any form, saying that any such legislation would fail to "protect the mentally ill, disabled and the frail elderly". She further commented: "You cannot get to my age without having seen loved ones suffer [...] or having seen dear friends die in pain. And, yes, I too have thought 'We wouldn't do this to an animal'. But that emotional indignation has also to be extended to those whom any euthanasia law would threaten."<ref>{{cite news\|date30 January 2024\|titleWiddecombe: ‘Rantzen’s campaign for assisted suicide must not prevail’\|newspaperThe Christian Institute\|urlhttps://www.christian.org.uk/news/widdecombe-rantzens-campaign-for-assisted-suicide-must-not-prevail/\|access-date27 March 2024}}</ref> LGBT rights Although not an MP at the time, Widdecombe did voice support for the partial decriminalisation of homosexuality in 1967 in England and Wales.<ref name"BBC-1999" /> After that, Widdecombe consistently opposed further reforms while in Parliament. Out of the 17 parliamentary votes between 1998 and 2008 considered by the Public Whip website to concern equal rights for homosexuals, Widdecombe took the opposing position in 15 cases, not being present at the other two votes.<ref>[http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpid1701&dmp826 "Ann Widdecombe compared to 'Homosexuality&nbsp;– Equal rights'"], Public Whip. Retrieved on 24 June 2009.</ref> In 1999, Widdecombe stated that "I do not think that [homosexuality] can be promoted as an equally valid lifestyle to [heterosexual] marriage, but I would say the same about irregular heterosexual arrangements."<ref name="BBC-1999" /> She has consistently argued against an equal age of consent for same-sex relationships, voting against a 1994 act (which would have reduced the age of consent for some male-male sexual activity from 21 to 18), and in 1998 (arguing against a further reduction from 18 to 16, which later occurred in 2000).<ref name"Roth2">{{cite journal\|last1Roth\|first1Andrew\|titleAnn (Noreen) WIDDECOMBE\|urlhttp://internetserver.bishopsgate.org.uk/files/Parliamentary%20Profiles%20Archive/S-Z/WIDDECOMBE,%20Anne/WIDDECOMBE,%20Anne.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://internetserver.bishopsgate.org.uk/files/Parliamentary%20Profiles%20Archive/S-Z/WIDDECOMBE,%20Anne/WIDDECOMBE,%20Anne.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalParliamentary Profile Services Ltd\|page4\|access-date7 September 2018\|author-link1Andrew Roth}}</ref> On the latter act, she wrote in The Mail on Sunday that "one of the sundry horrors for which this Government is likely to be remembered will be that it gave its imprimatur to sodomy at 16",<ref>{{cite news \|last1Abrams \|first1Fran \|titleTory hits out at gays and lone parents \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/tory-hits-out-at-gays-and-lone-parents-1163616.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/tory-hits-out-at-gays-and-lone-parents-1163616.html \|archive-date7 May 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workThe Independent \|date8 June 1998}}{{cbignore}}</ref> She later said in 2000: "I do not believe that issues of equality should override the imperatives of protecting the young."<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2000/feb/11/uk.politicalnews1\|titleCommons approves bill to lower gay age of consent\|date11 February 2000\|workThe Guardian\|access-date2 June 2015\|locationLondon}}</ref> In 2003, Widdecombe opposed the repeal of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Watt \|first1Nicholas \|titleTory split in vote to scrap section 28 \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/mar/11/conservatives.uk \|workThe Guardian \|date11 March 2003}}</ref> In 2012, Widdecombe voiced support in the Daily Express for the practise of conversion therapy, which claims to change the orientation of homosexuals.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/02/02/anne-widdecome-defends-gay-conversion-therapy_n_1249697.html\|titleAnn Widdecombe Defends Gay Conversion Therapy\|last1Simons\|first1Ned\|date2 February 2012\|websiteThe Huffington Post\|access-date2 January 2018}}</ref> Widdecombe has also expressed her opposition to same-sex marriage, introduced by David Cameron's government in 2014, arguing that "the state must have a preferred model" which is "a union that is generally open to procreation".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2013/jun/06/ann-widdecombe-david-cameron-listen-people\|titleAnn Widdecombe: 'I wish David Cameron would listen to people'\|lastMoss\|firstStephen\|date6 June 2013\|workThe Guardian\|access-date8 February 2014\|locationLondon}}</ref> She also opposes gender self-identification for transgender people.<ref>{{cite news \|last1Duffy \|first1Nick \|titleAnn Widdecombe lashes out at transgender 'lunacy' \|urlhttps://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/06/06/ann-widdecombe-lashes-out-at-transgender-lunacy-in-express-column/ \|access-date12 May 2022 \|workPinkNews \|date6 June 2018}}</ref> In 2020, she expressed her opposition to same-sex dancing on Strictly Come Dancing, saying: "I don't think it is what viewers of Strictly, especially families, are looking for. But that's up to the audience and the programme."<ref>{{cite news \|last1Milton \|first1Josh \|titleAnn Widdecombe says 'families' don't want to watch a same-sex couple dance on Strictly Come Dancing and we are so, so tired \|urlhttps://www.pinknews.co.uk/2020/10/18/ann-widdecombe-strictly-come-dancing-nicola-adams-katya-jones-sunday-times/ \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workPinkNews \|date18 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Tucker \|first1Grant \|titleStrictly Come Dancing breaks step with first same‑sex pair \|urlhttps://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/strictly-come-dancing-breaks-step-with-first-same-sex-pair-wn6nzb78t \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workThe Times \|date18 October 2020}}</ref>Criminal justiceIn her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, she called for a zero tolerance policy of prosecution, with the punishment of £100 fines for users of cannabis. This was well received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2000/oct/06/drugsandalcohol.conservatives2000\|titleWiddecombe fights back firm\|lastWatt\|firstNicholas\|date6 October 2000\|workThe Guardian\|access-date22 August 2009\|location=London}}</ref> Over the years, Widdecombe has expressed her support for a reintroduction of the death penalty, which was abolished in the UK in 1965. She notably spoke of her support for its reintroduction for the worst cases of murder in the aftermath of the murder of two 10-year-old girls from Soham, Cambridgeshire, in August 2002, arguing that in the five years up to 1970 when the death penalty was suspended, the national murder rate had more than doubled.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2204738.stm\|titleDeath penalty call renewed\|date21 August 2002\|workBBC News}}</ref> Environmental and science issues She is a committed animal lover and one of the several Conservative MPs to have consistently voted for the ban on the hunting of foxes.<ref>[http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpid1701&dmp1050 "Ann Widdecombe compared to 'Fox hunting&nbsp;– Ban'"], Public Whip. Retrieved on 21 March 2009.</ref> Widdecombe was among more than 20 high-profile people who signed a letter to Members of Parliament in 2015 to oppose David Cameron's plan to amend the Hunting Act 2004.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.stv.tv/scotland-decides/news/1324609-snp-to-vote-against-tories-on-fox-hunting-ban-in-england-and-wales/\|titleSNP to vote against Tories on fox hunting ban in England and Wales\|date13 July 2015\|workSTV\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150715203740/http://news.stv.tv/scotland-decides/news/1324609-snp-to-vote-against-tories-on-fox-hunting-ban-in-england-and-wales/\|archive-date15 July 2015\|url-statusdead\|access-date11 June 2021}}</ref> In 2007, she wrote that she did not want to belittle the issue of climate change, but was sceptical of the claims that specific actions would prevent catastrophe.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/2489/Switching-lightbulbs-won-t-save-the-world\|titleSwitching Lightbulbs won't change the world\|date21 March 2007\|publisherExpress.co.uk\|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref> In 2008, she wrote that her doubts had been "crystalised" by Nigel Lawson's book An Appeal to Reason;<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/ourcomments/view/48856\|titleYes, I am a heretic on global warming\|date18 June 2008\|publisherExpress.co.uk\|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref> in 2014, she likened Lawson's difficulty in getting the book published to the book-burnings in Nazi Germany.<ref name"Nat12Nov">{{cite news \|titleThese are the climate change deniers in the Brexit Party \|urlhttps://www.thenational.scot/news/18031022.climate-change-deniers-brexit-party/\|workThe National \|date12 November 2019\|access-date22 September 2021}}</ref> Later in 2008, Widdecombe claimed that the "science of climate change is robustly disputed",<ref name"Nat12Nov"/> then, in 2009, that "There is no climate change, hasn't anybody looked out of their window recently?"<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/79580/Now-the-EU-wants-to-ban-your-plasma-television\|titleArticle including refutation of any global warming\|date12 January 2009\|publisherExpress.co.uk\|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref> She was one of the five MPs who voted against the Climate Change Act 2008.<ref name"Nat12Nov"/><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.publicwhip.org.uk/division.php?date2008-10-28&number298\|titleClimate Change Bill&nbsp;— Third Reading (and other amendments)\|date28 October 2008\|publisherThe Public Whip\|access-date31 October 2014}}</ref> The previous year, she voted to support a parliamentary motion in favour of homeopathy, disagreeing with the Science and Technology Committee's Report on the subject.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.parliament.uk/edm/2009-10/908\|titleUK Parliament Early day motion 908\|date23 February 2010\|publisherParliament UK\|access-date10 August 2015}}</ref>ControversiesIn 2009, she partially defended Carol Thatcher's use of the racial slur 'golliwog' on Any Questions?, saying: "There is a generation to whom a golliwog is merely a toy, a generation which was much endeared by its golliwogs which grew up with them on jam jars ... and there is a generation, a new generation for whom that word is deeply offensive and one does have to make I think some allowance for the fact."<ref>{{cite news \|titleTranscript: Any Questions? \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/news/anyquestions_transcripts_20090206.shtml \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workBBC Radio 4 \|date9 February 2009}}</ref> In December 2019, WhatsApp conversations between her and Brexit Party activists were leaked to the Plymouth Herald which showed Widdecombe using the term amid rumours party campaign funding was being diverted away from Plymouth ahead of the general election of that year. Widdecombe said: "Yes, I threw all my toys of the pram. Bears and gollywogs flying everywhere!!"<ref>{{cite news \|last1O'Leary \|first1Miles \|titleAnn Widdecombe accused of 'racist comments' in Brexit Party Whatsapp group \|urlhttps://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/news/plymouth-news/ann-widdecombe-accused-racist-comments-3628950 \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workPlymouthLive \|date10 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|last1Devlin \|first1Kate \|titleAnn Widdecombe in race row after leaked WhatsApp conversation \|urlhttps://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ann-widdecombe-in-race-row-after-leaked-whatsapp-conversation-mx5ktlzrr \|access-date19 October 2020 \|workThe Times \|date11 December 2019}}</ref> In 2019 Widdecombe defended the comments she made in a 2012 article that supported "gay conversion" therapy.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/comment/columnists/ann-widdecombe/299271/Helping-those-who-aren-t-glad-to-be-gay\|titleHelping those who aren't glad to be gay\|date1 February 2012\|workDaily Mirror\|access-date2 June 2019\|locationUK}}</ref> She told Sky News that science may yet "provide an answer" to the question of whether people can "switch sexuality".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://news.sky.com/story/ann-widdecombe-science-may-produce-an-answer-to-homosexuality-11733559\|titleAnn Widdecombe: Science may 'produce an answer' to homosexuality\|date2 June 2019\|workSky News\|access-date2 June 2019\|locationUK}}</ref> Following Widdecombe's apparent endorsement of conversion therapy, at least one venue, the Landmark theatre in Ilfracombe, Devon, cancelled a performance of her one-woman show.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/jun/05/ann-widdecombe-one-woman-show-pulled-after-gay-therapy-remark\|titleAnn Widdecombe one-woman show pulled after gay therapy remark\|lastWeaver\|firstMatthew\|date5 June 2019\|workThe Guardian\|access-date5 June 2019\|languageen-GB\|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Widdecombe and two other Brexit Party figures were criticised for previous appearances on the David Icke-affiliated Richie Allen Show, which has been accused of promoting Holocaust denial and antisemitic conspiracy theories about the Rothschild family and Zionism. Widdecombe appeared three times between August 2017 and April 2019 and was described as an "old friend of the show" by the host during one appearance.<ref>Erich, Ben (18 August 2019). [https://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/brexit-party-meps-ann-widdecombe-richie-allen-show-david-icke-antisemitic-conspiracy-theories-1.487594 "Brexit Party figures 'appeared on show which promoted Holocaust denial'"]. The Jewish Chronicle.</ref><ref name"Cohen1">{{cite news \|last1Cohen \|first1Ben \|titleLeading Brexit Party figures in UK exposed as contributors to radio show pushing Holocaust denial \|urlhttps://www.algemeiner.com/2019/08/19/leading-brexit-party-figures-in-uk-exposed-as-contributors-to-radio-show-pushing-holocaust-denial/ \|access-date22 August 2019 \|workThe Algemeiner \|date19 August 2019}}</ref> Widdecombe told Jewish Chronicle that she agreed to appear to discuss Brexit, and that she "had never heard of the Richie Allen Show until I agreed to go on" and distanced herself from its antisemitic content by, among other things, pointing to her membership of the Conservative Friends of Israel, B'nai B'rith event speeches, and her novel An Act of Treachery, which she said is set during the Holocaust.<ref name"Weich1">{{cite news \|last1Weich \|first1Ben \|titleAnn Widdecombe defends appearances on 'antisemitic' radio stations \|urlhttps://www.thejc.com/news/uk-news/ann-widdecombe-defends-appearance-radio-antisemitic-conspiracy-theories-theory-richie-allen-brexit-1.487725 \|access-date22 August 2019 \|workThe Jewish Chronicle \|date22 August 2019}}</ref> Widdecombe was elected as a Member of the European Parliament for the Brexit Party on 23 May 2019 in the European elections. On 3 July 2019 she used her maiden speech in Strasbourg to compare Brexit to slaves revolting against their owners and to a colonised country rising up against occupying forces, a stance which was criticised by members of both the European Parliament and the British House of Commons.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/video-anne-widdecombe-says-brexitu-ilike-slaves-rising-up-against-owners-2019-7\|titleBrexit Party's Ann Widdecombe condemned for 'disgraceful' remarks comparing the EU to slave owners\|last1Payne\|first1Adam\|last2Colson\|first2Thomas\|websiteBusiness Insider\|access-date4 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/video-anne-widdecombe-says-brexitu-ilike-slaves-rising-up-against-owners-2019-7\|titleBrexit Party's Ann Widdecombe condemned for 'disgraceful' remarks comparing the EU to slave owners\|last1Payne\|first1Adam\|last2Colson\|first2Thomas\|websiteTelegraph\|access-date20 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/07/04/ann-widdecombe-compares-eu-slave-owners-maiden-european-parliament/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/07/04/ann-widdecombe-compares-eu-slave-owners-maiden-european-parliament/ \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|title News Politics Ann Widdecombe compares EU to slave owners in maiden European Parliament speech \|last1Crisp\|first1James\|date4 July 2019\|websiteThe Telegraph\|access-date4 July 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-48869520\|titleWiddecombe's slavery remarks 'disgusting'\|last1Scott\|first1Jennifer\|date4 July 2019\|publisherBBC\|access-date4 July 2019}}</ref> Media work and appearances broadcast in 2016 at the Nexus Methodist Church, Bath]] In 2002 she took part in the ITV programme Celebrity Fit Club. Also in 2002 she took part in a Louis Theroux television documentary, depicting her life, both in and out of politics.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/ann-widdecombe-the-truth-about-me-and-louis-theroux-659429.html\|titleAnn Widdecombe: The truth about me and Louis Theroux\|date5 March 2002\|workThe Independent\|access-date11 June 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100517063321/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/ann-widdecombe-the-truth-about-me-and-louis-theroux-659429.html\|archive-date17 May 2010 \|url-statuslive\|locationLondon}}</ref> In March 2004 she briefly became The Guardian'' newspaper's agony aunt, introduced with an Emma Brockes interview.<ref name"Brockes1" /> In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of The Widdecombe Project, an agony aunt television programme.<ref name"ind">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/ann-widdecombe-mp--an-unlikely-agony-aunt-754932.html\|titleAnn Widdecombe MP: an unlikely agony aunt\|date28 June 2005\|workThe Independent\|access-date22 August 2009\|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20091008170611/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/ann-widdecombe-mp--an-unlikely-agony-aunt-754932.html\|archive-date8 October 2009\|url-statusdead\|locationLondon}}</ref> In 2005, she appeared in a new series of Celebrity Fit Club, this time as an agony aunt.<ref name"ind" /><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3558378.stm\|titleMP Widdecombe is BBC agony aunt\|date12 August 2004\|access-date21 November 2010\|publisherBBC}}</ref> Also in 2005, she presented the show Ann Widdecombe to the Rescue in which she acted as an agony aunt, dispensing advice to disputing families, couples, and others across the UK.<ref name"ind" /> In 2005, she appeared in a discussion programme on Five to discuss who had been England's greatest monarch since the Norman Conquest; her choice of monarch was Charles II.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.newstatesman.com/200407120003\|titleDiary&nbsp;– Jenni Bond\|lastBond\|firstJenni\|date12 July 2004\|workNew Statesman\|locationUK\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607074724/http://www.newstatesman.com/200407120003\|archive-date7 June 2011\|url-statusdead\|access-date22 August 2009}}</ref> She was the guest host of news quiz Have I Got News for You twice, in 2006 and 2007. Her first appearance as guest host, in 2006, was widely regarded as a success.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://inews.co.uk/news/arrogant-ann-widdecombe-the-worst-have-i-got-news-for-you-guest-presenter-says-paul-merton/\|title'Arrogant' Ann Widdecombe the worst Have I Got News For You guest presenter, says Paul Merton\|lastSherwin\|firstAdam\|date2 April 2018\|websiteinews.co.uk\|access-date27 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://metro.co.uk/2012/11/09/top-10-have-i-got-news-for-you-guest-hosts-boris-johnson-to-damian-lewis-616645/\|titleTop 10 Have I Got News For You guest hosts: Damian Lewis to Boris Johnson\|date9 November 2012\|access-date27 May 2019}}</ref> Following her second appearance, Widdecombe said she would never appear on the show again because of comments made by panellist Jimmy Carr which she considered filth,<ref name"Carr's filth">Ann Widdecombe in the Daily Express, as quoted by {{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/media/mediamonkeyblog/2007/nov/28/widdecombedisgustedbycarrs\|titleWiddecombe disgusted by Carr's 'filth'\|author1Media Monkey\|date28 November 2007\|workThe Guardian\|access-date18 February 2018}}</ref> though she called regular panellists Ian Hislop and Paul Merton "the fastest wits in showbusiness".<ref name"Carr's filth" /> Merton later revealed that he thought Widdecombe had been "the worst ever presenter" of the show, particularly on her second appearance where Merton claimed she "thought she was Victoria Wood".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/04/05/anti-lgbt-politician-ann-widdecombe-was-the-worst-have-i-got-news-for-you-presenter-ever/\|titleAnti-LGBT politician Ann Widdecombe was the 'worst Have I Got News For You presenter ever'\|lastButterworth\|firstBenjamin\|date5 April 2018\|workPink News\|locationUK\|access-date=6 April 2018}}</ref> In 2007 she awarded the University Challenge trophy to the winners.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.ukgameshows.com/ukgs/University_Challenge\|titleUniversity Challenge\|publisherUK Game Shows.com\|access-date22 August 2009\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100105095425/http://ukgameshows.com/ukgs/University_Challenge\|archive-date5 January 2010\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In the same year, she appeared in "The Sound of Drums", the 12th episode of the third series of the science-fiction drama Doctor Who, endorsing the Master's Prime Minister campaign.<ref name"Factfile">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/episodes/2007/facts/fact_312.shtml\|titleDoctor Who&nbsp;– Fact File&nbsp;– "The Sound of Drums"\|authorPeter Ware\|workDoctor Who: the official site\|publisherBBC\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071017034012/http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/episodes/2007/facts/fact_312.shtml\|archive-date17 October 2007 \|url-statuslive\|access-date30 November 2007}}</ref> In 2007 and 2008 Widdecombe fronted a television series called Ann Widdecombe Versus, on ITV1, in which she spoke to various people about things related to her as an MP, with an emphasis on confronting those responsible for problems she wished to tackle. In 2007 she talked about prostitution, social benefits, and truancy. A fourth episode was screened on 18 September 2008 in which she travelled around London and Birmingham talking to girl gangs.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article4781758.ece\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110616062223/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/tv_and_radio/article4781758.ece\|url-statusdead\|archive-date16 June 2011\|titleAnn Widdecombe Versus Girl Gangs; No Heroics; Hollyoaks at timesonline.co.uk\|last1Naughton\|first1Philippe\|date19 September 2008\|workThe Times\|access-date1 September 2011\|last2Costello\|first2Miles\|locationLondon}}</ref> In 2009, Widdecombe appeared with Archbishop John Onaiyekan in an "Intelligence Squared" debate in which they defended the motion that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Arguing against the motion were Stephen Fry and Christopher Hitchens, who won the debate overall.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://archive.catholicherald.co.uk/article/23rd-october-2009/1/atheist-duo-convince-crowd-that-the-church-is-not-\|titleAtheist duo convince crowd that the Church is not a force for good\|authorEd West\|date23 October 2009\|workThe Catholic Herald\|access-date18 February 2012\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120626053333/http://archive.catholicherald.co.uk/article/23rd-october-2009/1/atheist-duo-convince-crowd-that-the-church-is-not-\|archive-date26 June 2012\|url-statusdead\|locationLondon}}</ref> in Clapham, 2010]] In October 2010, she appeared on BBC One's Strictly Come Dancing, partnered by Anton du Beke, winning the support of some viewers despite low marks from the judges.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00v7qxs/Strictly_Come_Dancing_Series_8_Week_1_Show_2/\|titleStrictly Come Dancing at\|date2 October 2010\|publisherBBC\|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/strictly-come-dancing/8076273/Interview-with-Ann-Widdecombe.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/strictly-come-dancing/8076273/Interview-with-Ann-Widdecombe.html \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleInterview with Ann Widdecombe at www.telegraph.co.uk\|lastGrice\|firstElizabeth\|date21 October 2010\|workThe Daily Telegraph\|access-date26 August 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref> After nine weeks of routines strongly flavoured by comedy, the couple was eliminated, in the bottom two. In 2011 Widdecombe played the Lord Mayoress in an episode of Sooty.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleSooty Season 1\|urlhttps://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/cmgnfp/sooty-season-1/\|access-date2021-05-31\|websiteRadio Times\|languageen\|archive-date2 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210602221318/https://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/cmgnfp/sooty-season-1/\|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2012, Widdecombe hosted the 30 one-hour episodes of Cleverdicks, a quiz show for the Sky Atlantic channel.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/277070/Ann-Widdecombe-to-host-new-TV-quiz-show\|titleAnn Widdecombe to host new TV quiz show\|date12 October 2011\|workExpress.co.uk}}</ref> In April 2012 Widdecombe presented an hour-long documentary for BBC Radio 5 Live, Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates, looking at how the British attitude to alcohol consumption had changed over the previous few years.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01ghshj\|titleDrunk Again: Anne Widdecombe Investigates\|date23 April 2012\|publisherBBC\|access-date23 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2012/apr/29/drunk-again-ann-widdecombe-review\|titleRewind radio: Drunk Again: Ann Widdecombe Investigates; Sunday Feature: AL Kennedy's Art of Madness; The Radio Ballads: Never Again – A Lament for the Titanic – review\|last1Sawyer\|first1Miranda\|date28 April 2012\|workThe Guardian\|access-date5 February 2018\|languageen}}</ref> Widdecombe was in a Strictly Come Dancing special in Children in Need's 2012 appeal night.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/s104/strictly-come-dancing/news/a434358/russell-grant-widdecombe-return-to-strictly-for-children-in-need.html\|titleRussell Grant, Widdecombe return to 'Strictly' for Children in Need\|lastFletcher\|firstAlex\|date30 October 2012\|publisherdigitalspy.co.uk\|access-date2 November 2012}}</ref> On 4 November 2012, Widdecombe guest-hosted one episode of BBC's Songs of Praise programme about singleness.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.thisisstaffordshire.co.uk/Ann-s-happy-Strictly-singleton/story-17236462-detail/story.html\|titleAnn's happy to be Strictly a singleton\|date5 November 2012\|publisherthisisstaffordshire.co.uk\|access-date=5 November 2012}}</ref> In October 2014, she appeared in the BBC series Celebrity Antiques Road Trip with expert Mark Stacey.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b016nbj8\|titleBBC Two – Celebrity Antiques Road Trip, Series 1, Episode 1\|work=BBC}}</ref> Widdecombe took part in a four-part BBC One television series 24 Hours in the Past, along with Colin Jackson, Alistair McGowan, Miquita Oliver, Tyger Drew-Honey and Zoe Lucker in April and May 2015, involving experiencing life as workers in a dustyard, coachhouse, pottery, and as workhouse inmates in 1840s Britain. She took part in an episode of Tipping Point: Lucky Stars in 2016. In 2017, Widdecombe took part in ITV's Sugar Free Farm. In January 2018, Widdecombe participated in the Celebrity Big Brother twenty-first series;<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-42552217\|titleWho's in the new Celebrity Big Brother house?\|date2018\|workBBC News\|access-date27 January 2018}}</ref> she was criticised over her comments regarding the Harvey Weinstein controversy<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/celebrity-big-brother-2018-line-up-ann-widdecombe-harvey-weinstein-victim-blaming-a8141096.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220507/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/celebrity-big-brother-2018-line-up-ann-widdecombe-harvey-weinstein-victim-blaming-a8141096.html \|archive-date7 May 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|titleAnn Widdecombe accused of victim blaming after CBB Weinstein discussion\|date4 January 2018\|access-date10 January 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and comments perceived to be anti-LGBT to her fellow housemates, most notably to drag queen Courtney Act (Shane Jenek).<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.newstatesman.com/culture/tv-radio/2018/01/Celebrity-Big-Brother-ann-widdecombe-isn-t-harmless-comedy-old-lady-she-s-homophobe\|titleAnn Widdecombe isn't a harmless comedy old lady – she's a homophobe\|last1Chakelian\|first1Anoosh\|date31 January 2018\|workNew Statesman\|access-date2 February 2018}}</ref><ref name"Hague's head girl"/><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/stayingin/tvfilm/celebrity-big-brother-fans-brand-ann-widdecombe-a-homophobe-after-latest-controversial-remark-a3747436.html\|titleCelebrity Big Brother fans brand Ann Widdecombe a 'homophobe'\|last1Cumberbatch\|first1Aimée Grant\|date23 January 2018\|workEvening Standard\|access-date2 February 2018}}</ref> She finished the competition in second place, behind Jenek.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/stayingin/tvfilm/celebrity-big-brother-2018-courtney-act-aka-shane-jenek-beats-ann-widdecombe-to-win-channel-5-a3757021.html\|titleCourtney Act aka Shane Jenek beats Ann Widdecombe to win CBB\|last1Powell\|first1Emma\|workEvening Standard\|access-date16 February 2018}}</ref> In 2019 Widdecombe appeared on the new celebrity version of The Crystal Maze, where alongside Sunetra Sarker, Wes Nelson, Matthew Wright and Nikki Sanderson, she won money for Stand Up to Cancer.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/showbiz/tv-radio/1152852/Ann-Widdecombe-Brexit-EU-Crystal-Maze-Richard-Ayoade-news-Channel-4-video \|title Ann Widdecombe hits out at EU officials over Brexit during Celebrity Crystal Maze task\|date = 12 July 2019}}</ref> In 2020 Widdecombe travelled to Norway for three days to visit Halden Prison, for the documentary ''The World's Most Luxurious Prison''.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/msh8p4/the-worlds-most-luxurious-prison/\|titleThe World's Most Luxurious Prison\|websiteRadio Times\|archive-date11 June 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210611224520/https://www.radiotimes.com/tv-programme/msh8p4/the-worlds-most-luxurious-prison/\|url-statusdead\|access-date11 June 2021}}</ref>Stage acting careerFollowing her retirement, Widdecombe made her stage debut, on 9 December 2011, at the Orchard Theatre, Dartford in the Christmas pantomime Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, alongside Strictly Come Dancing judge Craig Revel Horwood.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-12626500\|titleAnn Widdecombe to star in panto in Dartford\|workBBC News}}</ref> In April 2012, she had a ten-minute non-singing cameo part in Gaetano Donizetti's comic opera La Fille du Regiment, playing the Duchesse de Crackentorp.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-17783927\|titleAnn Widdecombe makes opera debut\|workBBC News}}</ref> Widdecombe reprised her pantomime performance, again with Horwood, at the Swan Theatre, High Wycombe in December 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://wycombeswan.co.uk/Online/default.asp?doWork::WScontent::loadArticleLoad&BOparam::WScontent::loadArticle::article_idC3E6222D-6C32-4FA6-816D-BC022B374015\|titleHQ Theatres\|workwycombeswan.co.uk}}</ref> Widdecombe stepped in at short notice to play the Evil Queen in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which was published by the Brothers Grimm in 1812, at Bridlington Spa in December 2016. She replaced injured Lorraine Chase. This was Widdecombe's first appearance as a pantomime 'baddie'; a role she told the press she had always hoped for.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bridlingtonfreepress.co.uk/news/widdecombe-quick-steps-in-to-save-the-show-1-8247077\|titleWiddecombe quick-steps in to save the show\|websitewww.bridlingtonfreepress.co.uk\|languageen\|access-date=4 January 2018}}</ref> In December 2017 Widdecombe played the Empress of China in the pantomime Aladdin at the Marina Theatre in Lowestoft.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.marinatheatre.co.uk/production/marina-panto-2017-aladdin/\|titleMarina Panto 2017: Aladdin – Marina Theatre\|websitewww.marinatheatre.co.uk\|access-date2 February 2018\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180202124600/http://www.marinatheatre.co.uk/production/marina-panto-2017-aladdin/\|archive-date2 February 2018\|url-statusdead}}</ref>Personal life and familyUntil her retirement following the 2010 general election, Widdecombe divided her time between her two homes&nbsp;– one in London and one in the countryside village of Sutton Valence, Kent, in her constituency.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/w/ann-widdecombe \|titleAnn Widdecombe at \|publisherFantasticfiction.co.uk \|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref> She sold both upon retiring at the next general election.<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/politics_show/regions/south_east/8288134.stm\|titleAn interview with Ann Widdecombe \|lastWharton\|firstCraig\|date2 October 2009\|workThe Politics Show\|publisherBBC\|access-date8 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/retirementproperty/3361350/Division-bell-rings-for-retiring-Ann-Widdecombe.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090225200652/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/retirementproperty/3361350/Division-bell-rings-for-retiring-Ann-Widdecombe.html \|url-statusdead \|archive-date25 February 2009 \|locationLondon \|workThe Daily Telegraph \|titleDivision bell rings for retiring Ann Widdecombe \|firstNicola \|lastVenning \|date21 May 2008}}</ref> She shared her home in London with her widowed mother, Rita Widdecombe, until Rita's death, on 25 April 2007, aged 95.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Brankin\|first1Una\|titleStrictly Ann: Ann Widdecombe on why she'll sue anyone who says she's not a virgin\|urlhttps://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/life/features/strictly-ann-ann-widdecombe-on-why-shell-sue-anyone-who-says-shes-not-a-virgin-30347852.html\|access-date10 April 2018\|workBelfast Telegraph\|date12 June 2014}}</ref> In March 2008, she bought a house in Haytor Vale, on Dartmoor in Devon, where she retired.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2008/08/06/ann_widdecombe_feature.shtml \|titleWiddecombe moves to Haytor\|publisherBBC Devon \|access-date26 August 2011\|first Laura \|lastJoint\|date 6 August 2008}}</ref> Her brother, Malcolm (1937–2010), who was an Anglican canon in Bristol, retired in May 2009 and died in October 2010.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.pipnjay.org/people/history/341-tribute-to-malcolm-widdecombe \|titleTributes to Malcolm Widdecombe \|publisherPipnjay.org \|date13 April 2011 \|access-date26 August 2011 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110809231624/http://www.pipnjay.org/people/history/341-tribute-to-malcolm-widdecombe \|archive-date9 August 2011 }}</ref> Her nephew, Roger Widdecombe, is an Anglican priest.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.annwiddecombe.com/issueshow.aspx?id59&ref13 \|titleThanksgiving Service at \|publisherAnnwiddecombe.com \|access-date26 August 2011 \|archive-date4 September 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110904031406/http://www.annwiddecombe.com/issueshow.aspx?id59&ref13 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> She has never married nor had any children. In November 2007 on BBC Radio 4 she described how a journalist once produced a profile on her with the assumption that she had had at least "one sexual relationship", to which Widdecombe replied: "Be careful, that's the way you get sued". When interviewer Jenni Murray asked if she had ever had a sexual relationship, Widdecombe laughed "it's nobody else's business".<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/02/2007_45_tue.shtml \|titleAnn Widdecombe on BBC "Woman's Hour" at \|publisherBBC \|access-date26 August 2011}}</ref> A 2001 report in The Guardian said that she had had a three-year romance while studying at the University of Oxford;<ref>{{cite news \|last1Glover \|first1Julian \|last2Roth \|first2Andrew \|titleRIP: Ann Widdecombe's political career \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2001/jun/18/conservatives.uk2\|newspaperThe Guardian\|access-date18 June 2001}}</ref> Widdecombe confirmed this in January 2018 on the UK reality TV show Big Brother, explaining that she had ended the romance in order to prioritise her career.<ref>{{cite news\|last1Roche\|first1Elisa\|titleAnn Widdecombe: I regret not having children and losing the love of my life\|urlhttps://www.express.co.uk/expressyourself/243384/Ann-Widdecombe-I-regret-not-having-children-and-losing-the-love-of-my-life\|access-date9 January 2018\|workExpress\|date28 April 2011}}</ref><ref nameBrockes1>{{cite news\|last1Brockes\|first1Emma\|titleWhat a stupid question\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2004/mar/29/conservatives.uk3\|access-date17 February 2018\|workThe Guardian\|date=29 March 2004}}</ref> Widdecombe has a fondness for cats and many other animals such as foxes; a section of her website, the Widdyweb, is about the pet cats she has lived with.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.annwiddecombe.com/ann-widdecombe-cats.php\|titleAnn Widdecombe's Cats &#124; Official Ann Widdecombe Web Site (WiddyWeb)\|websitewww.annwiddecombe.com}}</ref> Widdecombe adopted two goats at the Buttercups Goat Sanctuary in Boughton Monchelsea near Maidstone.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.annwiddecombe.com/ann-widdecombe-public-engagements.php\|titleAnn Widdecombe\|websitewww.annwiddecombe.com\|access-date10 January 2018}}</ref> In an interview, Widdecombe talked about her appreciation of music, despite describing herself as "pretty well tone-deaf".<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-14161671 \|agencyBBC News \|titleFive Minutes With: Ann Widdecombe \|date16 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/apr/15/election20051 \|locationLondon \|workThe Guardian \|firstWill \|lastHodgkinson \|titleAnn Widdecombe \|date15 April 2005}}</ref> Outside politics she writes novels, and a weekly column for the Daily Express.<ref>{{cite web\|last1Harp\|first1Justin\|titleCBB explains how Ann is continuing her outside work\|urlhttp://www.digitalspy.com/tv/celebrity-big-brother/news/a847188/celebrity-big-brother-2018-how-ann-widdecombe-continues-newspaper-column/\|websiteDigital Spy\|access-date17 February 2018\|date10 January 2018\|quoteEyebrows were raised for some when the former Tory MP's weekly op-ed piece was published as usual by the Daily Express on Wednesday (10 January), drawing questions about the procedure for her to continue her outside work.}}</ref> In January 2011 Widdecombe was President of the North of England Education Conference in Blackpool, and gave a speech there supporting selective education and opposing the ban on new grammar schools being built.<ref>{{cite news\|titleTreat children strictly, says dancing star Widdecombe\|urlhttps://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/treat-children-strictly-says-dancing-star-widdecombe-qx8fv93f8s2\|access-date6 February 2018\|workThe Times\|url-accesssubscription \|date6 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|last1Ross\|first1Tim\|titleAnn Widdecombe: lift ban on grammar schools\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8241633/Ann-Widdecombe-lift-ban-on-grammar-schools.html \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8241633/Ann-Widdecombe-lift-ban-on-grammar-schools.html \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|access-date6 February 2018\|workThe Telegraph\|date6 January 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|last1Shepherd\|first1Jessica\|titleGrammar school ban must end, Ann Widdecombe urges\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/jan/05/widdecombe-backs-grammar-schools\|access-date6 February 2018\|workThe Guardian\|date5 January 2011}}</ref> She also became a patron of The Grace Charity for M.E.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.thegracecharityforme.org/ \|titleWelcome to the Grace Charity for M.E. \|publisherThe Grace Charity for M.E. \|access-date21 November 2010\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101030151852/http://www.thegracecharityforme.org/\|archive-date30 October 2010 \|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2012 Widdecombe said that she was writing her autobiography, which she described as "rude about all and sundry, but an amount of truth is always necessary". Her autobiography Strictly Ann: The Autobiography, was published in 2013, and was variously described as "forthright", "candid", even "rude".<ref name=chorley /> Widdecombe is a patron of the charity Safe Haven for Donkeys in the Holy Land (SHADH) and in 2014 visited the SHADH Donkey Sanctuary in the West Bank.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://goodnewsshared.com/safe-life-ann-widdecombe-visits-donkey-charity/\|titleSafe For Life: Ann Widdecombe Visits Donkey Charity\|dateJuly 2014\|workGood News Shared}}</ref><ref name"chorley"/>Religious viewsWiddecombe became an Anglican in her 30s, after a period of being an agnostic following her departure from religious schooling.<ref name"Brockes1" /> She converted to Catholicism in 1993 after leaving the Church of England,<ref>{{cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7157409.stm\|titleTony Blair joins catholic church\|publisherbbconline\|access-date17 June 2009 \|date22 December 2007 \|locationLondon}}</ref> explaining to reporters from the New Statesman: :I left the Church of England because there was a huge bundle of straw. The ordination of women was the last straw, but it was only one of many. For years I had been disillusioned by the Church of England's compromising on everything. The Catholic Church doesn't care if something is unpopular.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.newstatesman.com/religion/2010/07/catholic-church-religious\|titleAnn Widdecombe&nbsp;– extended interview by Alyssa McDonald\|workNew Statesman \|locationUK\|date19 July 2010\|access-date28 October 2010}}</ref> In October 2006, she pledged to boycott British Airways for suspending a worker who refused to hide her Christian cross, until the company reversed the suspension.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.metro.co.uk/news/article.html?in_article_id21286&in_page_id34\|titleWiddecombe pledges to boycott BA\|date15 October 2006\|publisherMetro\|access-date=22 August 2009}}</ref> In 2010, Widdecombe turned down the offer to be Britain's next ambassador to the Holy See, being prevented from accepting by suffering a detached retina.<ref name"Ann Widdecombe rules out Vatican appointment, The New Statesman, 2010">{{cite magazine\|lastCrampton\|firstCaroline\|titleAnn Widdecombe rules out Vatican appointment\|urlhttp://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-staggers/2010/07/detached-retina-post-vatican\|magazineThe New Statesman\|access-date16 December 2012}}</ref> She was made a Dame of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope Benedict XVI for services to politics and public life on 31 January 2013.<ref>{{cite news \|urlhttp://www.indcatholicnews.com/news.php?viewStory21860 \|titleAnn Widdecombe awarded papal honour \|publisherIndependent Catholic News \|date31 January 2013 \|access-date2 February 2013}}</ref>Honours Widdecombe was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a ceremony held at Canterbury Cathedral on 30 January 2009.<ref>{{cite web \|title=Widdecombe, Holland and Underwood are appointed honorary fellows \|publisher=Canterbury Christ Church University \|date=3 February 2009 \|urlhttp://www.canterbury.ac.uk/News/newsRelease.asp?newsPk1301 \|access-date=19 August 2009 \|url-status=dead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110720143843/http://www.canterbury.ac.uk/News/newsRelease.asp?newsPk1301 \|archive-date=20 July 2011 }}</ref> She was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ) by the University of Birmingham on 5 July 2012.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.birmingham.ac.uk/news/latest/2012/06/28-Jun-Honarary-Grads-Press-Release.aspx\|titleHonorary graduands for July 2012\|websitewww.birmingham.ac.uk\|access-date26 May 2019}}</ref> {{Flag\|Holy See}}: Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (DSG) (2013)<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/21860\|titleAnn Widdecombe awarded papal honour\|websitewww.indcatholicnews.com\|date31 January 2013 \|access-date20 August 2020}}</ref>Selected publicationsFiction 2000: The Clematis Tree. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN\|0-297-64572-2}} * 2002: An Act of Treachery. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN\|0-297-64573-0}} * 2005: Father Figure. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN\|0-297-82962-9}} * 2005: An Act of Peace. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson {{ISBN\|0-297-82958-0}} Non-fiction * 1999: Inspired and Outspoken: the collected speeches of Ann Widdecombe; edited by John Simmons, with a biographical preface by Nick Kochan. London: Politico's Publishing {{ISBN\|1-902301-22-6}} 2004: The Mass is a Mess, with Martin Kochanski. London: Catholic Writers' Guild Further reading 2000: Kochan, Nicholas Ann Widdecombe: right from the beginning. London: Politico's Publishing {{ISBN\|1-902301-55-2}} {{Clear}} Notes {{notelist}} References {{reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} * [http://www.annwiddecombe.com/ Official website] * [https://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/ann_widdecombe/maidstone_and_the_weald TheyWorkForYou.com&nbsp;– Ann Widdecombe MP] * [http://www.publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpnAnn_Widdecombe&mpcMaidstone+%26amp%3B+The+Weald The Public Whip&nbsp;– Ann Widdecombe MP] voting record * {{Hansard-contribs \| miss-ann-widdecombe \| Ann Widdecombe }} {{s-start}} {{s-par\|uk}} {{s-bef\|before=John Wells}} {{s-ttl\|titleMember of Parliament<br />for Maidstone\|years1987–1997}} {{s-non\|reason=Constituency abolished}} \|- {{s-new\|constituency}} {{s-ttl\|titleMember of Parliament<br />for {{nowrap\|Maidstone and The Weald}}\|years1997–2010}} {{s-aft\|after=Helen Grant}} \|- {{s-off}} {{s-bef\|before=John Maples}} {{s-ttl\|titleShadow Secretary of State for Health\|years1998–1999}} {{s-aft\|after=Liam Fox}} \|- {{s-bef\|before=Norman Fowler}} {{s-ttl\|titleShadow Home Secretary\|years1999–2001}} {{s-aft\|after=Oliver Letwin}} {{s-end}} {{2009 Speaker of the British House of Commons election}} {{Shadow Home Secretaries}} {{Authority control}} {{Brexit Party}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Widdecombe, Ann}} Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century Anglicans Category:20th-century English women politicians Category:20th-century English politicians Category:20th-century Roman Catholics Category:21st-century Roman Catholics Category:21st-century women MEPs for England Category:Alumni of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford Category:Alumni of the University of Birmingham Category:Brexit Party MEPs Category:British broadcaster-politicians Category:British Eurosceptics Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Category:Converts to Anglicanism from atheism or agnosticism Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism Category:English anti-same-sex-marriage activists Category:English Roman Catholics Category:Female critics of feminism Category:Female members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies Category:MEPs for England 2019–2020 Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Category:People from Bath, Somerset Category:People from Sutton Valence Category:Politicians from Somerset Category:Reform UK parliamentary candidates Category:Reform UK politicians Category:Right-wing populists in the United Kingdom Category:Television personalities from Somerset Category:UK MPs 1987–1992 Category:UK MPs 1992–1997 Category:UK MPs 1997–2001 Category:UK MPs 2001–2005 Category:UK MPs 2005–2010	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Widdecombe	2025-04-05T18:26:04.092341
2425	Aurangzeb	{{Short description\|Mughal emperor from 1658 to 1707}} {{About\|the sixth Mughal emperor\|the Indian movie of the same name\|Aurangzeb (film)}} {{pp-move}} {{pp-vandalism\|small=yes}} {{Use Indian English\|date=April 2018}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=November 2020}} {{Infobox royalty \| name = Alamgir I \| title = {{transliteration\|fa\|Al-Mukarram{{efn\|English: The Honorable, Generous}} }}<br/><!-- -->{{transliteration\|fa\|Al-Sultan al-Azam<ref nameAurangzeb>{{cite web \|titleTomb of Aurangzeb \|urlhttp://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923175254/http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf \|archive-date23 September 2015 \|access-date21 March 2015 \|publisher=ASI Aurangabad}}</ref>}}<br/><!-- -->{{transliteration\|ar\|Amir al-Mu'minin{{efn\|English: Commander of the Faithful}} }}<br/><!-- -->Shahenshah-e-Sultanat Al-Hindiyyah<br /><!-- -->(Emperor of the Sultanate of India)<ref name=Aurangzeb/> \| image = Aurangzeb-portrait.jpg \| caption = Portrait by Bichitr, {{circa\|1660}} \| succession = Emperor of Hindustan \| reign = 31 July 1658{{snd}}3 March 1707 \| reign-type \| coronation 31 July 1658{{efn\|A second coronation was held on 5 June 1659}} \| predecessor = Shah Jahan \| successor = Azam Shah \| reg-type = Grand Viziers \| regent {{Collapsible list\|titleSee list \|Fazil Khan \|Jafar Khan \|Asad Khan}} {{Collapsed infobox section begin \|cont yes \|Other governmental responsibilities \|titlestyle border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}{{Infobox royalty \|embed=yes \| succession1 = Viceroy of the Deccan{{efn\|The unified province of Deccan included the governorates of Khandesh, Bijapur, Berar, Aurangabad, Golconda and Bidar}} \| reign1 = November 1653 – 5 February 1658 \| reign-type1 \| regent1 \| reg-type1 \| cor-type1 Emperor \| coronation1 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor1 = Shaista Khan \| successor1 \| reign2 14 July 1636 – 28 May 1644 \| reign-type2 \| regent2 \| reg-type2 \| cor-type2 Emperor \| coronation2 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor2 = Position established \| successor2 = Khan-i-Dauran \| succession3 = Subahdar of Thatta \| reign3 = November 1648 – 14 July 1652 \| reign-type3 \| regent3 Mughal Khan<br />Zafar Khan \| reg-type3 = Naib Subahdar \| cor-type3 = Emperor \| coronation3 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor3 = Mughal Khan \| successor3 = Sardar Khan Shahjahani \| succession4 = Subahdar of Multan \| reign4 = March 1648 – 14 July 1652 \| reign-type4 \| regent4 \| reg-type4 \| cor-type4 Emperor \| coronation4 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor4 = Saeed Khan Bahadur \| successor4 = Bahadur Khan Rohilla \| succession5 = Subahdar of Balkh \| reign5 = 21 January 1647 – 1 October 1647 \| reign-type5 \| regent5 \| reg-type5 \| cor-type5 Emperor \| coronation5 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor5 = Murad Bakhsh \| successor5 = Position abolished \| succession6 = Subahdar of Badakhshan \| reign6 = 21 January 1647 – 1 October 1647 \| reign-type6 \| regent6 \| reg-type6 \| cor-type6 Emperor \| coronation6 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor6 = Murad Bakhsh \| successor6 = Position abolished \| succession7 = Subahdar of Gujarat \| reign7 = 16 February 1645 – January 1647 \| reign-type7 \| regent7 \| reg-type7 \| cor-type7 Emperor \| coronation7 = Shah Jahan \| predecessor7 = Mirza Isa Tarkhan \| successor7 = Shaista Khan {{Collapsed infobox section end}} }} \| birth_name = Muhi al-Din Muhammad \| birth_date = 3 November 1618 \| birth_place = Dahod, Gujarat Subah, Mughal Empire \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1707\|03\|03\|1618\|11\|03\|dfy}} \| death_place = Bhingar, Aurangabad Subah, Mughal Empire \| issue = {{Unbulleted list \| Zeb-un-Nissa \| Muhammad Sultan \| Zinat-un-Nissa \| Muhammad Mu'azzam \| Badr-un-Nissa \| Zubdat-un-Nissa \| Muhammad Azam \| Muhammad Akbar \| Mihr-un-Nissa \| Muhammad Kam Bakhsh }} \| issue-link = #Family \| issue-pipe = Detail \| full name \| posthumous name \| house = House of Babur \| father = Shah Jahan \| mother = Mumtaz Mahal \| signature = Painted seal of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir.png \| signature_type = Imperial Seal \| religion = Sunni Islam{{efn\|School of Thought: Hanafi}} \| dynasty = Timurid \| spouse-type = Consort \| spouses = {{ubl\| \| {{marriage\|Dilras Banu Begum\|1637\|1657\|end=died}} \| {{marriage\|Nawab Bai\|1638\|1691\|end=died}} \| Aurangabadi Mahal <br />({{Abbr\|d.\|death}} 1688) \| Udaipuri Mahal }} \| spouses-type = Spouse \| burial_place = Tomb of Aurangzeb, Khuldabad, Maharashtra, India \| module {{Infobox military person \| embedyes \| allegiance {{flagicon image\|Shah Jahan Flag.png\|border}} Mughal Empire \| branch {{flagicon image\|Shah Jahan Flag.png\|border}} Mughal Army \| commands {{collapsible list\|title {{nobold\|See list}}\|Red Fort, Delhi\|Deogiri Fort, Aurangabad\|Kalan Kot, Thatta\|Multan Fort, Multan\|Bala Hisar Fort, Balkh\|Yamchun Fort, Fayzabad\|Bhadra Fort, Ahmedabad}} \| battles_label \| battles {{collapsible list\|title = {{nobold\|See list}}\|{{tree list}} * Orchha (1635) * Mughal–Bijapur War ** Bidar (1636) * Mughal–Portuguese War Daman (1638–1639) Mughal–Portuguese War (1692–1693) *** Bassein (1693) * Balkh (1647) * Mughal–Safavid War First Kandahar (1649) Second Kandahar (1652) * Deccan War Ahmednagar (1656) Satara (1699–1700) * War of Succession Dharmat (1658) Samugarh (1658) ** Khajwa (1659) * Golconda (1687) * Mughal–Rajput War Rathore rebellion * First Jodhpur (1701) * Second Jodhpur (1706) Anandpur (1704) * Wagingera (1705) {{tree list/end}} }} }} }} Muhi al-Din Muhammad (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the title Aurangzeb,{{efn\|{{IPA\|fa\|ʔaw.ɾaŋɡ.ˈzeːb}} {{lit\|Ornament of the Throne}}; Awrangzīb}} and also by his regnal name Alamgir I,{{efn\|{{IPA\|fa\|ʔɑː.ˈlam.ˈɡiːɾ}} {{lit\|Conqueror of the World}}}}{{efn\|Which is derived from his title, Abu al-Muzaffar Muhi-ad-Din Muhammad Bahadur Alamgir Aurangzeb Badshah al-Ghazi.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Khomdan Singh Lisam \|titleEncyclopaedia Of Manipur (3 Vol.) \|date2011 \|publisherGyan Publishing House \|isbn9788178358642 \|page706 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZ6d-IyINtk4C \|access-date20 March 2024 \|languageEn \|quote... Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I ( Conqueror of the Universe ) , more commonly known as Aurangzeb , the 6th Mughal Emperor ruled from 1658 to}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|author1Gul Rahim Khan \|titleSilver Coins Hoard of the Late Mughals from Kohat \|journalAncient Pakistan \|date2021 \|volume18 \|page16 \|url \|publisherDepartment of Archaeology, University of Peshawar \|languageen \|issn2708-4590 \|quoteIn gold there is no more type. In silver some other types like Abu al Muzaffar Muhiuddin/ Muhammad (and date) / Bahadur Alamgir/ Aurangzeb/ Badshah Ghazi or ...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|titleProceedings of the Royal Irish Academy Volume 3 \|date1893 \|publisherHarvard University; Royal Irish Academy \|page398 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRu4AAAAAYAAJ \|access-date20 March 2024 \|languageEn \|quoteThe Emperor's name and title were proclaimed in the pulpit as Abu al-Muzaffar Bahadur ' Alamgir Badshah i Ghazi}}</ref>}} was the sixth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. Under his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, with territory spanning nearly the entirety of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Chapra \|first1Muhammad Umer \|titleMorality and Justice in Islamic Economics and Finance \|date2014 \|publisherEdward Elgar Publishing \|isbn978-1-78347-572-8 \|pages62–63 \|quoteAurangzeb (1658–1707). Aurangzeb's rule, spanning a period of 49 years}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Bayly \|first1C.A. \|titleIndian society and the making of the British Empire \|date1990 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-38650-0 \|edition1st pbk. \|locationCambridge [England] \|page7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Turchin \|first1Peter \|last2Adams \|first2Jonathan M. \|last3Hall \|first3Thomas D \|dateDecember 2006 \|titleEast-West Orientation of Historical Empires \|urlhttp://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 \|journalJournal of World-Systems Research \|volume12 \|issue2 \|page223 \|issn1076-156X \|access-date12 September 2016}}</ref><ref name"borocz">{{cite book \|authorJózsef Böröcz \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd0SPAgAAQBAJ&pgPA21 \|titleThe European Union and Global Social Change \|date2009 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-135-25580-0 \|page21 \|author-linkJózsef Böröcz \|access-date=26 June 2017}}</ref> Aurangzeb and the Mughals belonged to a branch of the Timurid dynasty. He held administrative and military posts under his father Shah Jahan ({{Reign\|1628\|1658}}) and gained recognition as an accomplished military commander. Aurangzeb served as the viceroy of the Deccan in 1636–1637 and the governor of Gujarat in 1645–1647. He jointly administered the provinces of Multan and Sindh in 1648–1652 and continued expeditions into the neighboring Safavid territories. In September 1657, Shah Jahan nominated his eldest and liberalist son Dara Shikoh as his successor, a move repudiated by Aurangzeb, who proclaimed himself emperor in February 1658. In April 1658, Aurangzeb defeated the allied army of Shikoh and the Kingdom of Marwar at the Battle of Dharmat. Aurangzeb's decisive victory at the Battle of Samugarh in May 1658 cemented his sovereignty and his suzerainty was acknowledged throughout the Empire. After Shah Jahan recovered from illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and imprisoned his father in the Agra Fort. Aurangzeb's reign is characterized by a period of rapid military expansion, with several dynasties and states being overthrown by the Mughals. The Mughals also surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power. The Mughal military gradually improved and became one of the strongest armies in the world. A staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb is credited with the construction of numerous mosques and patronizing works of Arabic calligraphy. He successfully imposed the Fatawa-i Alamgiri as the principal regulating body of the empire and prohibited religiously forbidden activities in Islam. Although Aurangzeb suppressed several local revolts, he maintained cordial relations with foreign governments. Aurangzeb was the longest reigning Mughal Emperor. His empire was also one of the largest in Indian history. However, his emperorship has a complicated legacy.<ref>{{cite book \| last1Ali \| first1A. \| last2Thiam \| first2I.D. \| last3Talib \| first3Y.A. \| titleThe Different aspects of Islamic culture: Islam in the World today; Retrospective of the evolution of Islam and the Muslim world \| publisherUNESCO Publishing \| year2016 \| isbn978-92-3-100132-1 \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRMh7DQAAQBAJ&pgPA51 \| page51}}</ref> His critics, citing his actions against the non-Muslims and his conservative view of Islam, argue that he abandoned the legacy of pluralism and tolerance of the earlier Mughal emperors. Others, however, reject these assertions, arguing that he opposed bigotry against Hindus, Sikhs and Shia Muslims and that he employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors. Early life , Shah Shuja, their father Shah Jahan (center), and maternal grandfather Asaf Khan IV (right) c.1628]] Aurangzeb was born in Dahod on 3 November 1618.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Bibb \|first1Sheila C. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN98eEAAAQBAJ&dqaurangzeb+4+november+1618&pgPA32 \|titleFraming the Apocalypse: Visions of the End-of-Times \|last2Simon-López \|first2Alexandra \|year2019 \|publisherBrill \|isbn978-90-04-39944-0 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia \|titleAurangzeb \|encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Aurangzeb \|access-date6 April 2016 \|author-linkPercival Spear \|last1Spear \|first1Percival}}</ref><ref name"Thackeray248">{{cite book \|titleEvents that formed the modern world: from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/eventsthatformed0005unse \|url-accessregistration \|year2012 \|publisherABC-CLIO \|isbn978-1-59884-901-1 \|editor-last1Thackeray \|editor-first1Frank W. \|locationSanta Barbara, Calif. \|page248 \|editor-last2Findling \|editor-first2John E.}}</ref> His father was Emperor Shah Jahan ({{Reign\|1628\|1658}}), who hailed from the Mughal house of the Timurid dynasty.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastWaseem \|editor-firstM. \|year2003 \|titleOn Becoming an Indian Muslim: French Essays on Aspects of Syncretism \|publisherOxford University Press \|locationNew Delhi \|page103 \|isbn978-0-19-565807-1}}</ref> The latter was descended from Emir Timur ({{Reign\|1370\|1405}}), the founder of the Timurid Empire.{{sfn\|Mukerjee\|2001\|p23}}{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|p61}} Aurangzeb's mother Mumtaz Mahal was the daughter of the Persian nobleman Asaf Khan, who was the youngest son of vizier Mirza Ghiyas.{{sfn\|Tillotson\|2008\|p194}} Aurangzeb was born during the reign of his patrilineal grandfather Jahangir ({{Reign\|1605\|1627}}), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire. In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, eight-year-old Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were sent to the Mughal court in Lahore as hostages of their grandfather Jahangir and his wife, Nur Jahan, as part of their father's pardon deal.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastEaton\|firstRichard M.\|titleIndia in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|year2019\|isbn978-0-520-97423-4\|page251\|oclc1243310832}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastGandhi \|firstSupriya \|year2020 \|titleThe emperor who never was: Dara Shukoh in Mughal India \|locationCambridge, Massachusetts \|publisherBelknap Press \|pages52–53 \|isbn978-0-674-98729-6\|oclc1112130290 }}</ref> After Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in the ensuing war of succession to the Mughal throne. Aurangzeb and his brother were consequently reunited with Shah Jahan in Agra.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastGandhi\|firstSupriya \|year2020 \|titleThe emperor who never was: Dara Shukoh in Mughal India \|locationCambridge, Massachusetts \|publisherBelknap Press \|pages59–62 \|isbn978-0-674-98729-6\|oclc1112130290 }}</ref> As a Mughal prince, Aurangzeb received an education covering subjects like combat, military strategy, and administration. His curriculum also included areas like Islamic studies, Turkic and Persian literature. Aurangzeb grew up fluent in the Hindustani language. He was also fluent in his ancestral language of Chagatai Turkic, but similar to his predecessors, he preferred to use Persian.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastTruschke\|firstAudrey\|titleAurangzeb: the life and legacy of India's most controversial king\|date2017\|publisherStanford University Press\|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5\|locationStanford, California\|pages17–18\|oclc962025936}}</ref><ref name":5">{{Cite book \|lastStreusand \|firstDouglas E. \|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/title/191926598 \|titleIslamic gunpowder empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals \|date2011 \|publisherWestview Press \|isbn978-0-8133-1359-7 \|locationBoulder, Colo \|pages281–282 \|oclc191926598}}</ref> On 28 May 1633, a war elephant stampeded through the Mughal imperial encampment. Aurangzeb rode against the elephant and threw his spear at its head. He was unhorsed but escaped death. For his courage, Aurangzeb's father conferred on him the title of Bahadur (brave) and presented him with gifts. When chided for his recklessness, Aurangzeb replied:{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|pp=10–12}} {{blockquote\|If the fight had ended fatally for me it would not have been a matter of shame. Death drops the curtain even on emperors; it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did!}} Historians have interpreted this as an unjust slur against his brothers. Shuja had also faced the elephant and wounded it with his spear. Dara had been too far away to come to their assistance.{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|pp11–12}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastHansen \|firstWaldemar \|titleThe Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAV--abKg9GEC&pgPA122 \|access-date23 November 2012 \|year1996 \|orig-date1972 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass \|isbn978-81-208-0225-4 \|pages=122–124}}</ref> Three days later Aurangzeb turned fifteen. Shah Jahan weighed him and presented him with his weight in gold along with other presents worth Rs. 200,000. His bravery against the elephant was documented in Persian and Urdu verses.{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|p12}} Career as prince under the command of Aurangzeb recaptures Orchha in October 1635.\|left]] Aurangzeb was nominally in charge of the force sent to Bundelkhand with the intent of subduing the rebellious ruler of Orchha, Jhujhar Singh, who had attacked another territory in defiance of Shah Jahan's policy and was refusing to atone for his actions. By arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p=130}}</ref> depicts Prince Aurangzeb facing a maddened war elephant named Sudhakar.<ref>{{cite web\|lastAbdul Hamid Lahori \|urlhttp://warfare.atspace.eu/Moghul/ShahJahan/Prince_Awrangzeb_facing_a_maddened_elephant_named_Sudhakar.htm \|titlePrince Awrangzeb (Aurangzeb) facing a maddened elephant named Sudhakar \|year1636 \|websitePadshahnama \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140106034412/http://warfare.atspace.eu/Moghul/ShahJahan/Prince_Awrangzeb_facing_a_maddened_elephant_named_Sudhakar.htm \|archive-date=6 January 2014}}</ref>]] Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636.<ref name"Markovits2004p103">{{cite book \|date2004 \|orig-dateFirst published 1994 as Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' \|editor-firstClaude \|editor-lastMarkovits \|titleA History of Modern India, 1480–1950 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduzOmy2y0Zh4C \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisherAnthem Press \|page103 \|isbn978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> After Shah Jahan's vassals had been devastated by the alarming expansion of Ahmednagar during the reign of the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III, the emperor dispatched Aurangzeb, who in 1636 brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end.<ref>George Michell and Mark Zebrowski, Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 12.</ref> In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess Dilras Banu, posthumously known as Rabia-ud-Daurani.{{sfn\|Mukerjee\|2001\|p23}}{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|p61}} She was his first wife and chief consort as well as his favourite.<ref>{{cite book \|lastEraly \|firstAbraham \|author-linkAbraham Eraly \|year2007 \|titleThe Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mughalworldlifei00eral \|url-accesslimited \|publisherPenguin Books India \|page[https://archive.org/details/mughalworldlifei00eral/page/n157 147] \|isbn978-0-14-310262-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastChandra \|firstSatish \|year2002 \|orig-date1959 \|titleParties and politics at the Mughal Court, 1707–1740 \|edition4th \|publisherOxford University Press \|page50 \|isbn978-0-19-565444-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Krieger-Krynicki \|first1Annie \|translator-lastHamid \|translator-firstEnjum \|titleCaptive princess: Zebunissa, daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb \|year2005 \|publisherOxford University Press \|page92 \|isbn978-0-19-579837-1}}</ref> He also had an infatuation with a slave girl, Hira Bai, whose death at a young age greatly affected him. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, Udaipuri Mahal.{{sfn\|Mukerjee\|2001\|p53}}{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|pp64–66}} The latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shukoh.<ref>{{cite journal \|firstKatherine Butler \|lastBrown \|dateJanuary 2007 \|titleDid Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign \|journalModern Asian Studies \|volume41 \|issue1 \|pages82–84 \|doi10.1017/S0026749X05002313\|s2cid145371208 \| issn0026-749X }}</ref> In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, which he did with ease.<ref nameRichards1996p128>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p128}}</ref> In 1638, Aurangzeb married Nawab Bai, later known as Rahmat al-Nisa.{{sfn\|Mukerjee\|2001\|p23}}{{sfn\|Sarkar\|1912\|p61}} That same year, Aurangzeb dispatched an army to subdue the Portuguese coastal fortress of Daman, however his forces met stubborn resistance and were eventually repulsed at the end of a long siege.<ref>The Calcutta Review, Volume 75, 1882, p. 87.</ref><ref>Sir Charles Fawcett: The Travels of the Abbarrn India and the Near East, 1672 to 1674 Hakluyt Society, London, 1947, p. 167.</ref><ref>M. S. Commissariat: Mandelslo's Travels In Western India, Asian Educational Services, 1995, p. 57.</ref> At some point, Aurangzeb married Aurangabadi Mahal, who was a Circassian or Georgian.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKrieger-Krynicki \|firstAnnie \|titleCaptive Princess: Zebunissa, Daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2005 \|isbn978-0-195-79837-1 \|pages3, 41}}</ref>{{sfn\|Mukerjee\|2001\|p23}} Shah Jahan was outraged to see Aurangzeb enter the interior palace compound in military attire and immediately dismissed him from his position of viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also no longer allowed to use red tents or to associate himself with the official military standard of the Mughal emperor.{{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2012}} Other sources state that Aurangzeb was dismissed from his position because Aurangzeb left the life of luxury and became a faqir.<ref>Ahmad, Fazl. Heroes of Islam. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraff, 1993. Print.</ref>Governor of GujaratIn 1645, he was barred from the court for seven months. It is reported that he mentioned his grief about this to fellow Mughal commanders. Thereafter, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of Gujarat. His rule in Gujarat was marked with religious disputes but he was rewarded for bringing stability.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Campbell \|first1James McNabb \|year1896 \|titleHistory of Gujarát \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/54652/54652-h/54652-h.htm#pb280 \|access-date2022-04-29 \|locationBombay \|publisherGovernment Central Press \|page280 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|lastSubramanian \|firstArchana \|date2015-07-30 \|titleWay to the throne \|languageen-IN \|workThe Hindu \|urlhttps://www.thehindu.com/features/kids/rise-and-fall-of-aurangzeb/article7481718.ece \|access-date2022-02-26 \|issn0971-751X}}</ref> Governor of Balkh In 1647, Shah Jahan moved Aurangzeb from Gujarat to be governor of Balkh, replacing a younger son, Murad Baksh, who had proved ineffective there. The area was under attack from Uzbek and Turkmen tribes. The Mughal artillery and muskets were matched by the skirmishing skills of their opponents which led to a stalemate. Aurangzeb discovered that his army could not live off the land, which was devastated by war.{{Citation needed\|dateMarch 2024}} It is recorded that during the battle against the Uzbeks during this campaign, Aurangzeb dismounted from his elephant ride to recite prayer to the surprise of the opposing force commander.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Munis D. Faruqui \|titleThe Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719 \|date2012 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-1-107-02217-1 \|page175 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2vhbDSXbbksC \|access-date15 March 2024 \|languageEn \|formatHardcover}}</ref> With the onset of winter, he and his father had to make an unsatisfactory deal with the Uzbeks. They had to give away territory in exchange for nominal recognition of Mughal sovereignty.<ref name"Richards 1996 132–133">{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|pp132–133}}</ref> The Mughal force suffered still further with attacks by Uzbeks and other tribesmen as it retreated through the snow to Kabul. By the end of this two-year campaign, into which Aurangzeb had been plunged at a late stage, a vast sum of money had been expended for little gain.<ref name="Richards 1996 132–133"/> Further unsuccessful military involvements followed, as Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh. His efforts in 1649 and 1652 to dislodge the Safavids at Kandahar which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal control, both ended in failure as winter approached. The logistical problems of supplying an army at the extremity of the empire, combined with the poor quality of armaments and the intransigence of the opposition have been cited by John Richards as the reasons for failure. A third attempt in 1653, led by Dara Shikoh, met with the same outcome.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|pp134–135}}</ref>Second Deccan governorateAurangzeb became viceroy of the Deccan again after he was replaced by Dara Shukoh in the attempt to recapture Kandahar. Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were moved there as a consequence of his return. The Deccan was a relatively impoverished area, this caused him to lose out financially. The area required grants were required from Malwa and Gujarat in order to maintain the administration. The situation caused ill-feeling between him and his father Shah Jahan who insisted that things could be improved if Aurangzeb made efforts to develop cultivation.<ref name"Chandra2005p267" /> Aurangzeb appointed Murshid Quli Khan{{Citation needed\|reasonMurshid Quli Khan was born at 1670\|dateJune 2016}} to extend to the Deccan the zabt revenue system used in northern India. Murshid Quli Khan organised a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment on what it produced. To increase revenue, Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation infrastructure. This led the Deccan region to return to prosperity.<ref name"Markovits2004p103" /><ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|pp140, 188}}</ref> Aurangzeb proposed to resolve financial difficulties by attacking the dynastic occupants of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis). This proposal would also extend Mughal influence by accruing more lands.<ref name"Chandra2005p267" /> Aurangzeb advanced against the Sultan of Bijapur and besieged Bidar. The Kiladar (governor or captain) of the fortified city, Sidi Marjan, was mortally wounded when a gunpowder magazine exploded. After twenty-seven days of fighting, Bidar was captured by the Mughals and Aurangzeb continued his advance.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastPrasad \|firstIshwari \|year1974 \|titleThe Mughal Empire \|locationAllahabad \|publisherChugh Publications \|pages524–525 \|oclc1532660 \|quote[Aurangzeb] marched in the direction of Bijapur and on reaching Bidar laid siege to it ... The Qiladar of the fort was Sidi Marjan ... [The Mughals] were helped by an explosion of powder magazine in the fortress ... Sidi Marjan and two of his sons were badly burnt ... Thus was the fort of Bidar taken after a siege of 27 days ... Sidi Marjan died of his wounds soon afterwards ... Aurangzeb arrived at Kalyani.}}</ref> Aurangzeb suspected Dara had exerted influence on his father. He believed that he was on the verge of victory in both instances, and was frustrated that Shah Jahan chose then to settle for negotiations with the opposing forces rather than pushing for complete victory.<ref name"Chandra2005p267" />War of succession {{Main\|Mughal war of succession (1658–1659)}} fought in 1658, part of the Mughal war of succession]] The four sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father's reign. The emperor favoured the eldest, Dara Shikoh.<ref>{{Cite news \|urlhttps://scroll.in/article/879195/aurangzeb-and-dara-shikohs-fight-for-the-throne-was-entwined-with-the-rivalry-of-their-two-sisters \|titleAurangzeb and Dara Shikoh's fight for the throne was entwined with the rivalry of their two sisters \|firstIra \|lastMukhoty \|workScroll.in \|date17 May 2018}}</ref> This had caused resentment among the younger three, who sought at various times to strengthen alliances between themselves and against Dara. There was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture, the systematic passing of rule, upon an emperor's death, to his eldest son.<ref name"Chandra2005p267" /> Instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war to the death among themselves.<ref name"Markovits-2004">{{cite book \|date2004 \|orig-dateFirst published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' \|editor-firstClaude \|editor-lastMarkovits \|titleA History of Modern India, 1480–1950 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduzOmy2y0Zh4C \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisherAnthem Press \|page96 \|isbn978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> Historian Satish Chandra says that "In the ultimate resort, connections among the powerful military leaders, and military strength and capacity [were] the real arbiters".<ref name"Chandra2005p267" /> The contest for power was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb because, although all four sons had demonstrated competence in their official roles, it was around these two that the supporting cast of officials and other influential people mostly circulated.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|pp151–152}}</ref> There were ideological differences&nbsp;– Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal in the mould of Akbar, while Aurangzeb was much more conservative&nbsp;–&nbsp;but, as historians Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf say, "To focus on divergent philosophies neglects the fact that Dara was a poor general and leader. It also ignores the fact that factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology."<ref>{{cite book \|titleA Concise History of Modern India \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/concisehistorymo00metc \|url-accesslimited \|first1Barbara D. \|last1Metcalf \|first2Thomas R. \|last2Metcalf \|author-link1Barbara D. Metcalf \|author-link2Thomas R. Metcalf \|edition2nd \|locationCambridge \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year2006 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/concisehistorymo00metc/page/n55 20]–21 \|isbn978-0-521-86362-9}}</ref> Marc Gaborieau, professor of Indian studies at l'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales,<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://ceias.ehess.fr/index.php?90 \|titleMarc Gaborieau \|publisherCentre d'Études de l'Inde et de l'Asie du Sud \|date6 July 2016 \|languagefr \|access-date2 May 2016}}</ref> explains that "The loyalties of [officials and their armed contingents] seem to have been motivated more by their own interests, the closeness of the family relation and above all the charisma of the pretenders than by ideological divides."<ref name"Markovits-2004" /> Muslims and Hindus did not divide along religious lines in their support for one pretender or the other nor, according to Chandra, is there much evidence to support the belief that Jahanara and other members of the royal family were split in their support. Jahanara, certainly, interceded at various times on behalf of all of the princes and was well-regarded by Aurangzeb even though she shared the religious outlook of Dara.<ref name="Chandra2005p271" /> In 1656, a general under Qutb Shahi dynasty named Musa Khan led an army of 12,000 musketeers to attack Aurangzeb, who was besieging Golconda Fort. Later in the same campaign, Aurangzeb, in turn, rode against an army consisting of 8,000 horsemen and 20,000 Karnataki musketeers.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Syed \|first1Anees Jahan \|year1977 \|titleAurangzeb in Muntakhab-al Lubab \|publisherSomaiya Publications \|pages64–65 \|oclc5240812}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Kolff \|first1Dirk H. A. \|author1-linkDirk H. A. Kolff \|year2002 \|orig-date1990 \|titleNaukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450–1850 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSrdiVPsFRYIC&pgPA22 \|editionillustrated, revised \|publisherCambridge University Press \|page22 \|isbn978-0-521-52305-9}}</ref> After making clear his desire for his son Dara to take over after him, Shah Jahan fell ill with strangury in 1657. He was kept in seclusion and cared for by Dara in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumours spread that Shah Jahan had died, which led to concerns among his younger sons. Subsequently, these younger sons took military actions seemingly in response but it is not known whether these preparations were made in the mistaken belief that the rumours of death of Shah Jahan were true and that Dara might be hiding it for political gain, or whether the challengers were taking advantage of the situation.<ref name"Chandra2005p267">{{cite book \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|year2005 \|isbn978-81-241-1066-9 \|firstSatish \|lastChandra \|author-linkSatish Chandra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA267 \|pages267–269 \|access-date29 September 2012}}</ref> Shah Shuja in Bengal, where he had been governor since 1637 crowned himself King at RajMahal. He brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara Shukoh, and Raja Jai Singh.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p=159}}</ref> Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in the Deccan. After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces,<ref name"Chandra2005p271" /> the two brothers having agreed to partition the empire once they had gained control of it.<ref name"Chandra2005p272" /> The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April 1658, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Shuja was chased through Bihar. The victory of Aurangzeb proved this to be a poor decision by Dara Shikoh, who now had a defeated force on one front and a successful force unnecessarily pre-occupied on another. Realising that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist the emboldened Aurangzeb's advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances in order but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. When Dara's disparate, hastily assembled army clashed with Aurangzeb's well-disciplined, battle-hardened force at the battle of Samugarh in late May, neither Dara's men nor his generalship were any match for Aurangzeb. Dara had also become over-confident in his own abilities and, by ignoring advice not to lead in battle while his father was alive, he cemented the idea that he had usurped the throne.<ref name"Chandra2005p271">{{cite book \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|year2005 \|isbn978-81-241-1066-9 \|firstSatish \|lastChandra \|author-linkSatish Chandra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA270 \|pages270–271 \|access-date29 September 2012}}</ref> "After the defeat of Dara, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the fort of Agra where he spent eight long years under the care of his favourite daughter Jahanara."<ref name"sen2">{{Cite book \|lastSen \|firstSailendra \|titleA Textbook of Medieval Indian History \|publisherPrimus Books \|year2013 \|isbn978-9-38060-734-4 \|page183}}</ref> Aurangzeb then broke his arrangement with Murad Baksh, which probably had been his intention all along.<ref name"Chandra2005p272" /> Instead of looking to partition the empire between himself and Murad, he had his brother arrested and imprisoned at Gwalior Fort. Murad was executed on 4 December 1661, ostensibly for the murder of the diwan of Gujarat. The allegation was encouraged by Aurangzeb, who caused the ''diwan's'' son to seek retribution for the death under the principles of Sharia law.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p162}}</ref> Meanwhile, Dara gathered his forces, and moved to the Punjab. The army sent against Shuja was trapped in the east, its generals Jai Singh and Dilir Khan submitted to Aurangzeb, but Dara's son, Suleiman Shikoh, escaped. Aurangzeb offered Shah Shuja the governorship of Bengal. This move had the effect of isolating Dara Shikoh and causing more troops to defect to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja, who had declared himself emperor in Bengal began to annex more territory and this prompted Aurangzeb to march from Punjab with a new and large army that fought during the battle of Khajwa, where Shah Shuja and his chain-mail armoured war elephants were routed by the forces loyal to Aurangzeb. Shah Shuja then fled to Arakan (in present-day Burma), where he was executed by the local rulers.<ref>The Cambridge History of India (1922), vol. IV, p. 481.</ref> With Shuja and Murad disposed of, and with his father immured in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara Shikoh, chasing him across the north-western bounds of the empire. Aurangzeb claimed that Dara was no longer a Muslim {{citation needed \|date=June 2018}} and accused him of poisoning the Mughal Grand Vizier Saadullah Khan. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him. In 1658, Aurangzeb arranged his formal coronation in Delhi. On 10 August 1659, Dara was executed on grounds of apostasy and his head was sent to Shah Jahan.<ref name"sen2"/> This was the first prominent execution of Aurangzeb based on accusations of being influenced by Hinduism, however some sources argue it was done for political reasons.<ref>{{cite book \|lastLarson \|firstGerald James \|titleIndia's Agony Over Religion \|publisherState University of New York Press \|year1995 \|isbn978-0-7914-2411-7 \|page111 \|author-linkGerald James Larson}}</ref> Aurangzeb had his allied brother Prince Murad Baksh held for murder, judged and then executed.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Allan \|first1J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9_48AAAAIAAJ&pgPA416 \|titleThe Cambridge Shorter History of India \|last2Haig \|first2Sir T. Wolseley \|publisherCambridge University Press \|year1934 \|editor-lastDodwell \|editor-firstH. H. \|editor-linkH. H. Dodwell \|page416}}</ref> Aurangzeb was accused of poisoning his imprisoned nephew Sulaiman Shikoh.<ref>{{cite book \|lastSmith \|firstVincent Arthur \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idp2gxAQAAMAAJ&pgPG412 \|titleThe Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911 \|publisherClarendon Press \|year1920 \|page412 \|author-linkVincent Arthur Smith}}</ref> Having secured his position, Aurangzeb confined his frail father at the Agra Fort but did not mistreat him. Shah Jahan was cared for by Jahanara and died in 1666.<ref name"Chandra2005p272">{{cite book \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|year2005 \|isbn978-81-241-1066-9 \|firstSatish \|lastChandra \|author-linkSatish Chandra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA270 \|page272 \|access-date29 September 2012}}</ref> Ancestry {{ahnentafel\|1. Aurangzeb\|2. Shah Jahan I<ref name"Kobita">{{cite book \|firstKobita \|lastSarker \|titleShah Jahan and his paradise on earth: the story of Shah Jahan's creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals \|year2007 \|page187}}</ref>\|3. Mumtaz Mahal<ref name"Kobita"/>\|4. Jahangir<ref name"Mehta">{{cite book \|firstJ.l. \|lastMehta \|titleAdvanced Study in the History of Medieval India \|year1986 \|page418}}</ref>\|5. Jagat Gosain<ref name"Mehta"/>\|6. Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan<ref name"Thackeray254">{{cite book \|first1Frank W. \|last1Thackeray \|first2John E. \|last2Findling \|titleEvents That Formed the Modern World \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/eventsthatformed0005unse \|url-accessregistration \|year2012 \|page254}}</ref>\|7. Diwanji Begum<ref name"Thackeray254"/>\|8. Akbar I<ref name"Mehta 1986 374">{{harvtxt\|Mehta\|1986\|p374}}</ref>\|9. Mariam-uz-Zamani<ref name"Mehta 1986 374">{{harvtxt\|Mehta\|1986\|p374}}</ref>\|10. Udai Singh I<ref name"Mukerjee">{{cite book \|firstSoma \|lastMukherjee \|titleRoyal Mughal Ladies and Their Contributions \|publisherGyan Books \|year2001 \|page128 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv-2TyjzZhZEC \|isbn978-8-121-20760-7 }}</ref>\|11. Manrang Devi<ref name"Mukerjee"/>\|12. I'timad-ud-Daulah<ref>Subhash Parihar, Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture (1999), p. 149</ref>\|13. Asmat Begam<ref>{{cite book\|last1Shujauddin\|first1Mohammad\|last2Shujauddin\|first2Razia\|titleThe Life and Times of Noor Jahan\|date1967\|publisherCaravan Book House\|page1\|languageen}}</ref>\|14. Ghias ud-din 'Ali Asaf Khan<ref>{{cite book\|last1Ahmad\|first1Moin-ud-din\|titleThe Taj and Its Environments: With 8 Illus. from Photos., 1 Map, and 4 Plans\|date1924\|publisherR. G. Bansal\|page101\|languageen}}</ref>\|\|collapsedyes\|aligncenter\|boxstyle_1background-color: #fcc;\|boxstyle_2background-color: #fb9;\|boxstyle_3background-color: #ffc;\|boxstyle_4background-color: #bfc;}}ReignBureaucracy Aurangzeb's imperial bureaucracy employed significantly more Hindus than that of his predecessors. Between 1679 and 1707, the number of Hindu officials in the Mughal administration rose by half to 31.6% due to an increased recruitment of Marathas for the purpose of Deccan campaign.<ref name"Truschke50">{{cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|year2017 \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|urlhttps://books.google.co.in/books?idAGwlDgAAQBAJ&pgPT21&dqBut+between+1679+and+1707+Aurangzeb+increased+Hindu+participation \|publisherStanford University Press \|page56 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5\|quoteBut between 1679 and 1707 Aurangzeb increased Hindu participation at the elite levels of the Mughal state by nearly 50 percent. Hindus rose to 31.6 percent of the Mughal nobility. This dramatic rise featured a substantial influx of Marathas as a strategic aspect of expanding Mughal sovereignty across the Deccan.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastMalik\|firstJamal\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFduG_t2sxwMC&qAurangzeb+levied+taxes+on+Hindu+merchants&pgPA190\|titleIslam in South Asia: A Short History\|date2008\|publisherBrill\|page190\|isbn978-90-04-16859-6}}</ref> In the second half of his rule, the Marathas outnumbered Rajputs in his administration.<ref>{{cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|year2017 \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ&pgPT50 \|publisherStanford University Press \|page58 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5\|quoteQuite possibly rising numbers of Marathas—to the extent that they outnumbered Rajputs among Mughal nobles—unsettled other groups within the nobility and prompted an attempted (if failed) scaling-back in Hindu officers across the board.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|quoteIn the second half of his rule, North India seems to have become less important than the South; hence even though the Hindu nobles increased in the administration, the Rajputs become less important, now outnumbered by the Marathas. \|titlePolitics and Religion in Eighteenth-Century India \|authorSachi Patel \|year2021 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|page75 \|urlhttps://books.google.co.in/books?idnCM_EAAAQBAJ&pgPT36&dqMarathas+outnumbered+rajputs+in+mughal+nobility}}</ref> Nevertheless, he tried to decrease the number of non-Muslim nobles in his court and encouraged high ranking Hindu officials to convert to Islam.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastLaine\|firstJames W.\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-x3fBQAAQBAJ&pgPA152\|titleMeta-Religion: Religion and Power in World History \|year2015\|publisherUniv of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-959996 \|page153 \|languageen\|quoteAurangzeb certainly continued to employ Hindu nobles, but did seek to reduce the number of non-Muslim nobles allied to his court, and encouraged high-ranking Hindus to convert to Islam.}}</ref> Economy Under his reign, the Mughal Empire contributed to the world's GDP by nearly 25%, surpassing Qing China, making it the world's largest economy and biggest manufacturing power, more than the entirety of Western Europe, and signaled proto-industrialization.<ref>Maddison, Angus (2003): [https://books.google.com/books?idrHJGz3HiJbcC&pgPA259 Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics], OECD Publishing, {{ISBN\|92-64-10414-3}}, pp. 259–261</ref><ref>{{cite book \|authorAhmed Sayeed \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIGnQDwAAQBAJ&pgPA201 \|titleNegate Fighting Faith \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2020 \|isbn978-93-88660-79-2 \|page201}}</ref> Religious policy {{See also\|Religious policy of the Mughals after Akbar}} law by introducing the Fatawa 'Alamgiri.\|left]] Aurangzeb was an orthodox Muslim ruler. Subsequent to the policies of his three predecessors, he endeavored to make Islam a dominant force in his reign. However these efforts brought him into conflict with the forces that were opposed to this revival.<ref>{{Cite book\|date1977\|editor-lastHolt\|editor-firstP. M.\|editor2-lastLambton\|editor2-firstAnn K. S.\|editor3-lastLewis\|editor3-firstBernard\|titleThe Cambridge History of Islam\|languageen\|volume2a\|page52\|doi10.1017/chol9780521219488\|isbn978-1-139-05504-8}}</ref> Aurangzeb was a follower of the Mujaddidi Order and a disciple of the son of the Punjabi saint, Ahmad Sirhindi. He sought to establish Islamic rule as instructed and inspired by him.<ref>{{cite book \|url https://books.google.com/books?idUS5gEAAAQBAJ&dqaurangzeb+mujaddidi&pgPA155 \|page 155 \|titleHistory of Indian Nation: Medieval India \|date 2022 \|publisher= K. K. Publications }}</ref> Sheikh Muhammad Ikram stated that after returning from Kashmir, Aurangzeb issued order in 1663, to ban the practice of Sati, a Hindu practice to burn a widow whenever her husband passed away.<ref nameColumbia>{{cite book \|author1S. M. Ikram \|author-linkS. M. Ikram \|author2Ainslie T. Embree \|titleMuslim Civilization in India \|chapter 17 \|urlhttps://franpritchett.com/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html \|publisherColumbia University Press \|access-date25 November 2023 \|languageEn \|formatEbook \|date1964 \|quote=Aurangzeb was most forthright in his efforts to stop sati. According to Manucci, on his return from Kashmir in December, 1663, he "issued an order that in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt." Manucci adds that "This order endures to this day."/26/ This order, though not mentioned in the formal histories, is recorded in the official guidebooks of the reign./27/ Although the possibility of an evasion of government orders through payment of bribes existed, later European travelers record that sati was not much practiced by the end of Aurangzeb's reign. As Ovington says in his Voyage to Surat: "Since the Mahometans became Masters of the Indies, this execrable custom is much abated, and almost laid aside, by the orders which nabobs receive for suppressing and extinguishing it in all their provinces. And now it is 237 very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all; /27/ Jadunath Sarkar, History of Aurangzib (Calcutta, 1916), III, 92. /28/ John Ovington, A Voyage to Surat (London, 1929), p. 201.}}</ref> Ikram recorded that Aurangzeb issued decree: <blockquote><p>"in all lands under Mughal control, never again should the officials allow a woman to be burnt".<ref name=Columbia/> </p></blockquote> Although Aurangzeb's orders could be evaded with payment of bribes to officials, adds Ikram, later European travellers record that sati was not much practised in Mughal empire, and that Sati was "very rare, except it be some Rajah's wives, that the Indian women burn at all" by the end of Aurangzeb's reign.<ref name=Columbia/> Historian Katherine Brown has noted that "The very name of Aurangzeb seems to act in the popular imagination as a signifier of politico-religious bigotry and repression, regardless of historical accuracy." The subject has also resonated in modern times with popularly accepted claims that he intended to destroy the Bamiyan Buddhas.<ref>{{cite journal \|firstKatherine Butler \|lastBrown \|dateJanuary 2007 \|titleDid Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign \|journalModern Asian Studies \|volume41 \|issue1 \|page78 \|doi10.1017/S0026749X05002313\|s2cid145371208 }}</ref> As a political and religious conservative, Aurangzeb chose not to follow the secular-religious viewpoints of his predecessors after his ascension. He made no mention of the Persian concept of kinship, the Farr-i-Aizadi, and based his rule on the Quranic concept of kingship.<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEjFmAAAAMAAJ&qaurangzeb+chingezi \|title Indian Archives: Volume 50 \|page141 \|date 2001 \|publisherNational Archives of India. }}</ref> Shah Jahan had already moved away from the liberalism of Akbar, although in a token manner rather than with the intent of suppressing Hinduism,<ref name"Chandra2005p255">{{cite book \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|year2005 \|isbn978-81-241-1066-9 \|firstSatish \|lastChandra \|author-linkSatish Chandra \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA255 \|pages255–256 \|access-date29 September 2012}}</ref>{{efn\|Regarding the tokenistic aspect of Shah Jahan's actions to strengthen Islam in his empire, Satish Chandra says, "We may conclude that Shah Jahan tried to effect a compromise. While formally declaring the state to be an Islamic one, showing respect to the sharia, and observing its injunctions in his personal life, he did not reject any of the liberal measures of Akbar.&nbsp;... Shah Jahan's compromise was based not on principle but on expediency."<ref name"Chandra2005p255" />}} and Aurangzeb took the change still further.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p=171}}</ref> Though the approach to faith of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan was more syncretic than Babur, the founder of the empire, Aurangzeb's position is not so obvious. His emphasis on sharia competed, or was directly in conflict, with his insistence that zawabit or secular decrees could supersede sharia.<ref>{{cite book \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanate To The Mughals: Mughal Empire (1526–1748) \|firstSatish \|lastChandra \|editionSecond Reprint\|year2006 \|publisherHar-Anand Publications Pvt Ltd \|orig-date1999 \|isbn978-81-241-1066-9 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA350 \|page350 \|access-date24 October 2014}}</ref> The chief qazi refusing to crown him in 1659, Aurangzeb had a political need to present himself as a "defender of the sharia" due to popular opposition to his actions against his father and brothers.<ref>{{cite book\|authorSatish Chandra\|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC&pgPA350\|year2005\|publisherHar-Anand Publications\|isbn978-81-241-1066-9\|pages280–\|quoteAlthough Aurangzeb had not raised the slogan of defending Islam before the battle of Samugarh with Dara, and had tried to befriend the Rajput rajas as we have seen, there were a number of factors which make it necessary for Aurangzeb to present himself as the defender of the sharia, and to try and win over the theologians. A principal factor was the popular revulsion against his treatment of his brothers, Murad and Dara, both of whom had the reputation of being liberal patrons of the poor and needy. Aurangzeb was shocked when as the time of his second coronation in 1659, the chief qazi refused to crown him since his father was still alive.}}</ref> Despite claims of sweeping edicts and policies, contradictory accounts exist. Historian Katherine Brown has argued that Aurangzeb never imposed a complete ban on music.<ref name"Brown">{{cite journal \|firstKatherine Butler \|lastBrown \|dateJanuary 2007 \|titleDid Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign \|journalModern Asian Studies \|volume41 \|issue1 \|page77 \|doi10.1017/S0026749X05002313\|s2cid145371208 \|quoteMore importantly, though, the fact that Aurangzeb did not order a universal ban on music lends support to the idea that his regime was less intolerant and repressive than has been widely believed in the past...Thus, the overwhelming evidence against a ban on musical practice in Aurangzeb's reign suggests that the nature of his state was less orthodox, tyrannical and centralised than }}</ref> He sought to codify Hanafi law by the work of several hundred jurists, called Fatawa 'Alamgiri.<ref name"Brown"/> It is possible the War of Succession and continued incursions combined with Shah Jahan's spending made cultural expenditure impossible.<ref>{{cite book \|lastZaman \|firstTaymiya R. \|year2007 \|titleInscribing Empire: Sovereignty and Subjectivity in Mughal Memoirs \|publisherUniversity of Michigan \|page153 \|isbn=978-0-549-18117-0}}</ref> He learnt that at Multan, Thatta, and particularly at Varanasi, the teachings of Hindu Brahmins attracted numerous Muslims. He ordered the subahdars of these provinces to demolish the schools and the temples of non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMukhia \|firstHarbans \|author-linkHarbans Mukhia \|year2004 \|titleThe Mughals of India \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mughalsindiapeop00mukh \|url-accesslimited \|page[https://archive.org/details/mughalsindiapeop00mukh/page/n38 25] \|publisherWiley \|isbn978-0-631-18555-0 \|quotelearnt that in Multan and Thatta in Sind, and especially at Varanasi, Brahmins attracted a large number of Muslims to their discourses. Aurangzeb ... ordered the governors of all these provinces 'to demolish the schools and temples of the infidels'.}}</ref> Aurangzeb also ordered subahdars to punish Muslims who dressed like non-Muslims. The executions of the antinomian Sufi mystic Sarmad Kashani and the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur bear testimony to Aurangzeb's religious policy; the former was beheaded on multiple accounts of heresy,{{efn\| It has however been argued that the Mughal emperor had political motives for this particular execution. See the article on Sarmad Kashani for references.}} the latter, according to Sikhs, because he objected to Aurangzeb's forced conversions.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.bbc.com/religion/religions/sikhism/people/teghbahadur.shtml \|titleReligions&nbsp;– Sikhism: Guru Tegh Bahadur \|publisherBBC \|date1 October 2009 \|access-date29 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7xEdAAAAMAAJ\|titleA Vindication of Aurangzeb: In Two Parts\|authorSadiq Ali\|year1918\|page141}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwsiXwh_tIGkC&pgRA1-PA152\|titleThe Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination\|page152\|authorVipul Singh\|publisherPearson Education India \|isbn978-81-317-1753-0}}</ref> Aurangzeb had also banned the celebration of the Zoroastrian festival of Nauroz along with other un-Islamic ceremonies, and encouraged conversions to Islam; instances of persecution against particular Muslim factions were also reported.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Na \|first1Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaKenKtONX2MC&pgPA145 \|titleIslam and the Secular State \|last2Naʻīm \|first2ʻAbd Allāh Aḥmad \|date2009 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|isbn978-0-674-03376-4 \|page145 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book \|lastRichards \|firstJohn F. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHHyVh29gy4QC&pgPA173 \|titleThe Mughal Empire \|date1993 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-56603-2 \|page173 \|languageen}}</ref> Yohanan Friedmann has reported that according to many modern historians and thinkers, the puritanical thought of Ahmad Sirhindi inspired the religious orthodoxy policy of Aurangzeb.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Gerhard Bowering \|author2Mahan Mirza \|author3Patricia Crone \|titleThe Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought \|date2013 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-0-691-13484-0 \|page27 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idq1I0pcrFFSUC \|access-date6 March 2024 \|languageEn \|formatHardcover}}</ref>{{sfn\|Malik\|Zubair\|Parveen\|2016\|pp162-163}} Taxation policy Shortly after coming to power, Aurangzeb remitted more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his subjects.<ref name"Pirbhai-2009">{{Cite book\|lastPirbhai\|firstM. Reza\|urlhttps://brill.com/view/title/17049\|titleReconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context\|date2009\|publisherBrill\|isbn978-90-474-3102-2\|location\|pages67–116\|chapterChapter Two : Indicism, Intoxication And Sobriety Among The 'Great Mughals'\|doi10.1163/ej.9789004177581.i-370.14\|chapter-urlhttps://brill.com/view/book/9789047431022/Bej.9789004177581.i-370_004.xml}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastChandra\|firstSatish\|dateSeptember 1969\|titleJizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century\|journalJournal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient\|volume12\|issue3\|pages322–340\|doi10.2307/3596130\|jstor3596130\|issn0022-4995}}</ref> In 1679, Aurangzeb chose to re-impose jizya, a military tax on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military service, after an abatement for a span of hundred years, in what was critiqued by many Hindu rulers, family-members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court-officials.<ref name"Truschke-2017">{{Cite book\|lastTruschke\|firstAudrey\|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/view/title/590382\|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King\|year2017\|publisherStanford University Press\|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5\|location\|pages70–71\|languageen\|chapter5. Moral Man and Leader\|doi10.1515/9781503602595-009\|s2cid243691670\|chapter-urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503602595-009/html}}</ref><ref name"Lal">{{Cite web\|lastLal\|firstVinay\|author-linkVinay Lal\|titleAurangzeb's Fatwa on Jizya\|urlhttp://southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/mughals-and-medieval/aurangzeb/aurangzebs-fatwa-jizya/\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170511063033/http://southasia.ucla.edu:80/history-politics/mughals-and-medieval/aurangzeb/aurangzebs-fatwa-jizya/ \|archive-date11 May 2017 \|access-date2021-02-05\|websiteMANAS\|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastKhan\|firstIqtidar Alam\|dateJanuary–February 2001\|titleState in the Mughal India: Re-Examining the Myths of a Counter-Vision\|journalSocial Scientist\|volume29\|issue1/2\|pages16–45\|doi10.2307/3518271\|jstor3518271\|issn0970-0293}}</ref> The specific amount varied with the socioeconomic status of a subject and tax-collection were often waived for regions hit by calamities; also, Brahmins, women, children, elders, the handicapped, the unemployed, the ill, and the insane were all perpetually exempted.<ref name"Lal" /><ref>{{Cite book\|lastTruschke\|firstAudrey\|urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/view/title/590382\|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King\|year2017\|publisherStanford University Press\|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5\|location\|page94\|chapter7. Later Years\|doi10.1515/9781503602595-011\|s2cid242351847\|chapter-urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503602595-011/html}}</ref> The collectors were mandated to be Muslims.<ref name"Truschke-2017" /> A majority of modern scholars reject that religious bigotry influenced the imposition; rather, realpolitik – economic constraints as a result of multiple ongoing battles and establishment of credence with the orthodox Ulemas – are held to be primary agents.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastAggarwal\|firstDhruv Chand\|dateSpring 2017\|titleThe Afterlives of Aurangzeb: Jizya, Social Domination and the Meaning of Constitutional Secularism\|urlhttps://lawandreligion.com/sites/law-religion/files/01_Aggarwal%20%281%29.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://lawandreligion.com/sites/law-religion/files/01_Aggarwal%20%281%29.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive\|journalRutgers Journal of Law & Religion\|volume18\|pages109–155}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastHusain\|firstS.M. Azizuddin\|date2000-07-01\|titleJizya – Its Reimposition During the Reign of Aurangzeb: An Examination\|journalIndian Historical Review\|languageen\|volume27\|issue2\|pages87–121\|doi10.1177/0376983620000204\|s2cid220267774\|issn0376-9836}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|authorLal\|firstVinay\|author-linkVinay Lal\|titleAurangzeb, Akbar, and the Communalization of History\|urlhttp://southasia.ucla.edu/history-politics/mughals-and-medieval/aurangzeb/communalization-of-history/\|websiteManas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastKulke\|firstTilmann\|urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/aurangzeb-islam-india-tilmann-kulke/e/10.4324/9780429054853-14\|titleRoutledge Handbook of South Asian Religions\|date2020\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-0-429-05485-3\|editor-lastJacobsen\|editor-firstKnut A.\|editor-linkKnut A. Jacobsen\|location\|page194\|languageen\|chapterAurangzeb and Islam in India : 50 years of Mughal Realpolitik\|doi10.4324/9780429054853-14\|s2cid226338454\|chapter-urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/aurangzeb-islam-india-tilmann-kulke/e/10.4324/9780429054853-14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastHusain\|firstS. M. Azizuddin\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyTJuAAAAMAAJ\|titleStructure of Politics Under Aurangzeb, 1658–1707\|date2002\|publisherKanishka Publishers, Distributors\|isbn978-81-7391-489-8\|languageen}}</ref> Aurangzeb also enforced a higher tax burden on Hindu merchants at the rate of 5% (as against 2.5% on Muslim merchants), which led to considerable dislike of Aurangzeb's economic policies; a sharp turn from Akbar's uniform tax code.{{citation needed\|dateDecember 2023}} According to Marc Jason Gilbert, Aurangzeb ordered the jizya fees to be paid in person, in front of a tax collector, where the non Muslims were to recite a verse in the Quran which referred to their inferior status as non Muslims. This decision led to protests and lamentations among the masses as well as Hindu court officials. In order to meet state expenditures, Aurangzeb had ordered increases in land taxes; the burden of which fell heavily upon the Hindu Jats.<ref name"Pirbhai-2009" /><ref>{{Cite book \|lastGilbert \|firstMarc Jason \|titleSouth Asia in World History \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1dhKDgAAQBAJ&pgPT96 \|year2017 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-066137-3 \|pages85–86 \|languageen}}</ref> The reimposition of the jizya encouraged Hindus to flee to areas under East India Company jurisdiction, under which policies of religious sufferance and pretermissions of religious taxes prevailed.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastSmith \|firstHaig Z. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAFNYEAAAQBAJ&pgPA215 \|titleReligion and Governance in England's Emerging Colonial Empire, 1601–1698 \|date2022 \|publisherSpringer Nature \|isbn978-3-030-70131-4 \|pages215, 216 \|languageen}}</ref> Aurangzeb issued land grants and provided funds for the maintenance of shrines of worship but also (often) ordered their destruction.<ref name"Puniyani-2003">{{cite book\|lastPuniyani\|firstRam\|titleCommunal politics: facts versus myths\|publisherSage Publications\|year2003\|isbn978-0-7619-9667-5\|page60\|quotehe kept changing his policies depending on the needs of the situation ... he had put a brake on the construction of new temples but the repair and maintenance of old temples was permitted. He also generously donated jagirs to many temples to win the sympathies of the people ... firmans include the ones from the temples of Mahakaleshwar (Ujjain), Balaji temple (Chitrakut), Umanand temples (Guwahati) and Jain temples of Shatrunjaya. Also there are firmans supporting other temples and gurudwaras in north India.\|author-linkRam Puniyani}}</ref><ref name"Mukhia-2004">{{Citation\|lastMukhia\|firstHarbans\|titleFor Conquest and Governance: Legitimacy, Religion and Political Culture\|year2004\|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470758304.ch1\|workThe Mughals of India\|pages25–26\|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons, Ltd\|languageen\|doi10.1002/9780470758304.ch1\|isbn978-0-470-75830-4\|access-date2021-02-05}}</ref> Modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians about these destruction being guided by religious zealotry; rather, the association of temples with sovereignty, power and authority is emphasized upon.<ref name"Subodh-2001">{{Cite journal\|lastSubodh\|firstSanjay\|titleTemples Rulers and Historians' Dilemma: Understanding the Medieval Mind\|year2001\|journalProceedings of the Indian History Congress\|volume62\|pages334–344\|jstor44155778\|issn2249-1937}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Pauwels\|first1Heidi\|last2Bachrach\|first2Emilia\|dateJuly 2018\|titleAurangzeb as Iconoclast? Vaishnava Accounts of the Krishna images' Exodus from Braj\|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/aurangzeb-as-iconoclast-vaishnava-accounts-of-the-krishna-images-exodus-from-braj/E38DFDADE1A61737AC9D24394EF11F4C\|journalJournal of the Royal Asiatic Society\|languageen\|volume28\|issue3\|pages485–508\|doi10.1017/S1356186318000019\|s2cid165273975\|issn1356-1863}}</ref> Whilst constructing mosques were considered an act of royal duty to subjects, there are also several firmans in Aurangzeb's name, supporting temples, maths, chishti shrines, and gurudwaras, including Mahakaleshwar temple of Ujjain, a gurudwara at Dehradun, Balaji temple of Chitrakoot, Umananda Temple of Guwahati and the Shatrunjaya Jain temples, among others.<ref name"Puniyani-2003" /><ref name"Mukhia-2004" /><ref name"Subodh-2001" /><ref name"Eaton-2000" /><ref>{{Cite news \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|titleWhat Aurangzeb did to preserve Hindu temples (and protect non-Muslim religious leaders) \|urlhttps://scroll.in/article/829943/what-aurangzeb-did-to-preserve-hindu-temples-and-protect-non-muslim-religious-leaders \|access-date2021-02-05 \|workScroll.in \|date23 February 2017 \|languageen-US}}</ref> Numerous new temples were built, as well.<ref name="Eaton-2000" /> Contemporary court-chronicles mention hundreds of temple which were demolished by Aurangzab or his chieftains, upon his order.<ref name"Mukhia-2004" /> In September 1669, he ordered the destruction of Vishvanath Temple at Varanasi, which was established by Raja Man Singh, whose grandson Jai Singh was believed to have facilitated Shivaji's escape.<ref name"Eaton-2000" /> After the Jat rebellion in Mathura (early 1670), which killed the patron of the town-mosque, Aurangzeb suppressed the rebels and ordered for the city's Kesava Deo temple to be demolished, and replaced with an Eidgah.<ref name"Eaton-2000" /> In 1672–73, Aurangzeb ordered the resumption of all grants held by Hindus throughout the empire, though this was not followed absolutely in regions such as Gujarat, where lands granted in in'am to Charans were not affected.<ref>{{cite thesis \|lastShafqat \|firstArshia \|year2008 \|titleAdministration Of Gujarat Under The Mughals (A.D. 1572–1737) \|urlhttp://archive.org/details/AdmistrationOfGujarat \|typePhD \|publisherAligarh University \|page194}}</ref> In around 1679, he ordered destruction of several prominent temples, including those of Khandela, Udaipur, Chittor and Jodhpur, which were patronaged by rebels.<ref name"Eaton-2000">{{cite journal \|lastEaton \|firstRichard \|year2000 \|titleTemple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States \|journalJournal of Islamic Studies \|volume11 \|issue3 \|pages307–308 \|quoteIn early 1670, soon after the ring-leader of these rebellions had been captured near Mathura, Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of the city's Keshava Deva temple and built an Islamic structure ('īd-gāh) on its site ... Nine years later, the emperor ordered the destruction of several prominent temples in Rajasthan that had become associated with imperial enemies. These included temples in Khandela ... Jodhpur ... Udaipur and Chitor.\|doi10.1093/jis/11.3.283 \|doi-access= }}</ref> In an order specific to Benaras, Aurangzeb invokes Sharia to declare that Hindus will be granted state-protection and temples won't be razed (but prohibits construction of any new temple); other orders to similar effect can be located.<ref name"Eaton-2000" /><ref>{{Citation\|titlePrecedents for Mughal architecture\|year1992\|urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/architecture-of-mughal-india/precedents-for-mughal-architecture/087130D88C52F03255F9228F16A1E3C6\|workArchitecture of Mughal India\|page8\|editor-lastAsher\|editor-firstCatherine B.\|seriesThe New Cambridge History of India\|placeCambridge\|publisherCambridge University Press\|doi10.1017/CHOL9780521267281.002 \|isbn978-0-521-26728-1\|access-date2021-02-05}}</ref> Richard Eaton, upon a critical evaluation of primary sources, counts 15 temples to have been destroyed during Aurangzeb's reign.<ref>{{Cite news\|lastEaton\|firstRichard M.\|year2000\|titleTemple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States\|page297\|workThe Hindu\|locationChennai, India\|urlhttp://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140106040012/http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1726/17260700.pdf\|archive-date6 January 2014}}</ref><ref name"Mukhia-2004" /> Ian Copland and others reiterate Iqtidar Alam Khan who notes that, overall, Aurangzeb built more temples than he destroyed.<ref name"Copland2013"/> Administrative reforms Aurangzeb received tribute from all over the Indian subcontinent, using this wealth to establish bases and fortifications in India, particularly in the Carnatic, Deccan, Bengal and Lahore. Revenue to Kabul"''.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHTCsAAAAIAAJ&pgPA178\|titleThe East India Company and the British Empire in the Far East \|first1Marguerite Eyer \|last1Wilbur \|locationStanford \|publisherStanford University Press \|year1951 \|page178 \|isbn=978-0-8047-2864-5}}</ref>]] Aurangzeb's exchequer raised a record{{Citation needed\|dateSeptember 2012}} £100&nbsp;million in annual revenue through various sources like taxes, customs and land revenue, et al. from 24 provinces.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyUhvfR1S_UEC&pgPA311 \|titleThe Indian Empire: Its People, History, and Products \|firstSir William Wilson \|lastHunter \|author-linkWilliam Wilson Hunter \|publisherAsian Educational Services \|locationNew Delhi \|year2005 \|orig-dateFirst published 1886 (London:) \|editionReprinted \|page311 \|isbn978-81-206-1581-6}}</ref> He had an annual yearly revenue of $450 million, more than ten times that of his contemporary Louis XIV of France.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Harrison \|first1Lawrence E. \|author-linkLawrence Harrison (academic) \|last2Berger \|first2Peter L. \|author2-linkPeter L. Berger \|year2006 \|titleDeveloping cultures: case studies \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/developingcultur0000unse \|url-accessregistration \|publisherRoutledge \|page158 \|isbn978-0-415-95279-8}}</ref> Coins <gallery> File:Half rupee coin of Aurangzeb.jpg\|Half rupee File:Silver Rupee of Aurangazeb AH1096.jpg\|Rupee coin showing full name File:047aur13.jpg\|Rupee with square area File:074aur-12.JPG\|A copper dam of Aurangzeb </gallery> Aurangzeb felt that verses from the Quran should not be stamped on coins, as done in former times, because they were constantly touched by the hands and feet of people. His coins had the name of the mint city and the year of issue on one face, and, the following couplet on other:<ref nameAlamgiri>{{cite book \|lastKhan \|firstSāqi Must'ad \|translator-lastSarkar \|translator-firstSir Jadunath \|translator-linkJadunath Sarkar \|year1947 \|titleMaāsir-i-'Ālamgiri: A History of the Emperor Aurangzib 'Ālamgir (reign 1658–1707 A.D.) \|locationCalcutta \|publisherRoyal Asiatic Society of Bengal \|page13 \|oclc692517744 \|quote=In former times the sacred Quaranic credo (Kalma) used to be stamped on gold and silver coins, and such coins were constantly touched with the hands and feet of men; Aurangzib said that it would be better to stamp some other words ... The Emperor liked it [the couplet] and ordered that one face ... should be stamped with this verse and the other with the name of the mint-city and the year.}}</ref> {{blockquote\|King Aurangzib 'Ālamgir<br /> Stamped coins, in the world, like the bright full moon.<ref nameAlamgiri />}}Law {{See also\|Execution of Sambhaji}} In 1689, the second Maratha Chhatrapati (King) Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb. In a sham trial, he was found guilty of murder and violence, atrocities<ref name"Stein2010">{{cite book \|lastStein \|firstBurton \|author-linkBurton Stein \|year2010 \|orig-date 1998 \|editor-lastArnold \|editor-firstDavid \|editor-linkDavid Arnold (historian) \|titleA History of India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQY4zdTDwMAQC&dqmaratha+plunder+and+rape&pgPA179 \|publisherBlackwell Publishers \|edition2nd \|page179 \|isbn978-1-4051-9509-6}}</ref> against the Muslims of Burhanpur and Bahadurpur in Berar by Marathas under his command.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p=223}}</ref> In 1675 the Sikh leader Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested on orders by Aurangzeb, found guilty of blasphemy by a Qadi's court and executed.<ref>{{cite book \|lastSyan \|firstHardip Singh \|year2012 \|titleSikh Militancy in the Seventeenth Century: Religious Violence in Mughal and Early Modern India \|publisherI.B. Tauris \|pages130–131 \|isbn=978-1-78076-250-0}}</ref> The 32nd Da'i al-Mutlaq (Absolute Missionary) of the Dawoodi Bohra sect of Musta'lī Islam Syedna Qutubkhan Qutubuddin was executed by Aurangzeb, then governor of Gujarat, for heresy; on 27 Jumadil Akhir 1056 AH (1648 AD), Ahmedabad, India.<ref>{{cite book \|firstJonah \|lastBlank \|author-linkJonah Blank \|year2001 \|titleMullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras \|page44 \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduDVHN6xkdiMC \|isbn978-0-226-05676-0}}</ref> <gallery> File:Tulapur arch.jpg\|In the year 1689, according to Mughal accounts, Sambhaji was put on trial, found guilty of atrocities<ref name"Stein2010" /> and executed.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMehta \|firstJ. L. \|titleAdvanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707{{snd}}1813 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd1wUgKKzawoC&pgPA50 \|access-date29 September 2012 \|date2005 \|publisherSterling Publishers \|isbn978-1-932705-54-6 \|pages50–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastStein \|firstBurton \|author-linkBurton Stein \|year2010 \|orig-date1998 \|editor-lastArnold \|editor-firstDavid \|editor-linkDavid Arnold (historian) \|titleA History of India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQY4zdTDwMAQC&pgPA180 \|publisherBlackwell Publishers \|edition2nd \|page180 \|isbn978-1-4051-9509-6}}</ref> File:Gurdwara Rakabganj Sahib, Delhi.jpg\|Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Aurangzeb in Delhi<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttp://www.allaboutsikhs.com/Sikh-Guru-Ji'/Sri-Guru-Tegh-Bhadur-Sahib-Ji.html \|titleA Gateway to Sikhism {{!}} Sri Guru Tegh Bhadur Sahib \|websiteGateway to Sikhism \|access-date28 October 2018 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140327223831/http://www.allaboutsikhs.com/Sikh-Guru-Ji'/Sri-Guru-Tegh-Bhadur-Sahib-Ji.html#12 \|archive-date27 March 2014 }}</ref> File:Indian - Single Leaf of Shah Sarmad and Prince Dara Shikoh - Walters W912.jpg\|Sarmad Kashani, a Jewish convert to Islam and Sufi mystic was accused of heresy and executed.<ref>{{cite book \|lastCook \|firstDavid \|author-linkDavid Cook (historian) \|year2007 \|titleMartyrdom in Islam \|publisherCambridge University Press \|page80 \|isbn978-0-521-85040-7}}</ref> </gallery> Military {{See also\|Army of the Mughal Empire\|Mughal weapons\|Mughal artillery}} in the Durbar. Standing before him is his son, Azam Shah.]] It is reported that Aurangzeb always inspected his cavalry contingents every day, while testing his cutlasses sheep carcass, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up, in one strike.<ref>{{cite journal \|author1Rosalind O'Hanlon \|titleMilitary Sports and the History of the Martial Body in India \|journalJournal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient \|date2007 \|volume50 \|issue4 \|pages490–523 \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25165208 \|publisherBrill \|doi10.1163/156852007783245133 \|jstor25165208 \|languageEn \|issn1568-5209 \|quote...Bernier reported that the emperor Aurangzeb inspected his contingents of cavalry every day. During these inspections, "the King takes pleasure also in having the blades of cutlasses tried on dead sheep, brought before him without the entrails and neatly bound up. Young Omrahs, Mansebdars and Gourze-berdars or mace bearers, exercise their skill and put forth all their strength to cut through the four feet, which are fastened together, and the body of the sheep at one blow."..."}}</ref> In 1663, during his visit to Ladakh, Aurangzeb established direct control over that part of the empire and loyal subjects such as Deldan Namgyal agreed to pledge tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also known to have constructed a Grand Mosque in Leh, which he dedicated to Mughal rule.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmg8My6WaWRcC&pgPA63 \|titleRediscovery of Ladakh \|firstH. N. \|lastKaul\|publisherIndus Publishing \|year1998 \|page63 \|access-date29 April 2012\|isbn=978-81-7387-086-6 }}</ref> . Chester Beatty Library]] In 1664, Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan subedar (governor) of Bengal. Shaista Khan eliminated Portuguese and Arakanese pirates from the region, and in 1666 recaptured the port of Chittagong from the Arakanese king, Sanda Thudhamma. Chittagong remained a key port throughout Mughal rule.<ref>{{cite book \|date2004 \|orig-dateFirst published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' \|editor-firstClaude \|editor-lastMarkovits \|titleA History of Modern India, 1480–1950 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduzOmy2y0Zh4C \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisherAnthem Press \|page106 \|isbn978-1-84331-004-4 \|quote=Shayista Khan ... was appointed [Bengal's] governor in 1664 and swept the region clean of Portuguese and Arakanese pirates ... in 1666, he recaptured the port of Chittagong ... from the king of Arakan. A strategic outpost, Chittagong would remain the principal commercial port of call before entering the waters of the delta.}}</ref> In 1685, Aurangzeb dispatched his son, Muhammad Azam Shah, with a force of nearly 50,000 men to capture Bijapur Fort and defeat Sikandar Adil Shah (the ruler of Bijapur) who refused to be a vassal. The Mughals could not make any advancements upon Bijapur Fort,<ref>{{cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsxhAtCflwOMC&qAurangzeb+bijapur+1686&pgPA263\|titleA Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century\|isbn978-81-317-3202-1\|last1Farooqui\|first1Salma Ahmed\|year2011\|publisherPearson Education India }}</ref> mainly because of the superior usage of cannon batteries on both sides. Outraged by the stalemate Aurangzeb himself arrived on 4 September 1686 and commanded the siege of Bijapur; after eight days of fighting, the Mughals were victorious.<ref>{{cite wikisource \|title1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 3 \|volume3 \|year1911 \|publisherEncyclopædia Britannica\|language=En }}</ref> Only one remaining ruler, Abul Hasan Qutb Shah (the Qutbshahi ruler of Golconda), refused to surrender. He and his servicemen fortified themselves at Golconda and fiercely protected the Kollur Mine, which was then probably the world's most productive diamond mine, and an important economic asset. In 1687, Aurangzeb led his grand Mughal army against the Deccan Qutbshahi fortress during the siege of Golconda. The Qutbshahis had constructed massive fortifications throughout successive generations on a granite hill over 400&nbsp;ft high with an enormous eight-mile long wall enclosing the city. The main gates of Golconda had the ability to repulse any war elephant attack. Although the Qutbshahis maintained the impregnability of their walls, at night Aurangzeb and his infantry erected complex scaffolding that allowed them to scale the high walls. During the eight-month siege the Mughals faced many hardships including the death of their experienced commander Kilich Khan Bahadur. Eventually, Aurangzeb and his forces managed to penetrate the walls by capturing a gate, and their entry into the fort led Abul Hasan Qutb Shah to surrender; he died after twelve years of Mughal imprisonment.<ref>{{cite journal \|titleThe Rise and fall of Persian to the Muslims of South Asia \|issn2643-9670 \|date2022 \|publisherUniversity of Sindh \|page267 \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/360259941 \|access-date19 March 2024 \|issue4 \|volume6 \|journalInternational Journal of Academic Multidisciplinary Research \|via=ResearchGate}}</ref> Mughal cannon making skills advanced during the 17th century.<ref>{{cite book \|titleModern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800 \|volume1 \|firstAbhay Kumar \|lastSingh \|pages351–352 \|publisherNorthern Book Centre \|locationNew Delhi \|year2006 \|isbn978-81-7211-201-1 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWwNUblS-jpwC&pgPA351 \|access-date30 September 2012}}</ref> One of the most impressive Mughal cannons is known as the Zafarbaksh, which is a very rare composite cannon, that required skills in both wrought-iron forge welding and bronze-casting technologies and the in-depth knowledge of the qualities of both metals.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Balasubramaniam \|first1R. \|last2Chattopadhyay \|first2Pranab K. \|year2007 \|titleZafarbaksh – The Composite Mughal Cannon of Aurangzeb at Fort William in Kolkata \|urlhttp://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol42_2_5_RBalasubramaniam.pdf \|journalIndian Journal of History of Science \|volume42 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222081939/http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol42_2_5_RBalasubramaniam.pdf \|archive-date22 December 2015}}</ref> The Ibrahim Rauza was a famed cannon, which was well known for its multi-barrels.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlDRbAAAAQAAJ \|titleBombay and western India: a series of stray papers \|volume2 \|firstJames \|lastDouglas \|publisherSampson Low, Marston & Company \|year1893}}</ref> François Bernier, the personal physician to Aurangzeb, observed Mughal gun-carriages each drawn by two horses, an improvement over the bullock-drawn gun-carriages used elsewhere in India.<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Khan \|first1Iqtidar Alam \|editor-lastBuchanan \|editor-firstBrenda J. \|chapterThe Indian Response to Firearms, 1300-1750 \|titleGunpowder, Explosives And the State: A Technological History \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7n6Cg9znFrUC&pgPA59 \|publisherAshgate Publishing \|year2006 \|page59 \|isbn=978-0-7546-5259-5}}</ref> During the rule of Aurangzeb, In 1703, the Mughal commander at Coromandel, Daud Khan Panni spent 10,500 coins to purchase 30 to 50 war elephants from Ceylon.<ref>{{Google books \|id3C1vz5ioOMwC \|page122 \|titleMughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 }}</ref>Art and cultureAurangzeb was noted for his religious piety; he memorized the entire Quran, studied hadiths and stringently observed the rituals of Islam,<ref name"Richards1996p128" /><ref>{{cite book \|last1Truschke \|first1Audrey \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|publisher Stanford University Press\|year2017 \|isbn978-1-5036-0257-1 \|page66}}</ref> and "transcribe[d] copies of the Quran."<ref>{{cite journal \|lastDasgupta \|firstK. \|year1975 \|titleHow Learned Were the Mughals: Reflections on Muslim Libraries in India \|journalThe Journal of Library History \|volume10 \|issue3 \|pages241–254 \|jstor25540640}}</ref><ref name"Qadir1936">{{cite journal \|lastQadir \|firstK.B.S.S.A. \|year1936 \|titleThe Cultural Influences of Islam in India \|journalJournal of the Royal Society of Arts \|volume84 \|issue4338 \|pages228–241 \|jstor41360651}}</ref> Aurangzeb had a more austere nature than his predecessors, and greatly reduced imperial patronage of the figurative Mughal miniature.<ref>Imperial Mughal Painting, Stuart Cary Welch, (New York: George Braziller, 1978), pp. 112–113. "In spite of his later austerity, which turned him against music, dance, and painting, a few of the best Mughal paintings were made for [Aurangzeb] 'Alamgir. Perhaps the painters realized that he might close the workshops and therefore exceeded themselves in his behalf".</ref> This had the effect of dispersing the court atelier to other regional courts. Being religious he encouraged Islamic calligraphy. His reign also saw the building of the Lahore Badshahi Masjid and Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad for his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani. Aurangzeb was considered a Mujaddid by contemporary Muslims considered Aurangzeb.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ&dqAurangzeb+mujaddid&pgPT63 \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|date2017 \|publisherStanford University Press \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5 \|languageen}}</ref>Calligraphy'', parts of which are believed to have been written in Aurangzeb's own hand.<ref>{{cite web \|url http://abna.ir/data.asp?lang3&id202553 \|title Emirates owner to sell Quran inscribed by Aurangzeb \|date 15 November 2018 \|access-date 7 April 2011 \|archive-date 24 July 2011 \|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110724232445/http://abna.ir/data.asp?lang3&id=202553 }}</ref>]] The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb is known to have patronised works of Islamic calligraphy;<ref>{{cite book \|authorTaher, M. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqRLXDBX5KzkC \|titleLibrarianship and Library Science in India: An Outline of Historical Perspectives \|date1994 \|publisherConcept Publishing Company \|isbn978-81-7022-524-9 \|page54 \|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref> the demand for Quran manuscripts in the naskh style peaked during his reign. Having been instructed by Syed Ali Tabrizi, Aurangzeb was himself a talented calligrapher in naskh, evidenced by Quran manuscripts that he created.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastBlair\|firstSheila\|titleIslamic calligraphy\|date2006\|publisherEdinburgh University Press\|isbn978-0-7486-1212-3\|locationEdinburgh\|page550\|oclc56651142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lastSchimmel\|firstAnnemarie\|titleCalligraphy and Islamic culture\|date1990\|publisherTauris\|isbn1-85043-186-8\|locationLondon\|oclc20420019}}</ref> Architecture Aurangzeb was not as involved in architecture as his father. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the position of the Mughal Emperor as chief architectural patron began to diminish. However, Aurangzeb did endow some significant structures. Catherine Asher terms his architectural period as an "Islamization" of Mughal architecture.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastAsher\|firstCatherine B.\|titleArchitecture of Mughal India\|date1992\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-26728-1\|pages252 & 290\|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> One of the earliest constructions after his accession was a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), built for his personal use in the Red Fort complex of Delhi. He later ordered the construction of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, which is today one of the largest mosques in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book \|date2004 \|orig-dateFirst published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' \|editor-firstClaude \|editor-lastMarkovits \|titleA History of Modern India, 1480–1950 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduzOmy2y0Zh4C \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisherAnthem Press \|page166 \|isbn978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> The mosque he constructed in Srinagar is still the largest in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAali Masjid \|urlhttp://www.heritageofkashmir.org/projects/conservation-projects/aali-masjid.html \|websiteheritageofkashmir.org \|access-date29 January 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140809232839/http://www.heritageofkashmir.org/projects/conservation-projects/aali-masjid.html \|archive-date9 August 2014}}</ref> Aurangzeb had a palace constructed for himself in Aurangabad, which was extant till a few years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSohoni \|firstPushkar \|date2016-12-20 \|titleA Tale of Two Imperial Residences: Aurangzeb's Architectural Patronage \|urlhttp://ejournal.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/JIA/article/view/3514 \|journalJournal of Islamic Architecture \|volume4 \|issue2 \|page63 \|doi10.18860/jia.v4i2.3514 \|issn2356-4644\|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Most of Aurangzeb's building activity revolved around mosques, but secular structures were not neglected. The Mubarak Manzil in Agra served as his riverside residence after his victory at Samugarh.<ref name"wire2025">{{cite web \|titleAgra: 17th-Century Mubarak Manzil, Built by Aurangzeb, Reduced to Rubble \|urlhttps://thewire.in/history/agra-17th-century-mubarak-manzil-built-by-aurangzeb-reduced-to-rubble \|websiteThe Wire \|date3 January 2025 \|access-date6 January 2025}}</ref> The Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad, the mausoleum of Rabia-ud-Daurani, was constructed by his eldest son Azam Shah upon Aurangzeb's decree. Its architecture displays clear inspiration from the Taj Mahal.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastAsher\|firstCatherine B.\|titleArchitecture of Mughal India\|date1992\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-26728-1\|pages263–264\|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleWorld Heritage Sites. Bibi-Ka-Maqbar \|urlhttp://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora_bibi.asp \|access-date28 January 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111011201131/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_whs_ellora_bibi.asp \|archive-date11 October 2011 }}</ref> Aurangzeb also provided and repaired urban structures like fortifications (for example a wall around Aurangabad, many of whose gates still survive), bridges, caravanserais, and gardens.<ref name"Asher-1992">{{Cite book\|lastAsher\|firstCatherine B.\|titleArchitecture of Mughal India\|date1992\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-26728-1\|pages260–261\|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> Aurangzeb was more heavily involved in the repair and maintenance of previously existing structures. The most important of these were mosques, both Mughal and pre-Mughal, which he repaired more of than any of his predecessors.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastAsher\|firstCatherine B.\|titleArchitecture of Mughal India\|date1992\|publisherCambridge University Press\|isbn978-0-521-26728-1\|pages255–259\|doi10.1017/chol9780521267281}}</ref> He patronised the dargahs of Sufi saints such as Bakhtiyar Kaki, and strived to maintain royal tombs.<ref name="Asher-1992" /> <gallery> File:Badshahi Mosque July 1 2005 pic32 by Ali Imran (1).jpg\|Seventeenth-century Badshahi Masjid built by Aurangzeb in Lahore. File:Aurangabad, Bibi Ka Maqbara, mausoleo per la prima moglie di aurangzaeb Dilras Banu Begum, 1660-69 ca., corpo centrale e minareti 04.jpg\|Bibi ka Maqbara. </gallery> Textiles The textile industry in the Mughal Empire emerged very firmly during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and was particularly well noted by Francois Bernier, a French physician of the Mughal Emperor. Francois Bernier writes how Karkanahs, or workshops for the artisans, particularly in textiles flourished by "employing hundreds of embroiderers, who were superintended by a master". He further writes how "Artisans manufacture of silk, fine brocade, and other fine muslins, of which are made turbans, robes of gold flowers, and tunics worn by females, so delicately fine as to wear out in one night, and cost even more if they were well embroidered with fine needlework".<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastWerner \|firstLouis \|dateJuly–August 2011 \|titleMughal Maal \|urlhttp://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201104/mughal.maal.htm \|magazineSaudi Aramco World \|access-date3 October 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160222152801/http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201104/mughal.maal.htm \|archive-date=22 February 2016}}</ref> He also explains the different techniques employed to produce such complicated textiles as Himru (whose name is Persian for "brocade"), Paithani (whose pattern is identical on both sides), Mushru (satin weave) and how Kalamkari, in which fabrics are painted or block-printed, was a technique that originally came from Persia. Francois Bernier provided some of the first, impressive descriptions of the designs and the soft, delicate texture of Pashmina shawls also known as Kani, which were very valued for their warmth and comfort among the Mughals, and how these textiles and shawls eventually began to find their way to France and England.<ref>{{cite magazine \|lastHansen \|firstEric \|dateJuly–August 2002 \|titlePashmina: Kashmir's Best Cashmere \|urlhttp://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200204/pashmina-kashmir.s.best.cashmere.htm \|magazineSaudi Aramco World \|access-date3 October 2014 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20041027085612/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200204/pashmina-kashmir.s.best.cashmere.htm \|archive-date=27 October 2004}}</ref> <gallery> File:Caspar David Friedrich - Frau mit Umschlagtuch (1804).jpg\|Shawls manufactured in the Mughal Empire had highly influenced other cultures around the world. File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg\|Shawl makers in the Mughal Empire. File:Floorspread LACMA M.79.9.6 (1 of 3).jpg\|Mughal imperial carpet </gallery> Foreign relations .<ref>{{cite book\|titleThe Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture\|author1Schimmel, A.\|author2Waghmar, B.K.\|date2004\|publisherReaktion Books\|isbn978-1-86189-185-3\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN7sewQQzOHUC\|page17\|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref>]] Aurangzeb sent diplomatic missions to Mecca in 1659 and 1662, with money and gifts for the Sharif. He also sent alms in 1666 and 1672 to be distributed in Mecca and Medina. Historian Naimur Rahman Farooqi writes that, "By 1694, Aurangzeb's ardour for the Sharifs of Mecca had begun to wane; their greed and rapacity had thoroughly disillusioned the Emperor ... Aurangzeb expressed his disgust at the unethical behavior of the Sharif who appropriated all the money sent to the Hijaz for his own use, thus depriving the needy and the poor."{{sfn\|Farooqi\|1989\|pp124, 126\|ps: "In November 1659, shortly after his formal coronation, Aurangzeb sent ... a diplomatic mission to Mecca ... entrusted with 630.000 rupees for the Sharif families of Mecca and Medina ... Aurangzeb sent another mission to Mecca in 1662 ... with presents worth 660,000 rupees ... Aurangzeb also sent considerable amount of money, through his own agents, to Mecca. In 1666 ... alms and offerings; ... six years later ... several lakhs of rupees; the money was to be spent in charity in Mecca and Medina."}} According to English traveller named John Fryar, Aurangzeb also consider that despite his enormous power on land, it is cheaper to establish reciprocal relation with the naval forces of Portuguese empire to secure the sea interest of ships in Mughal territory, so he did not built an overtly massive naval forces.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Daniel R. Headrick \|titlePower Over Peoples Technology, Environments, and Western Imperialism, 1400 to the Present \|date2012 \|publisherPrinceton University Press \|isbn978-1-4008-3359-7 \|page76 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-xRtD64vi5EC \|access-date15 March 2024 \|languageen \|formatebook}}</ref>Relations with AcehFor decades, the Malabari Mappila Muslims which representing the Mughal empire are already patronized Aceh Sultanate.<ref name"Andaya-2008">{{cite book \|author1Leonard Y. Andaya \|author-link Leonard Y. Andaya \|titleLeaves of the Same Tree Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka \|date22 January 2008 \|publisherUniversity of Hawaii Press \|isbn978-0-8248-3189-9 \|pages121–122 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw7AqZR1ZUZgC \|access-date2 December 2023 \|languageEn \|formatHardcover \|quote... Aurangzeb and Dara Shukoh participated in Aceh's trade, and Aurangzeb even exchanged presents with Aceh's sultan in 1641. For two decades after the Dutch conquest of Portuguese Melaka in 1641, the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by the VOC tried to attract trade to Melaka by restricting Muslim trade to Aceh. Angered by}}</ref> Aurangzeb, and his brother, Dara Shikoh, participated with Aceh trade and Aurangzeb himself also exchanging presents with the Sultan of Aceh in 1641.<ref name"Andaya-2008" /> In that year, it is recorded the daughter of Iskandar Muda, Sultanah Safiatuddin, has presented Aurangzeb with eight elephants.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Pius Malekandathil \|titleThe Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India \|date2016 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-1-351-99745-4 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-WEPDQAAQBAJ \|access-date11 March 2024 \|languageEn \|formatebook \|quote=... 1641 , his daughter , Sultanah Safiatuddin presented Aurangzeb with eight ...}}</ref> When the VOC, or Dutch East India Company trying to disrupt the trade in Aceh to make their own Malaka trade lucrative, Aurangzeb threatened the Dutch with retaliation against any losses in Gujarat due to Dutch intervention.<ref name"Andaya-2008" /> This effort were caused due to VOC realization that Muslim tradings were damaging to the VOC.<ref name"Malekandathil-2016">{{cite book \|editor1-lastMalekandathil \|editor1-firstPius \|titleThe Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India \|date13 September 2016 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-1-351-99746-1 \|page154 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idviUlDwAAQBAJ \|access-date2 December 2023 \|quote... backed out and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh and other southern ports without restriction.74 According to S ...}}</ref> The Firman issued by Aurangzeb caused the VOC to back down and allowed Indian sailors to pass into Aceh, Perak, and Kedah, without any restrictions.<ref name"Andaya-2008" /><ref name"Malekandathil-2016"/><ref>{{cite book \|author1Frans Huskin \|author2Dick van der Meij \|titleReading Asia New Research in Asian Studies \|date11 October 2013 \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|page87 \|isbn978-1-136-84377-8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIVhUAQAAQBAJ \|access-date2 December 2023 \|languageEn \|formatebook \|quote... 1660s the VOC backed down and allowed Indian traders to sail to Aceh, Perak, and Kedah without restriction.ll Another important trading community in Aceh consisted of Indians from the Coromandel Coast who had been prominent in Malay ...}}</ref> Relations with the Uzbek Subhan Quli Khan, Balkh's Uzbek ruler was the first to recognise him in 1658 and requested for a general alliance, he worked alongside the new Mughal Emperor since 1647, when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2020}}Relations with the Safavid dynastySafavid Iran and the Mughal Empire had long clashed over Kandahar, an outpost on the distant frontier of their two empires. Control of the city swung back and forth.{{sfn\|Matthee\|2012\|pp122-124}} Aurangzeb led two unsuccessful campaigns to recapture it 1649 and 1652. Mughal attempts died down after 1653 amidst internal rivalries.{{sfn\|Matthee\|2012\|pp124-125}}{{sfn\|Farooqi\|1989\|p60}} Upon ascending the throne, Aurangzeb was eager to obtain diplomatic recognition from the Safavids to bolster the legitimacy of his rule. Abbas II of Persia sent an embassy in 1661. Aurangzeb received the ambassador warmly and they exchanged gifts.{{sfn\|Farooqi\|1989\|pp58-59}} A return embassy sent by Aurangzeb to Persia in 1664 was poorly treated. Tensions over Kandahar rose again. There were cross border raids, but hostilities subsided after Abbas II's death in 1666.{{sfn\|Matthee\|2012\|p126}} Aurangzeb's rebellious son, Prince Akbar, sought refuge with Suleiman I of Persia. Suleiman rescued him from the Imam of Musqat, but refused to assist him in any military adventures against Aurangzeb.{{sfn\|Matthee\|2012\|p136}}Relations with the FrenchIn 1667, the French East India Company ambassadors Le Gouz and Bebert presented Louis XIV of France's letter which urged the protection of French merchants from various rebels in the Deccan. In response to the letter, Aurangzeb issued a firman allowing the French to open a factory in Surat.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2020}} <gallery> File:Pomp and Ceremony of the March of the Great Mogol.jpg\|March of the Great Moghul (Aurangzeb) File:Voyage de Francois Bernier by Paul Maret 1710.jpg\|François Bernier, was a French physician and traveller, who for 12 years was the personal physician of Aurangzeb. He described his experiences in Travels in the Mughal Empire. File:Indostan - a Map of India by Vincenzo Coronelli, Venice 1692.jpg\|Map of the Mughal Empire by Vincenzo Coronelli (1650–1718) of Venice, who served as Royal Geographer to Louis XIV of France. File:1652 Sanson Map of India - Geographicus - India-sanson-1652.jpg\|French map of the Deccan. </gallery> Relations with the Sultanate of Maldives In the 1660s, the Sultan of the Maldives, Ibrahim Iskandar I, requested help from Aurangzeb's representative, the Faujdar of Balasore. The Sultan wished to gain his support in possible future expulsions of Dutch and English trading ships, as he was concerned with how they might impact the economy of the Maldives. However, as Aurangzeb did not possess a powerful navy and had no interest in providing support to Ibrahim in a possible future war with the Dutch or English, the request came to nothing.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTripathy \|firstRasananda \|year1986 \|titleCrafts and commerce in Orissa in the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idybX1-CqEXPkC&pgPA91 \|locationDelhi \|publisherMittal Publications \|page91 \|oclc14068594 \|access-date29 April 2012}}</ref> Relations with the Ottoman Empire Like his father, Aurangzeb was not willing to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the caliphate. He often supported the Ottoman Empire's enemies, extending cordial welcome to two rebel Governors of Basra, and granting them and their families a high status in the imperial service. Sultan Suleiman II's friendly postures were ignored by Aurangzeb.{{sfn\|Farooqi\|1989\|pp332–333\|ps: "Aurangzeb, who seized the Peacock throne from Shahjahan, was equally unwilling to acknowledge the Ottoman claim to the Khilafat. Hostile towards the Ottomans, the Emperor took every opportunity to support the opponents of the Ottoman regime. He cordially welcomed two rebel Governors of Basra and gave them and their dependents high mansabs in the imperial service. Aurangzeb also did not respond to Sultan Suleiman II's friendly overtures."}} The Sultan urged Aurangzeb to wage holy war against Christians.{{sfn\|Farooqi\|1989\|p151\|ps: "Suleiman II even solicited Aurangzeb's support against the Christians and urged him to wage holy war against them."}} However, Aurangzeb were granted as patron of Sharif of Mecca, and sending the Sherif at that time with richly laden mission, which at that time were under the jurisdiction of Ottoman.<ref>{{cite book \|authorJohn F. Richards \|titleThe Mughal Empire Part 1, Volume 5 \|date1993 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn978-0-521-56603-2 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHHyVh29gy4QC \|access-date2 December 2023 \|languageEn \|formatPaperback}}</ref> Relations with the English and the Anglo-Mughal War {{See also\|Anglo-Mughal War (1686–1690)}} requests a pardon from Aurangzeb during the Anglo-Mughal War.]] In 1686, the East India Company, which had unsuccessfully tried to obtain a firman that would grant them regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire, initiated the Anglo-Mughal War.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Asia.aspx# \|titleAsia Facts, information, pictures &#124; Encyclopedia.com articles about Asia &#124; Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World \|publisherencyclopedia.com\|access-date23 February 2015}}</ref> This war ended in disaster for the English after Aurangzeb in 1689 dispatched a large fleet from Janjira that blockaded Bombay. The ships, commanded by Sidi Yaqub, were manned by Indians and Mappilas.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastFaruki \|firstZahiruddin \|year1972 \|orig-date1935 \|titleAurangzeb & His Times \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvvNtAAAAMAAJ \|locationBombay \|publisherIdarah-i Adabiyāt-i Delli \|page442 \|oclc1129476255}}</ref> In 1690, realising the war was not going favourably for them, the Company sent envoys to Aurangzeb's camp to plead for a pardon. The company's envoys prostrated themselves before the emperor, agreed pay a large indemnity, and promise to refrain from such actions in the future.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2020}} In September 1695, English pirate Henry Every conducted one of the most profitable pirate raids in history with his capture of a Grand Mughal grab convoy near Surat. The Indian ships had been returning home from their annual pilgrimage to Mecca when the pirate struck, capturing the Ganj-i-Sawai, reportedly the largest ship in the Muslim fleet, and its escorts in the process. When news of the capture reached the mainland, a livid Aurangzeb nearly ordered an armed attack against the English-governed city of Bombay, though he finally agreed to compromise after the Company promised to pay financial reparations, estimated at £600,000 by the Mughal authorities.<ref name"Burgess">{{cite journal \|last1Burgess \|first1Douglas R. \| author-link Douglas R. Burgess \|year2009 \|titlePiracy in the Public Sphere: The Henry Every Trials and the Battle for Meaning in Seventeenth-Century Print Culture \|journalJournal of British Studies \|volume48 \|issue4 \|pages887–913 \|doi10.1086/603599 \|s2cid145637922 }}</ref> Meanwhile, Aurangzeb shut down four of the English East India Company's factories, imprisoned the workers and captains (who were nearly lynched by a rioting mob), and threatened to put an end to all English trading in India until Every was captured.<ref name"Burgess"/> The Lords Justices of England offered a bounty for Every's apprehension, leading to the first worldwide manhunt in recorded history. However, Every successfully eluded capture.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Pirates' Pact: The Secret Alliances Between History's Most Notorious Buccaneers and Colonial America \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/piratespactsecre00jrdo \|url-accesslimited \|lastBurgess \|firstDouglas R. \| author-link Douglas R. Burgess \|year2009 \|publisherMcGraw-Hill \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-07-147476-4 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/piratespactsecre00jrdo/page/n162 144–145]}}</ref> In 1702, Aurangzeb sent Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the Carnatic region, to besiege and blockade Fort St. George for more than three months.<ref>{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyQgt5SYepi8C&pgPA11 \|titleA Miscellany of Mutinies And Massacres in India \|firstTerence R. \|lastBlackburn \|publisherAPH Publishing \|year2007 \|page11 \|isbn978-81-313-0169-2}}</ref> The governor of the fort Thomas Pitt was instructed by the East India Company to sue for peace. Relations with the Ethiopian Empire Ethiopian Emperor Fasilides dispatched an embassy to India in 1664–65 to congratulate Aurangzeb upon his accession to the throne of the Mughal Empire. The delegation reportedly presented several valuable offerings to the Mughal Emperor, such as slaves, ivory, horses, a set of intricately adorned silver pocket pistols, a zebra and various other exotic gifts. François Bernier, describes the presents as consisting of: {{blockquote\|:“twenty-five choice slaves, nine or ten of whom were of a tender age and in a state to be made eunuchs [...]; fifteen horses, esteemed equal to those of Arabia, and a species of mule, whose skin I have seen: no tiger is so beautifully marked, and no alacha [a piece of cloth] of the Indies, or stripped silken stuff, is more finely and variously streaked; a couple of elephant’s teeth [i. e. tusks], of a size so prodigious that it required, it seems, the utmost exertion of a strong man to lift either of them from the ground; and lastly, the horn of an ox, filled with civet, which was indeed enormously large, for I measured the mouth of it at Delhy, and found that it exceeded half a foot in diameter”<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBernier \|firstFrançois \|titleTravels in the Mogul Empire: A.D. 1656–1668 \|year1671}}</ref>}} Relations with the Tibetans, Uyghurs, and Dzungars After 1679, the Tibetans invaded Ladakh, which was in the Mughal sphere of influence. Aurangzeb intervened on Ladakh's behalf in 1683, but his troops retreated before Dzungar reinforcements arrived to bolster the Tibetan position. At the same time, however, a letter was sent from the governor of Kashmir claiming the Mughals had defeated the Dalai Lama and conquered all of Tibet, a cause for celebration in Aurangzeb's court.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleMAASIR-I-'ALAMGIRI \|urlhttps://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10973/19784/GIPE-108534-Contents.pdf?sequence2&isAllowedy \|website=dspace.gipe.ac.in}}</ref> Aurangzeb received an embassy from Muhammad Amin Khan of Chagatai Moghulistan in 1690, seeking assistance in driving out "Qirkhiz infidels" (meaning the Buddhist Dzungars), who "had acquired dominance over the country". Relations with the Czardom of Russia Russian Czar Peter the Great requested Aurangzeb to open Russo-Mughal trade relations in the late 17th century. In 1696 Aurangzeb received his envoy, Semyon Malenkiy, and allowed him to conduct free trade. After staying for six years in India, and visiting Surat, Burhanpur, Agra, Delhi and other cities, Russian merchants returned to Moscow with valuable Indian goods.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleRussia and India: A civilisational friendship \|date9 September 2016 \|urlhttps://www.rbth.com/arts/history/2016/09/09/russia-and-india-a-civilizational-friendship_628415}}</ref>RebellionsTraditional and newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs, Hindu Jats, Pashtuns, and Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or opposition, gave them both recognition and military experience.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Metcalf \|first1Barbara D. \|author-link1Barbara D. Metcalf \|last2Metcalf \|first2Thomas R. \|author-link2Thomas R. Metcalf \|year2006 \|titleA Concise History of Modern India \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/concisehistorymo00metc \|url-accesslimited \|editionSecond \|publisherCambridge University Press \|pages[https://archive.org/details/concisehistorymo00metc/page/n58 23]–24 \|isbn=978-0-521-86362-9}}</ref> * In 1669, the Hindu Jat peasants of Bharatpur around Mathura rebelled and created Bharatpur State but were defeated. * In 1659, Maratha leader Shivaji, launched a surprise attack on the Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan and, while waging war against Aurangzeb. Shivaji and his forces attacked the Deccan, Janjira and Surat and tried to gain control of vast territories.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2022}} In 1689, Aurangzeb's armies captured Shivaji's son Sambhaji and executed him. But the Marathas continued the fight.<ref>{{Cite book \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFzmkFXSgxqgC&pgRA1-PA54 \|titleAn Atlas and Survey of South Asian History \|firstKarl J. \|lastSchmidt \|locationArmonk, New York \|publisherM.E. Sharpe \|year1995 \|page54 \|isbn978-1-56324-334-9}}</ref> * In 1679, the Rathore clan under the command of Durgadas Rathore of Marwar rebelled when Aurangzeb did not give permission to make the young Rathore prince the king and took direct command of Jodhpur. This incident caused great unrest among the Hindu Rajput rulers under Aurangzeb and led to many rebellions in Rajputana, resulting in the loss of Mughal power in the region and religious bitterness over the destruction of temples.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Laine \|first1James W. \|titleMeta-Religion: Religion and Power in World History \|date 2015 \|publisherUniv of California Press \|isbn978-0-520-95999-6 \|page153 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-x3fBQAAQBAJ&pgPA152 \|access-date21 February 2022 \|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|editor-last1Burn\|editor-first1Richard\|editor-linkRichard Burn (Indologist)\|year1937\|titleThe Cambridge History of India\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyoI8AAAAIAAJ\|volumeIV\|pages248–252\|quoteThe whole country was soon occupied by the imperialists, anarchy and slaughter were let loose upon the doomed state; all great towns in the village were pillaged; the temples were thrown down\|access-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> * In 1672, the Satnami, a sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, under the leadership of Bhirbhan, took over the administration of Narnaul, but they were eventually crushed upon Aurangzeb's personal intervention with very few escaping alive.<ref name="Edwardes1930" /> * In 1671, the battle of Saraighat was fought in the easternmost regions of the Mughal Empire against the Ahom Kingdom. The Mughals led by Mir Jumla II and Shaista Khan attacked and were defeated by the Ahoms. * Maharaja Chhatrasal was the warrior from Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand, becoming a Maharaja of Panna.<ref>Bhagavānadāsa Gupta, Contemporary Sources of the Mediaeval and Modern History of Bundelkhand (1531–1857), vol. 1 (1999). {{ISBN\|81-85396-23-X}}.</ref> Jat rebellion was pillaged by Jat rebels during the reign of Aurangzeb.]] In 1669, Hindu Jats began to organise a rebellion that is believed to have been caused by the re-imposition of jizya and destruction of Hindu temples in Mathura.{{sfn\|Avari\|2013\|p131\|ps: Crisis arose in the north among the Jat agriculturists dissatisfied with punitive imperial taxation ... The first to rebel against the Mughals were the Hindu Jats.}}<ref>[https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_History_of_the_Indian_People/ag4BAAAAMAAJ?hlen&gbpv1&bsq%22In%201669%20the%20demolition%20of%20Hindu%20temples%20and%20building%20of%20mosques%20in%20Mathura%20led%20to%20a%20Jat%20uprising%20under%20Gokla%22 The History of Indian people by Damodar P Singhal pg 196] Quote: "In 1669 the demolition of Hindu temples and building of mosques in Mathura led to a Jat uprising under Gokla"</ref> The Jats were led by Gokula, a rebel landholder from Tilpat. By the year 1670 20,000 Jat rebels were quelled and the Mughal Army took control of Tilpat, Gokula's personal fortune amounted to 93,000 gold coins and hundreds of thousands of silver coins.<ref>{{cite book\|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II\|authorChandra, S.\|date2005\|publisherHar-Anand Publications\|isbn978-81-241-1066-9\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0Rm9MC4DDrcC\|page290\|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref> Gokula was caught and executed. But the Jats once again attempted rebellion. Raja Ram Jat, in order to avenge his father Gokula's death, plundered Akbar's tomb of its gold, silver and fine carpets, opened Akbar's grave and dragged his bones and burned them in retaliation.<ref>Vīrasiṃha, 2006, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn8188629529 "The Jats: Their Role & Contribution to the Socio-economic Life and Polity of North & North-west India, Volume 2"], Delhi: Originals , pp. 100–102.</ref><ref>Edward James Rap;son, Sir Wolseley Haig and Sir Richard, 1937, [https://books.google.com/books?idyoI8AAAAIAAJ "The Cambridge History of India"], Cambridge University Press, Volume 4, pp. 305.</ref><ref>Waldemar Hansen, 1986, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn812080225X "The Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India"], p. 454.</ref><ref>Reddy, 2005, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn0070604479 "General Studies History for UPSC"], Tata McGraw-Hill, p. B-46.</ref><ref>Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, 1992, [https://books.google.com/books?isbn0521267285 "Architecture of Mughal India – Part 1"], Cambridge university Press, Vol. 4, p. 108.</ref> Jats also shot off the tops of the minarets on the gateway to Akbar's Tomb and melted down two silver doors from the Taj Mahal.<ref>{{cite book \|lastPeck \|firstLucy \|year2008 \|titleAgra: The Architectural Heritage \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZtFbBAAAQBAJ&pgPT44 \|publisherRoli Books \|isbn978-81-7436-942-0}}</ref><ref>Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston, Leslie Haden Guest, 1937, [https://books.google.com/books?idSvkqAAAAIAAJ The World of To-day: The Marvels of Nature and the Creations of Man], Vol. 2, p. 510</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastHavell \|firstErnest Binfield \|author-linkErnest Binfield Havell \|year1904 \|titleA Handbook to Agra and the Taj, Sikandra, Fatehpur-Sikri and the Neighbourhood \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAmgLAAAAIAAJ&pgPA75 \|publisherLongmans, Green, and Company \|page75\|isbn978-1-4219-8341-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastPenfield \|firstFrederic Courtland \|author-linkFrederic Courtland Penfield \|year1907 \|titleEast to Suez Ceylon, India, China, and Japan \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7X9Q_rOFzZIC&pgPA179 \|page179}}</ref> Aurangzeb appointed Mohammad Bidar Bakht as commander to crush the Jat rebellion. On 4 July 1688, Raja Ram Jat was captured and beheaded. His head was sent to Aurangzeb as proof of his beheading.<ref>{{Cite book \| urlhttps://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.48871/2015.48871.Maasir---I---Alamgiri#page/n199/mode/2up/search/ellora \| titleMaasir – I – Alamgiri\| year1947}}</ref> However, after Aurangeb's death, Jats under Badan Singh later established their independent state of Bharatpur. Due to the Jat rebellion, the temples of Pushtimarg, Gaudiya, and Radha vallabh Vaishnavs in Braj were abandoned and their icons were taken to different regions or into hiding.<ref>{{cite thesis \|lastSaha \|firstShandip \|year2004 \|titleCreating a Community of Grace: A History of the Puṣṭi Mārga in Northern and Western India \|publisherUniversity of Ottawa \|pages89, 178}}</ref> Mughal–Maratha Wars {{Main\|Mughal–Maratha Wars}} {{See also\|Maratha Empire}} .]] In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu Maratha warrior, Shivaji, used guerrilla tactics to take control of three Adil Shahi forts formerly under his father's command. With these victories, Shivaji assumed de facto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Adil Shahis, gaining weapons, forts, and territory.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKincaid \|firstDennis \|year1937 \|titleThe Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire \|locationLondon \|publisherCollins \|pages72–78}}</ref> Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Adil Shahi attack, and Shivaji personally killed the Adil Shahi general, Afzal Khan.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKincaid \|firstDennis \|year1937 \|titleThe Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji Maharaj, Founder of the Maratha Empire \|locationLondon \|publisherCollins \|pages121–125}}</ref> With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Adil Shahi territories.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKincaid \|firstDennis \|year1937 \|titleThe Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire \|locationLondon \|publisherCollins \|pages130–138}}</ref> Shivaji went on to neutralise Mughal power in the region.<ref>{{cite book \|date2004 \|orig-dateFirst published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne'' \|editor-firstClaude \|editor-lastMarkovits \|titleA History of Modern India, 1480–1950 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduzOmy2y0Zh4C \|edition2nd \|locationLondon \|publisherAnthem Press \|page102 \|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref> In 1659, Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle Shaista Khan, the Wali in Golconda to recover forts lost to the Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan drove into Maratha territory and took up residence in Pune. But in a daring raid on the governor's palace in Pune during a midnight wedding celebration, led by Shivaji himself, the Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son and Shivaji maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off three fingers of his hand. Shaista Khan, however, survived and was re-appointed the administrator of Bengal going on to become a key commander in the war against the Ahoms.{{citation needed\|date=July 2020}} Aurangzeb next sent general Raja Jai Singh to vanquish the Marathas. Jai Singh besieged the fort of Purandar and fought off all attempts to relieve it. Foreseeing defeat, Shivaji agreed to terms.<ref>{{cite book \|lastChandra \|firstSatish \|author-linkSatish Chandra (historian) \|year1999 \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|edition1st \|locationNew Delhi \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|page321 \|oclc36806798}}</ref> Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit Aurangzeb at Agra, giving him a personal guarantee of safety. Their meeting at the Mughal court did not go well, however. Shivaji felt slighted at the way he was received, and insulted Aurangzeb by refusing imperial service. For this affront he was detained, but managed to effect a daring escape.<ref>{{cite book \|lastChandra \|firstSatish \|author-linkSatish Chandra (historian) \|year1999 \|titleMedieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals \|volume2 \|edition1st \|locationNew Delhi \|publisherHar-Anand Publications \|pages323–324 \|oclc36806798}}</ref> Shivaji returned to the Deccan, and crowned himself Chhatrapati or the ruler of the Maratha Kingdom in 1674.<ref>{{cite book \|lastKincaid \|firstDennis \|year1937 \|titleThe Grand Rebel: An Impression of Shivaji, Founder of the Maratha Empire \|locationLondon \|publisherCollins \|page283}}</ref> Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in 1680. Shivaji was succeeded by his son, Sambhaji.<ref>{{cite book\|titleStudies in Mughal History\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAZdCrUxFAHEC&pgPA42\|publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publication\|firstAshvini\|lastAgrawal\|year1983\|pages162–163\|isbn=978-81-208-2326-6}}</ref> Militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail. Aurangzeb's third son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji, Shivaji's successor. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia and never returned.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Great Moghuls \|first1Bamber \|last1Gascoigne \|first2Christina \|last2Gascoigne \|author-link1Bamber Gascoigne \|publisherCape \|year1971 \|pages228–229 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-ryFAAAAIAAJ \|isbn978-0-224-00580-7}}</ref> In 1689, Aurangzeb's forces captured and executed Sambhaji. His successor Rajaram, later Rajaram's widow Tarabai and their Maratha forces fought individual battles against the forces of the Mughal Empire. Territory changed hands repeatedly during the years (1689–1707) of interminable warfare. As there was no central authority among the Marathas, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and money. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory&nbsp;– notably conquering Satara&nbsp;– the Marathas expanded eastwards into Mughal lands&nbsp;– Malwa and Hyderabad. The Marathas also expanded further South into Southern India defeating the independent local rulers there capturing Jinji in Tamil Nadu. Aurangzeb waged continuous war in the Deccan for more than two decades with no resolution.<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Great Moghuls \|first1Bamber \|last1Gascoigne \|first2Christina \|last2Gascoigne \|author-link1Bamber Gascoigne \|publisherCape \|year1971 \|pages239–246 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-ryFAAAAIAAJ \|isbn978-0-224-00580-7}}</ref><ref>Kulkarni, G. T. "Some Observations on the Medieval History of the Deccan." Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute, vol. 34, no. 1/4, 1974, pp. 101–102. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42931021. Accessed 10 May 2024.</ref>{{page range too broad\|dateJuly 2020}} He thus lost about a fifth of his army fighting rebellions led by the Marathas in Deccan India. He travelled a long distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and eventually died at the age of 88, still fighting the Marathas.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Gordon \|first1Stewart \|titleThe Marathas 1600–1818 \|date1993 \|publisherCambridge University \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-521-26883-7 \|pages101–105 \|edition1. publ. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiHK-BhVXOU4C&qaurangzeb+1707&pgPR9 \|access-date=20 July 2016}}</ref> Aurangzeb's shift from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency in the Deccan region shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. There were conflicts between Marathas and Mughals in Pune, Jinji, Malwa and Vadodara. The Mughal Empire's port city of Surat was sacked twice by the Marathas during the reign of Aurangzeb and the valuable port was in ruins.<ref>{{cite book\|titleA History of India\|author1Stein, B.\|author2Arnold, D.\|date2010\|publisherWiley\|isbn978-1-4443-2351-1\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQY4zdTDwMAQC\|page181\|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref> Matthew White estimates that about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, plague and famine.<ref>{{cite book\|authorMatthew White\|year2011\|titleAtrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements\|publisherCanongate Books \|page113\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ5w9qmd1UeMC&pgPP113\|isbn978-0-85786-125-2\|author-linkMatthew White (historian)}}</ref> <gallery> File:A portrait probably made by a Mughal artist, in the Deccan, during Aurangzeb's military campaigns there.jpg\|A Mughal trooper in the Deccan. File:Bhavanidas. The Emperor Aurangzeb Carried on a Palanquin ca. 1705–20 Metripolitan Museum of Art..jpg\|Aurangzeb leads his final expedition (1705), leading an army of 500,000 troops. File:Prince with rifle.jpg\|Mughal-era aristocrat armed with a matchlock musket. File:Khalili Collection Islamic Art mss 1067.1 crop.jpg\|Aurangzeb, in later life, hunting with hounds and falconers </gallery> Ahom campaign .]] In 1660 Mir Jumla II, the viceroy of Bengal, was ordered to recover the lost territories.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastSarkar \|editor-firstJadunath \|editor-linkJadunath Sarkar \|year1973 \|orig-date1948 \|titleThe History of Bengal \|volumeII \|locationPatna \|publisherAcademica Asiatica \|page346 \|oclc924890 \|quoteMir Jumla was appointed governor of Bengal (June 1660) and ordered to punish the kings of Kuch Bihar and Assam.}}</ref> The Mughals set out in November 1661. Within weeks they occupied the capital of Kuch Behar, which they annexed. Leaving a detachment to garrison it, the Mughal army began to retake their territories in Assam. Mir Jumla II advanced on Garhgaon, the capital of the Ahom kingdom, and reached it on 17 March 1662. The ruler, Raja Sutamla, had fled before his approach. The Mughals captured 82 elephants, 300,000 rupees in cash, 1000 ships, and 173 stores of rice.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastSarkar \|editor-firstJadunath \|editor-linkJadunath Sarkar \|year1973 \|orig-date1948 \|titleThe History of Bengal \|volumeII \|locationPatna \|publisherAcademica Asiatica \|pages346–347 \|oclc924890 \|quote[Mir Jumla] left Dacca on 1st November 1661 ... the Mughal army entered the capital of Kuch Bihar on 19th December ... The kingdom was annexed to the Mughal empire ... Mir Jumla set out for the conquest of Assam on 4th January, 1662 ... triumphantly marched into Garh-gaon the Ahom capital on 17th March. Raja Jayadhwaj ... had fled .. The spoils ... 82 elephants, 3 lakhs of rupees in cash, ... over a thousand bots, and 173 stores of paddy.}}</ref> On his way back to Dacca, in March 1663, Mir Jumla II died of natural causes.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastSarkar \|editor-firstJadunath \|editor-linkJadunath Sarkar \|year1973 \|orig-date1948 \|titleThe History of Bengal \|volumeII \|locationPatna \|publisherAcademica Asiatica \|page350 \|oclc924890 \|quote[Mir Jumla] set out on his return on 10th January 1663, travelling by pālki owing to his illness, which daily increased. At Baritalā he embarked in a boat and glided down the river toward Dacca, dying on 31st March.}}</ref> The battle of Saraighat was the last battle in the last major attempt by the Mughals to extend their empire into Assam. Though the Mughals managed to regain Guwahati briefly after a later Borphukan deserted it, the Ahoms wrested control in the battle of Itakhuli in 1682 and maintained it till the end of their rule.<ref>Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations", in Barpujari, H. K., The Comprehensive History of Assam 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 148–256</ref> Satnami opposition In May 1672, the Satnami sect, obeying the commands of an old toothless woman (according to Mughal accounts), organised a revolt in the agricultural heartlands of the Mughal Empire. The Satnamis were known to have shaved off their heads and even eyebrows and had temples in many regions of Northern India. They began a large-scale rebellion 75 miles southwest of Delhi.<ref name"Hansen1986p454">{{cite book \|titleThe Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India \|last1Hansen \|first1Waldemar \|year1986 \|orig-date1972 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass \|isbn978-81-208-0225-4 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAV--abKg9GEC \|page454 \|access-date3 October 2014}}</ref> The Satnamis believed they were invulnerable to Mughal bullets and believed they could multiply in any region they entered. The Satnamis initiated their march upon Delhi and overran small-scale Mughal infantry units.<ref name"Edwardes1930">{{cite book \|last1Edwardes \|first1Stephen Meredyth \|authorlink1Stephen Edwardes \|last2Garrett \|first2Herbert Leonard Offley \|year1930 \|titleMughal Rule in India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4aqU9Zu7mFoC&pgPA119 \|publisherAtlantic Publishers and Distributors \|page119 \|isbn978-81-7156-551-1}}</ref> Aurangzeb responded by organising a Mughal army of 10,000 troops, artillery, and a detachment of his imperial guards. Aurangzeb wrote Islamic prayers and drew designs that were sewn into the army's flags. His army crushed the Satnami rebellion.<ref name"Hansen1986p454"/>Sikh oppositionin Delhi is built at the place where Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded.<ref>{{cite news \|newspaperHindustan Times \|urlhttps://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/pm-modi-visits-gurdwara-sis-ganj-sahib-in-delhi-on-400th-prakash-parab-of-guru-teg-bahadur-101619837925141.html \|titlePM Modi visits Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi on 400th Prakash Parab of Guru Teg Bahadur \|date=1 May 2021}}</ref>]] The ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, like his predecessors was opposed to forced conversion of the local population as he considered it wrong. Approached by Kashmiri Pandits to help them retain their faith and avoid forced religious conversions, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a message to the emperor that if he could convert Teg Bagadur to Islam, every Hindu will become a Muslim.<ref namesehgal /> In response, Aurangzeb ordered arrest of the Guru. He was then brought to Delhi and tortured so as to convert him. On his refusal to convert, he was beheaded in 1675.<ref namesehgal>{{cite book \|lastSehgal \|firstNarender \|year1994 \|titleConverted Kashmir: Memorial of Mistakes \|urlhttp://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/Chapter14.html \|locationDelhi \|publisherUtpal Publications \|pages152–153 \|isbn978-81-85217-06-2 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140418030529/http://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/Chapter14.html \|archive-date18 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/people/teghbahadur.shtml#top \|titleGuru Tegh Bahadur \|websiteBBC}}</ref> is the name given to the letter sent by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh in 1705 to Aurangzeb. The letter is written in Persian script.]] In response, Guru Tegh Bahadur's son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh, further militarised his followers, starting with the establishment of Khalsa in 1699, eight years before Aurangzeb's death.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair \|author2Christopher Shackle \|author3Gurharpal Singh \|titleSikh Religion, Culture and Ethnicity \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idD8xdAgAAQBAJ \|year2013 \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-136-84627-4 \|pages25–28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/people/gobindsingh.shtml \|titleBBC Religions – Sikhism \|publisherBBC \|date26 October 2009 \|access-date30 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|authorP Dhavan \|titleWhen Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-7HJ5idB8_QC&pgPA45 \|year2011 \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn978-0-19-975655-1 \|pages3–4}}</ref> In 1705, Guru Gobind Singh sent a letter entitled Zafarnamah, which accused Aurangzeb of cruelty and betraying Islam.<ref>{{cite book \|lastChaitanya \|firstKrishna \|year1994 \|titleA History of Indian Painting: The Modern Period \|volume5 \|publisherAbhinav Publications \|pages3–4 \|isbn978-81-7017-310-6 \|quote"In the letter to Aurangzeb in his Zafarnama, Gobind Singh opposes the emperor not because he is a Muslim, but condemns him because he had betrayed Islam by his deceit, unscrupulousness and intolerance. 'You, who profess belief in the one God and the Koran do not have at heart an atom of faith in them... You neither recognise any God, nor do you have any respect for Prophet Mohammed.'"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastRandhawa \|firstKarenjot \|titleCivil Society in Malerkotla, Punjab: Fostering Resilience Through Religion \|date2012 \|publisherLexington Books \|isbn978-0-7391-6737-3 \|page61}}</ref> Guru Gobind Singh's formation of Khalsa in 1699 led to the establishment of the Sikh Confederacy and later Sikh Empire. Pashtun opposition The Pashtun revolt in 1672 under the leadership of the warrior poet Khushal Khan Khattak of Kabul,<ref>{{Cite journal \| last1 Morgenstierne \| first1 G. \| doi 10.1080/03068376008731684 \| title Khushhal Khan – the national poet of the Afghans \| journal Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society \| volume 47 \| pages 49–57 \| year 1960 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastBanting \|firstErinn \|titleAfghanistan: The Culture Lands, Peoples, & Cultures \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw5fqBZDuGPgC&pgPA28 \|access-date28 February 2013 \|year2003 \|publisherCrabtree Publishing Company \|isbn978-0-7787-9337-3 \|page28 }}</ref> was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan allegedly molested a Parachi woman affiliated with the Safi in modern-day Kunar Province of Afghanistan. The Safi tribes retaliated against the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of most of tribes. Attempting to reassert his authority, Amir Khan led a large Mughal Army to the Khyber Pass, where the army was surrounded by tribesmen and routed, with only four men, including the Governor, managing to escape.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2020}} Aurangzeb's incursions into the Pashtun areas were described by Khushal Khan Khattak as "Black is the Mughal's heart towards all of us Pathans".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Bose \|first1Sugata \|author1-linkSugata Bose \|last2Jalal \|first2Ayesha \|author2-linkAyesha Jalal \|year2018 \|orig-date1998 \|chapter5. India between empires: decline or decentralization? \|titleModern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy \|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT4U0DwAAQBAJ&pgPT80 \|edition4th \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-1-315-10607-6 \|quote'Black is the Mughal's heart towards all us Pathans', complained the Pushto poet Khushal Khan Khattak about Aurangzeb's incursions in the tribal regions of the northwest frontier of India.}}</ref> Aurangzeb employed the scorched earth policy, sending soldiers who massacred, looted and burnt many villages. Aurangzeb also proceeded to use bribery to turn the Pashtun tribes against each other, with the aim that they would distract a unified Pashtun challenge to Mughal authority, and the impact of this was to leave a lasting legacy of mistrust among the tribes.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Omrani\|first1Bijan\|titleThe Durand Line: History and Problems of the Afghan-Pakistan Border\|journalAsian Affairs\|dateJuly 2009\|volumeXL\|page182\|quote=The situation deteriorated and matters came to a head in 1675, at the time of the last great Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb. He launched a terrible scorched earth policy, sending thousands of soldiers into the valleys, burning, despoiling, smashing villages and killing as many tribesmen as possible. He also successfully used bribery to set the tribal chiefs against each other, thus fomenting so much mutual suspicion that they were too busy fighting each other to fight the Mughal Empire. This worked up to a point. But the resulting legacy of mistrust between the tribes destroyed any prospect that unified political institutions might slowly emerge or that the laws and government of the settled regions might be adopted.}}</ref> After that the revolt spread, with the Mughals suffering a near total collapse of their authority in the Pashtun belt. The closure of the important Attock-Kabul trade route along the Grand Trunk road was particularly disastrous. By 1674, the situation had deteriorated to a point where Aurangzeb camped at Attock to personally take charge. Switching to diplomacy and bribery along with force of arms, the Mughals eventually split the rebels and partially suppressed the revolt, although they never managed to wield effective authority outside the main trade route.{{citation needed\|dateJuly 2020}}Rathore rebellion and Ajit Singh]] Described as the Rathore rebellion (1679-1707),<ref nameGH>{{Cite book \|firstRima \|lastHooja \|titleA History of Rajasthan\|publisherRupa \|year2006 \|pages595–610 \|isbn9788129115010 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqqd1RAAACAAJ&qhistory%20of%20rajasthan%20hooja \|quoteWith Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the first phase of Rathore resistance against the Mughals ended. Ajit Singh wrested the fort and city of Jodhpur from the imperial qiledar on March 12, 1707, after killing or dispersing the imperial garrison. Thereafter, while the sons of Aurangzeb were involved in a struggle for the imperial throne Ajit Singh succeeded in extending his sway over Sojat, Pali and Merta.}}</ref> the conflict between Rajputs of Marwar and the Mughals started after the death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar, due to Aurangzeb's attempt to interfere in the succession of Marwar. On 23 July 1679, Aurangzeb made attempts to divide Marwar into two Rathore principalities, one held by Inder Singh Rathore and other by Ajit Singh. Aurangzeb also proposed that Ajit Singh should be raised as a Muslim and offered Jodhpur in return.<ref nameRC>{{cite book \|last1Majumdar \|first1R. C. \|author-link1R. C. Majumdar \|last2Raychaudhuri \|first2H. C. \|last3Datta \|first3Kalikinkar \|year1950 \|orig-yearFirst published 1948 \|titleAn advanced history of India \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.149361/page/n237/mode/1up \|url-accessregistration \|volumePart II \|edition2nd \|publisherMacmillan & Co. \|pages502–504}}</ref> The resistance to Mughal interference was started by the Rajput nobles under Durgadas Rathore and erupted into an all-out war between the Mughal empire and Rajputs of Marwar supported by Mewar Rajputs. It lasted for almost thirty years. The rebellion reached a climax after the death of Aurangzeb on 3 March 1707 and the capture of Jodhpur by the Rathores on 12 March 1707.<ref nameJP>{{Cite book \|firstJadunath \|lastSarkar \|titleA History of Jaipur \|publisherOrient Longman \|year1994 \|pages148–149 \|isbn9788125003335 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idO0oPIo9TXKcC&qhistory+of+jaipur+sarkar}}</ref> Death {{See also\|Tomb of Aurangzeb}} , the mausoleum of Aurangzeb's wife Dilras Banu Begum, was commissioned by him]] , Maharashtra.]] By 1689, the conquest of Golconda and Mughal victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4&nbsp;million square kilometres,<ref name"Taagepera">{{cite journal \|authorRein Taagepera \|author-linkRein Taagepera \|dateSeptember 1997 \|titleExpansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia \|urlhttp://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 \|journalInternational Studies Quarterly \|volume41 \|issue3 \|page500 \|doi10.1111/0020-8833.00053 \|jstor2600793}}</ref> with a population estimated to be over 158&nbsp;million.<ref name"borocz"/> However, this supremacy was short-lived.<ref>{{harvtxt\|Richards\|1996\|p1}}</ref> Historian Jos Gommans says that "...&nbsp;the highpoint of imperial centralisation under emperor Aurangzeb coincided with the start of the imperial downfall."<ref>{{Cite book\|titleMughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire 1500–1700 \|firstJos J. L. \|lastGommans\|author-linkJos Gommans \|locationLondon \|publisherRoutledge \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-415-23989-9 \|page16 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3C1vz5ioOMwC&pgPA16 \|access-date=30 September 2012}}</ref> Aurangzeb constructed a small marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi.<ref>{{cite book \|lastMurray \|firstJohn \|year1911 \|titleA handbook for travelers in India, Burma and Ceylon \|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/handbooktravelle00john#page/198 \|edition8th \|locationCalcutta \|publisherThacker, Spink, & Co. \|page198 \|isbn978-1-175-48641-7 \|access-date25 January 2014}}</ref> However, his constant warfare, especially with the Marathas, drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy just as much as the wasteful personal spending and opulence of his predecessors.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Richards \| first1 J. F. \| year 1981 \| title Mughal State Finance and the Premodern World Economy \| journal Comparative Studies in Society and History \| volume 23 \| issue 2\| pages 285–308 \| jstor178737 \| doi10.1017/s0010417500013311\| s2cid 154809724 }}</ref> The Indologist Stanley Wolpert says that: {{blockquote\|The conquest of the Deccan, to which Aurangzeb devoted the last twenty-six years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of fruitless, chess-game warfare ... The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be imagined or accurately estimated. Alamgir's moving capital alone-a city of tents thirty miles in circumference, two hundred and fifty bazaars, with half a million camp followers, fifty thousand camels, and thirty thousand elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus grain and wealth ... Not only famine, but bubonic plague arose&nbsp;... Even Alamgir had ceased to understand the purpose for it all by ... 1705. The emperor was nearing ninety by then ... "I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing," the dying old man confessed to his son in February 1707.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastWolpert\|firstStanley A. \|author-linkStanley Wolpert \|year2004 \|orig-date1977 \|titleNew History of India \|edition7th \|publisherOxford University Press \|pages167–168 \|isbn978-0-19-516677-4}}</ref>}} , Maharashtra. Painting by William Carpenter, 1850s]] Even when ill and dying, Aurangzeb made sure that the populace knew he was still alive, for if they had thought otherwise then the turmoil of another war of succession was likely.<ref>{{cite book \|titleCivilization and Capitalism: 15th–18th Century: The Perspective of the World \|volumeIII \|firstFernand \|lastBraudel \|author-linkFernand Braudel \|publisherUniversity of California Press \|locationBerkeley & Los Angeles \|year1992 \|orig-date1979 (Paris: Librairie Armand Colin: Le Temps du Monde) \|isbn978-0-520-08116-1 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxMZI2QEer9QC&pgPA514 \|page514 \|access-date30 September 2012}}</ref> He died at his military camp in Bhingar near Ahmednagar on 3 March 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. He had only 300 rupees with him which were later given to charity as per his instructions and he prior to his death requested not to spend extravagantly on his funeral but to keep it simple.<ref name"Qadir1936"/><ref>Sohoni, P., 2016. A Tale of Two Imperial Residences: Aurangzeb's Architectural Patronage. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(2), pp. 63–69.[https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/72668-EN-a-tale-of-two-imperial-residences-aurang.pdf]</ref> His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra expresses his deep devotion to his Islamic beliefs. It is sited in the courtyard of the shrine of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib, who was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi. Brown writes that after his death, "a string of weak emperors, wars of succession, and coups by noblemen heralded the irrevocable weakening of Mughal power". She notes that the populist but "fairly old-fashioned" explanation for the decline is that there was a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppression.<ref>{{cite journal \|firstKatherine Butler \|lastBrown \|dateJanuary 2007 \|titleDid Aurangzeb Ban Music? Questions for the Historiography of his Reign \|journalModern Asian Studies \|volume41 \|issue1 \|page79 \|doi10.1017/S0026749X05002313\|s2cid145371208 }}</ref> Although Aurangzeb died without appointing a successor, he instructed his three sons to divide the empire among themselves. His sons failed to reach a satisfactory agreement and fought against each other in a war of succession. Aurangzeb's immediate successor was his third son Azam Shah, who was defeated and killed in June 1707 at the battle of Jajau by the army of Bahadur Shah I, the second son of Aurangzeb.{{sfn\|Irvine\|1971\|p33}} Both because of Aurangzeb's over-extension and because of Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities, entered a period of terminal decline. Immediately after Bahadur Shah occupied the throne, the Maratha Empire&nbsp;– which Aurangzeb had held at bay, inflicting high human and monetary costs even on his own empire – consolidated and launched effective invasions of Mughal territory, seizing power from the weak emperor. Within decades of Aurangzeb's death, the Mughal Emperor had little power beyond the walls of Delhi.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Mehta\|first1Jaswant\|titleAdvanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813\|date2005\|publisherNew Dawn Press\|locationElgin Ill, US\|isbn978-1-932705-54-6\|page141\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd1wUgKKzawoC&q%22mughal+emperor%22+%22gates+of+delhi%22+maratha+decline&pgPR7}}</ref>Assessments and legacyAurangzeb's rule has been the subject of both praise and controversy.<ref>{{cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|publisherStanford University Press \|year2017 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5 \|chapterChapter 1: Introducing Aurangzeb \|quoteSome follow the Indian line that Aurangzeb was a straight-up bigot, whereas others view him as one of the few truly righteous Muslim rulers of old. \|access-date17 November 2018 \|chapter-urlhttps://www.sup.org/books/extra/?id28067&iChapter%201.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Balabanlilar \|first1Lisa \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVQmcDQAAQBAJ&pgPG129 \|titleImperial Identity in the Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern South and Central Asia \|date2015 \|publisherI.B. Tauris \|isbn978-0-85773-246-0 \|page129 \|languageen}}</ref> During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres,<ref name"Taagepera" /> and he ruled over a population estimated to be over 158 million subjects.<ref name"borocz" /><!--with an annual revenue of $450 million (more than ten times that of his contemporary Louis XIV of France) in 1690.<ref>{{pn\|dateDecember 2020}} --> His critics argue that his ruthlessness and religious bigotry made him unsuitable to rule the mixed population of his empire. Some critics assert that the persecution of Shias, Sufis and non-Muslims to impose practices of orthodox Islamic state, such as imposition of sharia and jizya religious tax on non-Muslims, doubling of custom duties on Hindus while abolishing it for Muslims, executions of Muslims and non-Muslims alike, and destruction of temples eventually led to numerous rebellions.<ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastPletcher \|editor-firstKenneth \|year2010 \|titleThe History of India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhdmcAAAAQBAJ&pgPA183 \|publisherBritannica Educational Publishing \|page183 \|isbn978-1-61530-201-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|editor-lastJoseph \|editor-firstPaul \|year2016 \|titleThe SAGE Encyclopedia of War: Social Science Perspectives \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ididw0DQAAQBAJ&pgPA433 \|publisherSage Publications \|pages432–433 \|isbn978-1-4833-5988-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Gupta \|first1R.K. \|last2Bakshi \|first2S.R. \|year2008 \|titleDalit Literature: Our Response \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDLQeSBLpUwsC&pgPA77 \|publisherSarup & Sons \|page77 \|isbn978-81-7625-841-8}}</ref><ref namebitory4>{{cite book \|editor-last1Shakir \|editor-first1Moin \|year1989 \|titleReligion State And Politics in India\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idx_gQAQAAIAAJ \|publisherAjanta Publications (India) \|page47 \|isbn978-81-202-0213-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Upshur \|first1Jiu-Hwa L. \|last2Terry \|first2Janice J. \|last3Holoka \|first3Jim \|year2011 \|titleCengage Advantage Books: World History \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmBo-2D0TKUcC&pgPA527 \|publisherCengage Learning \|page527 \|isbn978-1-111-34514-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|lastChua \|firstAmy \|year2009 \|titleDay of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance – and Why They Fall \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?isbn0307472450 \|publisherAnchor Books \|page189 \|isbn978-0-307-47245-8}}</ref> G. N. Moin Shakir and Sarma Festschrift argue that he often used political opposition as pretext for religious persecution,<ref namebitory4/> and that, as a result, groups of Jats, Marathas, Sikhs, Satnamis and Pashtuns rose against him.<ref name"Edwardes1930"/><ref namebitory4/><ref>{{cite book \|lastAgrawal \|firstAshvini \|year1983 \|titleStudies in Mughal History \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?isbn8120823265 \|page15 \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publ. \|isbn978-81-208-2326-6}}</ref> Multiple interpretations of Aurangzeb's life and reign over the years by critics have led to a very complicated legacy. Some argue that his policies abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his introduction of the jizya tax and other policies based on Islamic ethics; his demolition of Hindu temples; the executions of his elder brother Dara Shikoh, King Sambhaji of Maratha<ref>{{cite book \|last1Mehta \|first1J. L. \|year2005 \|titleAdvanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One: 1707–1813 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd1wUgKKzawoC&pgPA47 \|publisherSterling Publishers \|page47 \|isbn978-1-932705-54-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Bhattacherje \|first1S. B. \|year2009 \|titleEncyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoGVSvXuCsyUC&pgSL1-PA81 \|publisherSterling Publishers \|pagesA80–A81 \|isbn978-81-207-4074-7}}</ref> and Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur<ref>{{cite book \|lastAyalon \|firstDavid \|titleStudies in Islamic History and Civilisation \|publisherBrill \|year1986 \|isbn978-965-264-014-7 \|page271}}</ref><ref>Abraham Eraly (2000), Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals, Penguin Books, {{ISBN\|978-0-14-100143-2}}, pp. 398–399. According to Abraham Eraly, "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed" and later "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705.<br /><br />Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), p. 115)</ref>{{efn\|See also [http://www.aurangzeb.info/ "Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records"]; more links at the bottom of that page. For Muslim historian's record on major Hindu temple destruction campaigns, from 1193 to 1729 AD, see Richard Eaton (2000), "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp. 283–319}} and the prohibition and supervision of behaviour and activities that are forbidden in Islam such as gambling, fornication, and consumption of alcohol and narcotics.<ref>{{cite book \|lastHaroon \|firstAsif \|titleMuhammad Bin Qasim to General Pervez Musharraf: Triumphs, Tribulations \|publisherSang-e-Meel \|year2004 \|isbn978-969-35-1624-1 \|locationLahore \|page70 \|quoteTo start with, Aurangzeb gradually transformed the system of governance as per the dictates of Shariah ... He curbed practices of gambling, drinking, music and prostitution}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news \|titleMughal dynasty {{!}} History, Map, & Facts \|workEncyclopædia Britannica \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Mughal-dynasty \|access-date2018-10-06}}</ref> At the same time, some historians question the historical authenticity of the claims of his critics, arguing that his destruction of temples has been exaggerated,{{sfn\|Avari\|2013\|p115 \|ps: citing a 2000 study, writes "Aurangzeb was perhaps no more culpable than most of the sultans before him; they desecrated the temples associated with Hindu power, not all temples. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of eighty destructions."}}<ref>{{cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|year2017 \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ \|publisherStanford University Press \|page85 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5 \|quoteNobody knows the exact number of temples demolished or pillaged on Aurangzeb's orders, and we never will. Richard Eaton, the leading authority on the subject, puts the number of confirmed temple destructions during Aurangzeb's rule at just over a dozen, with fewer tied to the emperor's direct commands. Other scholars have pointed out additional temple demolitions not counted by Eaton, such as two orders to destroy the Somanatha Temple in 1659 and 1706 (the existence of a second order suggests that the first was never carried out). Aurangzeb also oversaw temple desecrations. For example, in 1645 he ordered mihrabs (prayer niches, typically located in mosques) erected in Ahmedabad's Chintamani Parshvanath Temple, built by the Jain merchant Shantidas. Even adding in such events, however, to quote Eaton, "the evidence is almost always fragmentary, incomplete, or even contradictory". Given this, there were probably more temples destroyed under Aurangzeb than we can confirm (perhaps a few dozen in total?), but here we run into a dark curtain drawn across an unknown past.}}</ref> and noting that he built more temples than he destroyed,<ref name"Copland2013" /> paid for their maintenance, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.<ref name"Truschke50" /> Muhammad Al-Munajjid has argued that the opinions from Islamic scholarly community towards Aurangzeb were positive because of the emperor's general attitude and actions, such as abolishing Bid'ah celebrations, musics, and the customs of bowing and kissing the ground which were done by his predecessors, practically adhering to the practice of Salafi while still held to Hanafite creed.{{#tag:ref\|through IslamQA.info,<ref>{{cite web \|author1Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid \|titleBiography of the Moghul ruler Aurangzeb; was he Salafi in his 'aqeedah? \|urlhttps://islamqa.info/en/answers/174824/biography-of-the-moghul-ruler-aurangzeb-was-he-salafi-in-his-aqeedah \|websiteIslamQA \|access-date19 September 2023 \|languageen \|date18 April 2015}}</ref> Professor Muhammad al-Munajjid on his online correspondence has answered that he based his opinion ''Silk ad-Durar fi A'yaan al-Qarn ath-Thaani 'Ashar (4/113)''<ref>{{cite book \|author1Muhammad Khalil Al-Muradi \|titleسلك الدرر في أعيان القرن الثاني عشر \|date1997 \|publisherDar al Kutub al 'Alamiyya \|page113 \|urlhttps://www.neelwafurat.com/itempage.aspx?idlbb78642-39113&searchbooks \|access-date19 September 2023 \|languageAr}}</ref> and Aurangzeb biography by Professor 'Abd al-Mun'im an-Nimr in his book ''Tareekh al-Islam fi'l-Hind''.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Nimr \|first1'Abd al-Mun'im \|titleTarikh al-Islam fi al-Hind \|date1981 \|publisherBeirut : Al-Mu'ssasah al-Jam'iyah al-Dirasat wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi \|pages286–288 \|urlhttps://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2000399 \|access-date19 September 2023 \|languageEn}}</ref> \|group"Notes"}} Apparently this view of Aurangzeb were influenced by Muhammad Saleh Kamboh,<ref>{{cite web \|author1Deepaj Kamboj \|titleShaikh Inayat-Allah Kamboh \|urlhttps://www.kambojsociety.com/post/shaikh-inayat-allah-kamboh#_note-3 \|websiteKambojSociety.com \|publisherKamboj Society \|access-date18 November 2023 \|languageEn \|date3 September 2014 \|quoteModern Asian Studies 1988, p. 308; Cambridge University Press Online Journals. Asia Shah Jahan, 1975, p. 131, Henry Miers Elliot – Mogul Empire}}</ref> who acted as his teacher.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Mohammad Nurul Alam Rafiq Ahmed \|author2Rafiq Ahmed \|titleWorld Heritage & Records of Sufism Volume – II \|date2010 \|publisherWorld Spiritual Assembly \|isbn978-0-615-37164-1 \|urlhttps://www.goodreads.com/book/show/10824048-world-heritage-records-of-sufism-volume-ii \|access-date18 November 2023 \|languageen \|formatpaperback}}</ref> In Pakistan, author Haroon Khalid writes that, "Aurangzeb is presented as a hero who fought and expanded the frontiers of the Islamic empire" and "is imagined to be a true believer who removed corrupt practices from religion and the court, and once again purified the empire."<ref>Haroon Khalid (1 October 2018), "In India and Pakistan, religion makes one country's hero the other's villain", Quartz India. Retrieved 21 April 2019.</ref> The academic Munis Faruqui also opines that the "Pakistani state and its allies in the religious and political establishments include him in the pantheon of premodern Muslim heroes, especially lauding him for his militarism, personal piety, and seeming willingness to accommodate Islamic morality within state goals."<ref>Munis D. Faruqui "Book review of ''Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King" in Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', Volume 87, Issue 1, March 2019, p. 300</ref> Muhammad Iqbal, considered the spiritual founder of Pakistan, admired Aurangzeb. Iqbal Singh Sevea, in his book on the political philosophy of the thinker, says that "Iqbal considered that the life and activities of Aurangzeb constituted the starting point of Muslim nationality in India".<ref>{{cite book \|last1Sevea \|first1Iqbal Singh \|titleThe Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India \|year2012 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|page168 \|isbn978-1-107-00886-1}}</ref> Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, hailed M.A. Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, to be the greatest Muslim since Aurangzeb.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Dhulipala \|first1Venkat \|titleCreating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial North India \|year2015 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|page489 \|isbn978-1-107-05212-3}}</ref> Pakistani-American academic Akbar Ahmed described President Zia-ul-Haq, known for his Islamization drive, as "conceptually ... a spiritual descendent of Aurangzeb" because Zia had an orthodox, legalistic view of Islam.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Ahmed \|first1Akbar S. \|author-linkAkbar Ahmed \|year2002 \|orig-date1987 \|titleDiscovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society \|editionRev. \|publisherRoutledge \|page82 \|isbn978-0-415-28525-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|lastIrfani \|firstSuroosh \|dateJuly–December 1996 \|titleReview Article: Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society \|urlhttp://pjhc.nihcr.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/10-Review-Article.pdf \|journalPakistan Journal of History and Culture \|volume13 \|issue2 \|page=116}}</ref> Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, a grand mufti of Egypt, once called Aurangzeb as "A remnant of the Rightly-Guided Rashidun Caliphs", as appreciation of Aurangzeb commitment to Islam teaching.<ref>{{cite book \|author1فريق بصمة \|titleالتاريخ كما كان \|dateOctober 2016 \|publisherكتوبيا للنشر والتوزيع \|page92 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnIBjDwAAQBAJ \|access-date4 December 2023 \|languageAr \|formatebook \|quote=... الطنطاوي بأنه "بقية الخلفاء الراشدين"، وقد كان على دراية كاملة بمخططات الهندوس والشيعة، خصوصا الأفغان منهم، فحارب ...}}</ref> Beyond the individual appreciations, Aurangzeb is seminal to Pakistan's national self-consciousness, as historian Ayesha Jalal, while referring to the Pakistani textbooks controversy, mentions M. D. Zafar's A Text Book of Pakistan Studies where we can read that, under Aurangzeb, "Pakistan spirit gathered in strength", while his death "weakened the Pakistan spirit."<ref>{{cite journal \|lastJalal \|firstAyesha \|dateFebruary 1995 \|titleConjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining \|journalInternational Journal of Middle East Studies \|volume27 \|issue1 \|page79\|doi10.1017/S0020743800061596 \|s2cid162731882 }}</ref> Another historian from Pakistan, Mubarak Ali, also looking at the textbooks, and while noting that Akbar "is conveniently ignored and not mentioned in any school textbook from class one to matriculation", contrasts him with Aurangzeb, who "appears in different textbooks of Social Studies and Urdu language as an orthodox and pious Muslim copying the Holy Quran and sewing caps for his livelihood."<ref>{{cite journal \|lastAli \|firstMubarak \|dateSeptember–October 1992 \|titleAkbar in Pakistani Textbooks \|journalSocial Scientist \|volume20 \|issue9/10 \|pages73–76 \|doi10.2307/3517719 \|jstor3517719 }}</ref> This image of Aurangzeb is not limited to Pakistan's official historiography. As of 2015, about 177 towns and villages of India have been named after Aurangzeb.<ref>{{cite news \|lastShaikh \|firstZeeshan \|titleA capital road gone, Mughal king Aurangzeb lives in 177 towns and villages \|workThe Indian Express \|date2015-09-05 \|urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/a-capital-road-gone-aurangzeb-lives-in-177-towns-and-villages/ \|access-date2023-07-01}}</ref> Historian Audrey Truschke points out that Bharatiya Janta Party (BJP), Hindutva proponents and some others outside Hindutva ideology regard Aurangzeb as Muslim zealot in India. Jawaharlal Nehru wrote that, due to his reversal of the cultural and religious syncretism of the previous Mughal emperors, Aurangzeb acted "more as a Moslem than an Indian ruler",<ref>{{cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|year2017 \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|publisherStanford University Press \|page7 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5}}</ref> while Mahatma Gandhi was of the view that there was greater degree of freedom under Mughal rule than the British rule and asks that "in Aurangzeb's time a Shivaji could flourish. Has one hundred and fifty years of the British rule produced any Pratap and Shivaji?"<ref>{{cite journal \|lastHasan \|firstFarhat \|titleNationalist representations of the Mughal state: The views of Tilak and Gandhi \|journalStudies in People's History \|publisherSage Publications \|volume6 \|issue1 \|date2019-05-16 \|issn2348-4489 \|doi10.1177/2348448919834791 \|pages52–62 \|s2cid182002531}}</ref> Other historians also noting that there are Hindu temples built during Aurangzeb reign,<ref name"Copland2013">{{Cite book \|last1Copland \|first1Ian \|titleA History of State and Religion in India \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduWcZulI5tL0C&pgPA119 \|last2Mabbett \|first2Ian \|last3Roy \|first3Asim \|last4Brittlebank \|first4Kate \|last5Bowles \|first5Adam \|publisherRoutledge \|year2013 \|isbn978-1-136-45950-4 \|page119 \|display-authors3}}</ref> while he also employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastTruschke \|firstAudrey \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|publisherStanford University Press \|year2017 \|isbn978-1-5036-0259-5}}</ref> Literatures Aurangzeb has prominently featured in the following books * 1675 – Aureng-zebe, play by John Dryden, written and performed on the London stage during the Emperor's lifetime. * 1688 – Alamgirnama by Mirza Mohammed Qasim official biographer at Aurangzeb's court<ref>{{cite book \| chapter-urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-india-as-told-by-its-own-historians/alamgirnama-of-muhammad-kazim/01D357035F5F4EC3BA6AC42AE2F3D1F0 \| doi10.1017/CBO9781139507202.014 \| chapterʾÁlamgír-náma , of Muhammad Kázim \| titleThe History of India, as Told by its Own Historians \| seriesCambridge Library Collection – Perspectives from the Royal Asiatic Society \| date2013 \| volume7 \| pages174–180 \| publisherCambridge University Press \| isbn978-1-139-50720-2 }}</ref> * 19?? – Hindi fiction novel by Acharya Chatursen Shastri<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/entertainment/Understanding-Aurangzeb/article14434624.ece\|titleUnderstanding Aurangzeb\|lastLokapally\|firstVijay\|date21 June 2016\|workThe Hindu\|access-date13 December 2017\|issn0971-751X}}</ref> * 1970 – Shahenshah ({{langx\|mr\|शहेनशहा}}), the Marathi fictional biography by N S Inamdar; translated into English in 2017 by Vikrant Pande as Shahenshah – The Life of Aurangzeb * 2017 – 1636: Mission to the Mughals, by Eric Flint and Griffin Barber * 2018 – Aurangzeb: The Man and the Myth, by Audrey Truschke Personal life Full title and seal of Aurangzeb, on an imperial firman'']]The epithet Aurangzeb means 'Ornament of the Throne'.<ref name"Thackeray248" /> His chosen title Alamgir translates to Conqueror of the World.<ref>{{cite book \|titleDictionary of Wars \|date2013 \|publisherTaylor and Francis \|isbn978-1-135-95494-9 \|locationHoboken \|page=387}}</ref> Aurangzeb's full imperial title was: Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Hazrat Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I, Badshah Ghazi, Shahanshah-e-Sultanat-ul-Hindiya Wal Mughaliya.<ref>{{cite web\|titleTomb of Aurangzeb\|urlhttp://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf\|publisherASI Aurangabad\|access-date21 March 2015\|archive-date23 September 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923175254/http://www.asiaurangabad.in/pdf/Tourist/Tomb_of_Aurangzeb-_Khulatabad.pdf}}</ref> Aurangzeb had also been attributed various other titles including Caliph of The Merciful, Monarch of Islam, and Living Custodian of God.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hussein \|first1S M \|date2002 \|titleStructure of Politics Under Aurangzeb 1658–1707 \|publisherKanishka Publishers Distributors \|page158 \|isbn978-81-7391-489-8}}</ref><ref>Shah Muhammad Waseem (2003): [https://books.google.com/books?iddShuAAAAMAAJ&qaurangzeb+caliph هندوستان ميں فارسى تاريخ نگارى: ٧١ويں صدى كے آخرى نصف سے ٨١ويں صدى كے پهلے نصف تک فارسى تاريخ نگارى كا ارتقاء], Kanishka Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-81-7391-537-6}}</ref> Family Consorts Aurangzeb had at least 4 consorts in his harem, from which he fathered 6 sons and 6 daughters: Dilras Banu Begum. Safavid Princess, daughter of Prince Mirza Badi-uz-Zaman Safavi, Aurangzeb's first wife. Nawab Bai. Secondary's wife of Aurangzeb, daughter of Raja Tajuddin Khan Aurangabadi Mahal. First Concubine of Aurangzeb Udaipuri Mahal. Second concubine of Aurangzeb; She was a dancing girl before entering the harem Issues Sons Shahzada Mirza Muhammad Sultan (30 December 1639 – 14 December 1676). Imprisoned by his father; With Nawab Bai Bahadur Shah I (14 October 1643 – 27 February 1712). Mughal Emperor, conspired to overthrow his younger brother; With Nawab Bai Muhammad Azam Shah (28 June 1653 – 20 June 1707). Overthrowen by his elder half-brother; With Dilras Banu Begum Shahzade Mirza Muhammad Akbar (11 September 1657 – 31 March 1706). Exiled to Safavid empire; With Dilras Banu Begum Shahzada Mirza Muhammad Kam Bakhsh (7 March 1667 – 14 January 1709). Ruler of Bijapur; With Udaipuri Mahal Daughters Shahzadi Zeb-un-Nissa (15 February 1638 – 26 May 1702). She poet and was imprisoned by her father. She never married or had children; With Dilras Banu Begum Shahzadi Zinat-un-Nissa Begum ( 5 October 1643 – 7 May 1721). She became Mughal Empress (Padshah Begum) .With Dilras Banu Begum Shahzadi Badr-un-Nissa Begum (17 November 1647 – 9 April 1670). Never married or had any children; With Nawab Bai Shahzadi Zubdat-un-Nissa Begum (2 September 1651 – 17 February 1707). Married once and had a son; With Dilras Banu Begum Shahzadi Mihr-un-Nissa Begum (Persian: مهرالنسا بیگم; 28 September 1661 – 2 April 1706). Married once and had 2 sons; With Aurangabadi Mahal See also * Flags of the Mughal Empire * Mughal architecture * Mughal weapons * List of largest empires Notes {{notelist}} {{Reflist\|group"Notes"}} Citations {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{refbegin}} * {{citation \|firstBurjor \|lastAvari \|author-linkBurjor Avari \|titleIslamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhGHpVtQ8eKoC \|publisherRoutledge \|isbn978-0-41558-061-8 \|year=2013}} * {{cite book \|lastDurant \|firstWill \|author-linkWill Durant \|year1993 \|orig-date1935 \|titleThe Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage \|publisherSimon & Schuster \|isbn978-1-56731-023-8}} * {{Cite book \|lastFarooqi \|firstNaimur Rahman \|titleMughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduB1uAAAAMAAJ \|year1989 \|publisherIdarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli \|oclc20894584}} * {{cite journal \|last1Malik \|first1Adnan \|last2Zubair \|first2Muhammad \|last3Parveen \|first3Uzman \|titleEffects of social reforms of shaykh Ahmad sirhindi (1564–1624) on Muslim society in the sub continent \|journalJournal of Social Sciences and Humanities \|date2016 \|volume55 \|issue2 \|pages155–164 \|urlhttps://philpapers.org/rec/MALEOS-28 \|access-date9 March 2024 \|publisherUniversity of Karachi \|doi10.46568/jssh.v55i2.70 \|languageEn \|doi-accessfree}} * {{cite book \|lastMatthee \|firstRudi \|author-linkRudi Matthee \|titlePersia in Crisis: Safavid Decline and the Fall of Isfahan \|year2012 \|publisherI.B.Tauris \|isbn=978-1-84511-745-0}} * {{cite book \|last1Mukerjee \|first1Soma \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv-2TyjzZhZEC&pgPA23 \|titleRoyal Mughal ladies and their contributions \|date2001 \|publisherGyan Publishing House \|isbn=978-81-212-0760-7}} * {{cite book \|lastRichards \|firstJohn F. \|author-linkJohn F. Richards \|year1996 \|orig-date1993 \|titleThe Mughal Empire \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHHyVh29gy4QC&pgPA1 \|seriesThe New Cambridge History of India \|volume5 \|publisherCambridge University Press \|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}} * {{cite book \|lastSarkar \|firstJadunath \|urlhttps://jambudveep.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/history-of-aurangzeb-vol-1.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://jambudveep.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/history-of-aurangzeb-vol-1.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|titleHistory of Aurangzib Vol. I \|date1912 \|publisherM.C. Sarkar & Sons \|locationCalcutta}} {{refend}} Further reading * {{Cite book \|lastEraly \|firstAbraham \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqhluAAAAMAAJ \|year2007 \|titleThe Mughal world \|publisherWeidenfeld & Nicolson \|placeLondon \|isbn=978-0-297-85209-4}} * {{cite book \|titleThe Peacock Throne: The Drama of Mogul India \|firstWaldemar \|lastHansen \|publisherMotilal Banarsidass \|year1986 \|edition2nd \|orig-date1972 (Holt, Rinehart, Winston) \|isbn978-81-208-0225-4 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAV--abKg9GEC}} * {{cite book \|lastIrvine \|firstWilliam \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idak5oFjTys8MC \|titleThe Later Mughals \|publisherAtlantic Publishers & Distribution \|year1971 \|author-linkWilliam Irvine (historian)}} * {{Cite book \|lastKhan \|firstKhafi \|editor-lastHashim \|editor-firstMuhammad \|year2006 \|orig-date1718 \|titleMuntakhab-ul Lubab \|publisherSang-e-Meel Publications \|place=Pakistan}} * {{cite book \|firstMuḥammad Bakhtāvar \|lastKhān \|titleMir'at al-'Alam: History of Emperor Awangzeb Alamgir \|translator-linkSajida Alvi \|translator-firstSajida \|translator-lastAlvi \|locationLahore \|publisherIdārah-ʾi Taḥqīqāt-i Pākistan \|year=1979}} * {{cite book \|titleXenophobia in Seventeenth-century India \|firstGijs \|lastKruijtzer \|publisherLeiden University Press \|year2009 \|urlhttps://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/13850/Kruijtzer..?sequence2 \|isbn978-90-8728-068-0}} * {{cite book \|titleA Short History of Pakistan \|firstIshtiaq Hussain \|lastQureshi \|publisherUniversity of Karachi Press}} * {{cite book \|author-linkJadunath Sarkar \|lastSarkar \|firstJadunath \|year1972 \|titleHistory of Aurangzib \|locationBombay \|publisher=Orient Longman}} * {{cite book \|titleDelhi \|firstKhushwant \|lastSingh \|year2000 \|publisherPenguin USA \|editionOpen Market \|isbn=0-14-012619-8}} * {{cite book \|last1Tillotson \|first1Giles \|titleTaj Mahal \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/tajmahal0000till_r2b4 \|url-accessregistration \|date2008 \|publisherHarvard University Press \|isbn978-0-674-06365-5 \|location=Cambridge, MA}} * {{cite book \|firstAudrey \|lastTruschke \|titleAurangzeb: The Man and The Myth \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ \|publisherPenguin India \|year2017 \|isbn9780670089819}} ** {{cite book \|firstAudrey \|lastTruschke \|titleAurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoUUkDwAAQBAJ \|publisherStanford University Press \|year2017 \|isbn9781503602038}} External links {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category}} {{EB9 Poster\|Aurungzebe}} * [http://www.aurangzeb.info/ Aurangzeb, as he was according to Mughal Records] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20000712183224/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html Article on Aurganzeb] from MANAS group page, UCLA * [https://aeon.co/essays/the-great-aurangzeb-is-everybodys-least-favourite-mughal The great Aurangzeb is everybody's least favourite Mughal – Audrey Truschke \| Aeon Essays] by Audrey Truschke, published on AEON * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050829192151/http://web.nwe.ufl.edu/~esull/restoration/aurengzebe.htm The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe] Text of John Dryden's drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, 1675 * [http://coinindia.com/galleries-aurangzeb.html Coins of Aurangzeb] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180918091133/https://www.urdulibraryonline.com/aurangzeb-alamgir-aslam-rahi-ma/ Life of Auranzeb in Urdu (ebook)] {{S-start}} {{S-hou\|Timurid dynasty\|\|{{circa\|1618}}\|\|3 March 1707\|name=Aurangzeb}} {{S-reg\|}} {{S-bef \| before = Shah Jahan }} {{S-ttl \| title = Mughal Emperor \| years = 1658–1707 }} {{S-aft \| after = Azam Shah }} {{S-end}} {{Portal bar\|Biography\|Islam\|India}} {{Mughal Empire}} {{Maturidi}} {{Authority control}} Category:Sunni Muslims Category:Sunni Sufis Category:Hanafis Category:Maturidis Category:Mujaddid Category:Emperors of the Mughal Empire Category:17th-century Indian Muslims Category:18th-century Indian Muslims Category:People from Dahod district Category:17th-century Indian monarchs Category:18th-century Indian monarchs Category:Subahdars of Gujarat Category:Indian people of Iranian descent Category:1618 births Category:1707 deaths Category:17th-century Mughal Empire people Category:18th-century Mughal Empire people Category:Subahdars of Thatta	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurangzeb	2025-04-05T18:26:04.206222
2427	Alexandrine	{{Short description\|Line of poetic meter comprising 12 syllables}} {{Other uses}} in a diving bell: a scene from the line's namesake, the ''Roman d'Alexandre''.]] Alexandrine is a name used for several distinct types of verse line with related metrical structures, most of which are ultimately derived from the classical French alexandrine. The line's name derives from its use in the Medieval French ''Roman d'Alexandre of 1170, although it had already been used several decades earlier in Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne.{{sfn\|Peureux\|2012\|p=35}} The foundation of most alexandrines consists of two hemistichs (half-lines) of six syllables each, separated by a caesura (a metrical pause or word break, which may or may not be realized as a stronger syntactic break): o o o o o o \| o o o o o o oany syllable; \|caesura However, no tradition remains this simple. Each applies additional constraints (such as obligatory stress or nonstress on certain syllables) and options (such as a permitted or required additional syllable at the end of one or both hemistichs). Thus a line that is metrical in one tradition may be unmetrical in another. Where the alexandrine has been adopted, it has frequently served as the heroic verse form of that language or culture, English being a notable exception. Scope of the term The term "alexandrine" may be used with greater or lesser rigour. Peureux suggests that only French syllabic verse with a 6+6 structure is, strictly speaking, an alexandrine.{{sfn\|Peureux\|2012\|p36}} Preminger et al''. allow a broader scope: "Strictly speaking, the term 'alexandrine' is appropriate to French syllabic meters, and it may be applied to other metrical systems only where they too espouse syllabism as their principle, introduce phrasal accentuation, or rigorously observe the medial caesura, as in French."{{sfn\|Preminger\|Scott\|Brogan\|1993\|p31}} Common usage within the literatures of European languages is broader still, embracing lines syllabic, accentual-syllabic, and (inevitably) stationed ambivalently between the two; lines of 12, 13, or even 14 syllables; lines with obligatory, predominant, and optional caesurae. French {{main article\|French alexandrine}} {{multiple image \| footer = Baïf is often credited with the reintroduction of the alexandrine in the mid-16th century. Hugo declared the classical alexandrine to have been "dislocated" by his use of the alexandrin ternaire. \| total_width = 400 \| image1 = Jean Antoine de Baïf.jpg \| width1 = 350 \| height1 = 369 \| caption1 = Jean-Antoine de Baïf \| image2 = Victor Hugo by Charles Hugo, c1850-55.jpg \| width2 = 942 \| height2 = 1134 \| caption2 = Victor Hugo }} Although alexandrines occurred in French verse as early as the 12th century,{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p181}} they were slightly looser rhythmically, and vied with the décasyllabe and octosyllabe for cultural prominence and use in various genres. "The alexandrine came into its own in the middle of the sixteenth century with the poets of the Pléiade and was firmly established in the seventeenth century."{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p177}} It became the preferred line for the prestigious genres of epic and tragedy.{{sfn\|Peureux\|2012\|p=36}} The structure of the classical French alexandrine is o o o o o S \| o o o o o S (e){{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p=131}} Sstressed syllable; (e)optional mute e Classical alexandrines are always rhymed, often in couplets alternating masculine rhymes and feminine rhymes,{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p=179}} though other configurations (such as quatrains and sonnets) are also common. Victor Hugo began the process of loosening the strict two-hemistich structure.{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p183}} While retaining the medial caesura, he often reduced it to a mere word-break, creating a three-part line (alexandrin ternaire) with this structure:{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p183-84}} o o o S \| o o ¦ o S \| o o o S (e) \|strong caesura; ¦word break The Symbolists further weakened the classical structure, sometimes eliminating any or all of these caesurae.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p133}} However, at no point did the newer line replace the older; rather, they were used concurrently, often in the same poem.{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p184-86}}{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p133}} This loosening process eventually led to vers libéré and finally to vers libre.{{sfn\|Flescher\|1972\|p186-87}} English {{multiple image \| footer = Spenser added one alexandrine to his iambic pentameter stanza; Drayton composed the longest work entirely in English alexandrines. \| total_width = 400 \| image1 = Faerie Queene Title Page.jpg \| width1 = 1033 \| height1 = 1536 \| caption1 = Title page of Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590/1596) \| image2 = Michael Drayton00.jpg \| width2 = 1469 \| height2 = 2329 \| caption2 = Title page of Drayton's Poly-Olbion (1612/1622) }} In English verse, "alexandrine" is typically used to mean "iambic hexameter": × / × / × / ¦ × / × / × / (×) /ictus, a strong syllabic position; ×nonictus ¦=often a mandatory or predominant caesura, but depends upon the author Whereas the French alexandrine is syllabic, the English is accentual-syllabic; and the central caesura (a defining feature of the French) is not always rigidly preserved in English. Though English alexandrines have occasionally provided the sole metrical line for a poem, for example in lyric poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey{{sfn\|Alden\|1903\|p255}} and Sir Philip Sidney,{{sfn\|Alden\|1903\|p256}} and in two notable long poems, Michael Drayton's Poly-Olbion{{sfn\|Alden\|1903\|pp256-57}} and Robert Browning's Fifine at the Fair,{{sfn\|Alden\|1903\|pp257-59}} they have more often featured alongside other lines. During the Middle Ages they typically occurred with heptameters (seven-beat lines), both exhibiting metrical looseness.{{sfn\|Alden\|1903\|pp=252-54}} Around the mid-16th century stricter alexandrines were popular as the first line of poulter's measure couplets, fourteeners (strict iambic heptameters) providing the second line. The strict English alexandrine may be exemplified by a passage from Poly-Olbion, which features a rare caesural enjambment (symbolized <code>¦</code>) in the first line: <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Ye sacred Bards, that to ¦ your harps' melodious strings Sung {{not a typo\|th'ancient}} Heroes' deeds (the monuments of Kings) And in your dreadful verse {{not a typo\|ingrav'd}} the prophecies, The agèd world's descents, and genealogies; (lines 31-34)<ref>{{cite book \| lastDrayton \| firstMichael \| author-linkMichael Drayton \|editor-lastHooper \| editor-firstRichard \| titleThe Complete Works of Michael Drayton \| volume1 \| date1876 \| locationLondon \| publisherJohn Russell Smith \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/completeworksofm01dray \| page2}}</ref> </poem> The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser, with its stanzas of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by one alexandrine, exemplifies what came to be its chief role: as a somewhat infrequent variant line in an otherwise iambic pentameter context. Alexandrines provide occasional variation in the blank verse of William Shakespeare and his contemporaries (but rarely; they constitute only about 1% of Shakespeare's blank verse<ref>{{cite book \| lastWright \| firstGeorge T. \| titleShakespeare's Metrical Art \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/shakespearesmetr0000wrig \| url-accessregistration \| date1988 \| locationBerkeley \| publisherUniversity of California Press \| isbn0-520-07642-7 \| page[https://archive.org/details/shakespearesmetr0000wrig/page/143 143]}}</ref>). John Dryden and his contemporaries and followers likewise occasionally employed them as the second (rarely the first) line of heroic couplets, or even more distinctively as the third line of a triplet. In his Essay on Criticism, Alexander Pope denounced (and parodied) the excessive and unskillful use of this practice: <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Then at the last and only couplet fraught With some unmeaning thing they call a thought, A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. (lines 354-357)<ref>{{cite book \| lastPope\| firstAlexander \| author-linkAlexander Pope \|editor-lastRogers \| editor-firstPat\| titleAlexander Pope: The Major Works \| date1993 \| locationOxford, UK \| publisherOxford UP \| page28}}</ref> </poem> Other languages Spanish The Spanish verso alejandrino is a line of 7+7 syllables, probably developed in imitation of the French alexandrine.{{sfn\|Clarke\|2012\|p1347}} Its structure is:{{sfn\|Mérimée\|1930\|p39}} o o o o o S o \| o o o o o S o It was used beginning about 1200 for mester de clerecía (clerical verse), typically occurring in the cuaderna vía, a stanza of four alejandrinos all with a single end-rhyme.{{sfn\|Clarke\|2012\|p=1347}} The alejandrino was most prominent during the 13th and 14th centuries, after which time it was eclipsed by the metrically more flexible arte mayor.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p138}} Juan Ruiz's Book of Good Love is one of the best-known examples of cuaderna vía, though other verse forms also appear in the work.{{sfn\|Gaylord\|Mayhew\|2012\|p1334}} Dutch The mid-16th-century poet Jan van der Noot pioneered syllabic Dutch alexandrines on the French model, but within a few decades Dutch alexandrines had been transformed into strict iambic hexameters with a caesura after the third foot.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p193}} From the Low Countries the accentual-syllabic alexandrine spread to other continental literatures.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p194}} {{Verse translation\| {{lang\|nl\|Als ick in liefde ben, dan ben ick als gebonden, Als ick daer buyten ben, dan ben ick gans geschonden… Wat doe ick doch aldus? ontbonden wil ick zijn, Soo ick ontbonden ben, soo meerdert doch mijn pijn…}}{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p194}}\|attr1Daniel Heinsius\| Whenas I am in love, in fetters am I bound, When I in love am not, shame doth me quite confound. Say then, what shall I do? My freedom would I gain, But when I freedom get the greater is my pain.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p194}}\|attr2Translated by Leofranc Holford-Strevens}} German Similarly, in early 17th-century Germany, Georg Rudolf Weckherlin advocated for an alexandrine with free rhythms, reflecting French practice; whereas Martin Opitz advocated for a strict accentual-syllabic iambic alexandrine in imitation of contemporary Dutch practice — and German poets followed Opitz.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p194}} The alexandrine (strictly iambic with a consistent medial caesura) became the dominant long line of the German baroque.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p196}} Polish {{main article\|Polish alexandrine}} Unlike many similar lines, the Polish alexandrine developed not from French verse but from Latin, specifically, the 13-syllable goliardic line:{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p=222}} Latin goliardic: o o o s S s s \| o o o s S s Polish alexandrine: o o o o o S s \| o o o s S s s=unstressed syllable Though looser instances of this (nominally) 13-syllable line were occasionally used in Polish literature, it was Mikołaj Rej and Jan Kochanowski who, in the 16th century, introduced the syllabically strict line as a vehicle for major works.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p220}}Czech {{main article\|Czech alexandrine}} The Czech alexandrine is a comparatively recent development, based on the French alexandrine and introduced by Karel Hynek Mácha in the 19th century. Its structure forms a halfway point between features usual in syllabic and in accentual-syllabic verse, being more highly constrained than most syllabic verse, and less so than most accentual-syllabic verse. Moreover, it equally encourages the very different rhythms of iambic hexameter and dactylic tetrameter to emerge by preserving the constants of both measures: iambic hexameter: s S <u>s S s</u> S \| s S <u>s S s</u> S <u>(s)</u> dactylic tetrameter: S s <u>s S s</u> s \| S s <u>s S s</u> s <u>(s)</u> Czech alexandrine: o o <u>s S s</u> o \| o o <u>s S s</u> o <u>(s)</u> Hungarian Hungarian metrical verse may be written either syllabically (the older and more traditional style, known as "national") or quantitatively.{{sfn\|Lotz\|1972\|p101}} One of the national lines has a 6+6 structure:{{sfn\|Lotz\|1972\|p101}} o o o o o o \| o o o o o o Although deriving from native folk versification, it is possible that this line, and the related 6-syllable line, were influenced by Latin or Romance examples.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|pp258-259}} When employed in 4-line or 8-line stanzas and riming in couplets, this is called the Hungarian alexandrine; it is the Hungarian heroic verse form.{{sfn\|Lotz\|1972\|p102}} Beginning with the 16th-century verse of Bálint Balassi, this became the dominant Hungarian verseform.{{sfn\|Gasparov\|1996\|p259}}Modern referencesIn the comic book Asterix and Cleopatra, the author Goscinny inserted a pun about alexandrines: when the Druid Panoramix ("Getafix" in the English translation) meets his Alexandrian (Egyptian) friend the latter exclaims Je suis, mon cher ami, \|\| très heureux de te voir at which Panoramix observes ''C'est un Alexandrin'' ("That's an alexandrine!"/"He's an Alexandrian!"). The pun can also be heard in the theatrical adaptations. The English translation renders this as "My dear old Getafix \|\| I hope I find you well", with the reply "An Alexandrine".Notes{{Reflist\|20em}}References {{cite book \| last=Alden \| first=Raymond Macdonald \| author-link=Raymond Macdonald Alden \| year=1903 \| title=English Verse: Specimens Illustrating its Principles and History \| location=New York \| publisher=Henry Holt and Company \| url=https://archive.org/details/englishversespec00alde }} {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last=Greene \| editor1-first=Roland \| editor2-last=Cushman \| editor2-first=Stephen \| editor3-last=Cavanagh \| editor3-first=Clare \| editor4-last=Ramazani \| editor4-first=Jahan \| editor5-last=Rouzer \| editor5-first=Paul \| editor1-link=Roland Greene \| display-editors=2 \| author-last=Clarke \| author-first=D. C. \| title=Spanish Prosody \| pages=1347–48 \| date=2012 \| encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics \| edition=Fourth \| location=Princeton, NJ \| publisher=Princeton University Press \| isbn=978-0-691-13334-8 }} {{cite book \| editor-last=Wimsatt \| editor-first=W. K. \| editor-link=William Kurtz Wimsatt Jr. \| author-last=Flescher \| author-first=Jacqueline \| contribution=French \| pages=[https://archive.org/details/versificationmaj00wims/page/177 177–90] \| date=1972 \| title=Versification: Major Language Types \| location=New York \| publisher=New York University Press \| isbn=08147-9155-7 \| url=https://archive.org/details/versificationmaj00wims/page/177 \| url-access=registration }} {{cite book \| last=Gasparov \| first=M. L. \| author-link=Mikhail Gasparov \| translator1-last=Smith \| translator1-first=G. S. \| translator2-last=Tarlinskaja \| translator2-first=Marina \| translator2-link=Marina Tarlinskaja \| editor1-last=Smith \| editor1-first=G. S. \| editor2-last=Holford-Strevens \| editor2-first=L. \| editor2-link=Leofranc Holford-Strevens \| title=A History of European Versification \| year=1996 \| publisher=Clarendon Press \| location=Oxford \| isbn=0-19-815879-3 \| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofeuropea00gasp \| url-access=registration }} {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last=Greene \| editor1-first=Roland \| editor2-last=Cushman \| editor2-first=Stephen \| editor3-last=Cavanagh \| editor3-first=Clare \| editor4-last=Ramazani \| editor4-first=Jahan \| editor5-last=Rouzer \| editor5-first=Paul \| editor1-link=Roland Greene \| display-editors=2 \| author1-last=Gaylord \| author1-first=M. M. \| author2-last=Mayhew \| author2-first=J. \| title=Poetry of Spain \| pages=1333–43 \| date=2012 \| encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics \| edition=Fourth \| location=Princeton, NJ \| publisher=Princeton University Press \| isbn=978-0-691-13334-8 }} {{cite book \| editor-last=Wimsatt \| editor-first=W. K. \| editor-link=William Kurtz Wimsatt Jr. \| author-last=Lotz \| author-first=John \| contribution=Uralic \| pages=[https://archive.org/details/versificationmaj00wims/page/100 100–121] \| date=1972 \| title=Versification: Major Language Types \| location=New York \| publisher=New York University Press \| isbn=08147-9155-7 \| url=https://archive.org/details/versificationmaj00wims \| url-access=registration }} {{cite book \| last=Mérimée \| first=Ernest \| translator-last=Morley \| translator-first=S. Griswold \| title=A History of Spanish Literature \| year=1930 \| publisher=Henry Holt and Company \| location=New York \| oclc=976918756 \| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofspanish0000meri \| url-access=registration }} {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last=Preminger \| editor1-first=Alex \| editor2-last=Brogan \| editor2-first=T.V.F. \| editor3-last=Warnke \| editor3-first=Frank J. \| editor4-last=Hardison Jr. \| editor4-first=O. B. \| editor5-last=Miner \| editor5-first=Earl \| display-editors=2 \| author1-last=Preminger \| author1-first=Alex \| author2-last=Scott \| author2-first=Clive \| author3-last=Brogan \| author3-first=T. V. F. \| author2-link=Clive Scott (linguist) \| title=Alexandrine \| pages=30–31 \| date=1993 \| encyclopedia=The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics \| location=New York \| publisher=MJF Books \| isbn=1-56731-152-0 \| url=https://archive.org/details/newprincetonency0000unse/page/30 \| url-access=registration }} *{{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last=Greene \| editor1-first=Roland \| editor2-last=Cushman \| editor2-first=Stephen \| editor3-last=Cavanagh \| editor3-first=Clare \| editor4-last=Ramazani \| editor4-first=Jahan \| editor5-last=Rouzer \| editor5-first=Paul \| editor1-link=Roland Greene \| display-editors=2 \| author-last=Peureux \| author-first=Guillaume \| title=Alexandrine \| pages=35–36 \| date=2012 \| encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics \| edition=Fourth \| location=Princeton, NJ \| publisher=Princeton University Press \| isbn=978-0-691-13334-8 }} {{Authority control}} Category:French poetry Category:Spanish poetry Category:German poetry Category:Polish poetry Category:Czech poetry Category:Types of verses Category:Sonnet studies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandrine	2025-04-05T18:26:04.226408
2428	Analog computer	thumb\|A page from the Bombardier's Information File (BIF) that describes the components and controls of the Norden bombsight, a highly sophisticated optical/mechanical analog computer used by the United States Army Air Force during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War to aid the pilot of a bomber aircraft in dropping bombs accurately.\|alt=\|356x356px thumb\|TR-10 desktop analog computer of the late 1960s and early 1970s\|alt=\|347x347px An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computation machine (computer) that uses physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities behaving according to the mathematical principles in question (analog signals) to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically and by discrete values of both time and amplitude (digital signals). Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most complicated. Complex mechanisms for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions. Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the advent of digital computers, because at the time they were typically much faster, but they started to become obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although they remained in use in some specific applications, such as aircraft flight simulators, the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. Perhaps the most relatable example of analog computers are mechanical watches where the continuous and periodic rotation of interlinked gears drives the second, minute and hour needles in the clock. More complex applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task. Timeline of analog computers Precursors This is a list of examples of early computation devices considered precursors of the modern computers. Some of them may even have been dubbed 'computers' by the press, though they may fail to fit modern definitions. thumb\|The Antikythera mechanism, dating between 150 and 100 BC, was an early analog computer.\|alt=\|260x260px The Antikythera mechanism, a type of device used to determine the positions of heavenly bodies known as an orrery, was described as an early mechanical analog computer by British physicist, information scientist, and historian of science Derek J. de Solla Price. It was discovered in 1901, in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to , during the Hellenistic period. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later. Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was first described by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation. The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. thumb\|A slide rule. The sliding central slip is set to 1.3, the cursor to 2.0 and points to the multiplied result of 2.6.\|alt=\|260x260px The slide rule was invented around 1620–1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Aviation is one of the few fields where slide rules are still in widespread use, particularly for solving time–distance problems in light aircraft. In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a perpetual-calendar machine, which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 (that is, 1 BC) to AD 4000, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The tide-predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 James Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. Several systems followed, notably those of Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo, who built various analog machines for solving real and complex roots of polynomials; and Michelson and Stratton, whose Harmonic Analyser performed Fourier analysis, but using an array of 80 springs rather than Kelvin integrators. This work led to the mathematical understanding of the Gibbs phenomenon of overshoot in Fourier representation near discontinuities. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. Modern era thumb\| Analog computing machine at the Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory .\|alt=\|260x260px thumb\|Heathkit EC-1 educational analog computer\|alt=\|260x260px The Dumaresq was a mechanical calculating device invented around 1902 by Lieutenant John Dumaresq of the Royal Navy. It was an analog computer that related vital variables of the fire control problem to the movement of one's own ship and that of a target ship. It was often used with other devices, such as a Vickers range clock to generate range and deflection data so the gun sights of the ship could be continuously set. A number of versions of the Dumaresq were produced of increasing complexity as development proceeded. By 1912, Arthur Pollen had developed an electrically driven mechanical analog computer for fire-control systems, based on the differential analyser. It was used by the Imperial Russian Navy in World War I. Starting in 1929, AC network analyzers were constructed to solve calculation problems related to electrical power systems that were too large to solve with numerical methods at the time. These were essentially scale models of the electrical properties of the full-size system. Since network analyzers could handle problems too large for analytic methods or hand computation, they were also used to solve problems in nuclear physics and in the design of structures. More than 50 large network analyzers were built by the end of the 1950s. World War II era gun directors, gun data computers, and bomb sights used mechanical analog computers. In 1942 Helmut Hölzer built a fully electronic analog computer at Peenemünde Army Research Center as an embedded control system (mixing device) to calculate V-2 rocket trajectories from the accelerations and orientations (measured by gyroscopes) and to stabilize and guide the missile. Mechanical analog computers were very important in gun fire control in World War II, the Korean War and well past the Vietnam War; they were made in significant numbers. In the period 1930–1945 in the Netherlands, Johan van Veen developed an analogue computer to calculate and predict tidal currents when the geometry of the channels are changed. Around 1950, this idea was developed into the Deltar, a hydraulic analogy computer supporting the closure of estuaries in the southwest of the Netherlands (the Delta Works). The FERMIAC was an analog computer invented by physicist Enrico Fermi in 1947 to aid in his studies of neutron transport. Project Cyclone was an analog computer developed by Reeves in 1950 for the analysis and design of dynamic systems. Project Typhoon was an analog computer developed by RCA in 1952. It consisted of over 4,000 electron tubes and used 100 dials and 6,000 plug-in connectors to program. The MONIAC Computer was a hydraulic analogy of a national economy first unveiled in 1949. Computer Engineering Associates was spun out of Caltech in 1950 to provide commercial services using the "Direct Analogy Electric Analog Computer" ("the largest and most impressive general-purpose analyzer facility for the solution of field problems") developed there by Gilbert D. McCann, Charles H. Wilts, and Bart Locanthi. Educational analog computers illustrated the principles of analog calculation. The Heathkit EC-1, a $199 educational analog computer, was made by the Heath Company, US . It was programmed using patch cords that connected nine operational amplifiers and other components. General Electric also marketed an "educational" analog computer kit of a simple design in the early 1960s consisting of two transistor tone generators and three potentiometers wired such that the frequency of the oscillator was nulled when the potentiometer dials were positioned by hand to satisfy an equation. The relative resistance of the potentiometer was then equivalent to the formula of the equation being solved. Multiplication or division could be performed, depending on which dials were inputs and which was the output. Accuracy and resolution was limited and a simple slide rule was more accurate. However, the unit did demonstrate the basic principle. Analog computer designs were published in electronics magazines. One example is the PEAC (Practical Electronics analogue computer), published in Practical Electronics in the January 1968 edition. Another more modern hybrid computer design was published in Everyday Practical Electronics in 2002. An example described in the EPE hybrid computer was the flight of a VTOL aircraft such as the Harrier jump jet. Its challenger was Applied Dynamics of Ann Arbor, Michigan. Although the basic technology for analog computers is usually operational amplifiers (also called "continuous current amplifiers" because they have no low frequency limitation), in the 1960s an attempt was made in the French ANALAC computer to use an alternative technology: medium frequency carrier and non dissipative reversible circuits. In the 1970s, every large company and administration concerned with problems in dynamics had an analog computing center, such as: In the US: NASA (Huntsville, Houston), Martin Marietta (Orlando), Lockheed, Westinghouse, Hughes Aircraft In Europe: CEA (French Atomic Energy Commission), MATRA, Aérospatiale, BAC (British Aircraft Corporation). Construction An analog computing machine consists of several main components: Signal sources: These are blocks that generate analog signals, such as voltage or current, to represent input data and operations. Amplifiers: Amplifiers are used to boost analog signals and maintain their amplitudes throughout the system. They amplify weak input signals and compensate for signal losses during transmission. Filters: Filters are used to modify the spectrum of signals by suppressing or amplifying specific frequencies. They allow the isolation or suppression of certain signal components depending on the computational requirements. Modulators and demodulators: Modulators convert information into analog signals that can be transmitted through a communication channel, and demodulators perform the reverse transformation, recovering the original data from modulated signals. Adders, multipliers, log converters, and other calculation stages: These perform arithmetic operations on analog signals. They can be used for mathematical operations such as addition, multiplication, exponentiation, integration, and differentiation. Storage and memory: Analog computing machines can use various forms of information storage, such as capacitors or inductors, to store intermediate results and memory. Feedback and control: Feedback and control blocks are used to maintain the stability and accuracy of the analog computing machine. They may include regulation systems and error correction. Patch panel: Analog computing machines also feature a patch panel or patch field. A patch panel is a physical structure on which connectors or contacts are placed to interconnect various components and modules within the system. On the patch panel, various connections and routes can be set and switched to configure the machine and determine signal flows. This allows users to flexibly configure and reconfigure the analog computing system to perform specific tasks. Patch panels are used to control data flows, connect and disconnect connections between various blocks of the system, including signal sources, amplifiers, filters, and other components. They provide convenience and flexibility in configuring and experimenting with analog computations. Patch panels can be presented as a physical panel with connectors or, in more modern systems, as a software interface that allows virtual management of signal connections and routes. Hardware interfaces: Interfaces provide means of interaction with the machine, for example, for parameter control or data transmission. Output device: this device is designed to present the results of analog computations in a convenient form for the user or to transmit the obtained data to other systems. Output devices in analog machines can vary depending on the specific goals of the system. For example, they could be graphical indicators, oscilloscopes, graphic recording devices, TV connection module, voltmeter, etc. These devices allow for the visualization of analog signals and the representation of the results of measurements or mathematical operations. Power source and stabilizers. These are just general blocks that can be found in a typical analog computing machine. The actual configuration and components may vary depending on the specific implementation and the intended use of the machine. Analog–digital hybrids Analog computing devices are fast; digital computing devices are more versatile and accurate. The idea behind an analog-digital hybrid is to combine the two processes for the best efficiency. An example of such hybrid elementary device is the hybrid multiplier, where one input is an analog signal, the other input is a digital signal and the output is analog. It acts as an analog potentiometer, upgradable digitally. This kind of hybrid technique is mainly used for fast dedicated real time computation when computing time is very critical, as signal processing for radars and generally for controllers in embedded systems. In the early 1970s, analog computer manufacturers tried to tie together their analog computers with a digital computers to get the advantages of the two techniques. In such systems, the digital computer controlled the analog computer, providing initial set-up, initiating multiple analog runs, and automatically feeding and collecting data. The digital computer may also participate to the calculation itself using analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters. The largest manufacturer of hybrid computers was Electronic Associates. Their hybrid computer model 8900 was made of a digital computer and one or more analog consoles. These systems were mainly dedicated to large projects such as the Apollo program and Space Shuttle at NASA, or Ariane in Europe, especially during the integration step where at the beginning everything is simulated, and progressively real components replace their simulated parts. Only one company was known as offering general commercial computing services on its hybrid computers, CISI of France, in the 1970s. The best reference in this field is the 100,000 simulation runs for each certification of the automatic landing systems of Airbus and Concorde aircraft. After 1980, purely digital computers progressed more and more rapidly and were fast enough to compete with analog computers. One key to the speed of analog computers was their fully parallel computation, but this was also a limitation. The more equations required for a problem, the more analog components were needed, even when the problem wasn't time critical. "Programming" a problem meant interconnecting the analog operators; even with a removable wiring panel this was not very versatile. Implementations Mechanical analog computers thumb\|William Ferrel's tide-predicting machine of 1881–1882 Throughout history, many types of mechanical analog computers have been invented. These ranged from simple devices (like planimeters) to complex fire-control systems that guided WWII naval guns. Practical mechanical analog computers of any significant complexity used rotating shafts to carry variables from one mechanism to another. Cables and pulleys were used in a Fourier synthesizer, a tide-predicting machine, which summed the individual harmonic components. Another category, not nearly as well known, used rotating shafts only for input and output, with precision racks and pinions. The racks were connected to linkages that performed the computation. At least one U.S. Naval sonar fire control computer of the later 1950s, made by Librascope, was of this type, as was the principal computer in the Mk. 56 Gun Fire Control System. These computers often employed precision miter-gear differentials (pairs of bevel gears arranged to produce the sum or difference of two shaft rotations) to transmit variables between computing elements. The Ford Instrument Mark I Fire Control Computer, for example, contained approximately 160 miter-gear differentials. Integration with respect to another variable was done by a rotating disc driven by one variable. Output came from a pick-off device (such as a wheel) positioned at a radius on the disc proportional to the second variable. (A carrier with a pair of steel balls supported by small rollers worked especially well. A roller, its axis parallel to the disc's surface, provided the output. It was held against the pair of balls by a spring.) Arbitrary functions of one variable were provided by cams, with gearing to convert follower movement to shaft rotation. Functions of two variables were provided by three-dimensional cams. In one good design, one of the variables rotated the cam. A hemispherical follower moved its carrier on a pivot axis parallel to that of the cam's rotating axis. Pivoting motion was the output. The second variable moved the follower along the axis of the cam. One practical application was ballistics in gunnery. Coordinate conversion from polar to rectangular was done by a mechanical resolver (called a "component solver" in US Navy fire control computers). Two discs on a common axis positioned a sliding block with pin (stubby shaft) on it. One disc was a face cam, and a follower on the block in the face cam's groove set the radius. The other disc, closer to the pin, contained a straight slot in which the block moved. The input angle rotated the latter disc (the face cam disc, for an unchanging radius, rotated with the other (angle) disc; a differential and a few gears did this correction). Referring to the mechanism's frame, the location of the pin corresponded to the tip of the vector represented by the angle and magnitude inputs. Mounted on that pin was a square block. Rectilinear-coordinate outputs (both sine and cosine, typically) came from two slotted plates, each slot fitting on the block just mentioned. The plates moved in straight lines, the movement of one plate at right angles to that of the other. The slots were at right angles to the direction of movement. Each plate, by itself, was like a Scotch yoke, known to steam engine enthusiasts. During World War II, a similar mechanism converted rectilinear to polar coordinates, but it was not particularly successful and was eliminated in a significant redesign (USN, Mk. 1 to Mk. 1A). Multiplication was done by mechanisms based on the geometry of similar right triangles. Using the trigonometric terms for a right triangle, specifically opposite, adjacent, and hypotenuse, the adjacent side was fixed by construction. One variable changed the magnitude of the opposite side. In many cases, this variable changed sign; the hypotenuse could coincide with the adjacent side (a zero input), or move beyond the adjacent side, representing a sign change. Typically, a pinion-operated rack moving parallel to the (trig.-defined) opposite side would position a slide with a slot coincident with the hypotenuse. A pivot on the rack let the slide's angle change freely. At the other end of the slide (the angle, in trig. terms), a block on a pin fixed to the frame defined the vertex between the hypotenuse and the adjacent side. At any distance along the adjacent side, a line perpendicular to it intersects the hypotenuse at a particular point. The distance between that point and the adjacent side is some fraction that is the product of 1 the distance from the vertex, and 2 the magnitude of the opposite side. The second input variable in this type of multiplier positions a slotted plate perpendicular to the adjacent side. That slot contains a block, and that block's position in its slot is determined by another block right next to it. The latter slides along the hypotenuse, so the two blocks are positioned at a distance from the (trig.) adjacent side by an amount proportional to the product. To provide the product as an output, a third element, another slotted plate, also moves parallel to the (trig.) opposite side of the theoretical triangle. As usual, the slot is perpendicular to the direction of movement. A block in its slot, pivoted to the hypotenuse block positions it. A special type of integrator, used at a point where only moderate accuracy was needed, was based on a steel ball, instead of a disc. It had two inputs, one to rotate the ball, and the other to define the angle of the ball's rotating axis. That axis was always in a plane that contained the axes of two movement pick-off rollers, quite similar to the mechanism of a rolling-ball computer mouse (in that mechanism, the pick-off rollers were roughly the same diameter as the ball). The pick-off roller axes were at right angles. A pair of rollers "above" and "below" the pick-off plane were mounted in rotating holders that were geared together. That gearing was driven by the angle input, and established the rotating axis of the ball. The other input rotated the "bottom" roller to make the ball rotate. Essentially, the whole mechanism, called a component integrator, was a variable-speed drive with one motion input and two outputs, as well as an angle input. The angle input varied the ratio (and direction) of coupling between the "motion" input and the outputs according to the sine and cosine of the input angle. Although they did not accomplish any computation, electromechanical position servos (aka. torque amplifiers) were essential in mechanical analog computers of the "rotating-shaft" type for providing operating torque to the inputs of subsequent computing mechanisms, as well as driving output data-transmission devices such as large torque-transmitter synchros in naval computers. Other readout mechanisms, not directly part of the computation, included internal odometer-like counters with interpolating drum dials for indicating internal variables, and mechanical multi-turn limit stops. Considering that accurately controlled rotational speed in analog fire-control computers was a basic element of their accuracy, there was a motor with its average speed controlled by a balance wheel, hairspring, jeweled-bearing differential, a twin-lobe cam, and spring-loaded contacts (ship's AC power frequency was not necessarily accurate, nor dependable enough, when these computers were designed). Electronic analog computers thumb\|Switching board of EAI 8800 analog computer (front view) Electronic analog computers typically have front panels with numerous jacks (single-contact sockets) that permit patch cords (flexible wires with plugs at both ends) to create the interconnections that define the problem setup. In addition, there are precision high-resolution potentiometers (variable resistors) for setting up (and, when needed, varying) scale factors. In addition, there is usually a zero-center analog pointer-type meter for modest-accuracy voltage measurement. Stable, accurate voltage sources provide known magnitudes. Typical electronic analog computers contain anywhere from a few to a hundred or more operational amplifiers ("op amps"), named because they perform mathematical operations. Op amps are a particular type of feedback amplifier with very high gain and stable input (low and stable offset). They are always used with precision feedback components that, in operation, all but cancel out the currents arriving from input components. The majority of op amps in a representative setup are summing amplifiers, which add and subtract analog voltages, providing the result at their output jacks. As well, op amps with capacitor feedback are usually included in a setup; they integrate the sum of their inputs with respect to time. Integrating with respect to another variable is the nearly exclusive province of mechanical analog integrators; it is almost never done in electronic analog computers. However, given that a problem solution does not change with time, time can serve as one of the variables. Other computing elements include analog multipliers, nonlinear function generators, and analog comparators. Electrical elements such as inductors and capacitors used in electrical analog computers had to be carefully manufactured to reduce non-ideal effects. For example, in the construction of AC power network analyzers, one motive for using higher frequencies for the calculator (instead of the actual power frequency) was that higher-quality inductors could be more easily made. Many general-purpose analog computers avoided the use of inductors entirely, re-casting the problem in a form that could be solved using only resistive and capacitive elements, since high-quality capacitors are relatively easy to make. The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in real time (or faster), at a speed determined mostly by the frequency response of the operational amplifiers and other computing elements. In the history of electronic analog computers, there were some special high-speed types. Nonlinear functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing function generators—special circuits of various combinations of resistors and diodes to provide the nonlinearity. Typically, as the input voltage increases, progressively more diodes conduct. When compensated for temperature, the forward voltage drop of a transistor's base-emitter junction can provide a usably accurate logarithmic or exponential function. Op amps scale the output voltage so that it is usable with the rest of the computer. Any physical process that models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of spaghetti as a model of sorting numbers; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the convex hull of a set of points; and strings tied together as a model of finding the shortest path in a network. These are all described in Dewdney (1984). Components thumb\|A 1960 Newmark analogue computer, made up of five units. This computer was used to solve differential equations and is currently housed at the Cambridge Museum of Technology. Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key components that perform the calculations. The operator manipulates these through the computer's framework. Key hydraulic components might include pipes, valves and containers. Key mechanical components might include rotating shafts for carrying data within the computer, miter gear differentials, disc/ball/roller integrators, cams (2-D and 3-D), mechanical resolvers and multipliers, and torque servos. Key electrical/electronic components might include: precision resistors and capacitors operational amplifiers multipliers potentiometers fixed-function generators The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are: addition integration with respect to time inversion multiplication exponentiation logarithm division In some analog computer designs, multiplication is much preferred to division. Division is carried out with a multiplier in the feedback path of an Operational Amplifier. Differentiation with respect to time is not frequently used, and in practice is avoided by redefining the problem when possible. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified; differentiation also risks instability. Limitations In general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit. Decline In the 1950s to 1970s, digital computers based on first vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then micro-processors became more economical and precise. This led digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Even so, some research in analog computation is still being done. A few universities still use analog computers to teach control system theory. The American company Comdyna manufactured small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still used as flight computers in flight training. Resurgence thumb\|alt=Modern analog computer: THE ANALOG THING\|Modern analog computer: THE ANALOG THING With the development of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) technology, Yannis Tsividis' group at Columbia University has been revisiting analog/hybrid computers design in standard CMOS process. Two VLSI chips have been developed, an 80th-order analog computer (250 nm) by Glenn Cowan in 2005 and a 4th-order hybrid computer (65 nm) developed by Ning Guo in 2015, both targeting at energy-efficient ODE/PDE applications. Glenn's chip contains 16 macros, in which there are 25 analog computing blocks, namely integrators, multipliers, fanouts, few nonlinear blocks. Ning's chip contains one macro block, in which there are 26 computing blocks including integrators, multipliers, fanouts, ADCs, SRAMs and DACs. Arbitrary nonlinear function generation is made possible by the ADC+SRAM+DAC chain, where the SRAM block stores the nonlinear function data. The experiments from the related publications revealed that VLSI analog/hybrid computers demonstrated about 1–2 orders magnitude of advantage in both solution time and energy while achieving accuracy within 5%, which points to the promise of using analog/hybrid computing techniques in the area of energy-efficient approximate computing. In 2016, a team of researchers developed a compiler to solve differential equations using analog circuits. Analog computers are also used in neuromorphic computing, and in 2021 a group of researchers have shown that a specific type of artificial neural network called a spiking neural network was able to work with analog neuromorphic computers. In 2021, the German company anabrid GmbH began to produce THE ANALOG THING (abbreviated THAT), a small low-cost analog computer mainly for educational and scientific use. The company is also constructing analog mainframes and hybrid computers. Practical examples thumb\|X-15 simulator analog computer\|alt=\|260x260px These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used: Analog Paradim, a modular analog computer produced by anabrid Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central Fire Control System Deltar E6B flight computer Ishiguro Storm Surge Computer Kerrison Predictor Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's Analogue Calculating Machines based on "fusee sans fin" Librascope, aircraft weight and balance computer Mechanical computer Mechanical watch Mechanical integrators, for example, the planimeter Mischgerät (V-2 guidance computer) MONIAC, economic modelling Nomogram Norden bombsight Rangekeeper, and related fire control computers Scanimate SR-71 inlet control system (fast adjustment of inlet geometry to prevent super-sonic shock waves from causing engine flame-out at high mach numbers) THE ANALOG THING, a small analog computer by anabrid Torpedo Data Computer Torquetum Water integrator Analog (audio) synthesizers can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based in part on electronic analog computer technology. The ARP 2600's Ring Modulator was actually a moderate-accuracy analog multiplier. The Simulation Council (or Simulations Council) was an association of analog computer users in US. It is now known as The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. The Simulation Council newsletters from 1952 to 1963 are available online and show the concerns and technologies at the time, and the common use of analog computers for missilry. See also Analog neural network Analogical models Chaos theory Differential equation Dynamical system Field-programmable analog array Fluidics General purpose analog computer Lotfernrohr 7 series of WW II German bombsights Signal (electrical engineering) Voskhod Spacecraft "Globus" IMP navigation instrument XY-writer Notes References A.K. Dewdney. "On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving", Scientific American, 250(6):19–26, June 1984. Reprinted in The Armchair Universe, by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman & Company (1988), . Universiteit van Amsterdam Computer Museum. (2007). Analog Computers. Jackson, Albert S., "Analog Computation". London & New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960. External links Biruni's eight-geared lunisolar calendar in "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece", François Charette, Nature 444, 551–552(30 November 2006), The first computers Large collection of electronic analog computers with lots of pictures, documentation and samples of implementations (some in German) Large collection of old analog and digital computers at Old Computer Museum A great disappearing act: the electronic analogue computer Chris Bissell, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK Accessed February 2007 German computer museum with still runnable analog computers Analog computer basics Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation The Enns Power Network Computer – an analog computer for the analysis of electric power systems (advertisement from 1955) Librascope Development Company – Type LC-1 WWII Navy PV-1 "Balance Computor" Category:History of computing hardware Category:Greek inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computer	2025-04-05T18:26:04.267463
2429	Audio	Audio most commonly refers to sound, as it is transmitted in signal form. It may also refer to: Sound Audio signal, an electrical representation of sound Audio frequency, a frequency in the audio spectrum Digital audio, representation of sound in a form processed and/or stored by computers or digital electronics Audio, audible content (media) in audio production and publishing Semantic audio, extraction of symbols or meaning from audio Stereophonic audio, method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective Audio equipment Entertainment AUDIO (group), an American R&B band of 5 brothers formerly known as TNT Boyz and as B5 Audio (album), an album by the Blue Man Group Audio (magazine), a magazine published from 1947 to 2000 Audio (musician), British drum and bass artist "Audio" (song), a song by LSD Computing HTML audio, identified by the tag See also Acoustic (disambiguation) Audible (disambiguation) Audiobook Radio broadcasting Sound recording and reproduction Sound reinforcement	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio	2025-04-05T18:26:04.270644
2431	Minute and second of arc	{{Short description\|Units for measuring angles}} {{For\|the SI units of angle\|radian\|milliradian}} {{redirect\|Arcsec\|the arcsecant function\|Inverse trigonometric functions}} {{about\|divisions of a degree of angle\|divisions of an hour of angle\|hour angle}} {{More citations needed\|date=March 2022}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2019}} {{Infobox unit \| name = Arcminute \| image = Arcminute and football.png \| caption An illustration of the size of an arcminute (not to scale). A standard association football (soccer) ball (with a diameter of {{cvt\|22\|cm\|in\|dispor}}) subtends an angle of 1 arcminute at a distance of approximately {{cvt\|756\|m\|yd}}. \| standard = Non-SI units mentioned in the SI \| quantity = Angle \| symbol = ′ \| symbol2 = arcmin \| namedafter \| extralabel In units \| extradata = Dimensionless with an arc length of approx. ≈ {{sfrac\|0.2909\|1000}} of the radius, i.e. 0.2909 {{sfrac\|mm\|m}} \| units1 = degrees \| inunits1 {{sfrac\|1\|60}}° 0.01{{overline\|6}}° \| units2 = arcseconds \| inunits2 = 60″ \| units3 = radians \| inunits3 = {{sfrac\|{{pi}}\|10800}} ≈ 0.000290888 rad \| units4 = milliradians \| inunits4 = {{sfrac\|5{{pi}}\|54}} ≈ 0.2909&nbsp;mrad \| units5 = gradians \| inunits5 {{sfrac\|3\|200}}<sup>g</sup> 0.015<sup>g</sup> \| units6 = turns \| inunits6 = {{sfrac\|1\|21600}} turn }} A minute of arc, arcminute (abbreviated as arcmin), arc minute, or minute arc, denoted by the symbol {{char\|′}}, is a unit of angular measurement equal to {{sfrac\|1\|60}} of a degree.<ref name":2">{{Cite web \|lastWeisstein\|firstEric W.\|titleArc Second \|urlhttps://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArcSecond.html\|access-date2020-08-31\|websitemathworld.wolfram.com \|languageen}}</ref><!-- DO NOT USE THIS SITE TO SUPPORT THE DESIGNATION OF SYMBOLS FOR THE ARCMINUTE AND ARCSECOND. It uses the apostrophe for the arcminute and two apostrophes for the arcsecond rather than the prime and double prime. --> Since one degree is {{sfrac\|1\|360}} of a turn, or complete rotation, one arcminute is {{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|21,600}}}} of a turn. The nautical mile (nmi) was originally defined as the arc length of a minute of latitude on a spherical Earth, so the actual Earth's circumference is very near {{val\|21,600\|u=nmi}}. A minute of arc is {{sfrac\|{{pi}}\|{{val\|10,800}}}} of a radian. A second of arc, arcsecond (abbreviated as arcsec), or arc second, denoted by the symbol {{char\|″}},<ref name":3">{{Cite web\|titleMinutes of Arc to Degree Conversion \|urlhttps://www.inchcalculator.com/convert/arcminute-to-degree/ \|access-date2021-07-25\|websiteInch Calculator \|languageen}}</ref> is a unit of angular measurement equal to {{sfrac\|1\|60}} of a minute of arc, {{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|3,600}}}} of a degree,<ref name=":2"/> {{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|1,296,000}}}} of a turn, and {{sfrac\|{{pi}}\|{{val\|648,000}}}} (about {{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|206,264.8}}}}) of a radian. These units originated in Babylonian astronomy as sexagesimal (base 60) subdivisions of the degree; they are used in fields that involve very small angles, such as astronomy, optometry, ophthalmology, optics, navigation, land surveying, and marksmanship. To express even smaller angles, standard SI prefixes can be employed; the milliarcsecond (mas) and microarcsecond (μas), for instance, are commonly used in astronomy. For a three-dimensional area such as on a sphere, square arcminutes or seconds may be used. Symbols and abbreviations The prime symbol {{char\|′}} ({{U+\|2032}}) designates the arcminute,<ref name=":3" /> though a single quote {{char\|'}} (U+0027) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcminute is thus written as 1′. It is also abbreviated as arcmin or amin. Similarly, double prime {{char\|″}} (U+2033) designates the arcsecond,<ref name=":3" /> though a double quote {{char\|"}} (U+0022) is commonly used where only ASCII characters are permitted. One arcsecond is thus written as 1″. It is also abbreviated as arcsec or asec. {{clear}} {\| class"wikitable" style"margin:0 auto;" \|+ Sexagesimal system of angular measurement \|- ! Unit ! Value ! colspan=2 \| Symbol ! Abbreviations ! In radians, approx. \|- ! scope="row" \| Degree \| {{sfrac\|1\|360}} turn \|\| ° \|\| Degree \|\| deg\|\|align"right"\|{{val\|17.4532925\|umrad}} \|- ! scope="row" \| Arcminute \| {{sfrac\|1\|60}} degree \|\| ′ \|\| Prime \|\| arcmin, amin, am, MOA\|\|align"right"\|{{val\|290.8882087\|uμrad}} \|- ! scope="row" \| Arcsecond \| {{sfrac\|1\|60}} arcminute {{sfrac\|1\|3600}} degree \|\| ″ \|\| Double prime \|\| arcsec, asec, as \|\| align"right" \| {{val\|4.8481368\|u=μrad}} \|- ! scope="row" \| Milliarcsecond \| 0.001 arcsecond {{sfrac\|1\|3600000}} degree \|\| \|\| \|\| mas \|\| align"right" \| {{val\|4.8481368\|u=nrad}} \|- ! scope="row" \| Microarcsecond \| 0.001 mas {{val\|0.000001}} arcsecond \|\| \|\| \|\| μas \|\| align"right" \| {{val\|4.8481368\|u=prad}} \|} In celestial navigation, seconds of arc are rarely used in calculations, the preference usually being for degrees, minutes, and decimals of a minute, for example, written as 42° 25.32′ or 42° 25.322′.<ref>{{cite web\|titleCELESTIAL NAVIGATION COURSE\|urlhttp://www.learntonavigate.com/celestial.htm\|publisherInternational Navigation School\|access-date4 November 2010\|quoteIt is a straightforward method [to obtain a position at sea] and requires no mathematical calculation beyond addition and subtraction of degrees and minutes and decimals of minutes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|titleAstro Navigation Syllabus\|urlhttp://www.kumquat-data.com/Astro%20Navigation%20Syllabus.htm\|access-date4 November 2010\|quote[Sextant errors] are sometimes [given] in seconds of arc, which will need to be converted to decimal minutes when you include them in your calculation.}}</ref> This notation has been carried over into marine GPS and aviation GPS receivers, which normally display latitude and longitude in the latter format by default.<ref>{{cite web\|titleShipmate GN30 \|urlhttp://norinco.co.in/NCMS/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id53&Itemid81 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080124133039/http://norinco.co.in/NCMS/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id53&Itemid81 \|url-statusdead \|archive-date24 January 2008 \|publisherNorinco \|access-date4 November 2010 }}</ref> Common examples In general, by simple trigonometry, it can be derived that the angle {{tmath\|\theta}} subtended by an object of diameter or length {{tmath\|d}} at a distance {{tmath\|D}} is given by the following expression: : <math>\theta = 2\arctan\left(\frac{d}{2D}\right)</math> One arcminute ({{val\|1\|uarcmin}}) is the approximate distance two contours can be separated by, and still be distinguished by, a person with 20/20 vision. The average apparent diameter of the full Moon is about {{val\|31\|uarcmin}}, or {{val\|0.52\|u=deg}}. One arcsecond ({{val\|1\|u=arcsec}}) is the angle subtended by: * a U.S. dime coin ({{cvt\|0.705\|in\|mm\|disp=semicolon}}) at a distance of {{convert\|3.7\|km\|mi}}<ref>Filippenko, Alex, Understanding the Universe (of The Great Courses, on DVD), Lecture 43, time 12:05, The Teaching Company, Chantilly, VA, US, 2007.</ref> * an object of diameter {{val\|725.27\|ukm}} at a distance of one astronomical unit ({{val\|149,597,870.7\|ukm}}) * an object of diameter {{val\|45,866,916\|ukm}} at one light-year ({{val\|9,460,730,472,580.8\|ukm}}) * an object of diameter one astronomical unit at a distance of one parsec, per the definition of the latter.<ref>{{cite web\|titleCosmic Distance Scales - The Milky Way \|websiteImagine the Universe! \|url=https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cosmic/milkyway_info.html}}</ref> Also notable examples of size in arcseconds are: * Hubble Space Telescope has calculational resolution of 0.05 arcseconds and actual resolution of almost 0.1 arcseconds, which is close to the diffraction limit.<ref name":0">{{cite web \|titleWhat is the diffraction limit of a telescope? \|urlhttp://www.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses/astro201/diff_limit.htm \|publisherCornell University \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160917063942/http://www.astro.cornell.edu:80/academics/courses/astro201/diff_limit.htm \|archive-date2016-09-17}}</ref> * At crescent phase, Venus measures between 60.2 and 66 seconds of arc.<ref name=":0" /> One milliarcsecond ({{val\|1\|umas}}) is about the size of a half dollar ({{cvt\|1.205\|in\|mm\|dispsemicolon}}), seen from a distance equal to that between the Washington Monument and the Eiffel Tower (around {{cvt\|6,300\|km\|mi\|disp=x\| or }}). One microarcsecond is about the size of a period at the end of a sentence in the Apollo mission manuals left on the Moon as seen from Earth.{{cn\|date=March 2025}} One nanoarcsecond is about the size of a nickel ({{cvt\|0.835\|in\|mm\|dispsemicolon}}) on the surface of Neptune as observed from Earth.HistoryThe concepts of degrees, minutes, and seconds—as they relate to the measure of both angles and time—derive from Babylonian astronomy and time-keeping. Influenced by the Sumerians, the ancient Babylonians divided the Sun's perceived motion across the sky over the course of one full day into 360 degrees.<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhy is a minute divided into 60 seconds, an hour into 60 minutes, yet there are only 24 hours in a day? \|urlhttps://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-time-division-days-hours-minutes/ \|websiteScientific American \|publisherSCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, a Division of Springer Nature America, Inc. \|access-date25 July 2021 \|dateMarch 5, 2008}}</ref>{{Failed verification\|dateDecember 2023}} Each degree was subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.<ref>{{cite journal \|lastCorrell \|firstMalcolm \|journalThe Physics Teacher \|volume15 \|pages476–479 \|issue8 \|dateNovember 1977 \|doi10.1119/1.2339739 \|titleEarly Time Measurements}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|journalJournal for the History of Astronomy\|author1F. Richard Stephenson\|author-linkF. Richard Stephenson\|author2Louay J. Fatoohi\|dateMay 1994\|doi10.1177/002182869402500203\|titleThe Babylonian Unit of Time\|volume25 \|issue2 \|pages99–110 }}</ref> Thus, one Babylonian degree was equal to four minutes in modern terminology, one Babylonian minute to four modern seconds, and one Babylonian second to {{sfrac\|1\|15}} (approximately 0.067) of a modern second.UsesAstronomy Since antiquity, the arcminute and arcsecond have been used in astronomy: in the ecliptic coordinate system as latitude (β) and longitude (λ); in the horizon system as altitude (Alt) and azimuth (Az); and in the equatorial coordinate system as declination (δ). All are measured in degrees, arcminutes, and arcseconds. The principal exception is right ascension (RA) in equatorial coordinates, which is measured in time units of hours, minutes, and seconds. Contrary to what one might assume, minutes and seconds of arc do not directly relate to minutes and seconds of time, in either the rotational frame of the Earth around its own axis (day), or the Earth's rotational frame around the Sun (year). The Earth's rotational rate around its own axis is 15 minutes of arc per minute of time (360 degrees / 24 hours in day); the Earth's rotational rate around the Sun (not entirely constant) is roughly 24 minutes of time per minute of arc (from 24 hours in day), which tracks the annual progression of the Zodiac. Both of these factor in what astronomical objects you can see from surface telescopes (time of year) and when you can best see them (time of day), but neither are in unit correspondence. For simplicity, the explanations given assume a degree/day in the Earth's annual rotation around the Sun, which is off by roughly 1%. The same ratios hold for seconds, due to the consistent factor of 60 on both sides. The arcsecond is also often used to describe small astronomical angles such as the angular diameters of planets (e.g. the angular diameter of Venus which varies between 10″ and 60″); the proper motion of stars; the separation of components of binary star systems; and parallax, the small change of position of a star or Solar System body as the Earth revolves about the Sun. These small angles may also be written in milliarcseconds (mas), or thousandths of an arcsecond. The unit of distance called the parsec, abbreviated from the parallax angle of one arc second, was developed for such parallax measurements. The distance from the Sun to a celestial object is the reciprocal of the angle, measured in arcseconds, of the object's apparent movement caused by parallax. The European Space Agency's astrometric satellite Gaia, launched in 2013, can approximate star positions to 7 microarcseconds (μas).<ref>{{cite news \|url https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-37355154 \|titleCelestial mapper plots a billion stars\|lastAmos\|firstJonathan\|date2016-09-14\|workBBC News\|access-date2018-03-31\|languageen-GB }}</ref> Apart from the Sun, the star with the largest angular diameter from Earth is R Doradus, a red giant with a diameter of 0.05″. Because of the effects of atmospheric blurring, ground-based telescopes will smear the image of a star to an angular diameter of about 0.5″; in poor conditions this increases to 1.5″ or even more. The dwarf planet Pluto has proven difficult to resolve because its angular diameter is about 0.1″.<ref>{{Cite web \|titlePluto Fact Sheet \|urlhttps://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/plutofact.html \|access-date2022-08-29 \|websitenssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref> Techniques exist for improving seeing on the ground. Adaptive optics, for example, can produce images around 0.05″ on a 10&nbsp;m class telescope. Space telescopes are not affected by the Earth's atmosphere but are diffraction limited. For example, the Hubble Space Telescope can reach an angular size of stars down to about 0.1″. Cartography Minutes (′) and seconds (″) of arc are also used in cartography and navigation. At sea level one minute of arc along the equator equals exactly one geographical mile (not to be confused with international mile or statute mile) along the Earth's equator or approximately {{convert\|1\|nmi\|m mi\|sigfig4\|spellin\|abbroff\|lkon}}.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.oceannavigator.com/January-February-2003/Nautical-mile-approximates-an-arcminute/ \|titleNautical mile approximates an arcminute \|date1 January 2003 \|firstGeorge H. \|lastKaplan \|magazineOcean Navigator \|publisherNavigator Publishing \|access-date2017-03-22}}</ref> A second of arc, one sixtieth of this amount, is roughly {{convert\|30\|m\|abbr=off}}. The exact distance varies along meridian arcs or any other great circle arcs because the figure of the Earth is slightly oblate (bulges a third of a percent at the equator). Positions are traditionally given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of arcs for latitude, the arc north or south of the equator, and for longitude, the arc east or west of the Prime Meridian. Any position on or above the Earth's reference ellipsoid can be precisely given with this method. However, when it is inconvenient to use base-60 for minutes and seconds, positions are frequently expressed as decimal fractional degrees to an equal amount of precision. Degrees given to three decimal places ({{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|1000}}}} of a degree) have about {{sfrac\|1\|4}} the precision of degrees-minutes-seconds ({{sfrac\|1\|{{val\|3600}}}} of a degree) and specify locations within about {{convert\|120\|m\|abbroff}}. For navigational purposes positions are given in degrees and decimal minutes, for instance, the Needles Lighthouse is at 50°39′44.2″N 1°35′30.5″W.<ref>{{cite web\|author The Corporation of Trinity House \|title1/2020 Needles Lighthouse\|date10 January 2020\|seriesNotices to Mariners\|urlhttps://www.trinityhouse.co.uk/notice-to-mariners/1/2020-needles-lighthouse\|access-date24 May 2020}}</ref>Property cadastral surveyingRelated to cartography, property boundary surveying using the metes and bounds system and cadastral surveying relies on fractions of a degree to describe property lines' angles in reference to cardinal directions. A boundary "mete" is described with a beginning reference point, the cardinal direction North or South followed by an angle less than 90 degrees and a second cardinal direction, and a linear distance. The boundary runs the specified linear distance from the beginning point, the direction of the distance being determined by rotating the first cardinal direction the specified angle toward the second cardinal direction. For example, North&nbsp;65°&nbsp;39′ 18″ West&nbsp;85.69&nbsp;feet would describe a line running from the starting point 85.69 feet in a direction 65° 39′ 18″ (or 65.655°) away from north toward the west.Firearms load. Bullet drop and wind drift are shown both in mrad and minute of angle.]] The arcminute is commonly found in the firearms industry and literature, particularly concerning the precision of rifles, though the industry refers to it as minute of angle (MOA). It is especially popular as a unit of measurement with shooters familiar with the imperial measurement system because 1&nbsp;MOA subtends a circle with a diameter of 1.047 inches (which is often rounded to just 1 inch) at 100 yards ({{convert\|1.047\|in\|cm\|abbron\|dispout}} at {{convert\|100\|yd\|m\|dispout\|abbron}} or 2.908&nbsp;cm at 100&nbsp;m), a traditional distance on American target ranges. The subtension is linear with the distance, for example, at 500 yards, 1&nbsp;MOA subtends 5.235 inches, and at 1000 yards 1&nbsp;MOA subtends 10.47 inches. Since many modern telescopic sights are adjustable in half ({{sfrac\|1\|2}}), quarter ({{sfrac\|1\|4}}) or eighth ({{sfrac\|1\|8}}) MOA increments, also known as clicks, zeroing and adjustments are made by counting 2, 4 and 8 clicks per MOA respectively. For example, if the point of impact is 3 inches high and 1.5 inches left of the point of aim at 100 yards (which for instance could be measured by using a spotting scope with a calibrated reticle, or a target delineated for such purposes), the scope needs to be adjusted 3 MOA down, and 1.5 MOA right. Such adjustments are trivial when the scope's adjustment dials have a MOA scale printed on them, and even figuring the right number of clicks is relatively easy on scopes that click in fractions of MOA. This makes zeroing and adjustments much easier: * To adjust a {{frac\|1\|2}} MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 × 2 6 clicks down and 1.5 x 2 3 clicks right * To adjust a {{frac\|1\|4}} MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 4 12 clicks down and 1.5 × 4 6 clicks right * To adjust a {{frac\|1\|8}} MOA scope 3 MOA down and 1.5 MOA right, the scope needs to be adjusted 3 x 8 24 clicks down and 1.5 × 8 12 clicks right (mrad).]] Another common system of measurement in firearm scopes is the milliradian (mrad). Zeroing an mrad based scope is easy for users familiar with base ten systems. The most common adjustment value in mrad based scopes is {{sfrac\|1\|10}}&nbsp;mrad (which approximates {{frac\|1\|3}} MOA). * To adjust a {{sfrac\|1\|10}}&nbsp;mrad scope 0.9&nbsp;mrad down and 0.4&nbsp;mrad right, the scope needs to be adjusted 9 clicks down and 4 clicks right (which equals approximately 3 and 1.5 MOA respectively). One thing to be aware of is that some MOA scopes, including some higher-end models, are calibrated such that an adjustment of 1 MOA on the scope knobs corresponds to exactly 1 inch of impact adjustment on a target at 100 yards, rather than the mathematically correct 1.047 inches. This is commonly known as the Shooter's MOA (SMOA) or Inches Per Hundred Yards (IPHY). While the difference between one true MOA and one SMOA is less than half of an inch even at 1000 yards,<ref>{{cite web \|lastMann \|firstRichard \|urlhttp://www.shootingillustrated.com/index.php/6227/mil-moa-or-inches/ \|titleMil, MOA or inches? \|publisherShooting Illustrated \|date2011-02-18 \|access-date2015-04-13 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131110204817/http://www.shootingillustrated.com/index.php/6227/mil-moa-or-inches/ \|archive-date10 November 2013 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> this error compounds significantly on longer range shots that may require adjustment upwards of 20–30 MOA to compensate for the bullet drop. If a shot requires an adjustment of 20 MOA or more, the difference between true MOA and SMOA will add up to 1 inch or more. In competitive target shooting, this might mean the difference between a hit and a miss. The physical group size equivalent to m minutes of arc can be calculated as follows: group size = tan({{sfrac\|m\|60}})&nbsp;×&nbsp;distance. In the example previously given, for 1 minute of arc, and substituting 3,600&nbsp;inches for 100 yards, 3,600 tan({{sfrac\|1\|60}}) ≈ 1.047&nbsp;inches. In metric units 1 MOA at 100 metres ≈ 2.908 centimetres. Sometimes, a precision-oriented firearm's performance will be measured in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions (i.e. no wind, high-grade ammo, clean barrel, and a stable mounting platform such as a vise or a benchrest used to eliminate shooter error), the gun is capable of producing a group of shots whose center points (center-to-center) fit into a circle, the average diameter of circles in several groups can be subtended by that amount of arc. For example, a 1 MOA rifle should be capable, under ideal conditions, of repeatably shooting 1-inch groups at 100 yards. Most higher-end rifles are warrantied by their manufacturer to shoot under a given MOA threshold (typically 1 MOA or better) with specific ammunition and no error on the shooter's part. For example, Remington's M24 Sniper Weapon System is required to shoot 0.8 MOA or better, or be rejected from sale by quality control. Rifle manufacturers and gun magazines often refer to this capability as sub-MOA, meaning a gun consistently shooting groups under 1 MOA. This means that a single group of 3 to 5 shots at 100 yards, or the average of several groups, will measure less than 1 MOA between the two furthest shots in the group, i.e. all shots fall within 1 MOA. If larger samples are taken (i.e., more shots per group) then group size typically increases, however this will ultimately average out. If a rifle was truly a 1 MOA rifle, it would be just as likely that two consecutive shots land exactly on top of each other as that they land 1 MOA apart. For 5-shot groups, based on 95% confidence, a rifle that normally shoots 1 MOA can be expected to shoot groups between 0.58 MOA and 1.47 MOA, although the majority of these groups will be under 1 MOA. What this means in practice is if a rifle that shoots 1-inch groups on average at 100 yards shoots a group measuring 0.7 inches followed by a group that is 1.3 inches, this is not statistically abnormal.<ref>{{cite web\|firstRobert E. \|lastWheeler \|titleStatistical notes on rifle group patterns \|urlhttp://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060926154900/http://www.bobwheeler.com/guns/GroupStat.pdf \|url-statusdead \|archive-date26 September 2006 \|access-date21 May 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|firstDenton \|lastBramwell \|dateJanuary 2009 \|titleGroup Therapy The Problem: How accurate is your rifle? \|journalVarmint Hunter \|volume69 \|urlhttp://www.longrangehunting.com/articles/accurate-rifle-groups-1.php \|access-date21 May 2009 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111007225056/http://www.longrangehunting.com/articles/accurate-rifle-groups-1.php \|archive-date7 October 2011 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> The metric system counterpart of the MOA is the milliradian (mrad or 'mil'), being equal to {{fraction\|1000}} of the target range, laid out on a circle that has the observer as centre and the target range as radius. The number of milliradians on a full such circle therefore always is equal to 2 × {{pi}} × 1000, regardless the target range. Therefore, 1 MOA ≈ 0.2909&nbsp;mrad. This means that an object which spans 1&nbsp;mrad on the reticle is at a range that is in metres equal to the object's linear size in millimetres (e.g. an object of 100&nbsp;mm subtending 1 mrad is 100 metres away).<ref>{{cite book \|authorFouad Sabry \|urlhttp://google.co.uk/books/edition/Precision_Guided_Firearm/RdmTEAAAQBAJ?pgPT220&gbpv1 \|date2022 \|titlePrecision Guided Firearm \|publisher=One Billion Knowledgeable}}</ref> So there is no conversion factor required, contrary to the MOA system. A reticle with markings (hashes or dots) spaced with a one mrad apart (or a fraction of a mrad) are collectively called a mrad reticle. If the markings are round they are called mil-dots. In the table below conversions from mrad to metric values are exact (e.g. 0.1&nbsp;mrad equals exactly 10&nbsp;mm at 100 metres), while conversions of minutes of arc to both metric and imperial values are approximate. {{Conversion between common sight adjustments based on milliradian and minute of arc}} * 1′ at 100 yards is about 1.047 inches<ref>[http://dexadine.com/WhatMOA.htm Dexadine Ballistics Software – ballistic data for shooting and reloading]. See Talk</ref> * 1′ ≈ 0.291&nbsp;mrad (or 29.1&nbsp;mm at 100&nbsp;m, approximately 30&nbsp;mm at 100&nbsp;m) * 1&nbsp;mrad ≈ 3.44′, so {{sfrac\|1\|10}}&nbsp;mrad ≈ {{sfrac\|1\|3}}′ * 0.1&nbsp;mrad equals exactly 1&nbsp;cm at 100&nbsp;m, or exactly 0.36 inches at 100 yards Human vision In humans, 20/20 vision is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc, from a distance of twenty feet. A 20/20 letter subtends 5 minutes of arc total. Materials The deviation from parallelism between two surfaces, for instance in optical engineering, is usually measured in arcminutes or arcseconds. In addition, arcseconds are sometimes used in rocking curve (ω-scan) x ray diffraction measurements of high-quality epitaxial thin films. Manufacturing Some measurement devices make use of arcminutes and arcseconds to measure angles when the object being measured is too small for direct visual inspection. For instance, a toolmaker's optical comparator will often include an option to measure in "minutes and seconds". See also * Gradian * {{section link\|Degree (angle)\|Subdivisions}} * {{section link\|Sexagesimal\|Modern usage}} * Square minute * Square second * Steradian * Milliradian * Nautical mile References {{Reflist}} External links * [https://www.scribd.com/doc/251836084/Mils-MOA-and-the-Range-Estimation-Equations MOA/ mils] By Robert Simeone *A Guide to [https://binoscopes.com/blog/how-to-range-a-target-using-moa/ calculate distance using MOA Scope] by Steve Coffman {{SI units}} {{Portal bar\|Mathematics\|Physics\|Astronomy\|Science}} Arcminute	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc	2025-04-05T18:26:04.288082
2433	Alberto Giacometti	{{Short description\|Swiss sculptor and painter (1901–1966)}} {{Redirect\|Giacometti\|other people named Giacometti\|Giacometti (surname)\|the racehorse\|Giacometti (horse)}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=February 2024}} {{Infobox artist \| name = Alberto Giacometti \| image = Emmy Andriesse - Alberto Giacometti (Ende 1940er PK-F-A.06801).jpg \| image_size = 250px \| caption = Alberto Giacometti (1948) <br>(photo by Emmy Andriesse) \| birth_name \| birth_date {{birth date\|1901\|10\|10\|df=y}} \| birth_place = Borgonovo, Stampa, Graubünden, Switzerland \| death_date {{death date and age\|1966\|01\|11\|1901\|10\|10\|dfyes}} \| death_place = Chur, Graubünden, Switzerland \| spouse = {{marriage\|Annette Arm\|1949}} \| field = Sculpture, painting, drawing \| training = The School of Fine Arts, Geneva \| movement = Surrealism, Expressionism, Cubism, Formalism \| notable_works ={{plainlist\| * Tête qui regarde * The Palace at 4 a.m. * ''L'Homme au doigt * Grande tête mince * Large Standing Woman I * Monumental Head * L'Homme qui marche I}} \| patrons \| awards "Grand Prize for Sculpture" at 1962 Venice Biennale \| website = {{URL\|fondation-giacometti.fr}} }} Alberto Giacometti ({{IPAc-en\|ˌ\|dʒ\|æ\|k\|ə\|ˈ\|m\|ɛ\|t\|i}},<ref>{{Cite dictionary \|urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Giacometti,+Alberto \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220320024159/https://www.lexico.com/definition/giacometti,_alberto?st \|url-statusdead \|archive-date20 March 2022 \|titleGiacometti, Alberto \|dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary \|publisherOxford University Press}}</ref> {{IPAc-en\|USalso\|ˌ\|dʒ\|ɑː\|k\|-}},<ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary\|Giacometti\|access-date28 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/giacometti\|titleGiacometti\|workCollins English Dictionary\|publisherHarperCollins\|access-date28 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster\|Giacometti\|access-date28 July 2019}}</ref> {{IPA\|it\|alˈbɛrto dʒakoˈmetti\|lang}}; 10 October 1901 – 11 January 1966) was a Swiss sculptor, painter, draftsman and printmaker, who was one of the most important sculptors of the 20th century. His work was particularly influenced by artistic styles such as Cubism and Surrealism. Philosophical questions about the human condition, as well as existential and phenomenological debates played a significant role in his work.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastGerber \|firstLouis \|date8 September 2001 \|titleAlberto Giacometti \|urlhttps://cosmopolis.ch/de/alberto-giacometti/ \|access-date4 July 2024 \|websiteCosmopolis}}</ref> Beginning in 1922, he lived and worked mainly in Paris but regularly visited his hometown Borgonovo to see his family and work on his art. Around 1935, he gave up on his Surrealist influences to pursue a more deepened analysis of figurative compositions. Giacometti wrote texts for periodicals and exhibition catalogues and recorded his thoughts and memories in notebooks and diaries. His critical nature led to self-doubt about his own work and his self-perceived inability to do justice to his own artistic vision. His insecurities nevertheless remained a powerful motivating artistic force throughout his entire life.<ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1010067077 Fondation Beyeler. The Collection.''] Ed. by Vischer, Theodora, Fondation Beyeler, Riehen / Basel. {{ISBN\|9783775743334}}. OCLC&nbsp;[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1010067077 1010067077].</ref> Between 1938 and 1944 Giacometti's sculptures had a maximum height of seven centimeters (2.75 inches).<ref>Angela Schneider: Wie aus weiter Ferne. Konstanten im Werk Giacomettis, in: Angela Schneider: Giacometti. p. 71</ref> Their small size reflected the actual distance between the artist's position and his model. In this context he self-critically stated: "But wanting to create from memory what I had seen, to my terror the sculptures became smaller and smaller".<ref>Letter to Pierre Matisse, 1947. In: Exhibition of Sculptures, Paintings, Drawings, exh. cat. Pierre Matisse Gallery (New York, 1948), pp. 29.</ref> After World War II, Giacometti created his most famous sculptures: his extremely tall and slender figurines. These sculptures were subject to his individual viewing experience—between an imaginary yet real, a tangible yet inaccessible space.<ref>Reinhold Hohl: Lebenschronik. In: Angela Schneider: Giacometti, p. 26</ref> In Giacometti's whole body of work, his painting constitutes only a small part. After 1957, however, his figurative paintings were equally as present as his sculptures. The almost monochrome paintings of his late work do not refer to any other artistic styles of modernity.<ref>Lucius Grisebach: Die Malerei, in: Angela Schneider: Giacometti, p. 82</ref> Early life ]] Giacometti was born in Borgonovo, Switzerland, the eldest of four children of Giovanni Giacometti, a well-known post-Impressionist painter, and Annetta Giacometti-Stampa. He was a descendant of Protestant refugees escaping the inquisition. Coming from an artistic background, he was interested in art from an early age and was encouraged by his father and godfather.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Alberto-Giacometti\|titleAlberto Giacometti &#124; Swiss sculptor and painter &#124; Britannica\|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Alberto attended the Geneva School of Fine Arts. His brothers Diego (1902–1985) and Bruno (1907–2012) would go on to become artists and architects as well. Additionally, his cousin Zaccaria Giacometti, later professor of constitutional law and chancellor of the University of Zurich, grew up together with them, having been orphaned at the age of 12 in 1905.<ref>Andreas Kley: Von Stampa nach Zürich. Der Staatsrechtler Zaccaria Giacometti, sein Leben und Werk und seine Bergeller Künstlerfamilie, Zürich 2014, pp. 89 et seq.</ref> Career In 1922, he moved to Paris to study under the sculptor Antoine Bourdelle, an associate of Rodin. It was there that Giacometti experimented with Cubism and Surrealism and came to be regarded as one of the leading Surrealist sculptors. Among his associates were Miró, Max Ernst, Picasso, Bror Hjorth, and Balthus. Between 1936 and 1940, Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the sitter's gaze. He preferred models he was close to—his sister and the artist Isabel Rawsthorne (then known as Isabel Delmer).<ref>{{cite web\| url https://www.francis-bacon.com/outofthecage\| title Jacobi, Carol. Out of the Cage: The Art of Isabel Rawsthorne, London: The Estate of Francis Bacon Publishing, Feb 2021}}</ref> This was followed by a phase in which his statues of Isabel became stretched out; her limbs elongated.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/20/arts/design/20kino.html?pagewantedall\|titleReal Women Have Curves – The New York Times\|newspaperThe New York Times\|date20 November 2005\|access-date16 September 2019\|last1Kino\|first1Carol}}</ref> Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, he often carved until they were as thin as nails and reduced to the size of a pack of cigarettes, much to his consternation. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to sculpt you, "he would make your head look like the blade of a knife". During World War II, Giacometti took refuge in Switzerland. There, in 1946, he met Annette Arm, a secretary for the Red Cross. They married in 1949.<ref name"annette">{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.fondation-giacometti.fr/en/article/303/tribute-to-annette-giacometti\|titleFondation Giacometti – TRIBUTE TO ANNETTE GIACOMETTI\|firstFondation\|lastGiacometti\|websitewww.fondation-giacometti.fr\|access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref> After his marriage his tiny sculptures became larger, but the larger they grew, the thinner they became. For the remainder of Giacometti's life, Annette was his main female model.<ref name="annette" /> His paintings underwent a parallel procedure. The figures appear isolated and severely attenuated, as the result of continuous reworking. He frequently revisited his subjects: one of his favourite models was his younger brother Diego, with whom he shared his studio in Paris.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastAmadour \|date23 May 2023 \|titleDesigner Ingrid Donat Opens Her Art-Filled Home in Paris \|urlhttps://galeriemagazine.com/designer-ingrid-donat-opens-art-filled-home-le-marais/ \|access-date31 December 2023 \|websiteGalerie \|languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|last \|title'Seated Man', Alberto Giacometti, 1949 \|urlhttps://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/giacometti-seated-man-n05909 \|access-date2024-07-04 \|websiteTate \|languageen-GB}}</ref> Later years In 1958 Giacometti was asked to create a monumental sculpture for the Chase Manhattan Bank building in New York, which was beginning construction. Although he had for many years "harbored an ambition to create work for a public square", he "had never set foot in New York, and knew nothing about life in a rapidly evolving metropolis. Nor had he ever laid eyes on an actual skyscraper", according to his biographer James Lord.<ref>James Lord, Giacometti: A Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 1986, pp. 331–332 {{ISBN\|978-0-374-52525-5}}</ref> Giacometti's work on the project resulted in the four figures of standing women—his largest sculptures—entitled Grande femme debout I through IV (1960). The commission was never completed, however, because Giacometti was unsatisfied by the relationship between the sculpture and the site, and abandoned the project. In 1962, Giacometti was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the Venice Biennale, and the award brought with it worldwide fame. <gallery mode"packed" widths200 heights200 caption"Artworks by Giacometti at the 31st Venice Biennale in 1962, photographed by Paolo Monti"> Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328561.jpg Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Venezia, 1962) - BEIC 6328562.jpg </gallery> Even when he had achieved popularity and his work was in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later. The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné, Giacometti – The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970), comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970. In his later years Giacometti's works were shown in a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, and despite his declining health, he traveled to the United States in 1965 for an exhibition of his works at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. As his last work he prepared the text for the book Paris sans fin, a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived. Artistic analysis ]] Regarding Giacometti's sculptural technique and according to the Metropolitan Museum of Art: "The rough, eroded, heavily worked surfaces of Three Men Walking (II), 1949, typify his technique. Reduced, as they are, to their very core, these figures evoke lone trees in winter that have lost their foliage. Within this style, Giacometti would rarely deviate from the three themes that preoccupied him—the walking man; the standing, nude woman; and the bust—or all three, combined in various groupings."<ref name"Metropolitan Museum of Art">{{cite web\| url http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/489978?rpp20&pg1&aoon&ftalberto+giacometti&pos6\| title Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> In a letter to Pierre Matisse, Giacometti wrote: "Figures were never a compact mass but like a transparent construction".<ref nameMOMA>{{cite press release \|titleAlberto Giacometti \|year1965\|publisherThe Museum of Modern Art, in collaboration with the Art Institute of Chicago\|locationGarden City, New York\|urlhttp://www.moma.org/pdfs/docs/press_archives/3481/releases/MOMA_1965_0057_56.pdf?2010 \|pages=14–28 }}</ref> In the letter, Giacometti writes about how he looked back at the realist, classical busts of his youth with nostalgia, and tells the story of the existential crisis which precipitated the style he became known for. "[I rediscovered] the wish to make compositions with figures. For this I had to make (quickly I thought; in passing), one or two studies from nature, just enough to understand the construction of a head, of a whole figure, and in 1935 I took a model. This study should take, I thought, two weeks and then I could realize my compositions...I worked with the model all day from 1935 to 1940...Nothing was as I imagined. A head, became for me an object completely unknown and without dimensions."<ref name=MOMA /> Since Giacometti achieved exquisite realism with facility when he was executing busts in his early adolescence, Giacometti's difficulty in re-approaching the figure as an adult is generally understood as a sign of existential struggle for meaning, rather than as a technical deficit. Giacometti was a key player in the Surrealist art movement, but his work resists easy categorization. Some describe it as formalist, others argue it is expressionist or otherwise having to do with what Deleuze calls "blocs of sensation" (as in Deleuze's analysis of Francis Bacon). Even after his excommunication from the Surrealist group,{{Explain\|date=March 2023}} while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were an expression of his emotional response to the subject. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen. He once said that he was sculpting not the human figure but "the shadow that is cast". Scholar William Barrett in Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy (1962), argues that the attenuated forms of Giacometti's figures reflect the view of 20th century modernism and existentialism that modern life is increasingly empty and devoid of meaning. "All the sculptures of today, like those of the past, will end one day in pieces...So it is important to fashion one's work carefully in its smallest recess and charge every particle of matter with life." A 2011–2012 exhibition at the Pinacothèque de Paris focused on showing how Giacometti was inspired by Etruscan art.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleGIACOMETTI ET LES ÉTRUSQUES - Pinacothèque de Paris \|urlhttps://www.pinacotheque.com/giacometti-et-les-etrusques/ \|access-date4 July 2024 \|websitePinacothèque de Paris}}</ref> ]] Walking Man and other human figures Giacometti is best known for the bronze sculptures of tall, thin human figures, made in the years 1945 to 1960.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastFeigel\|firstLara\|titleOn the edge of madness: the terrors and genius of Alberto Giacometti\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/apr/21/the-terrors-genius-of-alberto-giacometti-artist-sculptor-tate-modern\|access-date5 January 2021\|websitetheguardian\|date21 April 2017}}</ref> Giacometti was influenced by the impressions he took from the people hurrying in the big city. People in motion he saw as "a succession of moments of stillness".<ref>{{Cite web\|titleALBERTO GIACOMETTI FONDS HÉLÈNE & EDOUARD LECLERC\|urlhttps://www.fondation-giacometti.fr/en/event/36/alberto-giacometti\|websiteFondation-giacometti}}</ref> The emaciated figures are often interpreted as an expression of the existential fear, insignificance and loneliness of mankind.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleWalking Man \|urlhttps://www.aaronartprints.org/giacometti-walkingman.php \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210801082752/https://www.aaronartprints.org/giacometti-walkingman.php \|archive-date1 August 2021 \|access-date5 January 2021 \|websiteAaron art prints}}</ref> The mood of fear in the period of the 1940s and the Cold War is reflected in this figure. It feels sad, lonely and difficult to relate to.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastSidelnikova\|firstAnna\|titleWalking man II\|urlhttps://arthive.com/albertogiacometti/works/382560~Walking_man_II\|websiteArthive.com}}</ref> Death Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease (pericarditis) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the Kantonsspital in Chur, Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents. With no children, Annette Giacometti became the sole holder of his property rights.<ref name="annette" /> She worked to collect a full listing of authenticated works by her late husband, gathering documentation on the location and manufacture of his works and working to fight the rising number of counterfeited works. When she died in 1993, the Fondation Giacometti was set up by the French state. In May 2007 the executor of his widow's estate, former French foreign minister Roland Dumas, was convicted of illegally selling Giacometti's works to a top auctioneer, Jacques Tajan, who was also convicted. Both were ordered to pay €850,000 to the [https://www.fondation-giacometti.fr/en Alberto and Annette Giacometti Foundation].<ref>{{Cite web \|date10 May 2007 \|titleConviction Upheld Against former French FM in Giacometti Fraud \|urlhttp://www.artinfo.com/news/story/25058/conviction-upheld-against-former-french-fm-in-giacometti-fraud/ \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081215112419/http://www.artinfo.com/news/story/25058/conviction-upheld-against-former-french-fm-in-giacometti-fraud/ \|archive-date15 December 2008 \|access-date16 April 2008}}</ref> Legacy Exhibitions ]] Giacometti's work has been the subject of numerous solo exhibitions including the High Museum of Art, Atlanta (1970); Centre Pompidou, Paris (2007–2008); Pushkin Museum, Moscow "The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti" (2008); Kunsthal Rotterdam (2008); Fondation Beyeler, Basel (2009); Buenos Aires (2012); Kunsthalle Hamburg (2013); Pera Museum, Istanbul (2015); Tate Modern, London (2017);<ref>{{cite web \|title"Alberto Giacometti – press release \|urlhttps://www.tate.org.uk/press/press-releases/alberto-giacometti \|websiteTate \|access-date16 March 2022}}</ref> Vancouver Art Gallery, "Alberto Giacometti: A Line Through Time" (2019); National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin (2022).<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://vanartgallery.bc.ca/exhibitions/alberto-giacometti-a-line-through-time\|titleAlberto Giacometti: A line through time: June 16, 2019 – September 29, 2019\|access-date16 September 2019\|websiteVancouver Art Gallery}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.irishexaminer.com/property/homeandgardens/arid-40849877.html\|titleGiacometti at the National Gallery is a must-see\|firstDes\|lastO’Sullivan\|date16 April 2022\|websiteIrish Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://thegloss.ie/all-you-need-to-know-about-the-new-giacometti-exhibition/\|titleAll You Need To Know About The New Giacometti Exhibition\|firstPenny\|lastMcCormick\|date8 April 2022\|websiteThe Gloss Magazine}}</ref> The National Portrait Gallery, London's first solo exhibition of Giacometti's work, Pure Presence opened to five star reviews on 13 October 2015 (to 10 January 2016, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of the artist's death).<ref>{{cite news\|last1Jones\|first1Jonathan\|titleGiacometti: Pure Presence review – the most profound, universal art of the past 75 years\|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/oct/13/giacometti-pure-presence-review-national-portrait-gallery\|access-date13 October 2015\|workGuardian online\|date13 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news\|last1Luke\|first1Ben\|titleGiacometti: Pure Presence, exhibition review: Profound portrait of the artist's progress\|urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/goingout/exhibitions/giacometti-pure-presence-exhibition-review-profound-portrait-of-the-artist-s-progress-a3089201.html\|access-date13 October 2015\|workEvening Standard online\|date13 October 2015}}</ref> From April 2019, the Prado Museum in Madrid, has been highlighting Giacometti in an exhibition. Public collections Giacometti's work is displayed in numerous public collections, including: {{div col}} * Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo * Art Institute of Chicago * Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, Maryland * Bechtler Museum of Modern Art, Charlotte, North Carolina * Berggruen Museum, Berlin * Botero Museum, Bogotá, Colombia * Bündner Kunstmuseum Chur, Switzerland * Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh * Detroit Institute of Arts * Fondation Beyeler, Basel * Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C. * Holstebro, Denmark * J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, California * Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University * Kunsthaus Zürich * Kunstmuseum Basel * Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art, South Korea<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://leeum.samsungfoundation.org/html_eng/exhibition/exhibition_view.asp\|titleExhibition\|publisherleeum.samsungfoundation.org\|access-date16 September 2019}}</ref> * Los Angeles County Museum of Art * Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark * Minneapolis Institute of Art * Museum of Modern Art, New York * Museum of Fine Arts, Boston * National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C. * National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa * North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://ncartmuseum.org/artist/alberto-giacometti\|titleArtist: Alberto Giacometti – North Carolina Museum of Art\|websitencartmuseum.org\|access-date4 July 2024}}</ref> * Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts, University of East Anglia * Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Scottsdale, Arizona * Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York * Tate, London * Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Iran * University of Michigan Museum of Art * Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford * Walker Art Center, Minneapolis Vancouver Art Gallery<ref>{{Cite web\|date2019\|titleALBERTO GIACOMETTI: A LINE THROUGH TIME\|urlhttps://www.vanartgallery.bc.ca/exhibitions/alberto-giacometti-a-line-through-time\|websiteVanartgallery}}</ref> Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven {{div col end}} Art foundations The Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, having received a bequest from Alberto Giacometti's widow Annette, holds a collection of circa 5,000 works, frequently displayed around the world through exhibitions and long-term loans. A public interest institution, the Foundation was created in 2003 and aims at promoting, disseminating, preserving and protecting Alberto Giacometti's work. The Alberto-Giacometti-Stiftung<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.giacometti-stiftung.ch/\|titleAlberto Giacometti Stiftung: root\|websitewww.giacometti-stiftung.ch\|access-date16 September 2019}}</ref> established in Zürich in 1965, holds a smaller collection of works acquired from the collection of the Pittsburgh industrialist G. David Thompson. Notable sales According to record Giacometti has sold the two most expensive sculptures in history. In November 2000 a Giacometti bronze, Grande Femme Debout I, sold for $14.3 million.<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,395302,00.html \| workThe Guardian \| locationLondon \| titleArt record Picasso painting goes for £39m at auction \| date10 November 2000 \| access-date23 April 2010}}</ref> Grande Femme Debout II was bought by the Gagosian Gallery for $27.4 million at Christie's auction in New York City on 6 May 2008.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jJ-nuOHmXSBq7_MFQrllsC6jrt4A\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512060740/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jJ-nuOHmXSBq7_MFQrllsC6jrt4A\|url-statusdead\|titleAfp.google.com, Monet fetches record price at New York auction\|archive-date12 May 2008\|access-date16 September 2019}}</ref> ''L'Homme qui marche I'', a life-sized bronze sculpture of a man, became one of the most expensive works of art, and at the time was the most expensive sculpture ever sold at auction. It was in February 2010, when it sold for £65 million (US$104.3 million) at Sotheby's, London.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8497287.stm\|titleSculpture fetches £65m at auction\|date5 February 2010\|access-date16 September 2019\|vianews.bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://artdaily.com/index.asp?int_sec2&int_new36031\|titleAlberto Giacometti's Walking Man I Sells for a Record-Breaking $104,327,006 at Sotheby's\|websiteartdaily.com\|access-date=16 September 2019}}</ref> Grande tête mince, a large bronze bust, sold for $53.3 million just three months later. {{multiple image \| align = right \| direction = horizontal \| header \| header_align left/right/center \| header_background \| footer \| footer_align = left/right/center \| footer_background \| width \| image1 = CHF100 8 front.jpg \| width1 = 100 \| caption1 = 100 Swiss franc banknote 1998–2019, front \| alt1 = A banknote with portrait of Giacometti \| image2 = CHF100 8 back.jpg \| width2 = 100 \| caption2 = 100 Swiss franc banknote, back \| alt2 = A banknote with image of sculpture of Giacometti }} ''L'Homme au doigt (Pointing Man'') sold for $126 million (£81,314,455.32), or $141.3 million with fees, in Christie's May 2015, "Looking Forward to the Past" sale in New York City. The work had been in the same private collection for 45 years.<ref>{{cite news\|titleTwo Artworks Top $100 Million Each at Christie's Sale (Artsbeat blog)\|urlhttp://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/05/11/two-art-works-top-100-million-each-at-christies-sale/\|first1Scott \| last1Reyburn \|access-date12 May 2015\|newspaperNew York Times\|date=11 May 2015}}</ref> As of now it is the most expensive sculpture sold at auction. After being showcased on the BBC programme Fake or Fortune, a plaster sculpture, titled Gazing Head, sold in 2019 for half a million pounds.<ref>{{Cite news\|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/22/worthless-sculpture-bbcs-fake-fortune-actually-priceless-giacometti/ \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/22/worthless-sculpture-bbcs-fake-fortune-actually-priceless-giacometti/ \|archive-date12 January 2022 \|url-accesssubscription \|url-statuslive\|title'Worthless' sculpture from BBC's Fake or Fortune proves to be authentic Giacometti worth more than £500,000\|firstDalya\|lastAlberge\|newspaperThe Telegraph\|date23 August 2019\|access-date16 September 2019\|viawww.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In April 2021, Giacometti's small-scale bronze sculpture, Nu debout II (1953), was sold from a Japanese private collection and went for £1.5 million ($2 million), against an estimate of £800,000 ($1.1 million).<ref>{{Cite web\|lastVilla\|firstAngelica\|date15 April 2021\|title$34.2 M. Phillips London Sale Brings Tunji Adeniyi-Jones Record and Air of Optimism\|urlhttps://www.artnews.com/art-news/market/phillips-london-tunji-adenjiyi-jones-jean-dubuffet-results-1234589900/\|access-date17 April 2021\|websiteARTnews.com\|languageen-US}}</ref> Other legacy Giacometti created the monument on the grave of Gerda Taro at Père Lachaise Cemetery.<ref>Robert Whelan, "Robert Capa, the definitive collection", p. 8, Phaidon press 2001, {{ISBN\|978-0-7148-4449-7}}</ref> According to a lecture by Michael Peppiatt at Cambridge University on 8 July 2010, Giacometti, who had a friendship with author/playwright Samuel Beckett, created a tree for the set of a 1961 Paris production of Waiting for Godot. Giacometti and his sculpture ''L'Homme qui marche I'' appear on the former 100 Swiss franc banknote.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.snb.ch/de/iabout/cash/current/design/id/cash_current_design_100\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100127092859/http://snb.ch/de/iabout/cash/current/design/id/cash_current_design_100\|url-statusdead\|titleSchweizer Nationalbank\|archive-date27 January 2010\|access-date16 September 2019}}</ref> In 2001 he was included in the Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000 exhibition held at the National Portrait Gallery, London. Giacometti's sculptural style has featured in advertisements for various financial institutions, starting in 1987 with the Shoes ad for Royal Bank of Scotland directed by Gerry Anderson.<ref>{{cite web \|titleBBC – h2g2 – 'Shoes' – the Royal Bank of Scotland Advert \|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/mb6music/A823376 \|websitewww.bbc.co.uk \|access-date16 December 2023}}</ref><ref>Readings in Popular Culture: trivial pursuits?; edited by Gary Day; Macmillan; London; 1990</ref> The 2017 movie Final Portrait retells the story of his friendship with the biographer James Lord. Giacometti is played by Geoffrey Rush. References Citations {{Reflist}} General sources * Jacques Dupin (1962). Alberto Giacometti, Paris, Maeght * Reinhold Hohl (1971). Alberto Giacometti, Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje * Die Sammlung der Alberto Giacometti-Stiftung (1990), Zürich, Zürcher Kunstgesellschaft * Alberto Giacometti (1991–92). ''Sculptures – peintures – dessins. Paris, Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris,. * Jean Soldini (1993). Alberto Giacometti. Le colossal, la mère, le sacré, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme * David Sylvester (1996) Looking at Giacometti, Henry Holt & Co. * Alberto Giacometti 1901–1966. Kunsthalle Wien, 1996 * James Lord (1997). Giacometti: A Biography, Farrar, Straus and Giroux * Alberto Giacometti. Kunsthaus Zürich, 2001. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2001–2002. * Yves Bonnefoy (2006). Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, New edition, Flammarion * {{cite web \|firstAndreas \|lastWeiland \|titleThe Sculptures of Alberto Giacometti / Seen in the Kunsthal Rotterdam (Giacometti Exhibition, October 18, 2008 – February 8, 2009) \|date25 January 2009 \|publisherArt in Society \|issue10 \|urlhttp://www.art-in-society.de/AS10/Giacometti-3/Giacometti.html \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130527083108/http://www.art-in-society.de/AS10/Giacometti-3/Giacometti.html \|archive-date27 May 2013 \|issn1618-2154 }} * {{cite book \|firstLaurie \|lastWilson \|year2003 \|titleAlberto Giacometti: Myth, Magic and the Man \|publisherYale University Press \|urlhttp://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn0300090374 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060914193026/http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn0300090374 \|archive-date14 September 2006 \|isbn0300090374}} Further reading * ''Alberto Giacometti. L'espace et la force, Jean Soldini, Kimé (2016). * [https://www.academia.edu/42888775/La_Cage_de_Giacometti La Cage de Giacometti], Hisato Kuriwaki, Université de Tokyo, via Academia.edu (2012), in French * Alberto Giacometti, Yves Bonnefoy, Assouline Publishing (22 February 2011) * In Giacometti's Studio, Michael Peppiatt, Yale University Press (14 December 2010) * Alberto Giacometti: A Biography of His Work, Yves Bonnefoy, New edition, Flammarion (2006) * Giacometti: A Biography, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1997) * Looking at Giacometti, David Sylvester, Henry Holt & Co. (1996) * Alberto Giacometti, Herbert Matter & Mercedes Matter, Harry N Abrams (September 1987) * A Giacometti Portrait, James Lord, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1 July 1980) * Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, H. N. Abrams (1972) * Alberto Giacometti, Reinhold Hohl, Stuttgart: Gerd Hatje (1971) * Alberto Giacometti, Jacques Dupin, Paris, Maeght (1962) * The Studio of Alberto Giacometti: Collection of the Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti, Véronique Wiesinger (ed.), exh. cat., Paris: Fondation Alberto et Annette Giacometti/Centre Pompidou (2007) {{ISBN\|978-2-84426-352-0}} * "The Dream, the Sphinx, and the Death of T", Alberto Giacometti, X magazine, Vol. 1, No. 1 (November 1959); An Anthology from X (Oxford University Press 1988). * Jacobi, Carol. [https://www.francis-bacon.com/outofthecage Out of the Cage: The Art of Isabel Rawsthorne]'', London: The Estate of Francis Bacon Publishing, Feb 2021 {{ISBN\|978-0-50097-105-5}} * {{cite magazine \|firstMercedes \|lastMatter \|titleA Life Spent in Pursuit of the Impossible \|magazineLIFE \|date28 January 1966 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKEwEAAAAMBAJ&qbeauty&pgPA54 \|volume60 \|number4 \|pages54–60 \|issn=0024-3019 }} * The Cube and the Face: Around a Sculpture by Alberto Giacometti, Didi-Huberman, Georges (2015). External links {{commons category\|Alberto Giacometti}} {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.fondation-giacometti.fr The Giacometti Foundation website] (www.fondation-giacometti.fr) (in English and French) * [https://www.giacometti-stiftung.ch/ Alberto Giacometti Stiftung] (giacometti-stiftung.ch) (in English and German) * {{SIKART\|4000048}} * {{Helveticat}} * Works of Alberto Giacometti: [http://www.unesco.org/artcollection/DetailAction.do?&idOeuvre1550&nouvelleLangueen The UNESCO Works of Art Collection] {{MoMA artist\|2141}} ** [http://smarthistory.org/blog/53/giacometti-city-square-1948-moma/ smARThistory: Giacometti's City Square] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111001015453/http://smarthistory.org/blog/53/giacometti-city-square-1948-moma/ \|date1 October 2011 }} * Life of Alberto Giacometti: ** [https://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2001/giacometti/start/pdfs/Giacometti_Chronology.pdf Chronology of his life with illustrations] from the Museum of Modern Art * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090425143453/http://www.kunsthaus.ch/en/exhibitions/current/giacometti/?redirect_url=title%3DCy Exhibition at Kunsthaus Zürich from 27 February until 24 May 2009] * [http://nga.gov.au/internationalprints/tyler/Default.cfm?MnuID3&ArtistIRN11719&ListTrue&CREIRN11719&ORDER_SELECT13&VIEW_SELECT5&GrpNam12&TNOTESTRUE Alberto Giacometti in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection] * {{FrenchSculptureCensus}} {{Alberto Giacometti\|state=expanded}} {{Surrealism}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Giacometti, Alberto}} Category:1901 births Category:1966 deaths Category:20th-century Swiss male artists Category:20th-century Swiss sculptors Category:Swiss modern sculptors Category:People from Maloja District Category:Sibling artists Category:Swiss Protestants Category:Swiss surrealist artists Category:Swiss-Italian people	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti	2025-04-05T18:26:04.317286
2439	Anthem	{{short description\|Song of celebration used as a symbol for a specific group}} {{other uses}} {{distinguish\|athame}} An anthem is a musical composition of celebration, usually used as a symbol for a distinct group, particularly the national anthems of countries. Originally, and in music theory and religious contexts, it also refers more particularly to short sacred choral work (still frequently seen in Sacred Harp and other types of shape note singing) and still more particularly to a specific form of liturgical music. In this sense, its use began {{Circa\|1550}} in English-speaking churches; it uses English language words, in contrast to the originally Roman Catholic 'motet' which sets a Latin text.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/art/anthem Anthem (Greek antiphōna: "against voice"; Old English antefn: "antiphon")]. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 October 2020.</ref> {{anchor\|Word\|Name}} Etymology Anthem is derived from the Greek {{lang\|grc\|ἀντίφωνα}} (antíphōna) via Old English {{lang\|ang\|antefn}}. Both words originally referred to antiphons, a call-and-response style of the singing.{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} The adjectival form is "anthemic". History Anthems were originally a form of liturgical music. In the Church of England, the rubric appoints them to follow the third collect at morning and evening prayer. Several anthems are included in the British coronation service.{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes.{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} Being written for a trained choir rather than the congregation, the Anglican anthem is analogous to the motet of the Catholic and Lutheran Churches but represents an essentially English musical form.{{sfnp\|EB\|1911}} Anthems may be described as "verse", "full", or "full with verse", depending on whether they are intended for soloists, the full choir, or both. Another way of describing an anthem is that it is a piece of music written specifically to fit a certain accompanying text, and it is often difficult to make any other text fit that same melodic arrangement. It also often changes melody and/or meter, frequently multiple times within a single song, and is sung straight through from start to finish, without repeating the melody for following verses like a normal song (although certain sections may be repeated when marked). An example of an anthem with multiple meter shifts, fuguing, and repeated sections is "Claremont",<ref name"auto">{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vWhQIKXmsohA\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/WhQIKXmsohA\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|titleClaremont\|lastWestern Massachusetts Sacred Harp Convention – Topic\|date11 October 2015\|viaYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> or "Vital Spark of Heav'nly Flame".<ref name"auto"/> Another well known example is William Billing's "Easter Anthem",<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vnccHbHJaGLg\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/nccHbHJaGLg\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|title236 Easter Anthem Sacred Harp\|lastjsalzer262\|date10 May 2015\|viaYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> also known as "The Lord Is Risen Indeed!" after the opening lines. This anthem is still one of the more popular songs in the Sacred Harp tune book.{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} The anthem developed as a replacement for the Catholic "votive antiphon" commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the Blessed Virgin Mary or other saints. Notable composers of liturgical anthems: historic context During the Elizabethan period, notable anthems were composed by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Tye, and Farrant{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} but they were not mentioned in the Book of Common Prayer until 1662 when the famous rubric "In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem" first appears. Early anthems tended to be simple and homophonic in texture, so that the words could be clearly heard. During the 17th century, notable anthems were composed by Orlando Gibbons, Henry Purcell, and John Blow,{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} with the verse anthem becoming the dominant musical form of the Restoration.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Anthem in Reformation England \|urlhttps://www.bibleodyssey.org/articles/the-anthem-in-reformation-england/ \|access-date2024-04-02 \|websiteBible Odyssey \|languageen-US}}</ref> In the 18th century, famed anthems were composed by Croft, Boyce, James Kent, James Nares, Benjamin Cooke, and Samuel Arnold.{{sfnp\|EB\|1878}} In the 19th century, Samuel Sebastian Wesley wrote anthems influenced by contemporary oratorio which stretch to several movements and last twenty minutes or longer. Later in the century, Charles Villiers Stanford used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure. Many anthems have been written since then, generally by specialists in organ music rather than composers, and often in a conservative style. Major composers have usually written anthems in response to commissions and for special occasions: for instance Edward Elgar's 1912 "Great is the Lord" and 1914 "Give unto the Lord" (both with orchestral accompaniment); Benjamin Britten's 1943 "Rejoice in the Lamb" (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem, today heard mainly as a concert piece); and, on a much smaller scale, Ralph Vaughan Williams's 1952 "O Taste and See" written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. With the relaxation of the rule, in England at least, that anthems should only be in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertoire.TypesThe word "anthem" is commonly used to describe any celebratory song or composition for a distinct group, as in national anthems. Further, some songs are artistically styled as anthems, whether or not they are used as such, including Marilyn Manson's "Irresponsible Hate Anthem", Silverchair's "Anthem for the Year 2000", and Toto's "Child's Anthem".National anthem {{main\|National anthem}} A national anthem (also state anthem, national hymn, national song, etc.) is generally a patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history, traditions, and struggles of a country's people, recognized either by that state's government as the official national song, or by convention through use by the people. The majority of national anthems are marches or hymns in style. The countries of Latin America, Central Asia, and Europe tend towards more ornate and operatic pieces, while those in the Middle East, Oceania, Africa, and the Caribbean use a simpler fanfare. Some countries that are devolved into multiple constituent states have their own official musical compositions for them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russian Federation, and the former Soviet Union); their constituencies' songs are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states. Flag anthem {{Listen \|title="Zhōnghuá Míngúo Gúoqígē" \|filename=National Flag Anthem of the Republic of China中華民國國旗歌 (演奏版).oga \|description=The Taiwanese flag anthem "Zhōnghuá Míngúo Gúoqígē"; formerly the flag anthem of China until 1949.}} A flag anthem is generally a patriotic musical composition that extols and praises a flag, typically one of a country, in which case it is sometimes called a national flag anthem. It is often either sung or performed during or immediately before the raising or lowering of a flag during a ceremony. Most countries use their respective national anthems or some other patriotic song for this purpose.<ref nameGrandOldFlag>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v-G-3wIV-ehE\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/-G-3wIV-ehE\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|dateFebruary 1, 2012\|titleMorning Colors Ceremony Camp Pendleton 2-1-12\|websiteYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> However, some countries, particularly in South America, use a separate flag anthem for such purposes. Not all countries have flag anthems. Some used them in the past but no longer do so, such as Iran, China, and South Africa. Flag anthems can be officially codified in law, or unofficially recognized by custom and convention. In some countries, the flag anthem may be just another song, and in others, it may be an official symbol of the state akin to a second national anthem, such as in Taiwan. Sports anthem {{main\|Sports anthem}} Many pop songs are used as sports anthems, notably including Queen's "We Are the Champions" and "We Will Rock You", and some sporting events have their own anthems, most notably including UEFA Champions League. Shared anthems Although anthems are used to distinguish states and territories, there are instances of shared anthems. "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" became a pan-African liberation anthem and was later adopted as the national anthem of five countries in Africa including Zambia, Tanzania, Namibia and Zimbabwe after independence. Zimbabwe and Namibia have since adopted new national anthems. Since 1997, the South African national anthem has been a hybrid song combining new English lyrics with extracts of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" and the former state anthem "Die Stem van Suid-Afrika". For North and South Korea, the folk song Arirang is considered a shared anthem for both countries. For example, it was played when the two Koreas marched together during the 2018 Winter Olympics.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastLee \|firstHakyung Kate \|date2018-02-10 \|titleOlympics 2018: Arirang, the folk song that unites South Korea and North Korea \|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/International/olympics-2018-arirang-folk-song-unites-south-korea/story?id52982098 \|access-date2023-09-02 \|websiteABC News \|language=en}}</ref> "Hymn to Liberty" is the longest national anthem in the world by length of text.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://nationalanthems.me/greece-hymn-to-liberty/ \| titleGreece – Hymn to Liberty \| publisherNationalAnthems.me \| access-date2 November 2011 }}</ref> In 1865, the first three stanzas and later the first two officially became the national anthem of Greece and later also that of the Republic of Cyprus. "Forged from the Love of Liberty" was composed as the national anthem for the short-lived West Indies Federation (1958–1962) and was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago when it became independent in 1962.<ref>{{Citation \| title Understanding our national anthem \| publisher FIRST Magazine \| year 2012 \| url http://www.firstmagazine.com/DownloadSpecialistPublicationDetail.647.ashx \| access-date 2013-03-05 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130928035953/http://www.firstmagazine.com/DownloadSpecialistPublicationDetail.647.ashx \| archive-date 2013-09-28 \| url-status dead }}</ref> "Esta É a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada" is the national anthem of Guinea-Bissau and was also the national anthem of Cape Verde until 1996. "Oben am jungen Rhein", the national anthem of Liechtenstein, is set to the tune of "God Save the King/Queen". Other anthems that have used the same melody include "Heil dir im Siegerkranz" (Germany), "Kongesangen" (Norway), "My Country, 'Tis of Thee" (United States), "Rufst du, mein Vaterland" (Switzerland), "E Ola Ke Alii Ke Akua" (Hawai{{okina}}i), and "The Prayer of Russians". The Estonian anthem "Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm" is set to a melody composed in 1848 by Fredrik (Friedrich) Pacius which is also that of the national anthem of Finland: "{{Lang\|fi\|Maamme\|italicno}}" ("{{Lang\|sv\|Vårt Land\|italicno}}" in Swedish).<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttp://nationalanthems.me/estonia-mu-isamaa-mu-onn-ja-room \| titleEstonia – Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm \| publisherNationalAnthems.me \| access-date21 November 2011 }}</ref> It is also considered to be the ethnic anthem for the Livonian people with lyrics "Min izāmō, min sindimō" ("My Fatherland, my native land"). "Hey, Slavs" is dedicated to Slavic peoples. Its first lyrics were written in 1834 under the title "Hey, Slovaks" ("Hej, Slováci") by Samuel Tomášik and it has since served as the ethnic anthem of the Pan-Slavic movement, the organizational anthem of the Sokol physical education and political movement, the national anthem of Yugoslavia and the transitional anthem of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. The song is also considered to be the second, unofficial anthem of the Slovaks. Its melody is based on Mazurek Dąbrowskiego, which has also been the anthem of Poland since 1926, but the Yugoslav variation is much slower and more accentuated.<ref>{{cite AV media\|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vcZ1SUCpekyM\| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/cZ1SUCpekyM\| archive-date2021-11-22 \| url-statuslive\|titleMazurek Dąbrowskiego & Hej Slaveni\|date2 March 2011\|workYouTube\|access-date=20 March 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Between 1991 and 1994 "Deșteaptă-te, române!" was the national anthem of both Romania (which adopted it in 1990) and Moldova, but in the case of the latter it was replaced by the current Moldovan national anthem, "Limba noastră". Between 1975 and 1977, the national anthem of Romania "E scris pe tricolor Unire" shared the same melody as the national anthem of Albania "Himni i Flamurit", which is the melody of a Romanian patriotic song "Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire". The modern national anthem of Germany, "Das Lied der Deutschen",{{Efn\|Translates from German as "The Song of the Germans".}} uses the same tune as the 19th- and early 20th-century Austro-Hungarian imperial anthem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser".{{efn\|Translates from German as "God save Emperor Francis".}} The "Hymn of the Soviet Union",{{efn\|Russian: Государственный гимн СССР; transliterated as Gosudarstvenniy Gimn SSSR.}} was used until its dissolution in 1991, and was given new words and adopted by the Russian Federation in 2000 to replace an instrumental national anthem that had been introduced in 1990.<ref name'rianovosti'>{{cite web\|urlhttp://en.rian.ru/symbols/20070607/66606928.html\|titleNational Anthem\|access-date20 December 2009\|date7 June 2007\|workRussia's State Symbols\|publisherRIA Novosti\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204114156/http://en.rian.ru/symbols/20070607/66606928.html\|archive-date4 February 2009\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref namezolotov>{{cite news \| firstAndrei \| lastZolotov \|titleRussian Orthodox Church Approves as Putin Decides to Sing to a Soviet Tune \| date1 December 2000 \| publisherChristianity Today International \| url http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/decemberweb-only/57.0.html \| workChristianity Today Magazine \| access-date = 19 December 2009}}</ref> "Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", the regional anthem of Brittany and, "Bro Goth Agan Tasow", the Cornish regional anthem, are sung to the same tune as that of the Welsh regional anthem "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau", with similar words. For parts of states {{See also\|List of regional anthems}} {{listen \|filename="Marcha de Zacatecas", performed by the United States Navy Band.wav \|title="Marcha de Zacatecas" \|description=The "Marcha de Zacatecas", the regional anthem of the Mexican state of Zacatecas.}} {{listen \|filename=National anthem of Tajikistan, performed by the U.S. Navy Band.flac \|title="Surudi Milli" \|description=Tajikistan's national anthem "Surudi Milli", the tune of which was previously used in the regional anthem of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic during that entity's existence.}} {{listen \|filename=U.S. Navy Band - God Save the King.oga \|title="God Save the King/Queen" \|description=Unlike Wales, England does not have an officially-designated regional anthem. Thus, the UK's national anthem "God Save the King" (or "God Save the Queen") is typically used as a de facto regional anthem for England on occasions requiring the use of one.}} {{listen \|filename=Regional anthem of the Northern Mariana Islands, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga \|title="Gi Talo Gi Halom Tasi" \|description="Gi Talo Gi Halom Tasi", the regional anthem of the Northern Mariana Islands. \|filename2=United States Navy Band - La Borinqueña.ogg \|title2="La Borinqueña" \|description2="La Borinqueña", the regional anthem of Puerto Rico. \|filename3=Regional anthem of the United States Virgin Islands.wav \|title3="Virgin Islands March" \|description3=The "Virgin Islands March", the regional anthem of the US Virgin Islands.}} {{listen \|filename=National anthem of Serbia, performed by the United States Navy Band.wav \|title="Bože pravde" \|description="Bože pravde", the regional anthem of Serbia when it was a part of Serbia and Montenegro. It is now the national anthem of Serbia after it became an independent country in 2006.}} Some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, Spain, and the United Kingdom, among others, are held to be unions of several "nations" by various definitions. Each of the different "nations" may have their own anthem and these songs may or may not be officially recognized; these compositions are typically referred to as regional anthems<ref>{{cite journal \|access-date2024-04-03 \|date2023-04-25 \|firstKate \|issn0261-3077 \|languageen-GB \|lastConnolly \|periodicalThe Guardian \|titleAustrians embroiled in row over Nazi roots of regional anthems \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/25/austrians-embroiled-in-row-over-nazi-roots-of-regional-anthems}}<!-- auto-translated from Portuguese by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> though may be known by other names as well (e.g. "state songs" in the United States).AustriaIn Austria, the situation is similar to that in Germany. The regional anthem of Upper Austria, the "Hoamatgsang" ({{Langx\|en\|"Chant of the Homeland"}}), is notable as the only (official) German-language anthem written – and sung – entirely in dialect.BelgiumIn Belgium, Wallonia uses "Le Chant des Wallons" and Flanders uses "De Vlaamse Leeuw".BrazilMost of the Brazilian states have official anthems. Minas Gerais uses an adapted version of the traditional Italian song "Vieni sul mar" as its unofficial anthem. During the Vargas Era (1937–1945) all regional symbols including anthems were banned, but they were legalized again by the Eurico Gaspar Dutra government.CanadaThe Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, having been the independent Dominion of Newfoundland before 1949, also has its own regional anthem from its days as a dominion and colony of the UK, the "Ode to Newfoundland". It was the only Canadian province with its own anthem until 2010, when Prince Edward Island adopted the 1908 song "The Island Hymn" as its provincial anthem.CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia had a national anthem composed of two parts, the Czech anthem followed by one verse of the Slovak one. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic adopted its own regional anthem as its national one, whereas Slovakia did so with slightly changed lyrics and an additional stanza.GermanyIn Germany, many of the Länder (states) have their own anthems, some of which predate the unification of Germany in 1871. A prominent example is the Hymn of Bavaria, which also has the status of an official anthem (and thus enjoys legal protection). There are also several unofficial regional anthems, like the "Badnerlied" and the "Niedersachsenlied".IndiaSome of the states and union territories of India have officially adopted their own state anthem for use during state government functions.MalaysiaAll the individual states of Malaysia have their own anthems.MexicoIn Mexico, after the national anthem was established in 1854, most of the states of the federation adopted their own regional anthems, which often emphasize heroes, virtues or particular landscapes. In particular, the regional anthem of Zacatecas, the "Marcha de Zacatecas", is one of the more well-known of Mexico's various regional anthems.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061210032717/http://www.navyband.navy.mil/disc_worldclassmarches.shtml The United States Navy Band, disc: world class marches] Archived from www.navyband.navy.mil, accessed 8 October 2020</ref>Serbia and MontenegroIn 2004 and 2005 respectively, the Montenegrin and Serbian regions of Serbia and Montenegro adopted their own regional anthems. When the two regions both became independent sovereign states in mid-2006, their regional anthems became their national anthems.Soviet Union {{Main\|Anthems of the Soviet Republics}} Fourteen of the fifteen constituent states of the Soviet Union had their own official song which was used at events connected to that region, and also written and sung in that region's own language. The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic used the Soviet Union's national anthem as its regional anthem ("The Internationale" from 1917 to 1944 and the "National Anthem of the Soviet Union" from 1944 to 1990) until 1990, the last of the Soviet constituent states to do so. After the Soviet Union disbanded in the early 1990s, some of its former constituent states, now sovereign nations in their own right, retained the melodies of their old Soviet-era regional anthems until replacing them or, in some cases, still use them today. Unlike most national anthems, few of which were composed by renowned composers, the Soviet Union's various regional anthems were composed by some of the best Soviet composers, including world-renowned Gustav Ernesaks (Estonia), Aram Khachaturian (Armenia), Otar Taktakishvili (Georgia), and Uzeyir Hajibeyov (Azerbaijan). The lyrics present great similarities, all having mentions to Vladimir Lenin (and most, in their initial versions, to Joseph Stalin, the Armenian and Uzbek anthems being exceptions), to the guiding role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and to the brotherhood of the Soviet peoples, including a specific reference to the friendship of the Russian people (the Estonian, Georgian and Karelo-Finnish anthems were apparently an exception to this last rule). Some of the Soviet regional anthems' melodies can be sung in the Soviet Union anthem lyrics (Ukrainian and Belarus are the most fitted in this case). Most of these regional anthems were replaced with new national ones during or after the dissolution of the Soviet Union; Belarus, Kazakhstan (until 2006), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (until 1997), and Uzbekistan kept the melodies, but with different lyrics. Russia itself had abandoned the Soviet hymn, replacing it with a tune by Glinka. However, with Vladimir Putin coming to power, the old Soviet tune was restored, with new lyrics written to it. Like the hammer and sickle and red star, the public performance of the anthems of the Soviet Union's various regional anthems the national anthem of the Soviet Union itself are considered as occupation symbols as well as symbols of totalitarianism and state terror by several countries formerly either members of or occupied by the Soviet Union. Accordingly, Latvia,<ref>{{cite web\|titleBC, Riga, 16.05.2013\|urlhttp://www.baltic-course.com/eng/legislation/&doc74860\|websiteThe Baltic course\|access-date3 August 2014}}</ref> Lithuania,<ref>{{cite news\| urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/7459976.stm \| workBBC News \| titleLithuanian ban on Soviet symbols \| date17 June 2008 \| access-date22 May 2010}}</ref> Hungary,<ref>Hungarian Criminal Code 269/B.§ (1993) “(1) A person who (a) disseminates, (b) uses in public or (c) exhibits a swastika, an SS-badge, an arrow-cross, a symbol of the sickle and hammer or a red star, or a symbol depicting any of them, commits a misdemeanor—unless a more serious crime is committed—and shall be sentenced to a criminal fine (pénzbüntetés).”</ref> and Ukraine<ref>{{citation\|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/ukraine-bans-soviet-era-symbols-1428606171 \| titleUkraine Bans Soviet-Era Symbols}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|urlhttp://www.memory.gov.ua/laws/law-ukraine-condemnation-communist-and-national-socialist-nazi-regimes-and-prohibition-propagan \| titleLAW OF UKRAINE. On the condemnation of the communist and national socialist (Nazi) regimes, and prohibition of propaganda of their symbols}}</ref><ref>[http://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/317-viii ЗАКОН УКРАЇНИ Про засудження комуністичного та націонал-соціалістичного (нацистського) тоталітарних режимів в Україні та заборону пропаганди їхньої символіки] tr. The Law of Ukraine About the popularization of the communal and national-social (Nazi) totalitarian regimes in Ukraine and the propagation of its symbols zakon4.rada.gov.ua, accessed 8 October 2020</ref> have banned those anthems amongst other things deemed to be symbols of fascism, socialism, communism, and the Soviet Union and its republics. In Poland, dissemination of items which are “media of fascist, communist, or other totalitarian symbolism” was criminalized in 1997. However, in 2011 the Constitutional Tribunal found this sanction to be unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://trybunal.gov.pl/rozprawy/komunikaty-prasowe/komunikaty-po/art/2628-nowelizacja-kodeksu-karnego/s/k-1110/\|titleNowelizacja kodeksu karnego.\|languagepl\|date2011-07-19\|access-date2015-04-08}}</ref> In contrast to this treatment of the symbolism, promotion of fascist, communist and other totalitarian ideology remains illegal. Those laws do not apply to the anthems of Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan which used the melody with different lyrics.Spain {{Main\|Anthems of the autonomous communities of Spain}} In Spain, the situation is similar to that in Austria and Germany. Unlike the national anthem, most of the anthems of the autonomous communities have words. All are official. Three prominent examples are "Els Segadors" of Catalonia, "Eusko Abendaren Ereserkia" of the Basque Country, and "Os Pinos" of Galicia, all written and sung in the local languages. United Kingdom {{See also\|List of British anthems}} The United Kingdom's national anthem is "God Save the King" but its constituent countries and Crown Dependencies also have their own equivalent songs which have varying degrees of official recognition. England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland each have anthems which are played at occasions such as sports matches and official events.<ref>Johnson, H. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299135674_Anthem_for_Jersey_Music_Media_and_Politics_in_an_Island_Setting MEDIANZ, 15(1), 96–118.].</ref> * England - "God Save the King" is usually presumed to be, and often played as, the English regional anthem; but "Jerusalem", "I Vow To Thee, My Country" and "Land of Hope and Glory" are also sung. "Jerusalem" is used as England's anthem at the Commonwealth Games. * Scotland variously uses "Flower of Scotland", "Auld Lang Syne", and "Scotland the Brave" as its unofficial national anthems. "Flower of Scotland" is used as Scotland's anthem at the Commonwealth Games and international football and rugby matches. * Wales has sung "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" since 1856 when it was written by father and son Evan and James James. The music and a Breton translation, "Bro Gozh ma Zadoù", were adopted by Brittany as its anthem; and there is also a Cornish version, "Bro Goth agan Tasow", sung alongside "Trelawney" as an unofficial Cornish anthem. In Wales, "Hen Wlad fy Nhadau" is sometimes accompanied by the hymn, "Guide Me, O thou Great Redeemer" (also referred to as "Bread of Heaven" from repeated words in its first verse), especially at rugby matches. * Northern Ireland currently uses "God Save the King" as its anthem at international football matches and uses "Danny Boy/Londonderry Air" at the Commonwealth Games. The Isle of Man, a Crown dependency, uses "God Save the King" as a Royal anthem, but also has its own local anthem, "O Land of Our Birth" (Manx: "O Halloo Nyn Ghooie"). United States Although the United States has "The Star-Spangled Banner" as its official national anthem, all except two of its constituent states and territories also have their own regional anthem (referred to by most US states as a "state song"), along with Washington, DC. The two exceptions are New Jersey, which has never had an official state song,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.state.nj.us/faqs/facts.html/\|titleFrequently Asked Questions {{!}} NJ Facts\|websitewww.state.nj.us\|access-date2019-06-13}}</ref> and Maryland, which rescinded "Maryland, My Maryland" in 2021 due to its racist language and has yet to adopt a replacement.<ref>{{cite news\|titleMaryland state song, which refers to Lincoln as "tyrant" and urges secession, is repealed\|date2021-05-20\|publisherCBS News\|urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/maryland-state-song-repealed-refers-to-lincoln-as-tyrant-urges-succession/\|access-date=2021-11-04}}</ref> The state songs are selected by each state legislature, and/or state governor, as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular US state. Some US states have more than one official state song, and may refer to some of their official songs by other names; for example, Arkansas officially has two state songs, plus a state anthem, and a state historical song. Tennessee has the most state songs, with 12 official state songs and an official bicentennial rap. Arizona has a song that was written specifically as a state anthem in 1915, as well as the 1981 country hit "Arizona", which it adopted as the alternate state anthem in 1982.<ref name=RJo/> Two individuals, Stephen Foster, and John Denver, have written or co-written two state songs. Foster's two state songs, "Old Folks at Home" (better known as "Swanee Ribber" or "Suwannee River"), adopted by Florida, and "My Old Kentucky Home" are among the best-known songs in the US On March 12, 2007, the Colorado Senate passed a resolution to make Denver's trademark 1972 hit "Rocky Mountain High" one of the state's two official state songs, sharing duties with its predecessor, "Where the Columbines Grow".<ref>{{cite web\|titleOfficial State Song\|urlhttp://www.netstate.com/states/symb/song/co_rocky_mountain_high.htm \|access-dateApril 16, 2009}}</ref> On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make Denver's "Take Me Home, Country Roads" one of four official state songs of West Virginia. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8, 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.netstate.com/states/symb/song/co_rocky_mountain_high.htm\|titleColorado State Song Rocky Mountain High composed by John Denver\|websitewww.netstate.com\|access-date=5 April 2018}}</ref> Additionally, Woody Guthrie wrote or co-wrote two state folk songs – Roll On, Columbia, Roll On and Oklahoma Hills – but they have separate status from the official state songs of Washington and Oklahoma, respectively. Other well-known state songs include "Yankee Doodle", "You Are My Sunshine", "Rocky Top", and "Home on the Range"; a number of others are popular standards, including "Oklahoma" (from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical), Hoagy Carmichael's "Georgia on My Mind", "Tennessee Waltz", "Missouri Waltz", and "On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away". Many of the others are much less well-known, especially outside the state. New Jersey has no official state song, while Virginia's previous state song, "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny", adopted in 1940,<ref name"RJo">{{cite web\|last1Johnson\|first1Roger R.\|titleState Songs\|urlhttp://www.welcometoamerica.us/info/songs.html\|publisherWelcome to America\|access-date18 November 2014\|date2009}}</ref> was later rescinded in 1997 due to its racist language by the Virginia General Assembly.<ref name"VA">{{cite web \| url http://www.virginiastatesong.com/ \| titleOfficial State Song of the Commonwealth of Virginia \| access-date 2007-02-06 \| year2006 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070429004929/http://www.virginiastatesong.com/ \| archive-date2007-04-29 \| url-status dead }}</ref> In 2015, "Our Great Virginia" was made the new state song of Virginia.<ref name"Patch">{{cite web \| url http://patch.com/virginia/fairfaxcity/listen-virginia-now-has-2-state-songs \| titleListen: Virginia Now Has 2 State Songs \| access-date 2015-04-02 \|year=2015}}</ref> Iowa ("The Song of Iowa") uses the tune from the song "O Tannenbaum" as the melody to its official state song.<ref>[http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/editorial/bs-ed-state-song-20160315-story.html "Maryland, my meh song"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180613191722/http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/editorial/bs-ed-state-song-20160315-story.html \|date2018-06-13 }}, The Baltimore Sun, Baltimore, 15 March 2016. Retrieved on 05 June 2017.</ref> Yugoslavia In Yugoslavia, each of the country's constituent states (except for Bosnia and Herzegovina) had the right to have its own anthem, but only the Croatian one actually did so initially, later joined by the Slovene one on the brink of the breakup of Yugoslavia. Before 1989, Macedonia did not officially use a regional anthem, even though one was proclaimed during the World War II by the Anti-fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM). International organizations {{redirect\|International anthem\|the American record label\|International Anthem Recording Company}} {{See also\|Anthems of international organizations}} Larger entities also sometimes have anthems, in some cases known as 'international anthems'. Lullaby is the official anthem of UNICEF composed by Steve Barakatt.<ref>[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/canada_51822.html A musical call to action: ‘Lullaby: The UNICEF Anthem’] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513114138/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/canada_51822.html \|date2021-05-13 }} UNICEF Website, 19 November 2009</ref> "The Internationale" is the organizational anthem of various socialist movements. Before March 1944, it was also the anthem of the Soviet Union and the Comintern. ASEAN Way is the official anthem of ASEAN. The tune of the "Ode to Joy" from Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 is the official anthem of the European Union and of the Council of Europe. Let's All Unite and Celebrate is the official anthem of the African Union<ref>[http://www.africa-union.org/AU%20symbols/ausymblos.htm AU Symbols] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050304021240/http://www.africa-union.org/AU%20symbols/ausymblos.htm \|date2005-03-04 }}.</ref> ("Let Us All Unite and Celebrate Together"). The Olympic Movement also has its own organizational anthem. Esperanto speakers at meetings often use the song "La Espero" as their linguistic anthem. The first South Asian Anthem by poet-diplomat Abhay K may inspire SAARC to come up with an official SAARC Anthem.<ref>[http://aninews.in/newsdetail4/story142658/indian-poet-diplomat-pens-s-asian-anthem-after-earth-anthem-success.html Indian poet-diplomat pens S.Asian anthem after Earth anthem success] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131203054546/http://aninews.in/newsdetail4/story142658/indian-poet-diplomat-pens-s-asian-anthem-after-earth-anthem-success.html \|date2013-12-03 }} ANI, 27 November 2013</ref> "Ireland's Call" was commissioned as the sporting anthem of both the Ireland national rugby union team and the Ireland national rugby league team, which are composed of players from both jurisdictions on the island of Ireland, in response to dissatisfaction among Northern Ireland unionists with the use of the Irish national anthem. "Ireland's Call" has since been used by some other all-island bodies. An international anthem also unifies a group of organizations sharing the same appellation such as the International Anthem of the Royal Golf Clubs composed by Steve Barakatt. Same applies to the European Broadcasting Union:<ref>{{Cite web\|titleEurovision anthem contest for EBU's 70th anniversary\|urlhttps://eurovision.tv/story/eurovision-anthem-contest-for-ebu-70th-anniversary\|date2020-02-12\|websiteeurovision.tv\|access-date2020-05-23}}</ref> the prelude of Te Deum in D Major by Marc-Antoine Charpentier is played before each official Eurovision and Euroradio broadcast. The prelude's first bars are heavily associated with the Eurovision Song Contest.Global anthem {{Main\|Earth anthem}} Various artists have created "Earth anthems" for the entire planet, typically extolling the ideas of planetary consciousness. Though UNESCO have praised the idea of a global anthem,<ref>[http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ani/unesco-finds-indian-poet-diplomat-s-idea-of-an-earth-anthem-inspiring-114022700403_1.html UNESCO finds Indian poet-diplomat's idea of an Earth Anthem inspiring] Business Standard, 27 February 2014</ref> the United Nations has never adopted an official song. See also {{Portal\|Music}} {{divcol}} Antiphon List of national anthems Motet Stadium anthems Verse anthem {{divcol-end}} Notes {{Notelist}} References {{Reflist}} Bibliography {{cite EB9 \|modecs2 \|wstitleAnthem \|volume2 \|ref{{harvid\|EB\|1878}} \|page=102 }} * {{cite EB1911 \|modecs2 \|wstitleAnthem \|volume2 \|ref{{harvid\|EB\|1911}} \|page=93 }} {{Authority control}} * * Category:Song forms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem	2025-04-05T18:26:04.369942
2440	Albrecht Altdorfer	{{short description\|German painter, engraver and architect}} {{Infobox artist \| name = Albrecht Altdorfer \| image = Albrecht_Altdorfer_XVII.jpg \| image_size = <!-- if image is smaller than 250px --> \| alt \| caption Albrecht Altdorfer portrait by Philipp Kilian \| birth_name = <!-- only use if different than name --> \| birth_date = {{Circa\|1480}} \| birth_place = Regensburg or Altdorf \| death_date {{Death date and age\|1538\|02\|12\|1480\|dfy}} \| death_place = Regensburg \| other_names \| nationality German \| alma_mater \| spouse \| partner \| children \| parents \| awards \| practice \| significant_buildings \| significant_projects \| significant_design \| signature \| website \| embedded = <!-- For embedding other infoboxes in this infobox --> }} Albrecht Altdorfer ({{circa\|1480}}{{mdash}}12 February 1538) was a German painter, engraver and architect of the Renaissance working in Regensburg, Bavaria. Along with Lucas Cranach the Elder and Wolf Huber he is regarded to be the main representative of the Danube School, setting biblical and historical subjects against landscape backgrounds of expressive colours. He is remarkable as one of the first artists to take an interest in landscape as an independent subject.<ref>{{Cite book\|lastNorwich\|firstJohn Julius\|titleOxford Illustrated Encyclopedia Of The Arts\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00norw\|url-accesslimited\|publisherOxford University Press\|year1990\|isbn978-0198691372\|locationUSA\|pages[https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00norw/page/13 13]}}</ref> As an artist also making small intricate engravings he is seen to belong to the Nuremberg Little Masters. Biography Altdorfer was born in Regensburg or Altdorf around 1480. He acquired an interest in art from his father, Ulrich Altdorfer, who was a painter and miniaturist. At the start of his career, he won public attention by creating small, intimate modestly scaled works in unconventional media and with eccentric subject matter. He settled in the free imperial city of Regensburg, a town located on the Danube River in 1505, eventually becoming the town architect and a town councillor. His first signed works date to {{Circa\|1506}}, including engravings and drawings such the Stygmata of St. Francis and St. Jerome. His models were niellos and copper engravings from the workshops of Jacopo de Barbari and Albrecht Dürer. Around 1511 or earlier, he travelled down the river and south into the Alps, where the scenery moved him so deeply that he became the first landscape painter in the modern sense,<ref>{{cite book\|lastMurray\|firstLinda\|titleThe High Renaissance and Mannerism\|year1967\|publisherThames & Hudson Ltd.\|locationLondon, England\|isbn0-500-20162-5\|pages[https://archive.org/details/highrenaissancem00murr/page/246 246–247]\|url=https://archive.org/details/highrenaissancem00murr/page/246}}</ref> making him the leader of the Danube School, a circle that pioneered landscape as an independent genre, in southern Germany. From 1513 he was at the service of Maximilian I in Innsbruck, where he received several commissions from the imperial court. During the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, he dedicated mostly to architecture; paintings of the period, showing his increasing attention to architecture, include the Nativity of the Virgin. In 1529, he executed The Battle of Alexander at Issus for Duke William IV of Bavaria. In the 1520s he returned to Regensburg as a wealthy man, and became a member of the city's council. He was also responsible for the fortifications of Regensburg. In that period his works are influenced by artists such as Giorgione and Lucas Cranach, as shown by his Crucifixion. In 1535, he was in Vienna. He died at Regensburg in 1538. The remains of Altdorfer's surviving work comprises 55 panels, 120 drawings, 125 woodcuts, 78 engravings, 36 etchings, 24 paintings on parchment, and fragments from a mural for the bathhouse of the Kaiserhof in Regensburg. This production extends at least over the period 1504–1537. He signed and dated each one of his works. Painting Altdorfer was the pioneer painter of pure landscape, making them the subject of the painting, as well as compositions dominated by their landscape; these comprise much of his oeuvre. He believed that the human figure should not disrupt nature, but rather participate in it or imitate its natural processes. Taking and developing the landscape style of Lucas Cranach the Elder, he shows the hilly landscape of the Danube valley with thick forests of drooping and crumbling firs and larches hung with moss, and often dramatic colouring from a rising or setting sun. His Landscape with Footbridge (National Gallery, London)<ref>image</ref> of 1518–1520 is claimed to be the first pure landscape in oil. In this painting, Altdorfer places a large tree that is cut off by the margins at the center of the landscape, making it the central axis and focus within the piece. Some viewers perceive anthropomorphic stylisation—the tree supposedly exhibiting human qualities such as the drapery of its limbs. He also made many fine finished drawings, mostly landscapes, in pen and watercolour such as the Landscape with the Woodcutter in 1522.<ref>image</ref> The drawing opens at ground level on a clearing surrounding an enormous tree that is placed in the center, dominating the picture. Some see the tree pose and gesticulate as if it was human, splaying its branches out in every corner. Halfway up the tree trunk, hangs a gabled shrine. At the time, a shrine like this might shelter an image of the Crucifixion or the Virgin Mary, but since it is turned away from the viewer, we are not sure what it truly is. At the bottom of the tree, a tiny figure of a seated man, crossed legged, holds a knife and axe, declaring his status in society/occupation.<ref>{{cite book \|lastWood \|firstChristopher S. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/albrechtaltdorfe0000wood \|titleAlbrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape \|publisherThe University of Chicago Press \|year1993 \|isbn9780226906010 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref> Also, he often painted scenes of historical and biblical subjects, set in atmospheric landscapes. His best religious scenes are intense, with their glistening lights and glowing colours sometimes verging on the expressionistic. They often depict moments of intimacy between Christ and his mother, or various saints. His sacral masterpiece and one of the most famous religious works of art of the later Middle Ages is The Legend of St. Sebastian and The Passion of Christ of the so-called Sebastian Altar in ''St. Florian's Priory (Stift Sankt Florian'') near Linz, Upper Austria. When closed the altarpiece displayed the four panels of the legend of St. Sebastian's Martyrdom, while the opened wings displayed the Stations of the Cross. Today the altarpiece is dismantled and the predellas depicting the two final scenes, Entombment and Resurrection were sold to Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna in 1923 and 1930. Both these paintings share a similar formal structure that consists of an open landscape that is seen beyond and through the opening of a dark grotto. The date of completion on the resurrection panel is 1518. Altdorfer often distorts perspective to subtle effect. His donor figures are often painted completely out of scale with the main scene, as in paintings of the previous centuries. He also painted some portraits; overall his painted oeuvre was not large. In his later works, Altdorfer moved more towards mannerism and began to depict the human form to the conformity of the Italian model, as well as dominate the picture with frank colors. Paintings in Munich , 1529, <br />Wood, 158.4 × 120.3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich]] His rather atypical Battle of Issus (or of Alexander'') of 1529 was commissioned by William IV, Duke of Bavaria as part of a series of eight historical battle scenes destined to hang in the Residenz in Munich. Albrecht Altdorfer's depiction of the moment in 333 BCE when Alexander the Great routed Darius III for supremacy in Asia Minor is vast in ambition, sweeping in scope, vivid in imagery, rich in symbols, and obviously heroic—the Iliad of painting, as literary critic Friedrich Schlegel suggested<ref nameAltdorfWS>{{cite news\|lastDobrzynski\|firstJudith H.\|titleAn Epic Poem in Paint: The story of 'The Battle of Issus' and Albrecht Altdorfer\|newspaperThe Wall Street Journal\|dateJanuary 8, 2010}}</ref> In the painting, a swarming cast of thousands of soldiers surround the central action: Alexander on his white steed, leading two rows of charging cavalrymen, dashes after a fleeing Darius, who looks anxiously over his shoulder from a chariot. The opposing armies are distinguished by the colors of their uniforms: Darius' army in red and Alexander's in blue. The upper half of The Battle of Alexander expands with unreal rapidity into an arcing panorama comprehending vast coiling tracts of globe and sky. The victory also lies on the planar surface; The sun outshone the moon just as the Imperial and allied army successfully repel the Turks.<ref name=AltdorfWS/> By making the mass number of soldiers blend within the landscape/painting, it shows that he believed that the usage and depiction of landscape was just as significant as a historical event, such as a war. He renounced the office of Mayor of Regensburg to accept the commission. Few of his other paintings resemble this apocalyptic scene of two huge armies dominated by an extravagant landscape seen from a very high viewpoint, which looks south over the whole Mediterranean from modern Turkey to include the island of Cyprus and the mouths of the Nile and the Red Sea (behind the isthmus to the left) on the other side. However his style here is a development of that of a number of miniatures of battle-scenes he had done much earlier for Maximilian I in his illuminated manuscript Triumphal Procession in 1512–14. It is thought to be the earliest painting to show the curvature of the Earth from a great height. The Battle is now in the Alte Pinakothek, which has the best collection of Altdorfer's paintings, including also his small St. George and the Dragon (1510), in oil on parchment, where the two figures are tiny and almost submerged in the lush, dense forest that towers over them. Altdorfer seems to exaggerate the measurements of the forest in comparison to the figures: the leaves appear to be larger than the horse, showing the significance of nature and landscape. He also emphasizes line within the work, by displaying the upward growth of the forest with the vertical and diagonal lines of the trunks. There is a small opening of the forest on the lower right hand corner that provides a rest for your eyes. It serves to create depth within the painting and is the only place you can see the characters. The human form is completely absorbed by the thickness of the forest. Fantastic light effects provide a sense of mystery and dissolve the outline of objects. Without the contrast of light, the figures would blend in with its surrounding environment. Altdorfer's figures are invariably the complement of his romantic landscapes; for them he borrowed Albrecht Dürer's inventive iconography, but the panoramic setting is personal and has nothing to do with the fantasy landscapes of the Netherlands<ref>{{cite book\|lastMurray\|firstLinda\|titleThe High Renaissance and Mannerism\|year1967\|publisherThames & Hudson, Ltd.\|locationLondon, England\|isbn0-500-20162-5\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/highrenaissancem00murr}}</ref> A Susanna in the Bath and the Stoning of the Elders (1526) set outside an Italianate skyscraper of a palace shows his interest in architecture. Another small oil on parchment, Danube Landscape with Castle Wörth (c. 1520) is one of the earliest accurate topographical paintings of a particular building in its setting, of a type that was to become a cliché in later centuries. Printmaking in Warsaw]] Altdorfer was a significant printmaker, with numerous engravings and about ninety-three woodcuts. These included some for the Triumphs of Maximilian, where he followed the overall style presumably set by Hans Burgkmair, although he was able to escape somewhat from this in his depictions of the more disorderly baggage-train, still coming through a mountain landscape. However most of his best prints are etchings, many of landscapes; in these he was able most easily to use his drawing style.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/intg/ho_1993.1097.htm \|titleAlbrecht Altdorfer: Landscape with a Double Spruce in the Foreground (1993.1097) &#124; Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History &#124; The Metropolitan Museum of Art \|publisherMetmuseum.org \|date2013-09-04 \|access-date2013-12-21}}</ref> He was one of the most successful early etchers, and was unusual for his generation of German printmakers in doing no book illustrations. He often combined etching and engraving techniques in a single plate, and produced about 122 intaglio prints altogether. Many of Altdorfer's prints are quite small in size, and he is considered to be of the main members of the group of artists known as the Little Masters.<ref name"grove">{{cite book \|editor-lastCampbell\|editor-first Gordon \|titleThe Grove Encyclopedia of Northern Renaissance Art \|year 2009\|publisherOxford University Press\|isbn 9780195334661\|volume1\|pages33–39}}</ref> Arthur Mayger Hind considers his graphical work to be somewhat lacking in technical skill but with an "intimate personal touch", and notes his characteristic feeling for landscape.<ref namehind>{{cite book \|last Hind\|firstArthur M.\|title A History of Engraving & Etching From the 15th Century to the Year 1914\|year1963\|url https://archive.org/details/historyofengravi00hind\|url-accessregistration\|publisher Dover Publications\|page[https://archive.org/details/historyofengravi00hind/page/82 82]\|isbn 9780486209548\|access-date5 July 2014 }}</ref>Public lifeAs the superintendent of the municipal buildings Altdorfer had overseen the construction of several commercial structures, such as a slaughterhouse and a building for wine storage, possibly even designing them. He was considered to be an outstanding politician of his day. In 1517 he was a member of the "Ausseren Rates", the council on external affairs, and in this capacity was involved in the expulsion of the Jews, the destruction of the synagogue and in its place the construction of a church and shrine to the Schöne Maria that occurred in 1519. Altdorfer made etchings of the interior of the synagogue and designed a woodcut of the cult image of the Schöne Maria.<ref>{{cite web\|lastPioch\|firstNicolas\|urlhttp://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/altdorfer/\|title=Altdorfer, Albrecht}}</ref> In 1529–1530 he was also charged with reinforcing certain city fortifications in response to the Turkish threat. Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and printmaker in woodcut and engraving, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach the Elder. See also * 8121 Altdorfer, asteroid named after Altdorfer * Danube school * Early Renaissance painting * List of landscapes by Albrecht Altdorfer References {{reflist}} Further reading Alte Pinakotek, Munich; (Summary Catalogue -various authors),1986, Edition Lipp, {{ISBN\|3-87490-701-5}} Christopher S. Wood, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London, {{ISBN\|0-948462-46-9}} Christoph Wagner, Oliver Jehle (eds.), Albrecht Altdorfer. Kunst als zweite Natur, 2012, Schnell & Steiner Verlag, Regensburg (= Regensburger Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, Vol. 17), {{ISBN\|978-3-7954-2619-4}} Jochen Sander, Stefan Roller, Sabine Haag, Guido Messling (eds.), Fantastische Welten. Albrecht Altdorfer und das Expressive in der Kunst um 1500, 2014, Hirmer, Munich, {{ISBN\|978-3-7774-2266-4}} (<small>exhibition catalogue Städel Museum, Frankfort, November 5, 2014 - February 2015 and Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, March 17 - June 14, 2015</small>) External links {{Sister project links\|dQ153746\|cCategory: Albrecht Altdorfer\|qno\|bno\|wiktno\|sno\|vno\|voyno\|mno\|mwno\|speciesno\|nno}} [https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/agent/64 Works by Albrecht Altdofer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa] {{IMJ-Collections\|firstAlbrecht\|lastAltdorfer\|accessdate=September 2016}} [http://www.zeno.org/Kunstwerke/A/Altdorfer,+Albrecht Works by Altdorfer at Zeno.org] [http://www.all-art.org/history230-10-2.html Albrecht Altdorfer in the "History of Art"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210421140555/http://www.all-art.org/history230-10-2.html \|date2021-04-21 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20080407202234/http://www.art-wallpaper.com/Wallpapers/Altdorfer+Albrecht Albrecht Altdorfer Wallpapers] [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/altdorfer_albrecht.html Page at artcyclopedia.com] [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/altdorfer/ Page at ibiblio.org] Artvibrations Archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20110211004452/http://www.artvibrations.com/AlbrechtAltdorfer/ [https://web.archive.org/web/20160323182351/http://art.onilm.com/index.php?%2Fcategory%2F13 Albrecht Altdorfer Paintings Gallery] (Public Domain Paintings - www.art.onilm.com) [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/94303/rec/1 Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Albrecht Altdorfer (see index) {{Albrecht Altdorfer}} {{Authority control (arts)}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Altdorfer, Albrecht}} Category:1480s births Category:1538 deaths Category:16th-century German painters Category:German male painters Category:German Renaissance painters Category:Artists from Regensburg Category:16th-century German architects Category:German printmakers Category:16th-century German engravers Category:German Lutherans Category:Manuscript illuminators	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Altdorfer	2025-04-05T18:26:04.379677
2441	House of Ascania	{{Short description\|Dynasty of German rulers}} {{pp-pc\|small=yes}} {{Multiple issues\| {{more footnotes needed\|date=November 2017}} {{expand German\|Askanier\|date=March 2018}} }} {{infobox royal house\|\|surnameHouse of Ascania\|coat of arms \|countryGermany, Russia\|titlesCount/Prince/Duke of Anhalt Duke of Saxony Margrave of Brandenburg Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg Elector of Saxony Prince of Lüneburg Empress and Autocrat of All the Russias Empress consort of All the Russias\|founderEsiko, Count of Ballenstedt\|final rulerJoachim Ernst, Duke of Anhalt\|current headEduard, Prince of Anhalt\|founding year1036\|deposition=1918 (Duchy of Anhalt)}} The House of Ascania ({{langx\|de\|Askanier}}) was a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the House of Anhalt, which refers to its longest-held possession, Anhalt.<ref>{{Cite web\|lastHiebl\|firstManfred\|date2006\|titleDas Haus Askanien-Anhalt, dessen Zweige und ihre Bedeutung\|urlhttp://www.manfred-hiebl.de/genealogie-mittelalter/partenheimer_lutz/dessau_katalog.html\|access-date2020-08-29\|website=www.manfred-hiebl.de}}</ref> The Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, known as Schloss Askanien in German, which was located near and named after Aschersleben.<ref>{{Cite web\|date2003-08-01\|titleAscania 1\|urlhttp://genealogy.euweb.cz/ascania/ascan1.html\|access-date2020-08-29\|websitegenealogy.euweb.cz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|lasthrsg. von Werner Paravicini. Bearb. von Jan Hirschbiegel\|urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/723003848\|titleHöfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich Bd. 1. Ein dynastisch-topographisches Handbuch Teilbd. 2. Residenzen\|isbn978-3-7995-4515-0\|locationOstfildern\|chapterAskanier\|oclc723003848\|chapter-urlhttps://adw-goe.de/en/digital-library/hoefe-und-residenzen-im-spaetmittelalterlichen-reich/gsn/rf15_I_121220-38/}}</ref> The castle was the seat of the County of Ascania, a title that was later subsumed into the titles of the princes of Anhalt.History <gallery> File:Schloss Ballenstedt, Hofseite.JPG\|Ballenstedt Castle File:Arms of the house of Ascania (ancient).svg\|First coat of arms of the family Map of Anhalt (1747-1793).svg\|Map of Anhalt (1747–1793) </gallery> The earliest known member of the house, Esiko, Count of Ballenstedt, first appears in a document of 1036. Genealogists assume him to have been a grandson (through his mother) of Odo I, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark ({{reign \| 965 \| 993}}). From Odo, the Ascanians inherited large properties in the Saxon Eastern March. Esiko's grandson Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, died in 1123. By Otto's marriage to Eilika, daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony, the Ascanians became heirs to half of the property of the House of Billung, former dukes of Saxony. Otto's son, Albert the Bear, became, with the help of his mother's inheritance, the first Ascanian duke of Saxony in 1139. However, he soon lost control of Saxony to the rival House of Guelph. Albert inherited the area of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157 from its last Wendish ruler, Pribislav (died 1150), Albert's son's godfather. Albert became the first Ascanian margrave; he and his descendants of the House of Ascania then made considerable progress in Christianizing and Germanizing the Brandenburg lands. As a borderland between German and Slavic cultures, the country was known as a march ({{langx \| de \| Mark Brandenburg \| translation = the March of Brandenburg}}). In 1237 and 1244, two towns, Cölln and Berlin, were founded during the joint rule of Otto and Johann, grandsons of Margrave Albert the Bear. (Later, in 1710, the two centres united into one city, Berlin. Emblems of the House of Ascania, a red eagle (for Brandenburg) and a bear, became heraldic emblems of Berlin.) In 1320, the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end. After the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed Henry the Lion, the Guelph Duke of Saxony, in 1180, Ascanians returned to rule the Duchy of Saxony, which had been reduced to its eastern half by the Emperor. However, even in eastern Saxony, the Ascanians could establish control only in limited areas, mostly near the River Elbe. In 1212 the County of Anhalt was split off from the Duchy of Saxony, and {{circa \| 1296}} the remaining Duchy was split into Saxe-Lauenburg and Saxe-Wittenberg. The Ascanian dynasties in these two Saxon states became extinct in 1689 and in 1422, respectively, but Ascanians continued to rule in the smaller state of Anhalt and its various subdivisions until the abolition of monarchy in 1918. Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, was a member of the House of Ascania as the daughter of Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Rulers of the House of Ascania House of Ascania Partitions of the House of Ascania {\|align"center" style"border-spacing: 0px; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;" \|+ \|- \| colspan23 style"background: #fff;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Ballenstedt---> \|- \| colspan4 rowspan"2" style="background: #aee;" \|County of Weimar-Orlamunde<br/>(1113–1247) \| colspan19 style"background: #fff;" \|County of Ballenstedt<br/>(1030–1170) \|- \| colspan4 rowspan"3" style="background: #fea;" \|Duchy of Saxony<br/>(1180–1296) \| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #ceb;" \|Margraviate of Brandenburg<br>(1157-1266/67) \| colspan7 style"background: #fde;" \|County of Anhalt<br>(1123–1212)<br><small>Raised to:</small><br>Principality of Anhalt<br>(1212–1252) \|- \| colspan3 rowspan"2" style="background: #adf;" \|Weimar<br/>(1247–1372) \| colspan1 rowspan"7" style="background: #aee;" \|Orlamunde<br><small>(from 1354 in Schauenforst and Droyssig)</small><br/>(1247–1420) \| colspan4 rowspan"6" style="background: #ecd;" \|Zerbst<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1252–1396) \| colspan1 rowspan"7" style="background: #ecf;" \|Bernburg<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1252–1468) \| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #fde;" \|Aschersleben<br>(1252–1315) \|- \| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #cfc;" \|Stendal<ref>From Stendal split off: <span style="background-color:#acc;">Krossen</span> (1266–1308) <span style="background-color:#aca;">Neumark</span> (1266–1318)</ref><br>(1266–1318) \| colspan1 rowspan"2" style"background: #ada;" \|Salzwedel<ref><span style"background-color:#ace;">Stargard</span> split off from Salzwedel (1267-1316) and was then annexed to the Duchy of Mecklenburg.</ref><br>(1267–1317) \|- \| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #adf;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Weimar---> \| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #bee;" \|Plassenburg<br/>(1285–1340) \| colspan1 style"background: #adf;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Weimar---> \| colspan1 rowspan"5" style="background: #fea;" \|Wittenberg<br/>(1296–1356)<br><small>Raised to:</small><br>Electorate of Saxe-Wittenberg<br/>(1356–1422) \| colspan3 style"background: #fedf;" \|Lauenburg<br/>(1296–1303) \|- \| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #cef;" \|Lauenstein<br/>(1319–1460) \| colspan1 rowspan"3" style="background: #ec6;" \|Mölln<br/>(1303–1401) \| colspan1 style"background: #fc9;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Bergdorf---> \| colspan1 style"background: #ffc;" \|Ratzeburg<br/>(1303–15) \| colspan2 style"background: #ceb;" \|Margraviate of Brandenburg<br><small>(<span style="background-color:#cfc;">Stendal</span> line)</small><br>(1318–20) \|- \| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #fc9;" \| Bergdorf<br/>(1303–15)<br><small>Renamed as</small><br>Ratzeburg<br/>(1315–1401) \| colspan2 rowspan"13" style="background: #eee;" \|<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Wittelsbach</small> \| colspan1 rowspan"13" style="background: #eee;" \|<small>Annexed to <br>Bishopric of Halberstadt</small> \|- \| colspan2 rowspan"12" style="background: #eee;" \|<small>Annexed to the <br>House of Wettin</small> \|- \| colspan3 rowspan"7" style"background: #fedf;" \|Lauenburg<br><small>(<span style"background:#fc9;">Ratzeburg</span> line)</small><br>(1401–1689) \| colspan3 rowspan"5" style="background: #ccf;" \|Köthen<br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1396–1562) \| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Dessau---> \|- \| colspan3 rowspan"10" style="background: #eee;" \|<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Wettin</small> \| colspan2 style"background: #fde;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Dessau---> \|- \| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" \|Dessau<ref>The color chosen for Dessau was the same as the Principality of Anhalt as a whole, because, when united, the principality had this town as capital.</ref><br><small>(1st creation)</small><br>(1396–1561) \| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #ecd;" \|Zerbst<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1544–62) \|- \| colspan1 style"background: #fde;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Dessau---> \|- \| colspan2 style"background: #ecd;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Zerbst---> \|- \| colspan5 style"background: #fde;" \|Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(<span style="background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> line)</small><br>(1562–1603) \|- \| colspan1 style"background: #fbd;" \|Plötzkau<br>(1603–1665) \| colspan1 style"background: #ccf;" \|Köthen<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1847) \| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #fde;" \|Dessau<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1863) \| colspan1 rowspan"2" style="background: #ecd;" \|Zerbst<br><small>(3rd creation)</small><br>(1603–1793) \| colspan1 rowspan"4" style="background: #ecf;" \|Bernburg<br><small>(2nd creation)</small><br>(1603–1863) \|- \| colspan3 rowspan"4" style="background: #eee;" \|<small>Annexed to the<br> House of Welf</small> \| colspan2 rowspan"2" style="background: #ccf;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Kothen---> \|- \| colspan2 style"background: #fde;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Dessau---> \|- \| colspan4 style"background: #fde;" \|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<!---Dessau---> \|- \| colspan5 style"background: #fde;" \|Duchy of Anhalt<br><small>(Dessau line)</small><br>(1863–1918) \|} Table of rulers {{Sticky header}} {\| class="wikitable sticky-header" \|- style="background:#cccccc" ! colspan=2 \| Ruler!!Born!!Reign!!Ruling part!!Consort!!Death!!Notes \|- style="background:#fff" \|Adalbert I<ref>Even his name is uncertain; sources name him Adalbert assuming that his grandson, Count Adalbert (II) (d.1080) was named after him.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|c.970<br><small>?</small> \|align="center"\|c.1000–1036\|\|County of Ballenstedt\|\|Hidda<br>four children \|align="center"\|1036<br><small>aged 65–66</small>\|\|First documented member of the family. \|- style="background:#fff" \|Esico\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1000<br><small>Son of Adalbert I and Hidda</small> \|align="center"\|1036–1060\|\|County of Ballenstedt\|\|Matilda of Swabia<br>1026<br>three children \|align="center"\|1060<br><small>aged 59–60</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fff" \|Adalbert II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1030<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Esico and Matilda of Swabia</small> \|align="center"\|1060–1080\|\|County of Ballenstedt\|\|Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde<br>c.1070<br>two children \|align="center"\|c.1080<br>Westdorf<br><small>aged c.49-50</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fff" \|Otto I the Rich\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1065<br><small>First son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde</small> \|align="center"\|1080 – 9 February 1123\|\|County of Ballenstedt\|\|Eilika of Saxony<br>c.1095<br>two children \|align="center"\|9 February 1123<br><small>aged 57–58?</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Children of Adalbert II, divided their inheritance. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Siegfried I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1070<br><small>Second son of Adalbert II and Adelaide of Weimar-Orlamünde</small> \|align="center"\|1080 – 9 March 1113\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde\|\|Gertrude of Northeim<br>1026<br>three children \|align="center"\|9 March 1113<br><small>aged 42–43?</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|colspan7 style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regencies of Gertrude of Northeim (1113–1115) and Otto I, Count of Salm (1115–1121)</small> \|rowspan=2\|Left no descendants. The county went to his brother. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Siegfried II\|\| \|align="center"\|1107<br><small>First son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim</small> \|align="center"\|9 March 1113 – 19 March 1124\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde\|\|Irmgard of Henneberg<br>no children \|align="center"\|19 March 1124<br><small>aged 16–17</small> \|- style="background:#fff" \|\| Albert I the Bear \|\| \|align="center"\|c.1100<br><small>Son of Otto I and Eilika of Saxony</small> \|align="center"\|9 February 1123 – 18 November 1170\|\|County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(with Brandenburg from 1157)</small>\|\|Sophie of Winzenburg<br/>1124<br/>thirteen children \|align="center"\|18 November 1170<br>Stendal (possibly)<br><small>aged 69–70</small>\|\|Besides count of Ballenstedt, he was also the first Margrave of Brandenburg (1157). Ruler of the Northern March from 1134, and the county of Weimar-Orlamünde since 1140. \|- style="background:#aee" \|colspan7 style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regency of Otto I, Count of Salm (1124-1126)</small> \|rowspan=2\|Also ascended as a minor Left no descendants. The county went to his cousin, Albert the Bear, from Ballenstedt. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Wilhelm von Ballenstedt\|\| \|align="center"\|1112<br>Worms<br><small>Second son of Siegfried I and Gertrude of Northeim</small> \|align="center"\|19 March 1124 – 13 February 1140\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde\|\|Adelaide<br>no children \|align="center"\|13 February 1140<br>Cochem<br><small>aged 27–28</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Weimar-Orlamünde briefly annexed to Ballenstedt (1140-70) \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Otto I \|\| \|align="center"\|1128<br><small>First son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small> \|align="center"\|18 November 1170 – 8 July 1184\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg\|\|Judith of Poland<br/>1148<br/>two children<br/><br/>Ada of Holland<br/>1175<br/>one child \|align="center"\|8 July 1184<br><small>aged 55–56</small> \|rowspan"5" style"background:#fff"\| Children of Albert I, divided their inheritance. After Adalbert and Dietrich's childless deaths, their possessions were inherited by the younger brother, Bernard. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Herman I\|\| \|align="center"\|1130<br><small>Second son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small> \|align="center"\|18 November 1170 – 19 October 1176\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde\|\|Irmgard<br>two children \|align="center"\|19 October 1176<br><small>aged 45–46</small> \|- style="background:#fff" \|Adalbert (III)\|\| \|align="center"\|1136<br><small>Fourth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small> \|align="center"\|18 November 1170 – 1171\|\|County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(at Aschersleben)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1171<br><small>aged 34–35</small> \|- style="background:#fff" \|Theodoric\|\| \|align="center"\|1137<br><small>Fifth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small> \|align="center"\|18 November 1170 – 1183\|\|County of Ballenstedt<br><small>(at Burgwerben)</small> \|align="center"\|1183<br><small>aged 45–46</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Bernard (I)<ref>Numbered Bernard III as Duke of Saxony, but, as an ancestor of the Anhalt branch, he is not counted in Anhalt, as the next prince Bernard, reigning in Bernburg, is usually styled Bernard I. This is probably derived of a different status between this Bernard, a count in Anhalt, and the following Bernards, who were already princes.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|1140<br><small>Sixth son of Albert I and Sophie of Winzenburg</small> \|align="center"\|18 November 1170 – 2 February 1212\|\|County of Anhalt<br><small>(with Ballenstedt and Saxony)</small> \|\| Brigitte of Denmark<br>one child<br><br>Judith of Greater Poland<br>c.1173<br>five children<br><br>Sophia of Thuringia<br>one child \|align="center"\|2 February 1212<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 71–72</small> \|- style="background:#fff" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Aschersleben and Burgwerben annexed to Anhalt \|- style="background:#aee" \|Siegfried III\|\| \|align="center"\|1155<br><small>Son of Herman I and Irmgard</small> \|align="center"\|19 October 1176 – 1206\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde\|\|Sophia of Denmark<br>c.1180<br>three children \|align="center"\|1206<br><small>aged 50–51</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Otto II the Generous \|\| \|align="center"\|c.1150<br><small>First son of Otto I and Judith of Poland</small> \|align="center"\|8 July 1184 – 4 July 1205\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|4 July 1205<br><small>aged 54–55</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Elder children of Otto I, both left no descendants. The patrimony was inherited by their half-brother, Albert II. \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Henry \|\| \|align="center"\|c.1150?<br><small>Second son of Otto I and Judith of Poland</small> \|align="center"\|8 July 1184 – 1192\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg<br><small>(at Gardelegen)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1192<br><small>aged 41–42?</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Albert II \|\| \|align="center"\|1177<br><small>Son of Otto I and Ada of Holland</small> \|align="center"\|4 July 1205 – 25 February 1220\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg\|\|Matilda of Lusatia<br>1205<br>four children \|align="center"\|25 February 1220<br><small>aged 42–43</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#aee" \|Albert II\|\| \|align="center"\|1182<br><small>First son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1206 – 22 October 1245\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Nordhalben)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|22 October 1245<br><small>aged 62–63</small> \|rowspan="3"\| Children of Siegfried III, divided their inheritance, which was soon reunited by Herman II. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Herman II\|\| \|align="center"\|1184<br><small>Second son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1206 – 27 December 1247\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Orlamünde)</small>\|\|Beatrix of Andechs-Merania<br>c.1230<br>six children \|align="center"\|27 December 1247<br><small>aged 62–63</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|Otto II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1185<br><small>Third son of Siegfried III and Sophia of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1206–1211\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Weimar)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1211<br><small>aged 25–26</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Nordhalben and Weimar rejoined Orlamünde \|-style="background:#fde" \|Henry I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1173<br><small>First son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland</small> \|align="center"\|2 February 1212 – 1252\|\|County of Anhalt<br><small>(until 1218)</small><br><br>Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(from 1218)</small> \|\|Irmgard of Thuringia<br>1211<br>eleven children \|align="center"\|1252<br><small>aged 78–79</small> \|rowspan"2" style"background:#fff"\| Children of Bernard, divided their inheritance. In 1218 Henry becomes Prince of Anhalt, which after his death is divided by his sons. \|- style="background:#fea;" \|Albert I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1175<br><small>Second son of Bernard (I) and Judith of Greater Poland</small> \|align="center"\|2 February 1212 – 7 October 1260\|\|Duchy of Saxony \|\| Agnes of Austria<br/>1222<br/>five children<br/><br/>Agnes of Thuringia<br/>1238<br/>three children<br/><br/>Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br/>1247<br/>five children \|align="center"\|7 October 1260<br><small>aged 84–85</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regencies of Henry I, Count of Anhalt (1220–1225), Albert I, Archbishop of Magdeburg (1220–1221) and Matilda of Lusatia (1221–1225)</small> \|rowspan="3"\|Children of Albert II, ruled jointly, but their children divided the margraviate. \|- style="background:#ceb" \| John I \|rowspan="2"\| \|align="center"\|1213<br><small>First son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia</small> \|align="center"\|25 February 1220 – 4 April 1266 \|rowspan="2"\|Margraviate of Brandenburg\|\|Sophie of Denmark<br>1230<br>six children<br><br>Judith of Saxony<br>1255<br>four children \|align="center"\|4 April 1266<br>Stendal<br><small>aged 52–53</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Otto III the Pious \|align="center"\|1215<br><small>Second son of Albert II and Matilda of Lusatia</small> \|align="center"\|25 February 1220 – 9 October 1267\|\|Beatrice of Bohemia<br>1243<br>six children \|align="center"\|9 October 1267<br>Brandenburg an der Havel<br><small>aged 51–52</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|Herman III the Popular\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1230<br><small>Second son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small> \|align="center"\|27 December 1247 – 1283\|\|County of Orlamünde\|\|Unknown<br>four children \|align="center"\|1283<br><small>aged 52–23</small> \|rowspan"4" style"background:#aee"\| Children of Herman II, divided their inheritance. \|- style="background:#adf" \|Otto III the Magnificent\|\| \|align="center"\|1236<br><small>Third son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small> \|align="center"\|27 December 1247 – 13 May 1285\|\|County of Weimar\|\|Agnes of Leiningen<br><small>(c. 1230/40-13 May 1285)</small><br>1266<br>four children \|align="center"\|13 May 1285<br><small>aged 48–49</small> \|- style="background:#adf" \|Albert III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1240<br><small>Fourth son of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small> \|align="center"\|27 December 1247 – 1283\|\|County of Weimar\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1283<br><small>aged 42–43</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|Sophia\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1240<br><small>Daughter of Herman II and Beatrix of Andechs-Merania</small> \|align="center"\|27 December 1247 – 1270\|\|County of Weimar-Orlamünde<br><small>(at Regnitzland)</small>\|\|Henry VIII Reuss, Lord of Weida<br>19 July 1258<br>three children \|align="center"\|c.1270<br><small>aged 29–30</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Henry II the Fat\|\| \|align="center"\|1215<br><small>First son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small> \|align="center"\|1252 – 12 June 1266\|\|Principality of Aschersleben\|\|Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br>1245<br>two children \|align="center"\|12 June 1266<br><small>aged 50–51</small> \|rowspan="3"\| Children of Henry I, divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard I\|\| \|align="center"\|1218<br><small>Second son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small> \|align="center"\|1252–1287\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Sophia of Denmark<br>3 February 1258<br>Hamburg<br>six children \|align="center"\|1287<br><small>aged 68–69</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Siegfried I\|\| \|align="center"\|1230<br><small>Seventh son of Henry I and Irmgard of Thuringia</small> \|align="center"\|1252 – 25 March 1298\|\|Principality of Zerbst \|\|Catherine of Sweden<br>17 October 1259<br>ten children \|align="center"\|25 March 1298<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 67–68</small> \|- style="background:#fea;" \|John I\|\| \|align="center"\|1249<br>Wittenberg<br><small>First son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|7 October 1260 – 1282 \|rowspan="2"\|Duchy of Saxony<br><small>(Since 1296 in Saxe-Wittenberg)</small>\|\| Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden<br/>1270<br/>eight children \|align="center"\|30 July 1285<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 35–36</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Ruled jointly; and associated his nephews to the joint rulership after his brothers death. However, these three nephews divided the land with him. Albert II retained Saxe-Wittenberg, and became the head of the Elder Saxon Line; Albert III, Eric I and John II ruled together in Saxe-Lauenburg, becoming the founders of the Younger Saxon Line. \|- style="background:#fea;" \|\|Albert II\|\| \|align="center"\|1250<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Second son of Albert I and Helene of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|7 October 1260 – 25 August 1298\|\| Agnes-Gertrude of Austria<br/>1282<br/>six children \|align="center"\|25 August 1298<br>Aken<br><small>aged 35–36</small> \|- style="background:#fea;" \| style"text-align:center" colspan8 \| In 1296 Albert II and his nephews (Albert III, Eric I, and John II) ended their joint rule and divided Saxony into the Lauenburg line, where Albert III, Eric I, and John II continued to rule jointly until 1303, and the Wittenberg line, where Albert II continued as sole ruler until 1298. Since the Duke of Saxony was considered one of the prince-electors electing a new Holy Roman Emperor, conflict arose between the lines of Lauenburg and Wittenberg over the issue of who should cast Saxony's vote. In 1314 both lines found themselves on different sides in a double election. Eventually, the Dukes of Saxe-Wittenberg succeeded in 1356 after the promulgation of the Golden Bull. To distinguish him from other rulers bearing the title Duke of Saxony, he was commonly called Elector of Saxony. \|- style="background:#fde" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1266–1270)</small> \|rowspan="3"\| Children of Henry II, ruled jointly, first under their mother, who was elected Abbess of Gernrode in 1275. In 1283, Henry renounced his rights in Otto's favor, and later became Archbishop of Magdeburg. \|-style="background:#fde" \|Otto I \|rowspan="2"\| \|align="center"\|c.1245<br><small>First son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|12 June 1266 – 25 June 1304 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Aschersleben \|\|Hedwig of Wrocław<br>1283<br>three children \|align="center"\|25 June 1304<br><small>aged 58–59</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Henry III \|align="center"\|c.1245<br><small>Second son of Henry II and Matilda of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|12 June 1266 – 1283\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|9 November 1307<br><small>aged 61–62</small> \|- style="background:#cfc" \| John II \|\| \|align="center"\|1237<br><small>First son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 10 September 1281\|\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Krossen)</small>\|\|Hedwig of Werle<br><small>(1243–1287)</small><br>1249<br>two children \|align="center"\|10 September 1281<br><small>aged 43–44</small> \|rowspan"4" style"background:#ceb"\|Children of John I. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership): John II received seat at Krossen; * Otto IV received seat at Stendal; * Conrad received seat at Neumark, and associated his sons in 1291. \|- style="background:#cfc" \| Otto IV of the Arrow \|\| \|align="center"\|1238<br><small>Second son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 27 November 1308\|\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Stendal)</small>\|\|Heilwig of Holstein-Kiel<br><small>(d.1305)</small><br>1279<br>no children<br><br>Judith of Henneberg-Schleusingen<br><small>(d.1315)</small><br>1308<br>no children \|align="center"\|27 November 1308<br><small>aged 69–70</small> \|- style="background:#cfc" \| Conrad I \|\| \|align="center"\|1240<br><small>Third son of John I and Sophie of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 1304 \|rowspan="2"\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Neumark)</small>\|\|Constance of Greater Poland<br>1260<br>Santok<br>three children \|align="center"\|1304<br>Chorin<br><small>aged 63–64</small> \|- style="background:#cfc" \| Otto VII<ref>Otto VII is listed before Otto V and VI here, as his rule, as it was never independent (unlike his brother John IV, who survived their father), is considered within the rule of his father, which began in 1267.</ref> \|\| \|align="center"\|c.1265<br><small>Second son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland</small> \|align="center"\|1291–1297\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1297<br><small>aged 31–32</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| John III of Prague \|\| \|align="center"\|6 April 1244<br>Prague<br><small>First son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 8 April 1268 \|rowspan="3"\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Salzwedel)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|8 April 1268<br>Merseburg<br><small>aged 24</small> \|rowspan"4" style"background:#ceb"\|Children of Otto III. Despite co-rulership between them, they received different parts in the Margraviate to rule (alone or in co-rulership): * John III (and then Otto V with Otto VI) received the seat at Salzwedel, from which Otto VI abdicated in 1286; * Albert III received a seat in Stargard (which he ruled alone at least from 1284. \|- style="background:#ada" \| Otto V the Tall \|\| \|align="center"\|1246<br>Prague<br><small>Second son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – July 1299\|\|Judith of Henneberg-Coburg<br>22 October 1268<br>Freiburg<br>four children \|align="center"\|July 1299<br><small>aged 52–53</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| Otto VI the Short \|\| \|align="center"\|3/17 November 1264<br><small>Fourth son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 1286\|\|Hedwig of Austria<br>February 1279<br>Vienna<br>no children \|align="center"\|6 July 1303<br>Lehnin<br><small>aged 38</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| Albert III \|\| \|align="center"\|c.1250<br><small>Third son of Otto III and Beatrice of Bohemia</small> \|align="center"\|9 October 1267 – 1300\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Stargard)</small>\|\|Matilda of Denmark<br>1268<br>four children \|align="center"\|1300<br><small>aged 49–50</small> \|- style="background:#cfc" \| Conrad II \|\| \|align="center"\|1261<br><small>Son of John II and Hedwig of Werle</small> \|align="center"\|10 September 1281 – 1308\|\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Krossen)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1308<br><small>aged 46–47</small>\|\|With his childless death his land reverted to Stendal. \|- style="background:#cfc" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Krossen re-annexed to Stendal \|- style="background:#aee" \|Henry I\|\| \|align="center"\|{{Circa\|1270}}<br><small>First son of Herman III</small> \|align="center"\|1283 – 26 March 1354 \|rowspan="2"\|County of Orlamünde\|\|Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg<br>26 July 1313<br>two children \|align="center"\|26 March 1354<br><small>aged 83–84?</small> \|rowspan="3"\|Children of Herman III, divided their inheritance. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Herman V<ref name="RefNumb1">Herman V was possibly younger than his cousin Herman IV, but he ascended two years earlier then him.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|{{Circa\|1270}}<br><small>Second son of Herman III</small> \|align="center"\|1283–1312\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1312<br><small>aged 41–42?</small> \|- style="background:#aee" \|Elisabeth (I) the Elder\|\| \|align="center"\|1265<br><small>Daughter of Herman III</small> \|align="center"\|1283–1327\|\|County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Nordhalben)</small>\|\|Hartmann XI, Count of Lobdeburg-Arnshaugk<br>one child<br><br>Albert II, Margrave of Meissen<br>1 October 1290<br>no children \|align="center"\|1327<br><small>aged 56–57</small> \|- style="background:#adf" \|Herman IV<ref name="RefNumb1"/>\|\| \|align="center"\|{{Circa\|1270}}<br><small>First son of Otto III and Agnes of Leiningen</small> \|align="center"\|13 May 1285 – 1319\|\|County of Weimar\|\|Matilda of Rabenswald<br><small>(d.1339)</small><br>24 November 1290<br>four children \|align="center"\|1319<br><small>aged 48–49</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Children of Otto III, divided their inheritance. \|- style="background:#bee" \|Otto IV the Younger\|\| \|align="center"\|1279<br><small>Second son of Otto III and Agnes of Leiningen</small> \|align="center"\|13 May 1285 – 1318\|\|County of Plassenburg\|\|Adelaide of Kafernburg<br><small>(d.c.1305)</small><br>14 December 1296<br>one child<br><br>Catherine of Hesse<br><small>(1286–1322)</small><br>1308<br>one child \|align="center"\|1318<br><small>aged 38–39</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|John I\|\| \|align="center"\|1258<br><small>First son of Bernard I and Sophia of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1287 – 5 June 1291 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|5 June 1291<br><small>aged 32–33</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Bernard I, ruled jointly. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard II\|\| \|align="center"\|1260<br><small>Third son of Bernard I and Sophia of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1287 – 1323\|\|Helena of Rügen<br>27 December 1302<br>three children \|align="center"\|1323<br><small>aged 62–63</small> \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|\|John II\|\| \|align="center"\|1275<br><small>First son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden</small> \|align"center"\|20 September 1296 – 22 April 1322\|\| Duchy of Mölln<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#fedf;">Lauenburg</span> until 1303)</small>\|\| Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg<br/>1315<br/>one child \|align="center"\|22 April 1322<br>Mölln<br><small>aged 46–47</small> \|rowspan"4" style"background:#fedf\|Children of John I, co-ruled first with their uncle Albert II since 1282 (since the death of their father), and in 1296 split the land with him. They retained Lauenburg, which they divided once more. Albert passed the land to his widow, and after her death, in 1315, the territory was realigned: Eric divided Bergdorf with his surviving brother and held all of his brother Albert's inheritance. However, he ended up abdicating to his son, and survived for most of his reign. \|- style="background:#fc9;" \|\|Eric I\|\| \|align="center"\|1280<br><small>Second son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden</small> \|align"center"\|20 September 1296 – 1338\|\|Duchy of Bergedorf<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#fedf;">Lauenburg</span> until 1303; in Bergedorf 1303–1315)</small><br><br>Duchy of Ratzeburg<br><small>(from 1315)</small>\|\| Elisabeth of Pomerania<br/>1316 or 1318<br/>four children \|align="center"\|1360<br>Nienburg<br><small>aged 79–80</small> \|- style="background:#ffc;" \|\|Albert III\|\| \|align="center"\|1281<br><small>Third son of John I and Ingeborg Birgersdotter of Sweden</small> \|align"center"\|20 September 1296 – 1308\|\|Duchy of Ratzeburg <br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#fedf;">Lauenburg</span> until 1303)</small>\|\| Margaret of Brandenburg-Salzwedel<br/>1302<br/>two children \|align="center"\|1308<br><small>aged 26–27</small> \|- style="background:#ffc;" \|Margaret of Brandenburg-Salzwedel\|\| \|align"center"\|1270<br><small>Second daughter of <span style"background-color:#ada;">Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel</span> and Matilda of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1308 – 1 May 1315\|\|Duchy of Ratzeburg \|\| Przemysł II, King of Poland<br/>1302<br/>two children<br/><br/>Albert III<br/>1302<br/>two children \|align="center"\|1 May 1315<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 44–45</small> \|- style="background:#fedf;" \| colspan8 style"text-align:center"\| In 1315, after the death of Margaret of Brandenburg, the remaining brothers Eric and John redesigned the political division in Saxe-Lauenburg; Eric retained all of Margaret's part, but had to give part of his original domains to his brother. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Albert I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1260<br><small>Son of Siegfried I and Catherine of Sweden</small> \|align="center"\|25 March 1298 – 17 August 1316\|\|Principality of Zerbst \|\|Liutgard of Holstein-Itzehoe<br/>after 1277<br/>two children<br><br>Agnes of Brandenburg-Stendal<br/>1300<br/>five children \|align="center"\|17 August 1316<br><small>aged 55–56</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fea;" \|\|Rudolph I<br/>(Rudolf I)\|\| \|align="center"\|1284<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Son of Albert II and Agnes-Gertrude of Austria</small> \|align="center"\|25 August 1298 – 10 January 1356<br><br>10 January 1356 – 12 March 1356\|\|Duchy of Wittenberg<br><small>(until 1356)</small><br><br>Electorate of Saxony<br><small>(from 1356)</small>\|\| Judith of Brandenburg-Salzwedel<br/>1298<br/>eight children<br/><br/>Kunigunde of Poland<br/>28 August 1328<br/>one child<br/><br/>Agnes of Lindow-Ruppin<br/>1333<br/>three children \|align="center"\|12 March 1356<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 71–72</small>\|\| In January 1356 the Golden Bull confirmed Rudolf I as the legitimate Saxon Prince-Elector, thus the rulers of Saxe-Wittenberg are conceived as Electors of Saxony. \|- style="background:#fea;" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|The Golden Bull of 1356 confirmed the right to participate in the election of a Holy Roman Emperor to the Duke of Saxony in the Saxe-Wittenberg line. \|- style="background:#ada" \| Herman the Tall \|\| \|align="center"\|1275<br><small>Son of Otto V and Judith of Henneberg-Coburg</small> \|align="center"\|July 1299 – 1 February 1308\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Salzwedel)</small>\|\|Anne of Austria<br>1295<br>Graz<br>four children \|align="center"\|1 February 1308<br>Lübz<br><small>aged 32–33</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Otto V, divided the land. Beatrice's part was then annexed to the Duchy of Świdnica-Jawor. \|- style="background:#ada" \| Beatrice (I) \|\| \|align="center"\|1270<br><small>Daughter of Otto V and Judith of Henneberg-Coburg</small> \|align="center"\|July 1299 – 1316\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Upper Lusatia)</small>\|\|Bolko I, Duke of Świdnica<br>4 October 1284<br>Berlin<br>ten children<br><br>Władysław, Duke of Bytom<br>21 September 1308<br>two children \|align="center"\|1316<br><small>aged 45–46</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Upper Lusatia annexed to the Duchy of Świdnica-Jawor \|- style="background:#ada" \| Beatrice (II) \|\| \|align="center"\|{{Circa\|1270}}<br><small>First daughter of Albert III and Matilda of Denmark</small> \|align="center"\|1300 – 22 September 1314\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Stargard)</small>\|\|Henry II, Lord of Mecklenburg<br>1292<br>Stargard Castle<br>four children \|align="center"\|22 September 1314<br><small>aged 43–44</small>\|\| Daughter and heiress of Albert III. Her marriage transferred the Stargard region into the Duchy of Mecklenburg. \|- style="background:#ada" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Stargard annexed to the Duchy of Mecklenburg \|- style="background:#cfc" \| John IV \|\| \|align="center"\|1261<br><small>First son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland</small> \|align="center"\|1304–1305\|\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Neumark)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1305<br><small>aged 43–44</small>\|\|Co-ruler of his father since 1291. His childless death reverted his lands to his younger brother Valdemar. \|-style="background:#fde" \|Otto II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1260<br><small>Son of Otto I and Hedwig of Wrocław</small> \|align="center"\|25 June 1304 – 24 July 1315\|\|Principality of Aschersleben \|\|Elisabeth of Meissen<br>24 August 1309<br>two children \|align="center"\|24 July 1315<br><small>aged 54–55</small>\|\| After his death in 1315 without male heirs opened a succession crisis in the Principality. \|- style="background:#cfc" \| Henry I Lackland \|\| \|align="center"\|21 March 1256<br><small>Son of John I and Judith of Saxony</small> \|align="center"\|27 November 1308 – 14 February 1318\|\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Delitzsch since 1297; at Stendal since 1308)</small>\|\|Agnes of Bavaria<br>1303<br>three children \|align="center"\|14 February 1318<br><small>aged 61</small>\|\|Younger brother of John II, Otto IV and Conrad I. Started his co-rulership in 1297, receiving seat at Delitzsch; he ended up as successor of his childless elder brother Otto IV. \|- style="background:#ada" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regency of Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (1308–1316)</small> \|rowspan="5"\|Children of Herman, divided the land: * John V received the core of Salzwedel; * Matilda received a seat at Lower Lusatia; * Agnes received a seat at Altmark; * Jutta received a seat at Coburg. John's and Agnes' childless deaths left the main core of Salzwedel and the important seat of the Altmark to be reunited in Brandenburg. The remaining possessions were annexed by the respective marriages. \|- style="background:#ada" \| John V the Illustrious \|\| \|align="center"\|August 1302<br><small>Son of Herman and Anne of Austria</small> \|align="center"\|1 February 1308 – 26 March 1317\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Salzwedel)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|26 March 1317<br>Spandau<br><small>aged 14</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| Matilda \|\| \|align="center"\|1296<br><small>First daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria</small> \|align="center"\|1 February 1308 – 31 March 1329\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Lower Lusatia)</small>\|\|Henry IV, Duke of Żagań<br>5 January 1310<br>four children \|align="center"\|31 March 1329<br><small>aged 32–33</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| Agnes\|\| \|align="center"\|1297<br><small>Second daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria</small> \|align="center"\|1 February 1308 – 27 November 1334\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Altmark)</small>\|\|Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal<br>1309<br>no children<br><br>Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br>1319<br>no children \|align="center"\|27 November 1334<br>Braunschweig<br><small>aged 36–37</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \| Judith \|\| \|align="center"\|1301<br><small>Third daughter of Herman and Anne of Austria</small> \|align="center"\|1 February 1308 – 1353\|\|Margraviate of Salzwedel<br><small>(at Coburg)</small>\|\|Henry VI, Count of Henneberg-Coburg<br>1 January 1317 or 1 February 1319<br>five children \|align="center"\|1353<br><small>aged 51–52</small> \|- style="background:#ada" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Salzwedel and Altmark reunited with Stendal; Coburg returned to the House of Henneberg, and Lower Lusatia was inherited by the Duchy of Żagań \|-style="background:#fde" \|Elisabeth of Meissen\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1280?<br><small>Daughter of Frederick of Meissen, Margrave of Dresden and Judith of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg</small> \|align="center"\|24 July 1315 – 1332\|\|Principality of Aschersleben<br><small>(in Aschersleben)</small> \|\|Otto II<br>24 August 1309<br>two children \|align="center"\|1332<br><small>aged 51–52?</small> \|rowspan="4"\| Succession crisis in Aschersleben: Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor, supported Bernard II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg as successor, but Bernard ended up giving his rights to Aschersleben to the Bishopric of Halberstadt. However, it is known that Otto II's widow inherited Aschersleben as a seat, and that she had to obtain consent of her daughters ("heiresses of the Allodial") and approval of Bernard II of Bernburg for making her donations. This may possibly imply that, at least between Otto II's death (1315) and the definite delivery of Aschersleben to Halberstadt (December 1316), both Otto's minor daughters may have inherited the principality, under regency of the Prince of Bernburg, with Elisabeth receiving its main town as a widow's seat. \|- style="background:#fde" \|colspan7 style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regency of Bernard II, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg (1315-1316)</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Catharina\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1310<br><small>First daughter of Otto II and Elisabeth of Meissen</small> \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|24 July 1315 – December 1316 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Aschersleben<br><small>(in the remaining principality)</small> \|\|Herman VI, Count of Weimar<br>1328<br>two children \|align="center"\|1369<br><small>aged 58–59</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Elisabeth\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1310<br><small>Second daughter of Otto II and Elisabeth of Meissen</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1319<br><small>aged 8–9</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|The whole Principality was definitively annexed by the Bishopric of Halberstadt \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regency of Valdemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (1316-1319)</small> \|rowspan="4"\|Albert III and Valdemar I ruled jointly, as sons of Albert II. In 1359 Albert II associated his eldest son, Albert III, but he predeceased him. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Albert II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1305<br><small>First son of Albert I and Agnes of Brandenburg-Stendal</small> \|align="center"\|17 August 1316 – 17 July 1362 \|rowspan="3"\|Principality of Zerbst \|\|Agnes of Rügen<br/>2 September 1324<br/>no children<br><br>Beatrice of Saxe-Wittenberg<br/>c.1337<br/>five children \|align="center"\|17 July 1362<br><small>aged 56–57</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Valdemar I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1305<br><small>Second son of Albert I and Agnes of Brandenburg-Stendal</small> \|align="center"\|17 August 1316 – 7 January 1368\|\|Elisabeth of Saxe-Wittenberg<br/>22 June 1344<br/>six children<br><br>Beatrice d'Este<br/>1365<br/>no children \|align="center"\|7 January 1368<br><small>aged 62–63</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Albert III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1337<br><small>First son of Albert II and Beatrice of Saxe-Wittenberg</small> \|align="center"\|1359 – 1 August 1359\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1 August 1359<br><small>aged 21–22</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \|rowspan="2"\| Valdemar the Great \|rowspan="2"\| \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|1280<br><small>Third son of Conrad I and Constance of Greater Poland</small> \|align"center"style"background:#cfc"\|1305 – 14 February 1318 \|style="background:#cfc"\|Margraviate of Stendal<br><small>(at Neumark)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Agnes of Brandenburg-Salzwedel<br>1309<br>no children \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|14 August 1319<br>Mieszkowice<br><small>aged 38–39</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Son of Conrad, co-ruled with his uncles since 1308. Left no descendants, and the margraviate went to his underage cousin. \|- style="background:#ceb" \|align="center"\|14 February 1318 – 14 August 1319\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg \|- style="background:#bee" \|Otto VI<ref name="RefNumb2">Otto VI was possibly younger than his cousin Otto V, but he ascended one year earlier then him.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|1297<br><small>Son of Otto IV and Adelaide of Kafernburg</small> \|align="center"\|1318 – 28 July 1340\|\|County of Plassenburg\|\|Kunigunde of Leuchtenberg<br>1321<br>no children \|align="center"\|28 July 1340<br><small>aged 42–43</small>\|\|Left no descendants. After his death his possessions were annexed by the House of Hohenzollern. \|-style="background:#bee" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Plassenburg annexed to the House of Hohenzollern \|- style="background:#adf" \|Frederick I the Elder\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1290<br><small>First son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald</small> \|align="center"\|1319 – 25 July 1365\|\|County of Weimar\|\|Elisabeth of Meissen<br><small>(d. 2 May 1347)</small><br>1322<br>three children \|align="center"\|25 July 1365<br><small>aged 74–75</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Children of Herman IV, divided their inheritance. \|- style="background:#cef" \|Otto V<ref name="RefNumb2"/>\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1290<br><small>Third son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald</small> \|align="center"\|1319 – 12 March 1335\|\|County of Lauenstein\|\|Helena of Nuremberg<br>1321<br>three children \|align="center"\|12 March 1335<br><small>aged 44–45</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\|<small>Regency of Wartislaw IV, Duke of Pomerania (1319–1320)</small> \|rowspan="3"\|Children of Henry I, divided their inheritance. Henry died as a minor, and the Brandenburg Ascanians were extinct in the male line. Their lands came under the control of the Emperor Louis IV of the House of Wittelsbach, who granted Brandenburg to his eldest son, Louis V of Bavaria. For Sophia, she inherited the Margraviate of Landsberg, which was inherited by her sons. \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Henry II the Child \|\| \|align="center"\|1302<br><small>Son of Henry I and Agnes of Bavaria</small> \|align="center"\|14 August 1319 – July 1320\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|July 1320<br>Mieszkowice<br><small>aged 17–18</small> \|- style="background:#ceb" \| Sophia \|\| \|align="center"\|1300<br><small>Daughter of Henry I and Agnes of Bavaria</small> \|align="center"\|14 August 1319 – 1356\|\|Margraviate of Brandenburg<br><small>(at Landsberg)</small>\|\|Magnus I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br>1327<br>eight children \|align="center"\|1356<br><small>aged 55–56</small> \|-style="background:#ceb" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Brandenburg definitively annexed to the House of Wittelsbach; Landsberg definitely annexed to the House of Welf \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|style"text-align:center"colspan"7"\| <small>Regency of Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg (1322–1330)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|Albert IV\|\| \|align="center"\|1315<br><small>Son of John II and Elizabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg</small> \|align="center"\|1322–1343\|\|Duchy of Mölln \|\| Beata of Schwerin<br/>1334<br/>three child<br/><br/>Sophia of Werle-Güstrow<br/>1341<br/>no children \|align="center"\|1343<br><small>aged 27–28</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard III\|\| \|align="center"\|1300<br><small>Son of Bernard II and Helena of Rügen</small> \|align="center"\|1323 – 20 August 1348\|\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg<br>1328<br>five children<br><br>Matilda of Anhalt-Zerbst<br>1339<br>no children<br><br>Matilda of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br>1343<br>two children \|align="center"\|20 August 1348<br><small>aged 47–48</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#cef" \|Frederick II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1321<br><small>Son of Otto V and Helena of Nuremberg</small> \|align="center"\|12 March 1335 – 14 October 1368\|\|County of Lauenstein\|\|Sophia of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg<br><small>(d.1392)</small><br>18 November 1357<br>two children \|align="center"\|14 October 1368<br><small>aged 46–47</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fc9;" \|Eric II\|\| \|align="center"\|1318<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Eric I and Elisabeth of Pomerania</small> \|align="center"\|1338–1368\|\|Duchy of Ratzeburg \|\| Agnes of Holstein-Plön<br/>between 1342 and 1349<br/>four children \|align="center"\|1368<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 49–50</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|style"text-align:center"colspan"7"\| <small>Regency of Sophia of Werle-Güstrow (1343-1349)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother, Albert. \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|John III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1335<br><small>First son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin</small> \|align="center"\|1343–1356\|\|Duchy of Mölln \|\| Unmarried \|align="center"\|1356<br><small>aged 20–21</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard IV\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1330<br><small>First son of Bernard III and Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg</small> \|align="center"\|20 August 1348 – 28 June 1354\|\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|28 June 1354<br><small>aged 23–24</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#aee" \|Frederick III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1320<br><small>First son of Henry I and Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg</small> \|align="center"\|26 March 1354 – 1379\|\|County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Schauenforst)</small>\|\|Unknown<br>two children \|align="center"\|1379<br><small>aged 58–59</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Henry I, ruled jointly. In 1354, Orlamunde was annexed to the House of Wettin, and the family changed seat to Schauenforst, while Frederick's brother Henry II ruled from Droyssig. After Henry's death, Frederick reunited Orlamunde. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Henry II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1320<br><small>Second son of Henry I and Irmgard of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg</small> \|align="center"\|26 March 1354 – 1357\|\|County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Droyssig)</small>\|\|Richeza of Henneberg<br><small>(d.1379)</small><br>1357<br>one child \|align="center"\|1357<br><small>aged 36–37</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Henry IV\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1330<br><small>Second son of Bernard III and Agnes of Saxe-Wittenberg</small> \|align="center"\|28 June 1354 – 7 July 1374\|\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Sophia of Stolberg<br>c.1345<br>three children \|align="center"\|7 July 1374<br><small>aged 43–44</small>\|\|Unlike usual co-rulerships seen in the family, Henry was bypassed by his older brother Bernard, who ruled alone. He only assumed rule of the principality when Bernard died in 1354. \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|Albert V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1335<br><small>Second son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin</small> \|align="center"\|1356–1370\|\|Duchy of Mölln \|\| Catherine of Werle-Güstrow<br/>25 January 1366<br/>no children \|align="center"\|1370<br><small>aged 34–35</small>\|\| Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother, Eric. \|- style="background:#fea;" \|'Rudolph II the Blind''' <br/>(Rudolf II. der Blinde)''\|\| \|align="center"\|1307<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Son of Rudolph I and Judith of Brandenburg-Salzwedel</small> \|align="center"\|12 March 1356 – 6 December 1370\|\|Electorate of Saxony\|\| Elisabeth of Hesse<br><small>(d.1354)</small><br/>1336<br/>three children<br><br>Elisabeth of Lindow-Ruppin<br/>c.1355?<br/>no children \|align="center"\|6 December 1370<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 62–63</small>\|\| Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his half-brother. \|- style="background:#adf" \|Herman VI\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1290?<br><small>Second son of Herman IV and Matilda of Rabenswald</small> \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|25 July 1365 – 1372 \|rowspan="2"\|County of Weimar\|\|Catherine of Anhalt<br><small>(d. 15 April 1369)</small><br>1328<br>two children \|align="center"\|1372<br><small>aged 81–82?</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Uncle and nephew possibly ruled jointly. After Herman's death Weimar was annexed to the House of Wettin. \|- style="background:#adf" \|Frederick IV the Younger\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1325<br><small>Son of Frederick I and Elisabeth of Meissen</small>\|\|Irmgard<br>no children \|align="center"\|1381<br><small>aged 55–56</small> \|-style="background:#adf" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the House of Wettin \|- style="background:#cef" \|Otto VII\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1360<br><small>Son of Frederick II and Sophia of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg</small> \|align="center"\|14 October 1368 – 1405\|\|County of Lauenstein\|\|Liutgard Reuss of Gera<br><small>(d.c.1410)</small><br>c.1390<br>six children \|align="center"\|1405<br>Ludwigsstadt<br><small>aged 44–45</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ecd" \|John II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1340<br><small>Second son of Albert II and Beatrice of Saxe-Wittenberg</small> \|align="center"\|7 January 1368 – 11 April 1382 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Zerbst \|\|Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen<br/>1366<br/>four children \|align="center"\|11 April 1382<br><small>aged 41–42</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Double cousins, ruled jointly. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Valdemar II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1345<br><small>Son of Valdemar I and Elisabeth of Saxe-Wittenberg</small> \|align="center"\|7 January 1368 – 1371\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1371<br><small>aged 25–26</small> \|- style="background:#fea;" \|Wenceslaus\|\| \|align="center"\|1337<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Son of Rudolph I and Agnes of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1370 – 15 May 1388\|\| Electorate of Saxony \|\|Cecilia da Carrara<br/>23 January 1376<br/>six children \|align="center"\|15 May 1388<br>Celle<br><small>aged 50–51</small>\|\| Brother of his predecessor. In 1370, jointly with his nephew Albert, he managed to acquire the Principality of Lüneburg. This conquer was lost after his death. \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|Eric III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1335<br><small>Third son of Albert IV and Beata of Schwerin</small> \|align="center"\|1370 – 25 May 1401\|\|Duchy of Mölln \|\| Unmarried \|align="center"\|25 May 1401<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 65–66?</small>\|\| Determined to enter to clergy, has to resign to succeed his brothers. He also left no descendants, which allowed the Ratzeburg line to reunite the Duchy of Lauenburg. \|- style="background:#ec6;" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Mölln was annexed to Ratzeburg; Reunion of Lauenburg \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Otto III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1345<br><small>Son of Bernard III and Matilda of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</small> \|align="center"\|7 July 1374 – 27 February 1404\|\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Unknown<br>two children<br><br>Lutrudis<br>before 1391<br>one child \|align="center"\|27 February 1404<br><small>aged 58–59</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#aee" \|Frederick V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1360?<br><small>Son of Frederick III</small> \|align="center"\|1379–1405\|\|County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Droyssig)</small>\|\|Catherine of Gleichen<br>c.1380?<br>two children \|align="center"\|c.1405<br><small>aged 44–45</small>\|\| Changed seat once more to Droyssig. \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Sigismund I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1370<br><small>First son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen</small> \|align"center"\|11 April 1382 – 19 January 1405\|\|Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> until 1396)</small>\|\|Judith of Querfurt<br/>1386<br/>eleven children \|align="center"\|19 January 1405<br>Coswig<br><small>aged 34–35</small> \|rowspan"3" style"background:#ecd"\| Sons of John II. Ruled jointly until 1396, when they divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|\|Albert IV\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1370<br><small>Second son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen</small> \|align"center"\|11 April 1382 – 24 November 1423\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> until 1396)</small>\|\|Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)<br/>before 1398<br/>six children<br><br>Elisabeth of Querfurt<br/>before 4 January 1419<br/>three children \|align="center"\|24 November 1423<br>Coswig<br><small>aged 52–53</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Valdemar III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1370<br><small>Third son of John II and Elisabeth of Henneberg-Schleusingen</small> \|align="center"\|11 April 1382 – 1391\|\|Principality of Zerbst \|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1391<br><small>aged 20–21?</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Zerbst divided between Kothen and Dessau \|- style="background:#fea;" \|Rudolph III\|\| \|align="center"\|1378<br>Wittenberg<br><small>First son of Wenceslaus and Cecilia da Carrara</small> \|align="center"\|15 May 1388 – 11 June 1419\|\| Electorate of Saxony \|\|Anna of Meissen<br/>1387/89<br/>three children<br/><br/>Barbara of Legnica<br/>March 1396<br/>two children \|align="center"\|11 June 1419<br>in Bohemia (Prague (?))<br><small>aged 40–41</small>\|\| Left no male descendants. he was succeeded by his brother, Albert. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|rowspan="2"\|Eric IV \|rowspan="2"\| \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|1354<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Eric II and Agnes of Holstein-Plön</small> \|align"center" style"background:#fc9;"\|1368 – 25 May 1401 \|style="background:#fc9;"\|Duchy of Ratzeburg \|rowspan="2"\| Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br/>8 April 1373<br/>ten children \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|21 June 1412<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 57–58</small> \|rowspan="2"\| In 1401 reunited Saxe-Lauenburg. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|align="center"\|25 May 1401 – 21 June 1412\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\| In 1401 the Ratzeburg line inherited the duchy of Mölln and reunited the Duchy of Lauenburg. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1350<br><small>Son of Henry IV and Sophia of Stolberg</small> \|align="center"\|27 February 1404 – 24 June 1420 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Elisabeth of Hohnstein-Kelbra<br>8 September 1396<br>one child \|align="center"\|24 June 1420<br><small>aged 69–70?</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Cousins, ruled jointly. As neither of them left male heirs, the land was inherited by his other cousin, Bernard. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Otto IV\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1380?<br><small>First son of Otto III</small> \|align="center"\|27 February 1404 – 1 May 1415\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1 May 1415<br><small>aged 34–35?</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Valdemar IV\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1386<br><small>First son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt</small> \|align="center"\|19 January 1405 – 1417 \|rowspan="4"\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1417<br><small>aged 30–31</small> \|rowspan="4"\|Sons of Sigismund I, ruled jointly. In 1468 inherited Anhalt-Bernburg. \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|George I the Elder\|\| \|align="center"\|1390<br><small>Second son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt</small> \|align="center"\|19 January 1405 – 22 September 1474\|\|Matilda of Anhalt-Bernburg I<br/>after 1413<br/>no children<br><br>Euphemia of Oleśnica<br/>1432<br/>six children<br><br>Sophia of Hohnstein<br/>after 1442<br/>three children<br><br>Anna of Lindow-Ruppin<br/>7 September 1453<br/>nine children \|align="center"\|21 September 1474<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 83–84?</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Sigismund II\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1390<br><small>Fourth son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt</small> \|align="center"\|19 January 1405 – 1452\|\|Matilda of Anhalt-Bernburg II<br/>no children \|align="center"\|1452<br><small>aged 61–62</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Albert V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1390<br><small>Fifth son of Sigismund I and Judith of Querfurt</small> \|align="center"\|19 January 1405 – 1469\|\|Sophie of Hadmersleben<br/>no children \|align="center"\|1469<br><small>aged 78–79</small> \|- style="background:#cef" \|William\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1395<br><small>First son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera</small> \|align="center"\|1405 – 3 March 1460 \|rowspan="2"\|County of Lauenstein\|\|Catherine of Blankenhain<br>1427<br>two children \|align="center"\|3 March 1460<br><small>aged 64–65?</small> \|rowspan="4"\| Children of Otto VII, divided their inheritance, which was progressively annexed to the House of Wettin. Elisabeth's part of Lauenstein went to the House of Schwarzburg. \|- style="background:#cef" \|Elisabeth (II)\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1395<br><small>Daughter of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera</small> \|align="center"\|1405–1450\|\|Henry XVIII, Count of Schwarzburg-Blankenburg<br>no children \|align="center"\|c.1450<br><small>aged 54–55?</small> \|- style="background:#cef" \|Otto VIII\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1395<br><small>Second son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera</small> \|align="center"\|1405 – 30 March 1460\|\|County of Lauenstein<br><small>(at Grafenthal)</small>\|\|Agnes of Beichlingen<br><small>(d. 2 May 1347)</small><br>1322<br>three children \|align="center"\|30 March 1460<br><small>aged 64–65?</small> \|- style="background:#cef" \|Sigismund\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1395<br><small>Third son of Otto VII and Liutgard Reuss of Gera</small> \|align="center"\|1405 – 2 July 1447\|\|County of Lauenstein<br><small>(at Lichtenberg)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|2 July 1447<br><small>aged 51–52?</small> \|-style="background:#cef" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the House of Wettin \|- style="background:#aee" \|Henry III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1390?<br><small>First son of Frederick V and Catherine of Gleichen</small> \|align="center"\|1405–1423 \|rowspan="2"\|County of Orlamünde<br><small>(at Droyssig)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1423<br><small>aged 32–33?</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Frederick V, ruled jointly. After their childless deaths their possessions were annexed by the House of Wettin. \|- style="background:#aee" \|Martin\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1390?<br><small>Second son of Frederick V and Catherine of Gleichen</small> \|align="center"\|1405 \|align="center"\|1405<br><small>aged 14–15?</small> \|-style="background:#aee" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the House of Wettin \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Eric V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1375<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>First son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|21 June 1412 – 1436 \|rowspan="2"\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Elisabeth of Holstein-Rendsburg<br/>1404<br/>no children<br/><br/>Elisabeth of Weinsberg<br/>before 1422<br/>one child \|align="center"\|1436<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 60–61</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Eric IV, ruled jointly. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|John IV<ref>The numberings here lead to some confusion, as not all genealogists of the House of Ascania count John IV in the list of dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg, numbering John V (John IV's nephew) as John IV.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1375<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Second son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|21 June 1412 – 1414\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1414<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 38–39</small> \|- style="background:#fea;" \|Albert III\|\| \|align="center"\|1380<br>Wittenberg<br><small>Second son of Wenceslaus and Cecilia da Carrara</small> \|align="center"\|11 June 1419 – 1422\|\| Electorate of Saxony \|\|Euphemia of Oleśnica<br/>14 January 1420<br/>no children \|align="center"\|1422<br>Wittenberg<br><small>aged 41–42</small>\|\| Left no male descendants, which led the Ascanian Saxe-Wittenberg line to extinction. \|- style="background:#fea;" \|style"text-align:center" colspan8\|The Ascanian Dynasty became extinct in Wittenberg in 1422. However, the dynasty's presence in Saxony continued, through the Duchy of Lauenburg, until 1689. After losing the Saxon Electorate to the Wittenberg line in 1356, and failing to obtain it again in 1422, the recognition of power of this Lauenburg line as Dukes of Saxony weakened. To follow the remnant House of Ascania in Saxe-Lauenburg, follow this table. For the following Electors of Saxony, see Rulers of Saxony. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Bernard VI\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1390?<br><small>Second son of Otto III</small> \|align="center"\|24 June 1420 – 2 February 1468\|\|Principality of Bernburg \|\|Matilda of Querfurt-Burgscheidungen<br>21 October 1419<br>two children<br><br>Hedwig of Żagań<br>11 March 1434<br>no children \|align="center"\|2 February 1468<br><small>aged 77–78?</small>\|\|His children predeceased him, which left him with no heirs at his death in 1468. Bernburg was inherited by the Dessau line. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"\|Anhalt-Bernburg was annexed to Anhalt-Dessau \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Adolph I\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1400<br><small>First son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)</small> \|align="center"\|24 November 1423 – 28 August 1473 \|rowspan="3"\|Principality of Köthen\|\|Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin<br/>2 November 1442<br/>Ruppin<br>seven children \|align="center"\|28 August 1473<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 72–73?</small> \|rowspan="3"\| Ruled jointly. Adolph ruled with his brother Valdemar V until 1436 and then with Valdemar's son John. In 1436, shortly after his father's death, John III renounced his rights to the principality. In 1471, Adolph concluded a succession contract with George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, which would put the latter's youngest son in Köthen's throne as Valdemar VI. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Valdemar V\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1400<br><small>Second son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (I)</small> \|align="center"\|24 November 1423 – 1436\|\|Sophie of Hadmersleben<br/>1420<br>no children \|align="center"\|1436<br><small>aged 35–36?</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|John III\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1415?<br><small>Son of Valdemar V and Sophie of Hadmersleben</small> \|align="center"\|1436\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|1463<br><small>aged 47–48?</small> \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Bernard II<ref>Numbered after Bernard, Count of Anhalt, who was also Duke of Saxony.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|1385<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Third son of Eric IV and Sophia of Brunswick-Lüneburg</small> \|align="center"\|1436 – 16 July 1463\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp<br/>2 February 1429<br/>two children \|align="center"\|16 July 1463<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 77–78</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|John V<ref>Sometimes numbered John IV. He is sometimes confused with his uncle, John IV (Eric V and Bernard IV's brother) and a son of his own (John IV, Bishop of Hildesheim).</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|18 July 1439<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Bernard II and Adelaide of Pomerania-Stolp</small> \|align="center"\|16 July 1463 – 15 August 1507\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Dorothea of Brandenburg<br/>12 February 1464<br/>twelve children \|align="center"\|15 August 1507<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 68</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Valdemar VI\|\| \|align"center"\|1450<br><small>Son of <span style"background-color:#fde;">George I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau</span> and Sophia of Hohnstein</small> \|align="center"\|28 August 1473 – 1 November 1508 \|rowspan="5"\|Principality of Köthen \|\|Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt<br/>24 January 1485<br/>Köthen<br>four children \|align="center"\|1 November 1508<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 57–58</small> \|rowspan="5"\| After the contract established with Dessau, this line of princes dominated in Köthen. After the death of Adolph in 1473, George I of Dessau's sons, Valdemar VI and Albert VI, ascended to the principality. After Albert's death, Valdemar co-ruled with his nephews. In 1508, all his co-rulers abdicated to him. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Albert VI\|\| \|align="center"\|c.1420<br><small>Son of Albert IV and Elisabeth of Querfurt</small> \|align="center"\|28 August 1473 – 9 January 1475\|\|Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)<br/>27 March 1454<br/>Alsleben<br>seven children \|align="center"\|9 January 1475<br><small>aged 54–55</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Philip\|\| \|align="center"\|31 May 1468<br><small>Son of Albert VI and Elisabeth of Mansfeld (II)</small> \|align="center"\|9 January 1475 – 13 November 1500 \|rowspan="3"\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|13 November 1500<br><small>aged 32</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Magnus\|\| \|align="center"\|1455<br><small>Third son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align"center" rowspan"2"\|28 August 1473 – 1508 \|align="center"\|29 October 1524<br><small>aged 68–69</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Adolph II\|\| \|align="center"\|16 October 1458<br><small>Fifth son of Adolph I and Cordula of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|24 March 1526<br>Merseburg<br><small>aged 67</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Ernest I\|\| \|align="center"\|1454<br><small>First son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|21 September 1474 – 12 June 1516 \|rowspan="4"\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Margaret of Münsterberg<br/>20 January 1494<br/>Cottbus<br/>four children \|align="center"\|12 June 1516<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 61–62</small> \|rowspan="4"\| Sons of George I, co-ruled jointly with their father since 1471, and continued the joint rule after his death. \|-style="background:#fde" \|George II the Strong\|\| \|align="center"\|1454<small>Second son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|1474 – 25 April 1509\|\|Agnes of Pomerania-Barth<br/>1478<br/>no children \|align="center"\|25 April 1509<br><small>aged 54–55</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Sigismund III\|\| \|align="center"\|1456<br><small>Third son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|21 September 1474 – 27 November 1487 \|rowspan="2"\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|27 November 1487<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 30–31</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Rudolph the Valiant<ref>Sometimes numbered Rudolph IV.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|1466<br><small>Fourth son of George I and Anna of Lindow-Ruppin</small> \|align="center"\|21 September 1474 – 7 September 1510 \|align="center"\|7 September 1510<br><small>aged 43–44</small> \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Magnus I\|\| \|align="center"\|1 January 1470<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of John V and Dorothea of Brandenburg</small> \|align="center"\|15 August 1507 – 1 August 1543\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>20 November 1509<br/>Wolfenbüttel<br/>six children \|align="center"\|1 August 1543<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 73</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Wolfgang the Confessor\|\| \|align="center"\|1 August 1492<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Valdemar VI and Margaret of Schwarzburg-Arnstadt</small> \|align="center"\|1 November 1508 – 23 March 1566\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Coswig only, since 1562)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|23 March 1566<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 73</small>\|\| Sole ruler of Köthen. In 1562, without descendants, he abdicated of all his territories, with the sole exception of Coswig (which he kept until his death) to the recreated Principality of Zerbst. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Köthen (and later Coswig) annexed to Zerbst \|- style="background:#fde" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Margaret of Münsterberg (1516–1524)</small> \|rowspan="4"\|Children of Ernest I, ruled jointly, firstly under their mother. In 1544, the brothers divided the land. Joachim mainteined Dessau to himself; John took Zerbst and refounded Anhalt-Zerbst; George took Plotzkau. After George and Joachim's deaths without descendants, their lands were inherited by their nephews, sons of John III. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|\|John V<ref>Despite being the fourth ruler in Dessau/Zerbst named John, sources count John, canon of Merseburg (d.1455)<!--Q75289206-->, a brother of George I of Dessau who never ruled, as John IV. This compromises the countings of John V and John VI, the fourth and fifth rulers of Anhalt of this name.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|4 September 1504<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small> \|align"center"\|12 June 1516 – 4 February 1551\|\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#fde;">Dessau</span> until 1544)</small>)\|\|Margaret of Brandenburg<br/>15 February 1534<br>Dessau<br/>six children \|align="center"\|4 February 1551<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 46</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|George III the God-Blessed\|\| \|align="center"\|15 August 1507<br>Dessau<br><small>Third son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small> \|align="center"\|12 June 1516 – 17 October 1553\|\|Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership until 1544; at Plotzkau since 1544)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|17 October 1553<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 46</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|Joachim I\|\| \|align="center"\|7 August 1509<br>Dessau<br><small>Fourth son of Ernest I and Margaret of Münsterberg</small> \|align="center"\|12 June 1516 – 6 December 1561\|\|Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership until 1544)</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1561<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 52</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|align"center" colspan"8"\|Dessau and Plotzkau annexed to Zerbst \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Francis I\|\| \|align="center"\|1510<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Magnus I and Catherine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</small> \|align="center"\|1 August 1543 – 1571<br><br>1573 – 19 March 1581\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Sibylle of Saxony<br/>8 February 1540<br/>Dresden<br/>nine children \|align="center"\|19 March 1581<br>Buxtehude<br><small>aged 70–71</small>\|\| In 1571 – highly indebted – Francis I resigned in favour of his eldest son Magnus II, who had promised to redeem the pawned ducal demesnes with funds he gained as Swedish military commander and by his marriage to a Swedish princess. However, after warring with his son and pushing him back, he regained the title. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|\|Charles I\|\| \|align="center" \|17 November 1534<br>Dessau<br><small>First son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small> \|align="center" \|4 February 1551 – 4 May 1561\|\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership)</small>\|\|Anna of Pomerania-Stettin<br/>16 May 1557<br>Zerbst<br/>no children \|align="center" \|4 May 1561<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 26</small> \|rowspan"3" style"background:#fde"\| Children of John V, ruled jointly. In 1553 inherited Plotzkau from their uncle George III. In 1561 inherited Dessau and Bernburg from their uncle Joachim. In the next year inherited Kothen. From 1570 Joachim Ernest was the sole owner of all Anhalt. \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Joachim Ernest\|\| \|align="center"\|21 October 1536<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small> \|align="center"\|4 February 1551 – 6 December 1586 \|rowspan"2"\|Principality of Anhalt<br><small>(in co-rulership in <span style"background-color:#ecd;">Zerbst</span> until 1562)</small>\|\|Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen<br/>3 March 1560<br>Barby<br/>six children<br><br>Eleonore of Württemberg<br/>9 January 1571<br>Stuttgart<br/>ten children \|align="center" \|6 December 1586<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 50</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Bernard VII\|\| \|align="center"\|17 March 1540<br>Dessau<br><small>Third son of John V and Margaret of Brandenburg</small> \|align="center"\|4 February 1551 – 1 March 1570\|\|Clara of Brunswick-Lüneburg<br/>28 May 1565<br>Dessau<br/>one child \|align="center"\|1 March 1570<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 29</small> \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Magnus II\|\| \|align="center"\|1543<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Second son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small> \|align="center"\|1571–1573\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Sophia of Sweden<br/>4 July 1568<br/>Stockholm<br/>one child \|align="center"\|14 March 1603<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>aged 59–60</small>\|\| Eldest son of Francis I. He didn't pay the debts he promised to pay and led to war with his father and brothers. Two years later they deposed Magnus II and Francis I re-ascended. Magnus' violent and judicial attempts to regain the duchy failed. In 1588 he was imprisoned for the remainder of his life. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Francis II\|\| \|align="center"\|10 August 1547<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Third son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small> \|align="center"\|19 March 1581 – 2 July 1619 \|rowspan="2"\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast<br/>26 December 1574<br/>Wolgast<br/>four children<br/><br/>Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>10 November 1582<br/>Wolfenbüttel<br/>fourteen children \|align="center"\|2 July 1619<br>Lauenburg<br><small>aged 71</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Brothers of Magnus II, ruled jointly. Francis was vice-regent from 1578, and administrator from 1581. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Maurice\|\| \|align="center"\|1551<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Fifth son of Francis I and Sibylle of Saxony</small> \|align="center"\|19 March 1581 – 2 November 1612\|\| Katharina von Spörck<br/>1581<br/><small>(annulled 1582)</small><br/>no children \|align="center"\|2 November 1612<br>Buxtehude<br><small>aged 60–61</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|John George I\|\| \|align="center"\|9 May 1567<br>Harzgerode<br><small>First son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1586 – 24 May 1618\|\|Principality of Dessau<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>\|\|Dorothea of Mansfeld-Arnstein<br/>22 February 1588<br>Hedersleben<br/>five children<br><br>Dorothea of Palatinate-Simmern<br/>21 February 1595<br>Heidelberg<br/>eleven children \|align="center"\|24 May 1618<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 51</small> \|rowspan="5"\|Sons of Joachim Ernest, ruled jointly. In 1603 divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|\|Christian I\|\| \|align="center"\|11 May 1568<br>Bernburg<br><small>Second son of Joachim Ernest and Agnes of Barby-Mühlingen</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1586 – 17 April 1630\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>\|\|Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg<br/>2 July 1595<br>Lorbach<br/>sixteen children \|align="center"\|17 April 1630<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 61</small> \|-style="background:#fbd" \|\|Augustus\|\| \|align="center"\|14 July 1575<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1586 – 22 August 1653\|\|Principality of Plötzkau<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>\|\|Sibylle of Solms-Laubach<br/>25 January 1618<br>Ansbach<br/>eight children \|align="center"\|22 August 1653<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 78</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|\|Rudolph\|\| \|align="center"\|28 October 1576<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Third son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1586 – 30 July 1621\|\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>\|\|Dorothea Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel<br/>29 December 1605<br>Wolfenbüttel<br/>four children<br><br>Magdalena of Oldenburg<br>31 August 1612<br>Oldenburg<br>two children \|align="center"\|30 July 1621<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 44</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|\|Louis I\|\| \|align="center"\|17 June 1579<br>Dessau<br><small>Fifth son of Joachim Ernest and Eleonore of Württemberg</small> \|align="center"\|6 December 1586 – 7 January 1650\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(in co-rulership in the whole Anhalt until 1603)</small>\|\|Amöena Amalie of Bentheim-Tecklenburg<br/>31 October 1606<br>Rheda<br/>two children<br><br>Sophia of Lippe<br/>12 September 1626<br>Detmold<br/>two children \|align="center"\|7 January 1650<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 70</small> \|-style="background:#fde" \|John Casimir\|\| \|align="center"\|17 December 1596<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John George I and Dorothea of Palatinate-Simmern</small> \|align="center"\|24 May 1618 – 15 September 1660\|\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Agnes of Hesse-Kassel<br/>18 May 1623<br>Dessau<br/>six children<br><br>Sophie Margaret of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>14 July 1651<br>Dessau<br/>no children \|align="center"\|15 September 1660<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 63</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Augustus\|\| \|align="center"\|17 February 1577<br>Ratzeburg<br><small>Son of Francis II and Margaret of Pomerania-Wolgast</small> \|align="center"\|2 July 1619 – 18 January 1656\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Elisabeth Sophie of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>5 March 1621<br/>Husum<br/>six children<br/><br/>Catherina of Oldenburg<br/>4 June 1633<br/>no children \|align="center"\|18 January 1656<br>Lauenburg<br><small>aged 78</small>\|\| Left no male descendants; he was succeeded by his half-brother Julius Henry. \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau (1621–1642)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| \|-style="background:#ecd" \|John VI<ref>Actually the fifth ruler named John. See note for John V of Zerbst.</ref>\|\| \|align="center"\|24 March 1621<br>Zerbst<br><small>Son of Rudolph and Magdalena of Oldenburg</small> \|align="center"\|30 July 1621 – 4 July 1667\|\|Principality of Zerbst\|\|Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>16 September 1649<br>Gottorp<br/>fourteen children \|align="center"\|4 July 1667<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 46</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Christian II\|\| \|align="center"\|11 August 1599<br>Amberg<br><small>Second son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg</small> \|align="center"\|17 April 1630 – 22 September 1656\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Eleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg<br/>28 February 1625<br>Ahrensbök<br/>fifteen children \|align="center"\|22 September 1656<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 57</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Children of Christian I, divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|16 November 1613<br>Ensdorf<br><small>Fourth son of Christian I and Anna of Bentheim-Tecklenburg</small> \|align="center"\|17 April 1630 – 30 June 1670\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(at Harzgerode)</small>\|\|Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar<br/>10 August 1642<br>Bückeburg<br/>three children<br><br>Anna Catharina of Lippe-Detmold<br/><small>(31 July 1612 – 15 October 1659)</small><br>26 May 1657<br>Harzgerode<br/>no children \|align="center"\|30 June 1670<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 56</small> \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Augustus, Prince of Anhalt-Plötzkau, Lebrecht, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen and Emmanuel, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen (1650–1653)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|After his death without descendants, his previous regents took over the principality for themselves. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|William Louis\|\| \|align="center"\|3 August 1638<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Louis I and Sophia of Lippe</small> \|align="center"\|7 January 1650 – 13 April 1665\|\|Principality of Köthen\|\|Elisabeth Charlotte of Anhalt-Harzgerode<br/>25 August 1663<br>Köthen<br/>no children \|align="center"\|13 April 1665<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 26</small> \|-style="background:#fbd" \|\|Ernest Gottlieb\|\| \|align="center"\|4 September 1620<br>Plötzkau<br><small>First son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small> \|align="center"\|22 August 1653 – 7 March 1654\|\|Principality of Plötzkau\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|7 March 1654<br>Plötzkau<br><small>aged 33</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|rowspan="2"\|Lebrecht I \|rowspan="2"\| \|rowspan"2" align"center"\|8 April 1622<br>Plötzkau<br><small>Second son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small> \|style"background:#fbd" align"center"\|7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665 \|style="background:#fbd"\|Principality of Plötzkau \|rowspan="2"\|Sophie Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>18 January 1655<br>Plötzkau<br/>no children \|rowspan"2" align"center"\|7 November 1669<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 47</small> \|rowspan="4"\| Cousins of William Louis, and princes of Anhalt-Plötzkau, they served as regents for their cousin alongside their uncle, Augustus. After William Louis' death in 1665, they took the principality of Köthen for themselves, giving away their inheritance in Plötzkau to Anhalt-Bernburg. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|align="center"\|13 April 1665 – 7 November 1669\|\|Principality of Köthen \|-style="background:#ccf" \|rowspan="2"\|Emmanuel \|rowspan="2"\| \|rowspan"2" align"center"\|6 October 1631<br>Plötzkau<br><small>Third son of Augustus and Sibylle of Solms-Laubach</small> \|align"center" style"background:#fbd"\|7 March 1654 – 13 April 1665 \|style="background:#fbd"\|Principality of Plötzkau \|rowspan="2"\|Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>23 March 1670<br>Ilsenburg<br>one child \|rowspan"2" align"center"\|8 November 1670<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 39</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|align="center"\|13 April 1665 – 8 November 1670\|\|Principality of Köthen \|-style="background:#fbd" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Plotzkau definitively annexed to the Principality of Bernburg \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Victor Amadeus\|\| \|align="center"\|6 October 1634<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Son of Christian II and Eleonore Sophie of Holstein-Sonderburg</small> \|align="center"\|22 September 1656 – 14 February 1718\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken<br/>16 October 1667<br>Meisenheim<br/>six children \|align="center"\|14 February 1718<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 83</small>\|\| Annexed Anhalt-Plötzkau in 1665. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Julius Henry\|\| \|align="center"\|9 April 1586<br>Wolfenbüttel<br><small>Son of Francis II and Maria of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel</small> \|align="center"\|18 January 1656 – 20 November 1665\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Anna of East Frisia<br/>17 March 1617<br/>Grabow<br/>no children<br/><br/>Elisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg<br/>4 June 1633<br/>Toužim<br/>one son<br/><br/>Anna Magdalena of Lobkowicz<br/>18 August 1632<br/>Vienna<br/>six children \|align="center"\|20 November 1665<br>Prague<br><small>aged 79</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|John George II\|\| \|align="center"\|17 November 1627<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John Casimir and Agnes of Hesse-Kassel</small> \|align="center"\|15 September 1660 – 7 August 1693\|\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau<br/>9 September 1659<br>Groningen<br/>five children \|align="center"\|7 August 1693<br>Berlin<br><small>aged 65</small>\|\| Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, he also served as regent for his cousin, Emmanuel Lebrecht of Anhalt-Kothen, together with the prince's mother, Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Francis Erdmann\|\| \|align="center"\|25 February 1629<br>Toužim<br><small>Son of Julius Henry and Elisabeth Sophia of Brandenburg</small> \|align="center"\|20 November 1665 – 30 July 1666\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Sibylle Hedwig of Saxe-Lauenburg<br/>1654<br/>no children \|align="center"\|30 July 1666<br>Schwarzenbek<br><small>aged 37</small>\|\|Left no descendants; He was succeeded by his brother Julius Francis. \|- style="background:#fedf;" \|Julius Francis\|\| \|align="center"\|16 September 1641<br>Prague<br><small>Son of Julius Henry and Anna Magdalena of Lobkowicz</small> \|align="center"\|30 July 1666 – 30 September 1689\|\|Duchy of Lauenburg\|\| Hedwig of the Palatinate-Sulzbach<br/>9 April 1668<br/>Sulzbach<br/>two children \|align="center"\|30 September 1689<br>Zákupy<br><small>aged 48</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#fedf" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the House of Welf \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp (1667–1674)</small> \|rowspan="4"\| Children of John VI, divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Charles William\|\| \|align="center"\|16 October 1652<br>Zerbst<br><small>Third son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small> \|align="center"\|4 July 1667 – 3 November 1718\|\|Principality of Zerbst\|\|Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels<br/>18 June 1676<br>Halle<br/>three children \|align="center"\|3 November 1718<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 66</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Anton Günther\|\| \|align="center"\|11 November 1653<br>Zerbst<br><small>Fourth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small> \|align="center"\|4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704\|\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(at Mühlingen)</small>\|\|Auguste Antonie Marschall of Bieberstein<br><small>(3 March 1659 – 28 December 1736)</small><br/>1 January 1705<br>Zerbst<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>seven children \|align="center"\|10 December 1714<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 61</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|John Louis I\|\| \|align="center"\|4 May 1656<br>Zerbst<br><small>Sixth son of John VI and Sophie Augusta of Holstein-Gottorp</small> \|align="center"\|4 July 1667 – 1 November 1704\|\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(at Dornburg)</small>\|\|Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch<br><small>(5 June 1666 – 17 May 1699)</small><br/>23 July 1687<br>Halle<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>seven children \|align="center"\|1 November 1704<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 48</small> \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"\|Mühlingen reannexed to Zerbst \|-style="background:#ecf" \|William Louis\|\| \|align="center"\|18 August 1643<br>Harzgerode<br><small>Son of Frederick and Johanna Elisabeth of Nassau-Hadamar</small> \|align="center"\|30 June 1670 – 14 October 1709\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(at Harzgerode)</small>\|\|Elisabeth Juliana of Solms-Laubach<br/><small>(6 March 1631 – 2 January 1693)</small><br>25 July 1671<br>Laubach<br/>no children<br><br>Sophie Auguste of Nassau-Dillenburg<br/><small>(28 April 1666 – 14 January 1733)</small><br>20 October 1695<br>Frederiksborg<br/>no children \|align="center"\|14 October 1709<br>Harzgerode<br><small>aged 66</small>\|\| After his death, Harzgerode merged again in Bernburg. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"\|Harzgerode reannexed to Bernburg \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regencies of Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode (1670–1690) and John George II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (1690–1692)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Emmanuel Lebrecht\|\| \|align="center"\|20 May 1671<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Emmanuel and Anna Eleonore of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small> \|align="center"\|20 May 1671 – 30 May 1704\|\|Principality of Köthen\|\|Gisela Agnes of Rath<br/>30 September 1692<br>Nienburg<br/><small>(morganatic)</small><br>ten children \|align="center"\|30 May 1704<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 33</small> \|- style="background:#fde" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau (1693–1698)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| \|-style="background:#fde" \|Leopold I\|\| \|align="center"\|3 July 1676<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of John George II and Henriette Catherine of Orange-Nassau</small> \|align="center"\|7 August 1693 – 7 April 1747\|\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Anna Louise Föhse<br/>8 September 1698<br>Dessau<br/><small>(morganatic)</small><br>ten children \|align="center"\|7 April 1747<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 70</small> \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Gisela Agnes of Rath (1704–1715)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| With no male heirs, he was succeeded by his brother. \|-style="background:#CCCCFF" \|Leopold\|\| \|align="center"\|29 November 1694<br>Köthen<br><small>Second son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath</small> \|align="center"\|30 May 1704 – 19 November 1728\|\|Principality of Köthen\|\|Frederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>11 December 1721<br>Bernburg<br>one child<br><br>Charlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen<br/> 27 June 1725<br>Weimar<br>two children \|align="center"\|19 November 1728<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 33</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Charles Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|13 July 1668<br>Bernburg<br><small>First son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</small> \|align="center"\|14 February 1718 – 22 April 1721\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Sophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde<br/>25 June 1692<br>Bernburg<br/>six children<br><br>Wilhelmine Charlotte Nüssler<br/>1 May 1715<br>Bernburg<br>two children \|align="center"\|22 April 1721<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 52</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Children of Victor Amadeus, divided their rule. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Lebrecht\|\| \|align="center"\|28 June 1669<br><small>Second son of Victor Amadeus and Elisabeth of Palatinate-Zweibrücken</small> \|align="center"\|14 February 1718 – 17 May 1727\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Zeitz and Hoym)</small>\|\|Charlotte of Nassau-Schaumburg<br/>Schaumburg Castle<br>12 April 1692<br>five children<br><br>Eberhardine of Weede<br>27 June 1702<br>Grave<br>six children<br/><br>Sophie Sibylla of Ingersleben<br><small>(18 March 1684 – 31 March 1726)</small><br>14 September 1725<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>no children \|align="center"\|17 May 1727<br>Bad Ems<br><small>aged 57</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|John Augustus\|\| \|align="center"\|29 July 1677<br>Zerbst<br><small>Son of Charles William and Sophia of Saxe-Weissenfels</small> \|align="center"\|3 November 1718 – 7 November 1742\|\|Principality of Zerbst\|\|Frederica of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg<br/>25 May 1702<br>Zerbst<br/>no children \|align="center"\|7 November 1742<br>Zerbst<br><small>aged 65</small>\|\| Died without issue. Zerbst was inherited by his cousins from Dornburg. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Victor Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|20 September 1700<br>Bernburg<br><small>Son of Charles Frederick and Sophie Albertine of Solms-Sonnenwalde</small> \|align="center"\|22 April 1721 – 18 May 1765\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Louise of Anhalt-Dessau<br/>25 November 1724<br>Dessau<br/>one child<br><br>Sophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt<br/>22 May 1733<br>Potsdam<br/>five children<br><br>Konstanze Fredericka Schmidt<br/>13 November 1750<br>Bernburg<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>one child \|align="center"\|18 May 1765<br>Bernburg<br><small>aged 64</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Victor I Amadeus\|\| \|align="center"\|7 September 1693<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Son of Lebrecht and Charlotte of Nassau-Schaumburg</small> \|align="center"\|17 May 1727 – 15 April 1772\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Zeitz, Hoym and Schaumburg)</small>\|\|Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein<br/>22 November 1714<br>Birstein<br/>six children<br><br>Hedwig Sophie Henckel of Donnersmarck<br/>14 February 1740<br>Pölzig<br>six children \|align="center"\|15 April 1772<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 78</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Augustus Louis\|\| \|align="center"\|9 June 1697<br>Köthen<br><small>Third son of Emmanuel Lebrecht and Gisela Agnes of Rath</small> \|align="center"\|19 November 1728 – 6 August 1755\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Güsten until 1737; at Köthen proper since 1737)</small>\|\|Agnes Wilhelmine von Wuthenau<br/>23 January 1722<br>Dresden<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>two children<br><br>Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless<br/>14 January 1726<br>Sorau<br>five children<br><br>Anna Fredericka of Promnitz-Pless<br/>21 November 1732<br>Sorau<br>two children \|align="center"\|6 August 1755<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 58</small> \|rowspan="3"\| Inheritors of Leopold, "fought" (legally) for the inheritance. Heiress of her father, Gisela Agnes claimed her allodial inheritance (possibly, while Augustus Louis, brother of the deceased Leopold, should keep the main principality. According to the Reichskammergericht final decision, she kept her father's collections, and eventually gave up her inheritance (which included the main capital, Köthen, and other estates) when she married (1737), being compensated by her uncle with great sums of money that highly indebted the principality. \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Charlotte Frederike of Nassau-Siegen (1728-1734)</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Gisela Agnes\|\| \|align="center"\|21 September 1722<br>Köthen<br><small>Daughter of Leopold and Frederica Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg</small> \|align="center"\|19 November 1728 – 25 May 1737\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Köthen, Prosigk and Klepzig)</small>\|\|Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau<br/>25 May 1737<br>Bernburg<br>seven children \|align="center"\|20 April 1751<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 22</small> \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"\| The property of the Principality of Köthen was reunited in 1737 \|-style="background:#ecd" \|John Louis II\|\| \|align="center"\|23 June 1688<br>Dornburg<br><small>First son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch</small> \|align="center"\|7 November 1742 – 5 November 1746 \|rowspan="2"\|Principality of Zerbst<br><small>(in Dornburg 1704–1742; in Zerbst proper since 1742)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|5 November 1746<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 58</small> \|rowspan="2"\| First cousins of John Augustus I, they were Princes of Dornburg, until its ending by joining it with the inherited Principality of Zerbst. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Christian August\|\| \|align="center"\|29 November 1690<br>Dornburg<br><small>Third son of John Louis I and Christine Eleonore of Zeutsch</small> \|align="center"\|7 November 1742 – 16 March 1747\|\|Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp<br/>8 November 1727<br>Vechelde<br>five children \|align="center"\|16 March 1747<br>Dornburg<br><small>aged 56</small> \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"8" style"text-align:center"\|Dornburg reannexed to Zerbst \|-style="background:#fde \|Leopold II Maximilian\|\| \|align="center"\|25 December 1700<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold I and Anna Louise Föhse</small> \|align="center"\|7 April 1747 – 16 December 1751\|\|Principality of Dessau\|\|Gisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen<br/>25 May 1737<br>Bernburg<br/>seven children \|align="center"\|16 December 1751<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 50</small>\|\| \|- style="background:#ecd" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp (1747–1752)</small> \|rowspan="2"\| Left no descendants; after his death, his property was annexed by his cousins from Dessau. \|-style="background:#ecd" \|Frederick August\|\| \|align="center"\|8 August 1734<br>Stettin<br><small>Son of Christian August and Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp</small> \|align="center"\|16 March 1747 – 3 March 1793\|\|Principality of Zerbst\|\|Caroline Wilhelmina Sophia of Hesse-Kassel<br/>17 November 1753<br>Zerbst<br>no children<br><br>Friederike Auguste Sophie of Anhalt-Bernburg<br/>22 May 1764<br>Ballenstedt<br>no children \|align="center"\|3 March 1793<br>Luxembourg<br><small>aged 58</small> \|-style="background:#ecd" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed by the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau \|- style="background:#fde" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regency of Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (1751–1758)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Initially under regency, Leopold III himself also served later as regent for his cousin, Louis Augustus Karl Frederick Emil from Anhalt-Kothen. After his death the regency in Anhalt-Kothen passed together with the principality of Anhalt-Dessau to his grandson. \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Leopold III Frederick Franz\|\| \|align="center"\|10 August 1740<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold II Maximilian and Gisela Agnes of Anhalt-Köthen</small> \|align="center"\|16 December 1751 – 9 August 1817\|\|Principality of Dessau<br><small>(until 1807)</small><br><br>Duchy of Dessau<br><small>(from 1807)</small>\|\|Louise Henriette of Brandenburg-Schwedt<br/>25 July 1767<br>Charlottenburg<br/>two children \|align="center"\|9 August 1817<br>Luisium Castle<br><small>aged 76</small> \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Charles George Lebrecht\|\| \|align="center"\|15 August 1730<br>Köthen<br><small>Second son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless</small> \|align="center"\|6 August 1755 – 17 October 1789\|\|Principality of Köthen\|\|Louise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg<br/>26 July 1763<br>Glücksburg<br>six children \|align="center"\|17 October 1789<br>Zemun<br><small>aged 59</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Children of Augustus Louis, divided their inheritance. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Frederick Erdmann\|\| \|align="center"\|27 October 1731<br>Köthen<br><small>Third son of Augustus Louis and Christine Johanna Emilie of Promnitz-Pless</small> \|align="center"\|6 August 1755 – 12 December 1797\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(at Pless)</small>\|\|Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode<br/>13 June 1766<br>Wernigerode<br>nine children \|align="center"\|12 December 1797<br>Pless<br><small>aged 66</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Frederick Albert\|\| \|align="center"\|15 August 1735<br>Bernburg<br><small>Son of Victor Frederick and Sophie Albertine Fredericka of Brandenburg-Schwedt</small> \|align="center"\|18 May 1765 – 9 April 1796\|\|Principality of Bernburg\|\|Louise Albertine of Holstein-Plön<br/>25 November 1724<br>Augustenburg<br/>two children \|align="center"\|9 April 1796<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 60</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Charles Louis\|\| \|align="center"\|16 May 1723<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Third son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein</small> \|align="center"\|15 April 1772 – 20 August 1806\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>\|\|Benjamine Gertrude Keiser<br><small>(1 January 1729 – 6 January 1787)</small><br>25 March 1748<br>Stevensweert<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br><br>Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels<br/>12 December 1765<br>Braunfels<br/>five children \|align="center"\|20 August 1806<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 83</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Augustus Christian Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|18 November 1769<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Charles George Lebrecht and Louise Charlotte of Holstein-Glücksburg</small> \|align="center"\|17 October 1789 – 5 May 1812\|\|Principality of Köthen<br><small>(until 1806)</small><br><br>Duchy of Köthen<br><small>(from 1806)</small>\|\|Frederica of Nassau-Usingen<br/>9 February 1792<br>Frankfurt-am-Main<br>no children \|align="center"\|5 May 1812<br>Geuz<br><small>aged 42</small>\|\| In 1806 became Duke of Anhalt-Köthen. Left no descendants, and was succeeded by his nephew. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Alexius Frederick Christian\|\| \|align="center"\|12 June 1767<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Frederick Albert and Louise Albertine of Holstein-Plön</small> \|align="center"\|9 April 1796 – 24 March 1834\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(until 1803)</small><br><br>Duchy of Bernburg<br><small>(from 1803)</small>\|\|Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel<br/>29 November 1794<br>Kassel<br><small>(annulled 1817)</small><br/>four children<br><br>Dorothea Fredericka of Sonnenberg<br/>11 January 1818<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>no children<br><br>Ernestine Charlotte of Sonnenberg<br/>2 May 1819<br>Bernburg<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br/>no children \|align="center"\|24 March 1834<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 66</small>\|\| In 1803 became Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Victor II Charles\|\| \|align="center"\|2 November 1767<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Son of Charles Louis and Amalia Eleonora of Solms-Braunfels</small> \|align="center"\|20 August 1806 – 22 April 1812\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>\|\|Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg<br/>29 October 1793<br>Weilburg<br>four children \|align="center"\|22 April 1812<br>Schaumburg<br><small>aged 44</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|29 November 1741<br>Schaumburg<br><small>Fifth son of Victor I Amadeus and Charlotte Louise of Isenburg-Birstein</small> \|align="center"\|22 April – 24 December 1812\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Hoym)</small>\|\|Unmarried \|align="center"\|24 December 1812\|\| After his childless death, Hoym and Holzappel were inherited by his niece Hermine (daughter of Victor II), while Hoym merged in Bernburg again. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Hoym reannexed to Bernburg \|- style="background:#ccf" \|colspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| <small>Regencies of Leopold III, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau (1812–1817) and Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt (1817–1818)</small> \|rowspan="2"\|Nephew of Augustus Christian Frederick. Died as a minor, never ruled by his own. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Louis Augustus Karl\|\| \|align="center"\|20 September 1802<br>Köthen<br><small>Son of Louis of Anhalt-Köthen and Louise Caroline of Hesse-Darmstadt</small> \|align="center"\|5 May 1812 – 18 December 1818\|\|Duchy of Köthen\|\|Louise Charlotte of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg<br/>26 July 1763<br>Glücksburg<br>six children \|align="center"\|18 December 1818<br>Leipzig<br><small>aged 16</small> \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Hermine\|\| \|align="center"\|2 December 1797<br>Hoym<br><small>Daughter of Victor II Charles and Amelia of Nassau-Weilburg</small> \|align="center"\|24 December 1812 – 14 September 1817\|\|Principality of Bernburg<br><small>(in Schaumburg and Holzappel)</small>\|\|Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary<br>30 August 1815<br>Schaumburg Castle<br>two children \|align="center"\|14 September 1817<br>Budapest<br><small>aged 19</small>\|\|After her death her lands probably merged again in Bernburg. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|colspan"8" align"center"\|Schaumburg and Holzappel reannexed to Bernburg \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Frederick Ferdinand\|\| \|align="center"\|25 June 1769<br>Pless<br><small>Second son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small> \|align="center"\|18 December 1818 – 23 August 1830\|\|Duchy of Köthen<br><small>(in Pless 1797–1818; in Köthen proper since 1818)</small>\|\|Maria Dorothea of Holstein-Beck<br/>26 July 1763<br>Lindenau bei Heiligenbeil<br>no children<br><br>Julie of Brandenburg<br/>20 May 1816<br>Berlin<br>no children \|align="center"\|23 August 1830<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 61</small>\|\| From the Anhalt-Pless line, cousin of his predecessor. Attempted, with no success, to reinstall Catholicism in his duchy. Left no descendants; he was succeeded by his brother. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|Henry\|\| \|align="center"\|30 July 1778<br>Pless<br><small>Fourth son of Frederick Erdmann and Louise Ferdinande of Stolberg-Wernigerode</small> \|align="center"\|23 August 1830 – 23 November 1847\|\|Duchy of Köthen\|\|Augusta Reuss of Middle Köstritz<br/>18 May 1819<br>Trebschen<br>no children \|align="center"\|23 November 1847<br>Köthen<br><small>aged 69</small>\|\| Left no descendants. His lands were inherited by Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau. \|-style="background:#ccf" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau \|-style="background:#ecf" \|Alexander Charles\|\| \|align="center"\|2 March 1805<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>Son of Alexius Frederick Christian and Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel</small> \|align="center"\|24 March 1834 – 19 August 1863\|\|Duchy of Bernburg\|\|Frederica of Holstein-Glücksburg<br/>30 October 1834<br>Gottorp<br/>no children \|align="center"\|19 August 1863<br>Hoym<br><small>aged 58</small>\|\| Left no male descendants. Bernburg reverted to Anhalt-Dessau. \|-style="background:#ecf" \|colspan8 style"text-align:center"\|Definitively annexed to the Principality of Anhalt-Dessau \|-style="background:#fde" \|\|Leopold IV Frederick\|\| \|align="center"\|1 October 1794<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Amalie of Hesse-Homburg</small> \|align="center"\|9 August 1817 – 22 May 1871\|\|Duchy of Dessau<br><small>(until 1863)</small><br><br>Duchy of Anhalt<br><small>(from 1863)</small>\|\|Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia<br/>18 April 1818<br>Berlin<br/>six children \|align="center"\|22 May 1871<br>Dessau<br><small>aged 76</small>\|\|Grandson of Leopold III. Ended the regency in Kothen after his cousin's death (1818). In 1863 he reunited Anhalt under his rule, and becomes its first duke. \|-style="background:#fde" \|Frederick I\|\| \|align="center"\|29 April 1831<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Leopold IV Frederick and Frederica Wilhelmina of Prussia</small> \|align="center"\|22 May 1871 – 24 January 1904\|\|Duchy of Anhalt\|\|Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg<br/>22 April 1854<br>Altenburg<br/>six children \|align="center"\|24 January 1904<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 72</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#fde" \|Frederick II\|\| \|align="center"\|19 August 1856<br>Dessau<br><small>First son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg</small> \|align="center"\|24 January 1904 – 21 April 1918\|\|Duchy of Anhalt\|\|Marie of Baden<br/>2 July 1889<br>Karlsruhe<br/>no children \|align="center"\|21 April 1918<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>aged 61</small>\|\| Left no descendants. He was succeeded by his brother. \|-style="background:#fde" \|Edward\|\| \|align="center"\|18 April 1861<br>Dessau<br><small>Second son of Frederick I and Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg</small> \|align="center"\|21 April – 13 September 1918\|\|Duchy of Anhalt\|\|Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg<br/> 6 February 1895<br>Altenburg<br/><small>(annulled 26 January 1918)</small><br>six children \|align="center"\|13 September 1918<br>Berchtesgaden<br><small>aged 57</small>\|\| \|-style="background:#fde" \|Joachim Ernest\|\| \|align="center"\|11 January 1901<br>Dessau<br><small>Son of Edward and Louise Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg</small> \|align="center"\|13 September – 12 November 1918\|\|Duchy of Anhalt\|\|Elisabeth Strickrodt<br>3 March 1927<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic, annulled 1929)</small><br>no children<br><br>Edda-Charlotte von Stephani-Marwitz<br>15 October 1929<br>Ballenstedt<br><small>(morganatic)</small><br>five children \|align="center"\|18 February 1947<br>Weimar<br><small>aged 46</small>\|\| Monarchy abolished in that year. \|} Heads of the House of Ascania since 1918 Duke Joachim Ernest II 1918–1947 Prince Frederick 1947–1963 Prince Edward 1963–present Family trees {{Main article\|de:Stammliste der Askanier}} (genealogical list of the dynasty in German) Armorial {{Main article\|Coat of arms of Saxony}} The original arms of the house of Ascania, from their ancestors the Saxon counts of Ballenstedt, were "Barry of ten sable and or". The Ascanian margrave Albert the Bear was invested with the Saxon ducal title in 1138; when he succeeded the Welf's Henry the Lion, who was deposed by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1180, Albert's son Bernhard, Count of Anhalt received the remaining Saxon territories around Wittenberg and Lauenburg, and the ducal title. Legend, so unlikely to be true, goes that when he rode in front of the emperor, at the occasion of his investiture, he carried a shield with his escutcheon of the Ballenstedt coat of arms (barry sable and or). Barbarossa took the rue wreath he wore against the heat of the sun from his head, hanging it over Bernhard's shield and thus creating the Saxonian crancelin vert ("Barry of ten sable and or, a crancelin vert"). A more likely explanation is that it probably symbolized the waiver of the Lauenburg lands.<ref name"freistaatsachsen">[http://www.freistaat.sachsen.de/wappen_signet.htm Freistaat Sachsen official website] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130122221956/http://www.freistaat.sachsen.de/wappen_signet.htm \|date=2013-01-22 }} {{in lang\|de}} Accessed 2009-05-19.</ref> From about 1260, the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg emerged under the Ascanian duke Albert II, who adopted the tradition of the Saxon stem duchy and was granted the Saxon electoral dignity, against the fierce protest of his Ascanian Saxe-Lauenburg cousins. This was confirmed by the Golden Bull of 1356. As the Ascanian Electors of Saxony also held the High office of an Arch-Marshal of the Holy Roman Empire, they added the ensign Per fess sable and argent two swords in saltire gules (the swords later featuring as the trademark of the Meissen china factory) to their coat of arms. When the line became extinct in 1422, the arms and electoral dignity were adopted by the Wettin by margrave Frederick IV of Meissen as it had become synonymous with the Saxon ducal title. When upon German reunification the Free State of Saxony was re-established, the coat of arms was formally confirmed in 1991. <ref>[https://www.fotw.info/FLAGS/de-sn_lx.html Flag Legislation (Saxony, Germany)<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081122102236/https://www.fotw.info/flags/de-sn_lx.html \|date2008-11-22}} :{{Blockquote\| The Landtag of Saxony state parliament has passed on 25 October 1991 the following law: § 1 (1) The lesser coat-of-arms of the Free State of Saxony shows an escutcheon bendy of nine pieces black and gold, a green rue-crown bendwise. (2) A greater coat-of-arms of the Free State of Saxony can be determined by a special law. § 2 For the rendering of the coat-of-arms the patterns, which are attached to this law as appendix, are authoritative. The coloured patterns are deposited in the Main Public Record Office of Saxony. § 3 The regulations necessary for the implementation of this law are issued by the State Government. It can pass on this authority. § 4 This law comes into force the day after its proclamation. The preceding law is executed herewith and is to be proclaimed.\|Prof. Dr. Kurt Biedenkopf (Minister President), Steffen Heitmann (State Minister of Justice)\|Law relating to the coat-of-arms of the Free State of Saxony of 18 November 1991, (Saxon Law and Official Gazette 1991, p. 383-385), Dresden, 18 November 1991. }}</ref> <gallery class="center"> File:Arms of the house of Ascania (ancient).svg\|Original Arms of counts of Ballenstedt File:Arms of Heinrich I, Prince of Anhalt.svg\|Arms of Ascania impaled with the Mark of Brandenburg File:Arms of the house of Anhalt (13th century).svg\|Arms of Ascania impaled with the Mark of Brandenburg </gallery> <gallery class="center"> File:HRE Arch-Marshal Arms.svg\|Arms of the Arch-Marshal/prince elector of the Saxons of the Holy Roman Empire File:Blason Jean-Georges IV de Saxe.svg\|Arms of the Elector/Duke of Saxony (Saxe-Wittenburg) </gallery> <gallery class="center"> File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt (XVe siècle).svg\|Principality of Anhalt in the 15th century File:Blason Principautés d'Anhalt (XVIIe siècle).svg\|Principalities of Anhalt in the 17th century File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt-Köthen (XVIIIe siècle).svg\|Principality of Anhalt-Köthen in the 18th century File:Blason Principauté d'Anhalt-Zerbst (XVIIIe siècle).svg\|Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst in the 19th century File:Shield of the Duchy of Anhalt.svg\|Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Anhalt File:Coat of Arms of the Duchy of Anhalt.svg\|Achievement of the Duchy of Anhalt </gallery> The chivalric order was the House Order of Albert the Bear (German: Hausorden Albrechts des Bären or Der Herzoglich Anhaltische Hausorden Albrechts des Bären) which was founded in 1836 as a joint House Order by three dukes of Anhalt from separate branches of the family: Henry, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau, and Alexander Karl, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg. The namesake of the order, Albert the Bear, was the first Margrave of Brandenburg from the House of Ascania. The origin of his nickname "the Bear" is unknown. <gallery class="center"> File:Order of Albert the Bear.svg\|Collar of the Order of Albert the Bear File:Зірка ордену Альбрехта Ведмедя.JPG\|Star of the Order of Albert the Bear File:Huisorde van Albrecht de Beer.jpg\|House Order of Albert the Bear </gallery> List of states ruled by the House of Ascania <gallery> File:Sächsische-Herzogtümer 1235.png\|Saxony in 1180 with the Ascanian duchies in Saxony around 1235 (green). The former stem Duchy of Saxony is in gold with the official electorate duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg in green in the South East. Also shown is Saxe-Lauenburg in North West and the Welf Duchies of Brunswick-Luneburg in orange. File:Herzogtum Sachsen Lauenburg 1400.PNG\|The Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg in 1400 File:Mark Lausitz, Karte Anno 1200.jpg\|Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg (dark green, centred on the town of Wittenberg) FIle:Karte Mark Brandenburg 1320.png\|Brandenburg in 1320 under the Ascanians File:Herzogtum anhalt 1863-1918.svg\|The Duchy of Anhalt, bordered by Prussia und Duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg File:TeilfürstentümerAnhalt1789.png\|Anhalt Principalities in 1789: Anhalt-Bernburg (AB), Anhalt-Köthen (AK), Anhalt-Dessau (AD) and Anhalt-Zerbst (AZ); on the rightside of the map: the Electorate of Brandenburg (blue) und Electorate of Saxony (orange) </gallery> County, Principality, and Duchy of Anhalt: c. 1100–1918 * Duchy and Electorate of Saxony: 1112, 1139–1142, 1180–1422 * County of Weimar-Orlamünde: 1112–1486 * Margravate of Brandenburg: 1157–1320 * Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg: 1269–1689 * Principality of Lüneburg: 1369–1388 * Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg: 1252–1468 and 1603–1863 * Principality of Anhalt-Zerbst: 1252–1396 and 1544–1796 * Principality of Anhalt-Aschersleben: 1252–1315 * Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen: 1396–1561 and 1603–1847 * Principality and Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau 1396–1561 and 1603–1863 * Principality of Anhalt-Plötzkau 1544–1553 and 1603–1665 * Principality of Anhalt-Harzgerode 1635–1709 * Principality of Anhalt-Mühlingen: 1667–1714 * Principality of Anhalt-Dornburg: 1667–1742 * Lordship of Jever: 1667–1796 * Principality of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym: 1718–1812 * Russian Empire: 1762–1796 References * [http://susi.e-technik.uni-ulm.de:8080/Meyers2/seite/werk/brockhaus/band/50/seite/0992/brockhaus_b50_s0992.html Askanien, Meyers Konversationslexikon, 1888] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070924064505/http://susi.e-technik.uni-ulm.de:8080/Meyers2/seite/werk/brockhaus/band/50/seite/0992/brockhaus_b50_s0992.html \|date2007-09-24 }} * Trillmich, Werner, Kaiser Konrad II. und seine Zeit, Bonn, 1991 {{reflist}} External links {{Commons category\|House of Ascania}} [https://houseofascania.com/index.html House of Ascania] – official website [https://web.archive.org/web/20171110120605/http://www.europeanheraldry.org/germany/princely-houses/house-ascania/ European Heraldry page] {{cite web \|lastMarek \|firstMiroslav \|urlhttp://genealogy.euweb.cz/ascania/ascan1.html \|title GENEALOGY.EU: House of Ascania \|publisher= Genealogy.EU}} (first page of a series) [http://www.stirnet.com/genie/data/continent/bb/brandenburg1.php#top Stirnet: Brandenburg1] {{subscription required}} (genealogy of the Houses of Ascania and Brandenburg, including the most likely ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania) *[http://www.stirnet.com/genie/data/ancient/ae/ascania1.php#top Stirnet: Ascania1] {{subscription required}} (an alternate possible ancestry of the 11th-century House of Ascania) {{Royal houses of Germany}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ascania, House Of}} Category:Saxon nobility	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ascania	2025-04-05T18:26:04.586393
2443	Acceleration	{{Short description\|Rate of change of velocity}} {{About\|acceleration in physics}} {{Redirect\|Accelerate}} {{Use British English\|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox physical quantity \| name = Acceleration \| image = Gravity gravita grave.gif \| caption = {{longitem\|In vacuum (no air resistance), objects attracted by Earth gain speed at a steady rate.}} \| symbols = a \| unit = m/s{{sup\|2}}, m·s{{sup\|−2}}, m&nbsp;s{{sup\|−2}} \| derivations <math qidQ11376>\mathbf{a} \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}</math> \| dimension = wikidata }} {{Classical mechanics \|Fundamentals \|width=20.5em}} is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.]] In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction).<ref>{{cite book \|titleRelativity and Common Sense \|firstHermann \|lastBondi \|pages[https://archive.org/details/relativitycommon0000bond/page/3 3] \|publisherCourier Dover Publications \|year1980 \|isbn978-0-486-24021-3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/relativitycommon0000bond/page/3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|titlePhysics the Easy Way \|pages[https://archive.org/details/physicseasyway00lehr_0/page/27 27] \|firstRobert L. \|lastLehrman \|publisherBarron's Educational Series \|year1998 \|isbn978-0-7641-0236-3 \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/physicseasyway00lehr_0/page/27 }}</ref> The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's Second Law,<ref>{{cite book \|titleThe Principles of Mechanics \|firstHenry \|lastCrew \|publisherBiblioBazaar, LLC \|year2008 \|isbn978-0-559-36871-4 \|pages=43}}</ref> is the combined effect of two causes: * the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force; * that object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared ({{nowrap\|m⋅s<sup>−2</sup>}}, <math>\mathrm{\tfrac{m}{s^2}}</math>). For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration<ref>{{cite book \|titleMechanics \|author1P. Smith \|author2R. C. Smith \|edition2nd, illustrated, reprinted \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year1991 \|isbn978-0-471-92737-2 \|page39 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZzh_unG7OAsC}} [https://books.google.com/books?idZzh_unG7OAsC&pgPA39 Extract of page 39]</ref><ref>{{cite book \|titlePhysics, Volume One: Chapters 1-17, Volume 1 \|author1John D. Cutnell \|author2Kenneth W. Johnson \|edition1st0, illustrated \|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons \|year2014 \|isbn978-1-118-83688-0 \|page36 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPJWDBgAAQBAJ}} [https://books.google.com/books?idPJWDBgAAQBAJ&pgPA36 Extract of page 36]</ref> or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft.<ref>{{cite book \|author1Raymond A. Serway \|author2Chris Vuille \|author3Jerry S. Faughn \|titleCollege Physics, Volume 10 \|year2008 \|publisherCengage \|isbn9780495386933 \|page32 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCX0u0mIOZ44C&pgPA32}}</ref> Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralised in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed. Definition and properties Average acceleration {{math\|Δt → 0}} of {{math\|Δv/Δt}}.]] An object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, <math>\Delta \mathbf{v}</math>, divided by the duration of the period, <math>\Delta t</math>. Mathematically, <math display"block">\bar{\mathbf{a}} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t}.</math> Instantaneous acceleration thumb\|right\|From bottom to top: {{bulleted list \| an acceleration function {{math\|a(t)}}; \| the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function {{math\|v(t)}}; \| and the integral of the velocity is the distance function {{math\|s(t)}}. }} Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time: <math display"block">\mathbf{a} \lim_{{\Delta t} \to 0} \frac{\Delta \mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt}.</math> As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, {{math\|v}}, with respect to time {{mvar\|t}} and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, {{math\|x}}, with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of {{math\|x}} with respect to {{mvar\|t}}: <math display"block">\mathbf{a} \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{x}}{dt^2}.</math> (Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.) By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function {{math\|a(t)}} is the velocity function {{math\|v(t)}}; that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time ({{mvar\|a}} vs. {{mvar\|t}}) graph corresponds to the change of velocity. <math display"block" qidQ11465>\mathbf{\Delta v} = \int \mathbf{a} \, dt.</math> Likewise, the integral of the jerk function {{math\|j(t)}}, the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time: <math display"block">\mathbf{\Delta a} \int \mathbf{j} \, dt.</math> Units Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T<sup>−2</sup>. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s<sup>−2</sup>); or "metre per second per second", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second. Other forms An object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration. Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer. In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law): <math display"block" qidQ2397319>\mathbf{F} m\mathbf{a} \quad \implies \quad \mathbf{a} \frac{\mathbf{F}}{m},</math> where {{math\|F}} is the net force acting on the body, {{mvar\|m}} is the mass of the body, and {{math\|a}} is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large. Tangential and centripetal acceleration {{See also\|Centripetal force#Local coordinates\|Tangential velocity}} The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as: <math display"block">\mathbf{v}(t) v(t) \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} = v(t) \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}(t) , </math> with {{math\|v(t)}} equal to the speed of travel along the path, and <math display"block">\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \frac{\mathbf{v}(t)}{v(t)} \, , </math> a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed {{math\|v(t)}} and the changing direction of {{math\|u<sub>t</sub>}}, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation<ref>{{cite web\|last1Weisstein\|first1Eric W.\|titleChain Rule\| urlhttp://mathworld.wolfram.com/ChainRule.html \|websiteWolfram MathWorld\| publisherWolfram Research\| access-date=2 August 2016}}</ref> for the product of two functions of time as: <math display="block">\begin{alignat}{3} \mathbf{a} & = \frac{d \mathbf{v}}{dt} \\ & = \frac{dv}{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} +v(t)\frac{d \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t}}{dt} \\ & = \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} + \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}\ , \end{alignat}</math> where {{math\|u<sub>n</sub>}} is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called the principal normal), and {{math\|r}} is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time {{mvar\|t}}. The components :<math>\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{t} \frac{dv }{dt} \mathbf{u}_\mathrm{t} \quad\text{and}\quad \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{c} \frac{v^2}{r}\mathbf{u}_\mathrm{n}</math> are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively. Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas.<ref name Andrews>{{cite book \|title Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists \|author1Larry C. Andrews \|author2Ronald L. Phillips \|page 164 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idMwrDfvrQyWYC&qparticle+%22planar+motion%22&pgPA164 \|isbn 978-0-8194-4506-3 \|publisher SPIE Press \|year 2003 }}</ref><ref name Chand>{{cite book \|title Applied Mathematics \|page 337 \|author1Ch V Ramana Murthy \|author2NC Srinivas \|isbn 978-81-219-2082-7 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idQ0Pvv4vWOlQC&pgPA337 \| publisher S. Chand & Co. \| year 2001\| locationNew Delhi }}</ref> Special cases Uniform acceleration {{See also\|Torricelli's equation}} Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period. A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength {{math\|g}} (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton's Second Law the force <math> \mathbf{F_g}</math> acting on a body is given by: <math display"block"> \mathbf{F_g} m \mathbf{g}.</math> Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed:<ref>{{cite book \|titlePhysics for you: revised national curriculum edition for GCSE \|authorKeith Johnson \|publisherNelson Thornes \|year2001 \|edition4th \|page135 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idD4nrQDzq1jkC&qsuvat&pgPA135 \|isbn=978-0-7487-6236-1}}</ref> <math display="block">\begin{align} \mathbf{s}(t) &\mathbf{s}_0 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \tfrac{1}{2} \mathbf{a}t^2 \mathbf{s}_0 + \tfrac{1}{2} \left(\mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{v}(t)\right) t \\ \mathbf{v}(t) &= \mathbf{v}_0 + \mathbf{a} t \\ {v^2}(t) &= {v_0}^2 + 2\mathbf{a \cdot}[\mathbf{s}(t)-\mathbf{s}_0], \end{align}</math> where * <math>t</math> is the elapsed time, * <math>\mathbf{s}_0</math> is the initial displacement from the origin, * <math>\mathbf{s}(t)</math> is the displacement from the origin at time <math>t</math>, * <math>\mathbf{v}_0</math> is the initial velocity, * <math>\mathbf{v}(t)</math> is the velocity at time <math>t</math>, and * <math>\mathbf{a}</math> is the uniform rate of acceleration. In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth.<ref>{{cite book \|titleUnderstanding physics \|author1David C. Cassidy \|author2Gerald James Holton \|author3F. James Rutherford \|publisherBirkhäuser \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-387-98756-9 \|page146 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiPsKvL_ATygC&qparabolic+arc+uniform-acceleration+galileo&pgPA146}}</ref> Circular motion {{multiple image \|align = vertical \|width1 = 100 \|image1 = Position vector plane polar coords.svg \|caption1 = Position vector r, always points radially from the origin. \|width2 = 150 \|image2 = Velocity vector plane polar coords.svg \|caption2 = Velocity vector v, always tangent to the path of motion. \|width3 = 200 \|image3 = Acceleration vector plane polar coords.svg \|caption3 = Acceleration vector a, not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and radial accelerations. \|footer = Kinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to 2d space, but may represent the osculating plane plane in a point of an arbitrary curve in any higher dimension.}} In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighbouring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle. * For a given speed <math>v</math>, the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius <math>r</math> of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: <math qidQ2248131 display"block"> a_c = \frac {v^2} {r}\,.</math> * For a given angular velocity <math>\omega</math>, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius <math>r</math>. This is due to the dependence of velocity <math>v</math> on the radius <math>r</math>. <math display"block"> v \omega r.</math> Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where <math>\mathbf{r} </math> is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields <math display"block"> \mathbf {a_c} -\frac{v^2}{\|\mathbf {r}\|}\cdot \frac{\mathbf {r}}{\|\mathbf {r}\|}\,. </math> As usual in rotations, the speed <math>v</math> of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance <math>r</math> as <math display"block" qidQ161635>\omega = \frac {v}{r}.</math> Thus <math> \mathbf {a_c}= -\omega^2 \mathbf {r}\,. </math> This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called 'centrifugal force', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion. In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius <math>r</math> for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration <math>\alpha</math>, i.e., the rate of change <math>\alpha = \dot\omega</math> of the angular speed <math>\omega</math> times the radius <math>r</math>. That is, <math display"block"> a_t r \alpha.</math> The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration (<math>\alpha</math>), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector. Coordinate systems In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 9: Newton's Laws of Dynamics \|urlhttps://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_09.html \|access-date2024-01-04 \|websitewww.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu}}</ref><math display"block">a_xdv_x/dtd^2x/dt^2,</math> <math display"block">a_ydv_y/dtd^2y/dt^2.</math>The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as <math>\textbf{a}<a_x, a_y></math>. The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula as<math display"block">\|a\|\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2}.</math>In three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined as<math display"block">a_zdv_z/dtd^2z/dt^2.</math>The three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as <math>\textbf{a}<a_x, a_y, a_z></math> with its magnitude being determined by<math display"block">\|a\|\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2+a_z^2}.</math> Relation to relativity Special relativity {{main\|Special relativity\|Acceleration (special relativity)}} The special theory of relativity describes the behaviour of objects travelling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations. As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it. General relativity {{main\|General relativity}} Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.<ref name"Greene">{{cite book \|titleThe Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality \|title-linkThe Fabric of the Cosmos \|lastGreene \|firstBrian \|date8 February 2005 \|author-linkBrian Greene \|isbn0-375-72720-5 \|publisherVintage \|page67}}</ref> Conversions {{Acceleration conversions}} See also {{div col \|colwidth=22em}} * Acceleration (differential geometry) * Four-vector: making the connection between space and time explicit * Gravitational acceleration * Inertia * Orders of magnitude (acceleration) * Shock (mechanics) * Shock and vibration data logger measuring 3-axis acceleration * Space travel using constant acceleration * Specific force {{div col end}} References {{Reflist}} External links {{Commons category}} * [http://www.unitjuggler.com/convert-acceleration-from-ms2-to-fts2.html Acceleration Calculator] Simple acceleration unit converter {{Kinematics}} {{Classical mechanics derived SI units}} {{Authority control}} Category:Dynamics (mechanics) Category:Kinematic properties Category:Vector physical quantities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration	2025-04-05T18:26:04.602451
2444	Conservation and restoration of cultural property	{{short description\|Process of protecting cultural property}} , burial chamber, in Suceava, Romania]] (Venice)]] <span lang"ab" dir"ltr">The</span> conservation and restoration of cultural property focuses on protection and care of cultural property (tangible cultural heritage), including artworks, architecture, archaeology, and museum collections.<ref>{{cite journal \|first Ann Marie\|last Sullivan\|title Cultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past\|volume 15\|journal The John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law\|page 604 \|date 2016\|url https://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1392&contextripl}}</ref> Conservation activities include preventive conservation, examination, documentation, research, treatment, and education.<ref>{{cite web\|titleDefinition of a Profession\|urlhttp://www.icom-cc.org/47/about-icom-cc/definition-of-profession/\|publisherInternational Council of Museums - Committee for Conservation\|access-date18 August 2012}}</ref> This field is closely allied with conservation science, curators and registrars. Definition (Czech Republic) in 2006]] Conservation of cultural property involves protection and restoration using "any methods that prove effective in keeping that property in as close to its original condition as possible for as long as possible."<ref>{{cite journal\|authorWalston, S.\|year1978\|page9\|titleThe Preservation and Conservation of Aboriginal and Pacific Cultural Material in Australian Museums\|journalICCM Bulletin\|volume4\|issue1\|urlhttp://www.aiccm.org.au/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id319:the-preservation-and-conservation-of-aboriginal-and-pacific-cultural-material-in-australian-museums&catid79:1978-iccm-bulletin-volume-4-no-4&Itemid44\|doi10.1179/iccm.1978.4.4.002\|access-date2012-06-29\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160323064630/https://aiccm.org.au/index.php?catid79:1978-iccm-bulletin-volume-4-no-4&id319:the-preservation-and-conservation-of-aboriginal-and-pacific-cultural-material-in-australian-museums&itemid44&optioncom_content&viewarticle\|archive-date2016-03-23\|url-statusdead}}</ref> Conservation of cultural heritage is often associated with art collections and museums and involves collection care and management through tracking, examination, documentation, exhibition, storage, preventive conservation, and restoration.<ref name Szczepanowska2013>{{cite book \|last1Szczepanowska \|first1Hanna M. \|titleConservation of cultural heritage: key principles and approaches \|date2013 \|publisherRoutledge \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0415674744\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyu9_LZ1AD_gC&pgPA14 }}</ref> The scope has widened from art conservation, involving protection and care of artwork and architecture, to conservation of cultural heritage, also including protection and care of a broad set of other cultural and historical works. Conservation of cultural heritage can be described as a type of ethical stewardship. It may broadly be divided into: Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property Conservation of cultural property applies simple ethical guidelines: * Minimal intervention; * Appropriate materials and reversible methods; * Full documentation of all work undertaken. Often there are compromises between preserving appearance, maintaining original design and material properties, and ability to reverse changes. Reversibility is now emphasized so as to reduce problems with future treatment, investigation, and use. In order for conservators to decide upon an appropriate conservation strategy and apply their professional expertise accordingly, they must take into account views of the stakeholder, the values, artist's intent, meaning of the work, and the physical needs of the material. Cesare Brandi in his Theory of Restoration, describes restoration as "the methodological moment in which the work of art is appreciated in its material form and in its historical and aesthetic duality, with a view to transmitting it to the future".<ref>{{cite web \|titleWhat is Art Conservation? \|urlhttps://sflac.net/uncategorized/what-is-art-conservation/ \|websiteSouth Florida Art Conservation \|access-date10 May 2022 \|date28 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1Brandi \|first1Cesare \|titleTeoria del restauro \|date1963 \|publisherEdizioni di Storia e Letteratura \|locationRome \|isbn}}</ref> History and science {{main\|Conservation science (cultural property)}} Key dates {{main\|List of dates in the history of conservation and restoration}} Some consider the tradition of conservation of cultural heritage in Europe to have begun in 1565 with the restoration of the Sistine Chapel frescoes, but more ancient examples include the work of Cassiodorus.<ref>{{cite book\|lastPergoli Campanelli\|firstAlessandro\|titleCassiodoro alle origini dell'idea di restauro\|year2013\|publisherJaca book\|locationMilano\|isbn978-88-16-41207-1\|page140\|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/3522730}}</ref>Brief history ]] ]] The care of cultural heritage has a long history, one that was primarily aimed at fixing and mending objects for their continued use and aesthetic enjoyment.<ref>Pye, E, 2001. Caring for the Past: Issues in Conservation for Archaeology and Museums. London: James and James</ref> Until the early 20th century, artists were normally the ones called upon to repair damaged artworks. During the 19th century, however, the fields of science and art became increasingly intertwined as scientists such as Michael Faraday began to study the damaging effects of the environment to works of art. Louis Pasteur carried out scientific analysis on paint as well.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Stoner \|first1Joyce Hill \|titleScientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis\|chapterChanging Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the Present \|date2005 \|publisherThe National Academies Press \|locationWashington, DC \|urlhttp://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id11413&page41 \|languageen\|page41 \|doi10.17226/11413 \|isbn978-0-309-09625-6 }}</ref> However, perhaps the first organized attempt to apply a theoretical framework to the conservation of cultural heritage came with the founding in the United Kingdom of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in 1877. The society was founded by William Morris and Philip Webb, both of whom were deeply influenced by the writings of John Ruskin. During the same period, a French movement with similar aims was being developed under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, an architect and theorist, famous for his restorations of medieval buildings. wraps some of the valuable statues on its campus, such as this "Chinese stele", with waterproof covers every winter, in order to protect them from erosion caused by acid rain.<ref>{{cite news \|titleArt Under Wraps \|urlhttp://harvardmagazine.com/2000/03/art-under-wraps.html \|access-date10 May 2022 \|workHarvard Magazine \|date1 March 2000 \|languageen}}</ref>]] Conservation of cultural heritage as a distinct field of study initially developed in Germany, where in 1888 Friedrich Rathgen became the first chemist to be employed by a Museum, the Koniglichen Museen, Berlin (Royal Museums of Berlin). He not only developed a scientific approach to the care of objects in the collections, but disseminated this approach by publishing a Handbook of Conservation in 1898.<ref>{{cite journal\|authorGilberg, Mark.\|year1987\|titleFriedrich Rathgen: The Father of Modern Archaeological Conservation\|journalJournal of the American Institute for Conservation\|volume26\|issue2\|pages105–120\|urlhttp://cool.conservation-us.org/coolaic/jaic/articles/jaic26-02-004_2.html\|doi10.2307/3179459\|jstor3179459\|access-date2010-05-25\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111008221611/http://cool.conservation-us.org/coolaic/jaic/articles/jaic26-02-004_2.html\|archive-date2011-10-08\|url-statusdead}}</ref> The early development of conservation of cultural heritage in any area of the world is usually linked to the creation of positions for chemists within museums. In British archaeology, key research and technical experimentation in conservation was undertaken by women such as Ione Gedye both in the field and in archaeological collections, particularly those of the Institute of Archaeology, London. In the United Kingdom, pioneering research into painting materials and conservation, ceramics, and stone conservation was conducted by Arthur Pillans Laurie, academic chemist and Principal of Heriot-Watt University from 1900. Laurie's interests were fostered by William Holman Hunt.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nahste.ac.uk/isaar/GB_0237_NAHSTE_P1161.html \|titleBrief biography of Professor AP Laurie \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120714201324/http://www.nahste.ac.uk/isaar/GB_0237_NAHSTE_P1161.html \|archive-date2012-07-14 }}</ref> In 1924 the chemist Harold Plenderleith began to work at the British Museum with Alexander Scott in the recently created Research Laboratory, although he was actually employed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in the early years. Plenderleith's appointment may be said to have given birth to the conservation profession in the UK, although there had been craftsmen in many museums and in the commercial art world for generations.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDepartments \|urlhttps://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/departments/conservation_and_science/history.aspx \|websiteThe British Museum \|access-date10 May 2022 \|languageen}}</ref> This department was created by the museum to address the deteriorating condition of objects in the collection, damages which were a result of their being stored in the London Underground tunnels during the First World War. The creation of this department moved the focus for the development of conservation theory and practice from Germany to Britain, and made the latter a prime force in this fledgling field. In 1956 Plenderleith wrote a significant handbook called The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, which supplanted Rathgen's earlier tome and set new standards for the development of art and conservation science. In the United States, the development of conservation of cultural heritage can be traced to the Fogg Art Museum, and Edward Waldo Forbes, its director from 1909 to 1944. He encouraged technical investigation, and was Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the first technical journal, Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, published by the Fogg from 1932 to 1942. Importantly he also brought onto the museum staff chemists. Rutherford John Gettens was the first of such in the US to be permanently employed by an art museum. He worked with George L. Stout, the founder and first editor of Technical Studies. Gettens and Stout co-authored Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia in 1942, reprinted in 1966. This compendium is still cited regularly. Only a few dates and descriptions in Gettens' and Stout's book are now outdated.<ref name="Stoner, Joyce Hill 2003">Stoner, Joyce Hill. "Changing Approaches in Art Conservation: 1925 to the present". The publication exists in two editions. The earlier one is "Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques on Conservation and Analysis" and was published by the National Academy of Sciences in 2003. The later edition of the publication is "Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia: Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis". It was published by the National Academies Press in 2005.</ref> George T. Oliver, of Oliver Brothers Art Restoration and Art Conservation-Boston (Est. 1850 in New York City) invented the vacuum hot table for relining paintings in 1920s; he filed a patent for the table in 1937.<ref>Patent# 2,073,802 [http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1PTO2&Sect2HITOFF&p1&u%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r1&fG&l50&co1AND&dPALL&s1Oliver-George-T.INNM.&OSIN/Oliver-George-T&RSIN/Oliver-George-T U.S. "Art of Oil Painting Restoration"] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160124184857/http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1PTO2&Sect2HITOFF&p1&u/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html&r1&fG&l50&co1AND&dPALL&s1Oliver-George-T.INNM.&OSIN/Oliver-George-T&RSIN/Oliver-George-T \|date2016-01-24 }}, March 16, 1937. Patft1.uspto.gov. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> Taylor's prototype table, which he designed and constructed, is still in operation. Oliver Brothers is believed to be the first and the oldest continuously operating art restoration company in the United States. The focus of conservation development then accelerated in Britain and America, and it was in Britain that the first International Conservation Organisations developed. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was incorporated under British law in 1950 as "a permanent organization to co-ordinate and improve the knowledge, methods, and working standards needed to protect and preserve precious materials of all kinds."<ref name"Stoner, Joyce Hill 2003"/> The rapid growth of conservation professional organizations, publications, journals, newsletters, both internationally and in localities, has spearheaded the development of the conservation profession, both practically and theoretically. Art historians and theorists such as Cesare Brandi have also played a significant role in developing conservation science theory. In recent years ethical concerns have been at the forefront of developments in conservation. Most significantly has been the idea of preventive conservation. This concept is based in part on the pioneering work by Garry Thomson CBE, and his book Museum Environment, first published in 1978.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Thomson \|first1Garry \|titleThe museum environment \|date1986 \|publisherButterworths, in association with the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works \|locationLondon \|isbn978-0-7506-2041-3 \|edition2nd}}</ref> Thomson was associated with the National Gallery in London; it was here that he established a set of guidelines or environmental controls for the best conditions in which objects could be stored and displayed within the museum environment. Although his exact guidelines are no longer rigidly followed, they did inspire this field of conservation.Conservation laboratories and the National Portrait Gallery are visible to the public through floor-to-ceiling glass walls that allow visitors to see firsthand all the techniques that conservators use to examine, treat and preserve artworks within a functioning conservation Laboratory.]] Conservators routinely use chemical and scientific analysis for the examination and treatment of cultural works. The modern conservation laboratory uses equipment such as microscopes, spectrometers, and various x-ray regime instruments to better understand objects and their components. The data thus collected helps in deciding the conservation treatments to be provided to the object. Ethics The conservator's work is guided by ethical standards. These take the form of applied ethics. Ethical standards have been established across the world, and national and international ethical guidelines have been written. One such example is: * American Institute for Conservation Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice<ref name"Ethics">{{cite web\|url https://www.culturalheritage.org/about-conservation/code-of-ethics \|publisher AIC \|title Our Code of Ethics\|website www.culturalheritage.org \|date August 1994}}</ref> Conservation OnLine provides resources on ethical issues in conservation,<ref>{{cite web \|titleEthical issues in conservation \|urlhttp://cool.conservation-us.org/bytopic/ethics/ \|websiteConservation OnLine (CoOL) \|access-date10 May 2022}}</ref> including examples of codes of ethics and guidelines for professional conduct in conservation and allied fields; and charters and treaties pertaining to ethical issues involving the preservation of cultural property. As well as standards of practice conservators deal with wider ethical concerns, such as the debates as to whether all art is worth preserving.<ref>{{cite journal\|lastWeil\|firstStephen E.\|dateOctober 1989\|titleToo much Art?\|journalARTnews\|page232\|issn=0004-3273}}</ref> Keeping up with the international contemporary scenario, recent concerns with sustainability in conservation have emerged. The common understanding that "the care of an artifact should not come at the undue expense of the environment"<ref name"Hernandez">{{cite web \|last1Hernandez \|first1Christian \|titleResponsible Stewardship: Exploring Sustainability within Conservation \|urlhttps://www.culturalheritage.org/docs/default-source/annualmeeting/2013am_poster07_responsible_stewardship.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.culturalheritage.org/docs/default-source/annualmeeting/2013am_poster07_responsible_stewardship.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteAnnual Meeting\|date2013 \|access-date10 May 2022}}</ref> is generally well accepted within the community and is already contemplated in guidelines of diverse institutions related to the field.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleEnvironmental Guidelines – IIC and ICOM-CC Declaration {{!}} International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works\|urlhttps://www.iiconservation.org/archives/about/policy-statements/environmental-guidelines\|access-date2021-11-12\|websitewww.iiconservation.org}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web\|last\|titleEnvironmental Guidelines\|urlhttps://aiccm.org.au/conservation/environmental-guidelines/\|url-statuslive\|access-date2021-11-12\|websiteAustralian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material\|languageen-AU\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120202147/https://aiccm.org.au/conservation/environmental-guidelines/ \|archive-date2021-01-20 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleE.C.C.O. Professional Guidelines (II) Code of Ethics \|urlhttps://www.ecco-eu.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ECCO_professional_guidelines_II.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ecco-eu.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/ECCO_professional_guidelines_II.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteSiège social: rue Coudenberg 70, BE-1000 Bruxelles, Belgique, Entreprise N° 0447.118.530 E.C.C.O. European Confederation of Conservator-Restorers' Organisations A.I.S.B.L. \|access-date10 May 2022}}</ref> {{Multiple image\|image1Krnov castle b.jpg\|footerCastle gate of Krnov before (2001) and after (2009) restoration \|image2=Krnov castle - entrance.jpg}} ]] Practice {{main\|Conservation and restoration of movable cultural property\|Conservation and restoration of immovable cultural property}} Preventive conservation {{Main\|Risk management (cultural property)\|Collections maintenance\|Preservation (library and archive)}} Many cultural works are sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and exposure to visible light and ultraviolet radiation. These works must be protected in controlled environments where such variables are maintained within a range of damage-limiting levels. For example, watercolour paintings usually require shielding from sunlight to prevent fading of pigments. Collections care is an important element of museum policy. It is an essential responsibility of members of the museum profession to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care, whether in store, on display, or in transit. A museum should carefully monitor the condition of collections to determine when an artifact requires conservation work and the services of a qualified conservator. . The work consists of filling the cracks to prevent the fragmentation of the wall.]] Interventive conservation and restoration A teaching programme of interventive conservation was established in the UK at the Institute of Archaeology by Ione Gedye, which is still teaching interventive conservators today.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1Pye\|first1Elizabeth\|last2Brommelle\|first2Norman\|dateJanuary 1977\|journalThe Conservator\|languageen\|volume1\|issue1\|pages3–4\|doi10.1080/01400096.1977.9635631\|issn0140-0096\|title=A Tribute to Ione Gedye}}</ref> A principal aim of a cultural conservator is to reduce the rate of deterioration of an object. Both non-interventive and interventive methodologies may be employed in pursuit of this goal. Interventive conservation refers to any direct interaction between the conservator and the material fabric of the object. Interventive actions are carried out for a variety of reasons, including aesthetic choices, stabilization needs for structural integrity, or cultural requirements for intangible continuity. Examples of interventive treatments include the removal of discolored varnish from a painting, the application of wax to a sculpture, and the washing and rebinding of a book. Ethical standards within the field require that the conservator fully justify interventive actions and carry out documentation before, during, and after the treatment. One of the guiding principles of conservation of cultural heritage has traditionally been the idea of reversibility, that all interventions with the object should be fully reversible and that the object should be able to be returned to the state in which it was prior to the conservator's intervention. Although this concept remains a guiding principle of the profession, it has been widely critiqued within the conservation profession<ref>Andrew Oddy and Sara Carroll (eds). 1999. Reversibility – Does it Exist? British Museum Occasional Paper Number 135. London: British Museum.</ref> and is now considered by many to be "a fuzzy concept."<ref>{{cite book \|last1Muñoz Viñas \|first1Salvador \|titleContemporary theory of conservation \|date2005 \|publisherElsevier Butterworth-Heinemann \|locationOxford \|isbn978-0750662246\|page 185}}</ref> Another important principle of conservation is that all alterations should be well documented and should be clearly distinguishable from the original object.<ref name="Ethics"/> An example of a highly publicized interventive conservation effort would be the conservation work conducted on the Sistine Chapel. Example of an archaeological discovery and restoration of a mural painting <gallery perrow"3" widths"180" heights="270"> Image:St amant roche savine 3 (2).jpg\|{{center\|First archaeological search in the 19th-century layer by French archaeologist and restorer Yves Morvan}} Image:St amant roche savine 1 (2).jpg\|{{center\|Painting of the 15th century cleared before restoration}} Image:St amant roche savine 8.jpg\|{{center\|Painting after restoration}} </gallery> Examples of the restoration of an oil painting <gallery perrow"4" widths"180" heights="270"> File:Bacchus (painting).jpg\|{{center\|Bacchus, the painting originating from the Workshop of Leonardo da Vinci, seen here before restoration.}} File:Bacchus - Leonardo da Vinci workshop - Louvre INV 780.jpg\|{{center\|Bacchus after restoration with colors closer to original and details better visible again.}} File:Rear-Admiral Richard Kempenfelt, 1718-82 RMG BHC2818.tiff\|{{center\|Rear-Admiral Richard Kempenfelt by Tilly Kettle, before cleaning}} File:Richard Kempenfelt.jpg\|{{center\|Rear-Admiral Richard Kempenfelt by Tilly Kettle, after cleaning}} </gallery> Sustainable conservation Recognising that conservation practices should not harm the environment, harm people, or contribute to global warming, the conservation-restoration profession has more recently focused on practices that reduce waste, reduce energy costs, and minimise the use of toxic or harmful solvents. A number of research projects,<ref name"Appendino">{{Cite journal\|lastAppendino\|firstFederica\|dateOctober 2017\|titleBalancing Heritage Conservation and Sustainable Development – The Case of Bordeaux\|journalIOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering\|languageen\|volume245\|issue6\|pages062002\|doi10.1088/1757-899x/245/6/062002\|bibcode2017MS&E..245f2002A\|s2cid133496562 \|issn1757-8981\|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref name"Bartoletti">{{cite book \|last1Bartoletti \|first1Angelica \|last2Ferreira \|first2Joana Lia \|titlePlastics in Peril: Focus on Conservation of Polymeric Materials in Cultural Heritage,16-19 November 2020\|chapterSustainable strategies using supercritical carbon dioxide for the conservation of plastics: insight from the PlasCO2 project \|date2020 \|publisherUniversity of Cambridge \|urlhttps://www.museums.cam.ac.uk/plastics-programme}}</ref> working groups,<ref name":1">{{cite web \|titleWorking group on sustainability mandate 2020–2022 \|urlhttps://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/WGS-Mandate-2020-2022.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://icom.museum/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/WGS-Mandate-2020-2022.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteInternational Council of Museums \|access-date9 May 2022}}</ref> and other initiatives have explored how conservation can become a more environmentally sustainable profession.<ref>{{cite web \|title Climate Change and museum collections \|urlhttps://www.iiconservation.org/sites/default/files/dialogues/climate-change-en.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.iiconservation.org/sites/default/files/dialogues/climate-change-en.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|websiteThe International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Work \|access-date9 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleSustainable Practice \|urlhttps://www.sustainabilityinconservation.com/ \|websiteSustainability in Conservation \|access-date9 May 2022}}</ref> [https://www.siconserve.org/ Sustainable conservation practices] apply both to work within cultural institutions<ref name":1" /> (e.g. museums, art galleries, archives, libraries, research centres and historic sites) as well as to businesses and private studios.<ref name":2">{{cite web \|titleWebinars \|urlhttps://www.sustainabilityinconservation.com/webinars \|websiteSustainability in Conservation \|access-date9 May 2022 \|archive-date10 November 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211110175329/https://www.sustainabilityinconservation.com/webinars \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Choice of materials Conservators and restorers use a wide variety of materials - in conservation treatments, and those used to safely transport, display and store cultural heritage items. These materials can include solvents, papers and boards, fabrics, adhesives and consolidants, plastics and foams, wood products, and many others. Stability and longevity are two important factors conservators consider when selecting materials; sustainability is becoming an increasingly important third.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleSustainability in Conservation: Saving Our Heritage and Our Planet {{!}} International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works \|urlhttps://www.iiconservation.org/content/sustainability-conservation-saving-our-heritage-and-our-planet \|access-date2022-11-17 \|websitewww.iiconservation.org \|date29 June 2019 \|languageen \|archive-date2022-11-17 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117060846/https://www.iiconservation.org/content/sustainability-conservation-saving-our-heritage-and-our-planet \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Examples of sustainable material choices and practices include: * Using biodegradable products or those with less environmental impact where possible; * Using 'green solvents' instead of more toxic alternatives, or treatment strategies that use much smaller amounts of solvents - for example, semi-rigid aqueous gels, emulsions or nano materials;<ref name":3">{{Cite journal \|last1de Silva \|first1Megan \|last2Henderson \|first2Jane \|date2011-03-01 \|titleSustainability in conservation practice \|journalJournal of the Institute of Conservation \|volume34 \|issue1 \|pages5–15 \|doi10.1080/19455224.2011.566013 \|issn1945-5224 \|s2cid191612605\|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Di Turo \|first1Francesca \|last2Medeghini \|first2Laura \|dateJanuary 2021 \|titleHow Green Possibilities Can Help in a Future Sustainable Conservation of Cultural Heritage in Europe \|journalSustainability \|languageen \|volume13 \|issue7 \|pages3609 \|doi10.3390/su13073609 \|doi-accessfree\|hdl11573/1621413 \|hdl-accessfree }}</ref> * Preparing smaller amounts of material (e.g. adhesives) to avoid waste; * Observing recommended disposal protocols for chemicals, recyclable materials and compostable materials, particularly to avoid contamination of waterways; * Choosing protective work wear that can be washed or cleaned and reused, rather than disposable options; * Tracking stock quantities to avoid over-buying, especially for materials with expiration dates; * Using durable materials for packing that may be washed and re-used, such as Tyvek or Mylar;<ref name"Waste and Materials">{{cite book \|last1Kraczon \|first1Kim \|urlhttps://www.kiculture.org/ki-books/ \|titleWaste and Materials; Collections Care: Packing, Storage & Transport; A Step-By-Step Guide for Sustainable Action; Volume 1 \|last2Wuebold \|first2Justine \|date2021 \|publisherKI Culture \|access-date10 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1O'Dwyer \|first1Dervilla \|date2010 \|titleThe Contribution of Conservators to Sustainability at the National Maritime Museum, UK \|urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/42751710 \|journalStudies in Conservation \|volume55 \|issue3 (2010) \|pages155–158 \|doi10.1179/sic.2010.55.3.155 \|jstor42751710 \|access-date10 November 2021 \|s2cid=194057860}}</ref> * Repurposing consumables such as blotting paper, non-woven fabrics, and polyester film when they are no longer fit for their original purpose; * Using locally produced products whenever possible, to reduce carbon footprints; * Reusing packaging materials such as cardboard boxes, plastic wrap and wooden crates;<ref>{{cite web \|last1Fox \|first1Jefferey \|last2Ronai \|first2Lucilla \|titleSimple sustainability practices in Conservation – What can you do? \|urlhttps://aiccm.org.au/network-news/simple-sustainability-practices-in-conservation-what-can-you-do/ \|access-date10 November 2021 \|websiteAICCM \|publisher=Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material}}</ref> * Using standard sizes of packaging and package designs that reduce waste; These decisions are not always straightforward - for example, installing deionised or distilled water filters in laboratories reduces waste associated with purchasing bottled products, but increases energy consumption. Similarly, locally-made papers and boards may reduce inherent carbon miles but they may be made with pulp sourced from old growth forests. Another dilemma is that many conservation-grade materials are chosen because they do not biodegrade. For example, when selecting a plastic with which to make storage enclosures, conservators prefer to use relatively long-lived plastics because they have better ageing properties - they are less likely to become yellow, leach plasticisers, or lose structural integrity and crumble (examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyester). These plastics will also take longer to degrade in landfill. Energy use Many conservators and cultural organisations have sought to reduce the energy costs associated with controlling indoor storage and display environments (temperature, relative humidity, air filtration, and lighting levels) as well as those associated with the transport of cultural heritage items for exhibitions and loans. In general, lowering the temperature reduces the rate at which damaging chemical reactions occur within materials. For example, storing cellulose acetate film at 10&nbsp;°C instead of 21&nbsp;°C is estimated to increase its usable life by over 100 years.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleCold Storage of Film \|urlhttps://www.nfsa.gov.au/preservation/guide/handbook/cold-storage \|access-date17 November 2022 \|websiteNational Film and Sound Archive Preservation Handbook \|archive-date17 November 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117122155/https://www.nfsa.gov.au/preservation/guide/handbook/cold-storage \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Controlling the relative humidity of air helps to reduce hydrolysis reactions and minimises cracking, distortion and other physical changes in hygroscopic materials. Changes in temperature will also bring about changes in relative humidity. Therefore, the conservation profession has placed great importance on controlling indoor environments. Temperature and humidity can be controlled through passive means (e.g. insulation, building design) or active means (air conditioning). Active controls typically require much higher energy use. Energy use increases with specificity - e.g. in will require more energy to maintain a quantity of air to a narrow temperature range (20-22&nbsp;°C) than to a broad range (18-25&nbsp;°C). In the past, conservation recommendations have often called for very tight, inflexible temperature and relative humidity set points. In other cases, conservators have recommended strict environmental conditions for buildings that could not reasonably be expected to achieve them, due to the quality of build, local environmental conditions (e.g. recommending temperate conditions for a building located in the tropics) or the financial circumstances of the organisation. This has been an area of particular debate for cultural heritage organisations who lend and borrow cultural items to each other - often, the lender will specify strict environmental conditions as part of the loan agreement, which may be very expensive for the borrowing organisation to achieve, or impossible. The energy costs associated with cold storage and digital storage are also gaining more attention. Cold storage is a very effective strategy to preserve at-risk collections such as cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate film, which can deteriorate beyond use within decades at ambient conditions. Digital storage costs are rising for both born-digital cultural heritage (photographs, audiovisual, time-based media) and to store digital preservation and access copies of cultural heritage. Digital storage capacity is a major factor in the complexity of preserving digital heritage such as video games,<ref>{{Cite magazine \|lastBunting \|firstGeoffrey \|titleThe Fate of Video Game Preservation Is in Your Hands \|languageen-US \|magazineWired \|urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/fate-future-video-game-preservation-you/ \|access-date2022-11-17 \|issn1059-1028}}</ref> social media, messaging services, and email. Other areas where energy use can be reduced within conservation and restoration include: * Exhibition lighting - e.g. using lower-energy LED lighting systems and light sensors that switch lights on only when visitors are present;<ref name"Saunders">{{cite book \|last1Saunders \|first1David \|titleMuseum lighting : a guide for conservators and curators \|date2020 \|locationLos Angeles \|isbn=978-1-60606-637-9}}</ref> * Installation of green energy capture systems in cultural organisations, such as solar photovoltaic plates, wind energy systems, and heat pumps;<ref name"Southwick 2021">{{cite book \|last1Southwick \|first1Caitlin \|titleEnergy, A Step-By-Step Guide for Sustainable Action, Volume 1 \|date2021 \|publisherKI Culture \|urlhttps://www.kiculture.org/ki-books/ \|access-date10 November 2021}}</ref> * Improving the energy performance of cultural buildings by installing insulation, sealing gaps, reducing the number of windows and installing double-glazing:<ref name="Southwick 2021" /> * Using microclimates to house small groups of climate-sensitive objects instead of seeking to control the environmental conditions of the whole building.<ref name"Southwick 2021" />Country by country lookUnited StatesHeritage Preservation, in partnership with the Institute of Museum and Library Services, a U.S. federal agency, produced The Heritage Health Index. The results of this work was the report ''A Public Trust at Risk: The Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America's Collections'', which was published in December 2005 and concluded that immediate action is needed to prevent the loss of 190 million artifacts that are in need of conservation treatment. The report made four recommendations:<ref name"HHI2005">{{cite book \|titleA Public Trust at Risk: The Heritage Health Index Report on the State of America's Collections \|date2005 \|publisherHeritage Health Index \|locationWashington, DC \|urlhttps://www.imls.gov/sites/default/files/publications/documents/hhifull_0.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.imls.gov/sites/default/files/publications/documents/hhifull_0.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> * Institutions must give priority to providing safe conditions for the collections they hold in trust. * Every collecting institution must develop an emergency plan to protect its collections and train staff to carry it out. * Every institution must assign responsibility for caring for collections to members of its staff. * Individuals at all levels of government and in the private sector must assume responsibility for providing the support that will allow these collections to survive.<ref name "Szczepanowska2013"/>United Kingdom (2014)]] In October 2006, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, a governmental department, authored a document: "Understanding the Future: Priorities for England's Museums".<ref name"Lammy">{{cite book \|editor-last1Lammy \|editor-first1David \|titleUnderstanding the Future: Priorities for England's Museums October 2006 \|date2006 \|publisherABC 5 Public report \|urlhttps://edemocracy.coventry.gov.uk/Data/Cabinet/200701091400/Agenda/05%20-%20Understanding%20the%20Future%20Priorities%20for%20England%27s%20Museums%20-%20Response%20to%20Consultation%20Doucment%20from%20the%20Department%20of%20Culture,%20Media%20and%20Sport.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://edemocracy.coventry.gov.uk/Data/Cabinet/200701091400/Agenda/05%20-%20Understanding%20the%20Future%20Priorities%20for%20England%27s%20Museums%20-%20Response%20to%20Consultation%20Doucment%20from%20the%20Department%20of%20Culture,%20Media%20and%20Sport.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date10 May 2022 \|languageen}}</ref> This document was based on several years of consultation aimed to lay out the government's priorities for museums in the 21st century. The document listed the following as priorities for the next decade: # Museums will fulfil their potential as learning resources (pp 7–10). #* Museums will be embedded into the delivery of education in every school in the country. #* Understanding of the effectiveness of museum education will be improved further and best practice built into education programmes. #* The value of museums' collections as a research resource will be well understood and better links built between the academic community and museums. # Museums will embrace their role in fostering, exploring, celebrating and questioning the identities of diverse communities (pp 11–14). #* The sector needs to work with partners in academia and beyond to create an intellectual framework supporting museums' capacity to tackle issues of identity. #* The museum sector must continue to develop improved practical techniques for engaging communities of all sorts. # Museums' collections will be more dynamic and better used (pp 15–18). #* Government and the sector will find new ways to encourage museums to collect actively and strategically, especially the record of contemporary society. #* The sector will develop new collaborative approaches to sharing and developing collections and related expertise. # Museums' workforce will be dynamic, highly skilled and representative (pp 17–22). #* Museums' governing bodies and workforce will be representative of the communities they serve. #* Find more varied ways for a broader range of skills to come into museums. #* Improve continuing professional development. # Museums will work more closely with each other and partners outside the sector (pp 23–26). #* A consistent evidence base of the contribution of all kinds of museums to the full range of public service agendas will be developed. #* There will be deeper and longer lasting partnerships between the national museums and a broader range of regional partners. #* Museums' international roles will be strengthened to improve museum programmes in this country and Britain's image, reputation and relationships abroad. The conservation profession response to this report was on the whole less than favourable, the Institute of Conservation (ICON) published their response under the title "A Failure of Vision".<ref name="Lammy"/> It had the following to say: {{blockquote\|No sector can look with confidence to the future if its key asset is worked harder and harder across an ever broadening range of objectives while the inputs required to sustain it are neglected.}} {{blockquote\|It is of major concern to us that the only part of this section which makes any acknowledgement of the need for greater resourcing is the part which refers to acquisitions. The original consultation paper made quite extensive reference to the importance of collections, the role of new technologies, and cultural property issues, but this appears to have been whittled away in the present document.}} Concluding: {{blockquote\|When asked by the Commons Culture Media and Sport elect Committee CMS committee what he would like to see as a priority in the DCMS document arising from the 'Understanding the Future' consultation, Mr MacGregor responded 'I would like to see added there the need to conserve and research the collections, so that the collections can really play the role across the whole of the United Kingdom that they should.' So would we.}} Further to this the ICON website summary report<ref>{{cite web\|url http://www.icon.org.uk/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id400&Itemid15\|title The Future of Museums: A Failure of Vision\|website Icon.org.uk\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120306151149/http://www.icon.org.uk/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id400&Itemid15\|archive-date 6 March 2012\|access-date 10 October 2008\|url-status = live}}</ref> lists the following specific recommendations: * A national survey to find out what the public want from museums, what motivates them to visit them and what makes for a rewarding visit. * A review of survey results and prioritisation of the various intrinsic, instrumental and institutional values to provide a clear basis for a 10-year strategy * HR consultants to be brought in from the commercial sector to review recruitment, career development and working practices in the national and regional museums. * A commitment to examine the potential for using Museum Accreditation as a more effective driver for improving recruitment, diversity, and career development across the sector. * DCMS to take full account of the eventual findings of the current Commons Select Committee enquiry into Care of Collections in the final version of this document * The adoption of those recommendations of the recent House of Lords inquiry into Science and Heritage which might affect the future of museums. In November 2008, the UK-based think tank Demos published an influential pamphlet entitled ''It's a material world: caring for the public realm'',<ref>{{cite book \|last1Jones \|first1Samuel \|last2Holden \|first2John \|titleIt's a material world caring for the public realm \|date2008 \|publisherDEMOS \|locationLondon \|isbn978-1-906693-07-7 \|urlhttp://demos.co.uk/files/Material%20World%20-%20web.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://demos.co.uk/files/Material%20World%20-%20web.pdf \|archive-date2022-10-09 \|url-statuslive \|access-date10 May 2022}}</ref> in which they argue for integrating the public directly into efforts to conserve material culture, particularly that which is in the public, their argument, as stated on page 16, demonstrates their belief that society can benefit from conservation as a paradigm as well as a profession: {{blockquote\|conservators provide a paradigm not just for fixing things when they are broken, but for a wider social ethos of care, where we individually and collectively take responsibility and action.}} Training {{main\|Conservation and restoration training}} {{see also\| Association of North American Graduate Programs in the Conservation of Cultural Property}} Training in conservation of cultural heritage for many years took the form of an apprenticeship, whereby an apprentice slowly developed the necessary skills to undertake their job. For some specializations within conservation this is still the case. However, it is more common in the field of conservation today that the training required to become a practicing conservator comes from a recognized university course in conservation of cultural heritage.<ref name"AIC training" >{{cite web \|titleBecome a Conservator \|urlhttp://www.conservation-us.org/training \|websiteAmerican Institute for Conservation \|access-date=10 May 2022}}</ref> The university can rarely provide all the necessary training in first hand experience that an apprenticeship can, and therefore in addition to graduate level training the profession also tends towards encouraging conservation students to spend time as an intern. Conservation of cultural heritage is an interdisciplinary field as conservators have backgrounds in the fine arts, sciences (including chemistry, biology, and materials science), and closely related disciplines, such as art history, archaeology, and anthropology. They also have design, fabrication, artistic, and other special skills necessary for the practical application of that knowledge. Within the various schools that teach conservation of cultural heritage, the approach differs according to the educational and vocational system within the country, and the focus of the school itself. This is acknowledged by the American Institute for Conservation who advise "Specific admission requirements differ and potential candidates are encouraged to contact the programs directly for details on prerequisites, application procedures, and program curriculum".<ref name="AIC training" /> In France, training for heritage conservation is taught by four schools : {{ill\|École supérieure d'art d'Avignon\|fr}}, L'École supérieure des Beaux-Arts Tours, Angers, Le Mans, L'Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Institut national du patrimoine.<ref>{{Cite web \| urlhttp://www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Conservation-restauration/Formations/Formation-initiale \| titleFormation initiale - Ministère de la Culture}}</ref> Associations and professional organizations {{main\|Conservation associations and professional organizations}} Societies devoted to the care of cultural heritage have been in existence around the world for many years. One early example is the founding in 1877 of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in Britain to protect the built heritage, this society continues to be active today.<ref>[http://www.spab.org.uk/html/what-is-spab/history-of-the-spab/ History of the SPAB] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080516093337/http://www.spab.org.uk/html/what-is-spab/history-of-the-spab/ \|date2008-05-16 }}. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> The 14th Dalai Lama and the Tibetan people work to preserve their cultural heritage with organizations including the Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts<ref>{{cite web \|titleTIPA \|urlhttps://tibet.net/tag/tipa/ \|websitetibet.net/ \|publisherCentral Tibetan Administration \|access-date=26 September 2019}}</ref> and an international network of eight Tibet Houses. The built heritage was at the forefront of the growth of member based organizations in the United States. Preservation Virginia, founded in Richmond in 1889 as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, was the United States' first statewide historic preservation group.<ref>[http://www.apva.org/ APVA Preservation Virginia] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080613122322/http://www.apva.org/ \|date2008-06-13 }}. Apva.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> Today, professional conservators join and take part in the activities of numerous conservation associations and professional organizations with the wider field, and within their area of specialization. In Europe, E.C.C.O. European Confederation of Conservator-Restorers Organisations was established in 1991 by 14 European Conservator-Restorers' Organisations. Currently representing close to 6.000 professionals within 23 countries and 26 members organisations, including one international body (IADA), E.C.C.O. embodies the field of preservation of cultural heritage, both movable and immovable. These organizations exist to "support the conservation professionals who preserve our cultural heritage".<ref>[http://www.conservation-us.org/about About AIC – Overview]. Conservation-us.org. Retrieved on 2012-06-29.</ref> This involves upholding professional standards, promoting research and publications, providing educational opportunities, and fostering the exchange of knowledge among cultural conservators, allied professionals, and the public. International cultural property documents {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Year ! Document ! Sponsor ! Text (English where available) \|- \|1931 \|Athens Charter \|International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments \|[http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-and-texts/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/167-the-athens-charter-for-the-restoration-of-historic-monuments text] \|- \|1931 \|Carta Di Atene \|Conferenza Internazionale di Atene \|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#atene text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090523094951/http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#atene \|date2009-05-23 }} (Italian) \|- \|1932 \|Carta Italiana del restauro \|Consiglio Superiore Per Le Antichità e Belle Arti \|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#consiglio text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090523094951/http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#consiglio \|date2009-05-23 }} (Italian) \|- \|1933 \|Charter of Athens \|IV CIAM \|[http://www.getty.edu/conservation/research_resources/charters/charter04.html text] \|- \|1956 \|New Delhi Recommendation \|IX UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080514192929/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/delhi56.html text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153039/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/planning56.html text] \|- \|1962 \|Paris Recommendation \|XII UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153320/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/landscapes62.html text] \|- \|1964 \|Venice Charter \|II International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090706213642/http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/venice_e.htm text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090706210448/http://www.international.icomos.org/e_venice.htm text] \|- \|1964 \|Paris Recommendation \|XIII UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153221/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/illicit64.html text] \|- \|1967 \|Norms of Quito \|OAS \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/quito.htm text] (Spanish), [https://web.archive.org/web/20080807125302/http://www.icomos.org/docs/quito67.html text] \|- \|1968 \|Paris Recommendation \|XV UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153203/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/works68.html text] \|- \|1972 \|Paris Convention \|XVII UNESCO \|[https://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf text] \|- \|1972 \|Paris Recommendation \|XVII UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080514015843/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/national72.html text] \|- \|1972 \|Carta Italiana del Restauro \| \|[http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#cartaitaliana text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090523094951/http://www.tine.it/NormativaBBCC/Carte.htm#cartaitaliana \|date2009-05-23 }} (Italian) \|- \|1972 \|Stockholm Declaration \|UNEP \|[http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20150314024203/http%3A//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid%3D97%26articleid%3D1503 text] \|- \|1974 \|Santo Domingo Resolution, Dominican Republic \|Interamerican Seminar on the Conservation and Restoration of the Architectural Heritage of the Colonial and Republican Periods – OAS \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706160026/http://portal.iphan.gov.br/portal/baixaFcdAnexo.do?id245 text] (Portuguese), [http://www.unisc.br/universidade/estrutura_administrativa/nucleos/npu/npu_patrimonio/legislacao/internacional/patr_cultural/resolucoes/sao_domingos_1974.pdf text]{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} (Portuguese) \|- \|1975 \|Declaration of Amsterdam \|Congress on the European Architectural Heritage \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045522/http://www.icomos.org/docs/amsterdam.html text] \|- \|1975 \|European Charter of the Architectural Heritage \|Council of Europe \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045101/http://www.icomos.org/docs/euroch_e.html text] \|- \|1976 \|Charter on Cultural Tourism, Brussels \|International Seminar on Contemporary Tourism and Humanism \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/e_touris.htm text] \|- \|1976 \|Nairobi Recommendation \|XIX UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080513153016/http://www.icomos.org/unesco/areas76.html text] \|- \|1977 \|Machu Picchu Charter \| \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706160039/http://portal.iphan.gov.br/portal/baixaFcdAnexo.do?id250 text] (Portuguese), [http://www.unisc.br/universidade/estrutura_administrativa/nucleos/npu/npu_patrimonio/legislacao/internacional/patr_cultural/cartas/machu_picchu_1977.pdf text]{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} (Portuguese), [https://web.archive.org/web/20090824012407/http://www.cubaarqueologica.org/document/carta12.pdf text] (Spanish), [https://archive.today/20120311132628/http://148.201.96.14/dc/ver.aspx?ns=000188854 ref] (Spanish) \|- \|1981 \|Burra Charter \|ICOMOS \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080512200233/http://www.icomos.org/australia/burra.html text] \|- \|1982 \|Florence Charter \|ICOMOS: Historic Gardens \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/gardens_e.htm text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928085255/http://www.international.icomos.org/e_floren.htm text] \|- \|1982 \|Nairobi Declaration \|UNEP \|[http://www.unep.org/Law/PDF/NairobiDeclaration1982.pdf text] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090218025030/http://www.unep.org/Law/PDF/NairobiDeclaration1982.pdf \|date2009-02-18 }} \|- \|1982 \|Tlaxcala Declaration \|ICOMOS \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025503/http://www.icomos.org/docs/tlaxcala.html text] \|- \|1982 \|México Declaration \|World Conference on Cultural Policies – MONDIACULT \|[http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID12762&URL_DODO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html text], [https://web.archive.org/web/20090401072239/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/12762/11295421661mexico_en.pdf/mexico_en.pdf text] \|- \|1983 \|Declaration of Rome \|ICOMOS \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025658/http://www.icomos.org/docs/rome.html text] \|- \|1987 \|Carta della conservazione e del restauro degli oggetti d'arte e di cultura \| \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20090805180841/http://www.inforestauro.org/carta-del-restauro-1987.html text] (Italian) \|- \|1987 \|Washington Charter \|ICOMOS \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/towns_e.htm text], [http://www.international.icomos.org/e_towns.htm text] \|- \|1989 \|Paris Recommendation \|XXV UNESCO \|[http://www.un-documents.net/folklore.htm text] \|- \|1990 \|Lausanne Charter \|ICOMOS / ICAHM \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/e_archae.htm text], [http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/arch_e.pdf text] \|- \|1994 \|Nara Document \|UNESCO / ICCROM / ICOMOS \|[http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/nara_e.htm text], [http://www.international.icomos.org/naradoc_eng.htm text] \|- \|1995 \|European Recommendation \|Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers \|[https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?commandcom.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage535441&SecMode1&DocId517730&Usage=2 text] (Rec(95)3E), [https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?commandcom.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage536539&SecMode1&DocId527032&Usage=2 text] (Rec(95)9E) \|- \|1996 \|Declaration of San Antonio \|ICOMOS \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517025259/http://www.icomos.org/docs/san_antonio.html text] \|- \|1997 \|Declaration of Sofia \|XI ICOMOS or XXIX UNESCO \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20101228165607/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D5352%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html text] \|- \|1997 \|Carta de Mar del Plata \|Mercosur \|[http://portal.iphan.gov.br:8080/vs_portal/baixaFcdAnexo.do?id269 text]{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} (Portuguese), [http://www.unisc.br/universidade/estrutura_administrativa/nucleos/npu/npu_patrimonio/legislacao/internacional/patr_cultural/documentos/mercosul.pdf text]{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} (Portuguese), [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706081520/http://www.ipatrimonio.com.ar/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id34&Itemid55 text] (Spanish), [http://puertoviejoparana.com.ar/blog/carta-de-mar-del-plata/ text]{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2019 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attemptedyes }} (Spanish) \|- \|2000 \|Cracow Charter \| \|[https://web.archive.org/web/20100418155505/http://www.inforestauro.org/carta-di-cracovia-2000.html text] (Italian) \|- \|2002 \|Declaration of Cartagena de Indias, Colômbia \|Conselho Andino, OAS \|[http://scm.oas.org/doc_public/ENGLISH/HIST_02/CIDI01002E04.DOC text] \|- \|2003 \|Paris Recommendation \|XXXII UNESCO \|[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00006 text] \|- \|2017 \|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1767 Delhi Declaration] \|ICOMOS<ref>{{Cite web \|titleChartes et autres textes doctrinaux - International Council on Monuments and Sites \|urlhttps://www.icomos.org/fr/ressources/chartes-et-normes \|access-date2022-11-17 \|websitewww.icomos.org}}</ref> \|[https://www.icomos.org/images/DOCUMENTS/Charters/GA2017_Delhi-Declaration_20180117_EN.pdf text] (English) \|} See also {{Portal\|Society}} * Art discovery * Conservation and restoration of rail vehicles * The Georgian Group * Wikipedia:WikiProject Collections Care * International Day For Monuments and Sites References {{Reflist\|35em}} Further reading * {{cite journal \|last1Sullivan \|first1Ann Marie \|titleCultural Heritage & New Media: A Future for the Past \|journalThe John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law \|date1 January 2016 \|volume15 \|issue3 \|urlhttps://repository.jmls.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1392&contextripl \|issn=1930-8140}} * {{cite journal \|editor-last1Charola \|editor-first1A. Elena \|editor-last2Koestler \|editor-first2Robert J. \|titlePesticide Mitigation in Museum Collections: Science in Conservation (Proceedings from the MCI Workshop Series) \|date11 September 2019 \|locationWashington, D.C. \|journalSmithsonian Contributions to Museum Conservation \|pages1–72 \|doi10.5479/si.19492359.1.1 \|urlhttp://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/museumconservation/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?filenamescmc-0001 \|languageen\|doi-accessfree }} Copies of this volume are available for free pdf download from the Smithsonian's digital library by clicking on the included link. {{cite book \|editor-last1Koestler\|editor-first1 Robert J. \|editor-first2Victoria H. \|editor-last2Koestler \|editor-first3A. Elena \|editor-last3Charola \|editor-first4Fernando E.\|editor-last4 Nieto-Fernandez \| titleArt, biology, and conservation: biodeterioration of works of art \| locationNew York \| publisherThe Metropolitan Museum of Art \| year2003 \| isbn978-1588391070 \| urlhttps://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Art_Biology_and_Conservation_Biodeterioration_of_Works_of_Art }} {{cite book \|editor-last1Pergoli Campanelli \|editor-first1Alessandro \|titleLa nascita del restauro : dall'antichità all'alto Medioevo \|date 2015 \|publisherJaca book \|locationMilano \|isbn9788816412996 \|editionPrimaizione italiana \|url=https://www.academia.edu/11726094}} {{cite book \|editor-last1Sandis \|editor-first1Constantine \|titleCultural heritage ethics : between theory and practice \|date2014 \|publisherOpen Book Publishers \|locationCambridge, UK \|doi10.11647/obp.0047 \|isbn978-1-78374-067-3 \|urlhttp://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/276/cultural-heritage-ethics--between-theory-and-practice \|doi-accessfree }} {{cite book \|editor-last1Staniforth \|editor-first1Sarah \|titleHistorical perspectives on preventive conservation \|date2013 \|publisherGetty Conservation Institute \|locationLos Angeles \|isbn978-1-60606-142-8 \|urlhttp://shop.getty.edu/products/historical-perspectives-on-preventive-conservation-978-1606061428 }} * {{cite journal \|last1Szczepanowska \|first1H. M. \|last2Jha \|first2D. \|last3Mathia \|first3Th G. \|titleMorphology and characterization of Dematiaceous fungi on a cellulose paper substrate using synchrotron X-ray microtomography, scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy in the context of cultural heritage \|journalJournal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry \|date25 February 2015 \|volume30 \|issue3 \|pages651–657 \|doi10.1039/C4JA00337C \|urlhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C4JA00337C \|access-date9 May 2022 \|languageen \|issn1364-5544}}External links {{commons category\|Conservation-restoration}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20010625083251/http://www.bcin.ca/ BCIN, the Bibliographic Database of the Conservation Information Network] * [http://cameo.mfa.org/ CAMEO: Conservation and Art Materials Encyclopedia OnLine] * [https://cool.culturalheritage.org/ Conservation OnLine (CoOL) Resources for Conservation Professionals] * [http://www.docam.ca/ DOCAM — Documentation and Conservation of the Media Arts Heritage] * [http://openarchive.icomos.org ICOMOS Open Archive: EPrints on Cultural Heritage] * [https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/ Publications & Resources] at the Getty Conservation Institute {{Cultural Conservation-Restoration\|state=expanded}} {{Art world}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Conservation-Restoration}} Category:Art history Category:Museology Category:Cultural heritage Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Cultural heritage conservation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_cultural_property	2025-04-05T18:26:04.637764
2447	Anton Chekhov	{{Short description\|Russian dramatist and author (1860–1904)}} {{Redirect\|Chekhov}} {{Use British English\|date=July 2022}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=July 2024}} {{Infobox writer \| name = Anton Chekhov<br/>{{nobold\|{{lang\|ru\|Антон Чехов}}}} \| pseudonym \| image Anton Chekhov 1889.jpg \| caption = Chekhov in 1889 \| alt = Chekhov seated at a desk \| birth_date {{Birth date\|dfyes\|1860\|1\|29}}{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004 \|loc=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6408/pg6408-images.html#link2H_4_0231 TO G. I. ROSSOLIMO.YALTA, October 11, 1899]}} \| birth_place = Taganrog, Yekaterinoslav Governorate, Russian Empire \| death_date {{death date and age\|dfyes\|1904\|7\|15\|1860\|1\|29}}{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p=595}} \| death_place = Badenweiler, Grand Duchy of Baden, German Empire \| resting_place = Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow \| occupation = Writer, physician, philanthropist \| alma_mater = First Moscow State Medical University \| years_active = 1876-1904 \| genres = {{hlist\|Play\|novella\|short story\|comedy\|feuilleton\|opinion journalism\|travelogy\|diary\|correspondence}} \| movement = Realism \| notableworks = {{ubl\|The Seagull\|Three Sisters}} \| awards = Pushkin Prize \| spouse = {{marriage\|Olga Knipper\|1901}} \| relatives = Alexander Chekhov (brother)<br /> Nikolai Chekhov (brother)<br />Maria Chekhova (sister)<br /> Mikhail Chekhov (brother)<br />Michael Chekhov (nephew)<br />Olga Chekhova (niece-in-law)<br />Ada Tschechowa (great-niece)<br />Vera Tschechowa (great-great niece)<br/>Hartmut Reck (great-great nephew-in-law)<br/>Vadim Glowna (great-great nephew-in-law)<br/>Lev Knipper (nephew)<br />Marina Ried (great-niece)<br />Rudolf Platte (great-nephew-in-law) \| signature = Подпись Антон Чехов.png }} (1886)]] Anton Pavlovich Chekhov{{Family name footnote\|Pavlovich\|Chekhov\|langEastern Slavic}} ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|tʃ\|ɛ\|k\|ɒ\|f}};<ref>{{Cite web \|titleChekhov definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary \|urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/chekhov \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20190403023104/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/chekhov \|archive-date2019-04-03 \|access-date2025-02-15 \|websitewww.collinsdictionary.com \|languageen}}</ref> {{Lang-rus\|linksno\|Антон Павлович Чехов{{efn\|In Chekhov's day, his name was written {{lang\|ru\|Антонъ Павловичъ Чеховъ}}. See, for instance, [{{GBurl\|id-dLQDwAAQBAJ&dqАнтонъ%D0Павловичъ%D0Чеховъ\|pgPP1}} Антонъ Павловичъ Чеховъ. 1898. Мужики и Моя жизнь.]}}\|\|ɐnˈton ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ ˈtɕexəf}}; 29&nbsp;January 1860{{efn\|Old Style date 17 January.}} – 15 July 1904{{efn\|Old Style date 2 July.}}) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer, widely considered to be one of the greatest writers of all times. His career as a playwright produced four classics, and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics.{{efn\|"Greatest short story writer who ever lived." – Raymond Carver{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Bartlett \|2004 \|p[https://archive.org/details/aboutloveotherst0000chek/page/n21/mode/2up xx]}}}}<ref name"Boyd 2004-07-03">{{cite web \|lastBoyd \|firstWilliam \|author-linkWilliam Boyd (writer) \|titleA Chekhov lexicon \|websitethe Guardian \|date3 July 2004 \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jul/03/classics \|access-date31 October 2023 \|quoteQuite probably. the best short-story writer ever.}}</ref><ref name"Steiner 2001-05-13">{{cite web \|lastSteiner \|firstGeorge \|author-linkGeorge Steiner \|titleObserver review: The Undiscovered Chekov by Anton Chekov \|websitethe Guardian \|date13 May 2001 \|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/may/13/classics.arts \|access-date31 October 2023 \|quoteStories&nbsp;... which are among the supreme achievements in prose narrative.}}</ref> Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three seminal figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre.{{sfn\|Bloom\|2002\|p38}} Chekhov was a physician by profession.<!--article is in British English--> "Medicine is my lawful wife," he once said, "and literature is my mistress."{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004 \|loc[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6408/pg6408-images.html#link2H_4_0042 Letter to Alexei Suvorin, 11 September 1888]}}<ref>{{Cite web \|titleAnton Chekhov - Wikiquote \|urlhttps://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov \|access-date2025-02-15 \|websiteen.wikiquote.org \|languageen}}</ref> Chekhov renounced the theatre after the reception of The Seagull in 1896, but the play was revived to acclaim in 1898 by Konstantin Stanislavski's Moscow Art Theatre, which subsequently also produced Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and premiered his last two plays, Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard. These four works present a challenge to the acting ensemble{{efn\|"Actors climb up Chekhov like a mountain, roped together, sharing the glory if they ever make it to the summit." – Ian McKellen{{sfn \|Miles \|1993 \|p[https://archive.org/details/chekhovonbritish0000unse/page/8/mode/2up 9]}}}} as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a "theatre of mood" and a "submerged life in the text."{{efn\|"Chekhov's art demands a theatre of mood." – Vsevolod Meyerhold{{sfn \|Allen \|2002 \|p[https://archive.org/details/performingchekho0000alle/page/12/mode/2up 13]}}}}{{sfnm \|Styan \|1981 \|1p[https://archive.org/details/moderndramainthe0001stya/page/84 84] \|ps; "A richer submerged life in the text is characteristic of a more profound drama of realism, one which depends less on the externals of presentation."}} The plays that Chekhov wrote were not complex, but easy to follow, and created a somewhat haunting atmosphere for the audience.<ref name"Hingley 2022">{{cite web \|lastHingley \|firstRonald Francis \|titleAnton Chekhov – Biography, Plays, Short Stories, & Facts \|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica \|date25 January 2022 \|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anton-Chekhov \|access-date26 April 2022}}</ref> Chekhov began writing stories to earn money, but as his artistic ambition grew, he made formal innovations that influenced the evolution of the modern short story.{{sfnm\|Malcolm\|2004\|1p87\|ps; "Chekhov is said to be the father of the modern short story."}}{{efn\|"He brought something new into literature." – James Joyce{{sfn \|Power \|Joyce \|1974 \|p57}}}}<ref>"Tchehov's breach with the classical tradition is the most significant event in modern literature," John Middleton Murry, in Athenaeum, 8 April 1922, cited in Bartlett's introduction to About Love.</ref> He made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 \|titleLetters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends \|date2004-09-01 \|languageEnglish \|translator-lastGarnett \|translator-firstConstance}}</ref>BiographyChildhood in Taganrog, Chekhova street, Russia]] in the late 19th century. The cross on top is no longer present.]] Anton Chekhov was born into a Russian family on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great (17 January Old Style) 29 January 1860 in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov – on Politseyskaya (Police) street, later renamed Chekhova street – in southern Russia. He was the third of six surviving children; he had two older brothers, Alexander and Nikolai, and three younger siblings, Ivan, Maria, and Mikhail. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a former serf and his wife,<ref>{{harvnb\|Rayfield\|1997\|pp3–4}}: Egor Mikhailovich Chekhov and Efrosinia Emelianovna</ref> was from the village Olkhovatka (Voronezh Governorate) and ran a grocery store. He was a director of the parish choir, a devout Orthodox Christian, and a physically abusive father. Pavel Chekhov has been seen by some historians as the model for his son's many portraits of hypocrisy.<ref name "Wood 78">{{harvnb\|Wood\|2000\|p78}}</ref> As Chekhov's paternal grandmother was Ukrainian, the Ukrainian language was likely present in his household.<ref>{{cite web \|titleThe Anton Chekhov Foundation \|urlhttp://antonchekhovfoundation.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last1Abdulaziz \|first1Sanaa \|titleThe Chekhov museum in Ukraine under fire from Russian missiles \|urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/features/chekhov-house-sumy-ukraine-russia-b2068205.html \|websiteThe Independent\|date19 May 2022 }}</ref> Chekhov's mother, Yevgeniya (Morozova), was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels all over Russia with her cloth-merchant father.{{sfn\|Payne\|1991\|pXVII}}{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p18}}<ref>{{Cite web \|titletaganrogcity.com {{!}} Chekhov & Taganrog \|urlhttp://www.taganrogcity.com/chekhov_taganrog.html \|access-date2025-02-15 \|websitewww.taganrogcity.com}}</ref> "Our talents we got from our father," Chekhov recalled, "but our soul from our mother."<ref name "Bio">From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.</ref> In adulthood, Chekhov criticised his brother Alexander's treatment of his wife and children by reminding him of Pavel's tyranny: "Let me ask you to recall that it was despotism and lying that ruined your mother's youth. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that it's sickening and frightening to think about it. Remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool."{{Sfnm\|1a1Malcolm \|1y2004 \|1p102 \|1ps; Letter to brother Alexander, 2 January 1889}}{{efn\|Another insight into Chekhov's childhood came in a letter to his publisher and friend Alexei Suvorin: "From my childhood I have believed in progress, and I could not help believing in it since the difference between the time when I used to be thrashed and when they gave up thrashing me was tremendous."{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004 \|loc=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6408/pg6408-images.html#link2H_4_0187 YALTA, March 27, 1894]}}}} Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog Gymnasium (since renamed the Chekhov Gymnasium), where he was held back for a year at fifteen for failing an examination in Ancient Greek.<ref name "Bartlett 4-5">Bartlett, pp. 4–5.{{Incomplete short citation\|dateOctober 2023}}</ref> He sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his father's choirs. In a letter of 1892, he used the word "suffering" to describe his childhood and recalled: {{blockquote\|textWhen my brothers and I used to stand in the middle of the church and sing the trio "May my prayer be exalted", or "The Archangel's Voice", everyone looked at us with emotion and envied our parents, but we at that moment felt like little convicts.<ref name"multiref1">Letter to I.L. Shcheglov, 9 March 1892. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref>}} In 1876, Chekhov's father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, having been cheated by a contractor named Mironov.{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p=31}} To avoid debtor's prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolai, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow. Chekhov's mother was physically and emotionally broken by the experience.<ref>Letter to cousin Mihail, 10 May 1877. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref> Chekhov was left behind to sell the family's possessions and finish his education. He remained in Taganrog for three more years, boarding with a man by the name of Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house.{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|p25}} Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches, and selling short sketches to the newspapers, among other jobs. He sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up.{{sfn\|Payne\|1991\|pXX}} During this time, he read widely and analytically, including the works of Cervantes, Turgenev, Goncharov, and Schopenhauer,<ref name "Mihail 1876">Letter to brother Mihail, 1 July 1876. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref>{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p26}} and wrote a full-length comic drama, Fatherless, which his brother Alexander dismissed as "an inexcusable though innocent fabrication."{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p33}} Chekhov also experienced a series of love affairs, one with the wife of a teacher.{{sfn\|Payne\|1991\|pXX}} In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University.{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p69}}Early writingsChekhov then assumed responsibility for the whole family.{{sfn\|Wood\|2000\|p79}} To support them and to pay his tuition fees, he wrote daily short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under pseudonyms such as "Antosha Chekhonte" (Антоша Чехонте) and "Man Without Spleen" (Человек без селезенки). His prodigious output gradually earned him a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life, and by 1882 he was writing for Oskolki (Fragments), owned by Nikolai Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time.{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p91}} Chekhov's tone at this stage was harsher than that familiar from his mature fiction.<ref name"Obs">"There is in these miniatures an arresting potion of cruelty&nbsp;... The wonderfully compassionate Chekhov was yet to mature." [http://books.guardian.co.uk/critics/reviews/0,,489891,00.html "Vodka Miniatures, Belching and Angry Cats"], George Steiner's review of The Undiscovered Chekhov in The Observer, 13 May 2001. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref><ref name"SS1">{{cite web\| lastWillis\|firstLouis\| titleChekhov's Crime Stories\| urlhttp://www.sleuthsayers.org/2013/01/chekhov-wrote-crime-stories_27.html\| workLiterary and Genre\| publisherSleuthSayers \|locationKnoxville\| date=27 January 2013}}</ref> In 1884, Chekhov qualified as a physician, which he considered his principal profession though he made little money from it and treated the poor free of charge.{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|p=26}} In 1884 and 1885, Chekhov found himself coughing blood, and in 1886 the attacks worsened, but he would not admit his tuberculosis to his family or his friends.<ref name = "Bio"/> He confessed to Leykin, "I am afraid to submit myself to be sounded by my colleagues."<ref>Letter to N.A.Leykin, 6 April 1886. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref> He continued writing for weekly periodicals, earning enough money to move the family into progressively better accommodations. Early in 1886 he was invited to write for one of the most popular papers in St. Petersburg, Novoye Vremya (New Times), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin, who paid a rate per line double Leykin's and allowed Chekhov three times the space.{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p128}} Suvorin was to become a lifelong friend, perhaps Chekhov's closest.<ref>{{harvnb\|Rayfield\|1997\|pp448–450}}: They only ever fell out once, when Chekhov objected to the anti-Semitic attacks in New Times against Dreyfus and Zola in 1898.</ref><ref name "Wood 79">In many ways, the right-wing Suvorin, whom Lenin later called "The running dog of the Tzar" (Payne, XXXV), was Chekhov's opposite; "Chekhov had to function like Suvorin's kidney, extracting the businessman's poisons."{{harvnb\|Wood\|2000\|p79}}</ref> Before long, Chekhov was attracting literary as well as popular attention. The sixty-four-year-old Dmitry Grigorovich, a celebrated Russian writer of the day, wrote to Chekhov after reading his short story "The Huntsman" that<ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1944 The Huntsman.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref> "You have real talent, a talent that places you in the front rank among writers in the new generation." He went on to advise Chekhov to slow down, write less, and concentrate on literary quality. Chekhov replied that the letter had struck him "like a thunderbolt" and confessed, "I have written my stories the way reporters write up their notes about fires—mechanically, half-consciously, caring nothing about either the reader or myself."{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|pp32–33}} The admission may have done Chekhov a disservice, since early manuscripts reveal that he often wrote with extreme care, continually revising.{{sfn\|Payne\|1991\|pXXIV}} Grigorovich's advice nevertheless inspired a more serious, artistic ambition in the twenty-six-year-old. In 1888, with a little string-pulling by Grigorovich, the short story collection At Dusk (V Sumerkakh) won Chekhov the coveted Pushkin Prize "for the best literary production distinguished by high artistic worth."{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p160}}Turning pointsIn 1887, exhausted from overwork and ill health, Chekhov took a trip to Ukraine, which reawakened him to the beauty of the steppe.<ref name "Masha 1887">"There is a scent of the steppe and one hears the birds sing. I see my old friends the ravens flying over the steppe." Letter to sister Masha, 2 April 1887. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref> On his return, he began the novella-length short story "The Steppe", which he called "something rather odd and much too original", and which was eventually published in Severny Vestnik (The Northern Herald).<ref>Letter to Grigorovich, 12 January 1888. Quoted by {{harvnb\|Malcolm\|2004\|p137}}.</ref> In a narrative that drifts with the thought processes of the characters, Chekhov evokes a chaise journey across the steppe through the eyes of a young boy sent to live away from home, and his companions, a priest and a merchant. "The Steppe" has been called a "dictionary of Chekhov's poetics", and it represented a significant advance for Chekhov, exhibiting much of the quality of his mature fiction and winning him publication in a literary journal rather than a newspaper.<ref>"'The Steppe,' as Michael Finke suggests, is 'a sort of dictionary of Chekhov's poetics,' a kind of sample case of the concealed literary weapons Chekhov would deploy in his work to come." {{harvnb\|Malcolm\|2004\|p147}}.</ref> In autumn 1887, a theatre manager named Korsh commissioned Chekhov to write a play, the result being Ivanov, written in a fortnight and produced that November.<ref nameautogenerated3>From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mikhail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.</ref> Though Chekhov found the experience "sickening" and painted a comic portrait of the chaotic production in a letter to his brother Alexander, the play was a hit and was praised, to Chekhov's bemusement, as a work of originality.<ref name "Alexander 1887">Letter to brother Alexander, 20 November 1887. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref> Although Chekhov did not fully realise it at the time, Chekhov's plays, such as The Seagull (written in 1895), Uncle Vanya (written in 1897), The Three Sisters (written in 1900), and The Cherry Orchard (written in 1903) served as a revolutionary backbone to what is common sense to the medium of acting to this day: an effort to recreate and express the realism of how people truly act and speak with each other. This realistic manifestation of the human condition may engender in audiences reflection upon what it means to be human. This philosophy of approaching the art of acting has stood not only steadfast, but as the cornerstone of acting for much of the 20th century to this day. Mikhail Chekhov considered Ivanov a key moment in his brother's intellectual development and literary career.<ref name "Bio"/> From this period comes an observation of Chekhov's that has become known as ''Chekhov's gun'', a dramatic principle that requires that every element in a narrative be necessary and irreplaceable, and that everything else be removed.<ref>{{citation \|titleChekhov's Art: A Stylistic Analysis\|authorPetr Mikhaĭlovich Bit︠s︡illi\|year1983\|publisherArdis\|pagex}}</ref><ref>{{citation\|titleThe Literature 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time\|authorDaniel S. Burt\|year2008\|publisherInfobase Publishing}}</ref><ref name"marble">{{citation\|titleChekhov: The Silent Voice of Freedom\|authorValentine T. Bill\|year1987\|publisher=Philosophical Library}}</ref> {{blockquote\|Remove everything that has no relevance to the story. If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle hanging on the wall, in the second or third chapter it absolutely must go off. If it's not going to be fired, it shouldn't be hanging there.\|Anton Chekhov<ref name="marble" /><ref>S. Shchukin, Memoirs (1911)</ref>}} The death of Chekhov's brother Nikolai from tuberculosis in 1889 influenced A Dreary Story, finished that September, about a man who confronts the end of a life that he realises has been without purpose.<ref name"Dreary">{{Cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1883 \|titleThe Wife, and Other Stories \|date2006-02-26 \|languageEnglish \|translator-lastGarnett \|translator-firstConstance}}</ref>{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|pp186–191}} Mikhail Chekhov recorded his brother's depression and restlessness after Nikolai's death. Mikhail was researching prisons at that time as part of his law studies. Anton Chekhov, in a search for purpose in his own life, himself soon became obsessed with the issue of prison reform.<ref name "Bio"/>SakhalinIn 1890, Chekhov undertook an arduous journey by train, horse-drawn carriage, and river steamer to the Russian Far East and the katorga, or penal colony, on Sakhalin Island, north of Japan. He spent three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census. The letters Chekhov wrote during the two-and-a-half-month journey to Sakhalin are considered to be among his best.{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|p129}} His remarks to his sister about Tomsk were to become notorious.{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p223}}{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p224}} {{blockquote\|Tomsk is a very dull town. To judge from the drunkards whose acquaintance I have made, and from the intellectual people who have come to the hotel to pay their respects to me, the inhabitants are very dull, too.{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004 \|loc=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6408/pg6408-images.html#link2H_4_0079 (TO HIS SISTER.) TOMSK, May 20 (1890)]}}}} Chekhov witnessed much on Sakhalin that shocked and angered him, including floggings, embezzlement of supplies, and forced prostitution of women. He wrote, "There were times I felt that I saw before me the extreme limits of man's degradation."{{sfn\|Wood\|2000\|p85}}{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|p230}} He was particularly moved by the plight of the children living in the penal colony with their parents. For example: {{blockquote\|On the Amur steamer going to Sakhalin, there was a convict who had murdered his wife and wore fetters on his legs. His daughter, a little girl of six, was with him. I noticed wherever the convict moved the little girl scrambled after him, holding on to his fetters. At night the child slept with the convicts and soldiers all in a heap together.{{sfn \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004 \|loc=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/6408/pg6408-images.html#link2H_4_0106 TO A. F. KONI. PETERSBURG, January 16, 1891.]}}}} Chekhov later concluded that charity was not the answer, but that the government had a duty to finance humane treatment of the convicts. His findings were published in 1893 and 1894 as Ostrov Sakhalin (The Island of Sakhalin), a work of social science, not literature.{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|p125}}<ref name "Simmons 229">{{harvnb\|Simmons\|1970\|p229}}: Such is the general critical view of the work, but Simmons calls it a "valuable and intensely human document."</ref> Chekhov found literary expression for the "Hell of Sakhalin" in his long short story "The Murder",<ref>{{Cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13419 \|titleThe Bishop and Other Stories \|date2004-09-09 \|languageEnglish \|translator-lastGarnett \|translator-firstConstance}}</ref> the last section of which is set on Sakhalin, where the murderer Yakov loads coal in the night while longing for home. Chekhov's writing on Sakhalin, especially the traditions and habits of the Gilyak people, is the subject of a sustained meditation and analysis in Haruki Murakami's novel 1Q84.<ref>Murakami, Haruki. 1Q84. Alfred A. Knopf: New York, 2011.</ref> It is also the subject of a poem by the Nobel Prize winner Seamus Heaney, "Chekhov on Sakhalin" (collected in the volume Station Island).<ref>Heaney, Seamus. Station Island Farrar Straus Giroux: New York, 1985.</ref> Rebecca Gould has compared Chekhov's book on Sakhalin to Katherine Mansfield's Urewera Notebook (1907).<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastGould\|firstRebecca Ruth\|s2cid165401623\|date2018\|titleThe aesthetic terrain of settler colonialism: Katherine Mansfield and Anton Chekhov's natives\|journalJournal of Postcolonial Writing\|volume55\|pages48–65\|doi10.1080/17449855.2018.1511242\|urlhttps://eprints.soas.ac.uk/40478/1/Gould_The_aesthetic_terrain_of_settler_Journal_of_Postcolonial_Writing_2018.pdf }}</ref> In 2013, the Wellcome Trust-funded play 'A Russian Doctor', performed by Andrew Dawson and researched by Professor Jonathan Cole, explored Chekhov's experiences on Sakhalin Island.Melikhovo , now a museum]] Mikhail Chekhov, a member of the household at Melikhovo, described the extent of his brother's medical commitments: {{blockquote\|From the first day that Chekhov moved to Melikhovo, the sick began flocking to him from twenty miles around. They came on foot or were brought in carts, and often he was fetched to patients at a distance. Sometimes from early in the morning peasant women and children were standing before his door waiting.<ref name=autogenerated1>From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mikhail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.</ref>}} Chekhov's expenditure on drugs was considerable, but the greatest cost was making journeys of several hours to visit the sick, which reduced his time for writing.<ref nameautogenerated2>From the biographical sketch, adapted from a memoir by Chekhov's brother Mihail, which prefaces Constance Garnett's translation of Chekhov's letters, 1920.</ref> However, Chekhov's work as a doctor enriched his writing by bringing him into intimate contact with all sections of Russian society: for example, he witnessed at first hand the peasants' unhealthy and cramped living conditions, which he recalled in his short story "Peasants". Chekhov visited the upper classes as well, recording in his notebook: "Aristocrats? The same ugly bodies and physical uncleanliness, the same toothless old age and disgusting death, as with market-women."<ref name"note">{{Cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12494 \|titleNote-Book of Anton Chekhov \|date2004-06-01 \|languageEnglish \|translator-lastKoteliansky \|translator-firstS. S. (Samuel Solomonovitch) \|translator-last2Woolf \|translator-first2Leonard}}</ref> In 1893/1894 he worked as a Zemstvo doctor in Zvenigorod, which has numerous sanatoriums and rest homes. A local hospital is named after him. In 1894, Chekhov began writing his play The Seagull in a lodge he had built in the orchard at Melikhovo. In the two years since he had moved to the estate, he had refurbished the house, taken up agriculture and horticulture, tended the orchard and the pond, and planted many trees, which, according to Mikhail, he "looked after&nbsp;... as though they were his children. Like Colonel Vershinin in his Three Sisters, as he looked at them he dreamed of what they would be like in three or four hundred years."<ref name = "Bio"/> The first night of The Seagull, at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg on 17 October 1896, was a fiasco, as the play was booed by the audience, stinging Chekhov into renouncing the theatre.{{sfn\|Rayfield\|1997\|pp394–398}} But the play so impressed the theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko that he convinced his colleague Konstantin Stanislavski to direct a new production for the innovative Moscow Art Theatre in 1898.<ref name "Ben">Benedetti, Stanislavski: An Introduction, 25.</ref> Stanislavski's attention to psychological realism and ensemble playing coaxed the buried subtleties from the text, and restored Chekhov's interest in playwriting.<ref>Chekhov and the Art Theatre, in Stanislavski's words, were united in a common desire "to achieve artistic simplicity and truth on the stage."{{harvnb \|Allen \|2002 \|p[https://archive.org/details/performingchekho0000alle/page/10/mode/2up 11]}}</ref> The Art Theatre commissioned more plays from Chekhov and the following year staged Uncle Vanya, which Chekhov had completed in 1896.<ref>{{harvnb\|Rayfield\|1997\|pp390–391}}: Rayfield draws from his critical study ''Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" and the "Wood Demon" (1995), which anatomised the evolution of the Wood Demon into Uncle Vanya''—"one of Chekhov's most furtive achievements."</ref> In the last decades of his life he became an atheist.<ref>{{cite book\|lastTabachnikova\|firstOlga\|titleAnton Chekhov Through the Eyes of Russian Thinkers: Vasilii Rozanov, Dmitrii Merezhkovskii and Lev Shestov\|year2010\|publisherAnthem Press\|isbn978-1-84331-841-5\|page26\|quoteFor Rozanov, Chekhov represents a concluding stage of classical Russian literature at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, caused by the fading of the thousand-year-old Christian tradition that had sustained much of this literature. On the one hand, Rozanov regards Chekhov's positivism and atheism as his shortcomings, naming them among the reasons for Chekhov's popularity in society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleAnton Chekhov's Life and Thought: Selected Letters and Commentary\|year1997\|publisherNorthwestern University Press\|isbn978-0-8101-1460-9\|editor1-firstSimon \|editor1-lastKarlinsky \|editor2-firstMichael Henry\|editor2-lastHeim\| lastChekhov\|firstAnton Pavlovich\|page13\|quoteWhile Anton did not turn into the kind of militant atheist that his older brother Alexander eventually became, there is no doubt that he was a non-believer in the last decades of his life.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|titleSelected Stories of Anton Chekhov\|year2009\|publisherRandom House Digital, Inc.\|isbn978-0-307-56828-1\|pagesxxii\|authorRichard Pevear\|quoteAccording to Leonid Grossman, 'In his revelation of those evangelical elements, the atheist Chekhov is unquestionably one of the most Christian poets of world literature.'}}</ref>YaltaIn March 1897, Chekhov suffered a major haemorrhage of the lungs while on a visit to Moscow. With great difficulty he was persuaded to enter a clinic, where doctors diagnosed tuberculosis on the upper part of his lungs and ordered a change in his manner of life.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 \|titleLetters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends \|date2004-09-01 \|languageEnglish \|translator-lastGarnett \|translator-first=Constance}}</ref> at Yalta, 1900]] After his father's death in 1898, Chekhov bought a plot of land on the outskirts of Yalta and built a villa (The White Dacha), into which he moved with his mother and sister the following year. Though he planted trees and flowers, kept dogs and tame cranes, and received guests such as Leo Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky, Chekhov was always relieved to leave his "hot Siberia" for Moscow or travels abroad. He vowed to move to Taganrog as soon as a water supply was installed there.<ref>Olga Knipper, "Memoir", in {{harvnb \|Benedetti \|1997 \|pp[https://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/36/mode/2up 37], [https://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/270/mode/2up 270]}}</ref><ref name "Bartlett 2">Bartlett, 2.{{Incomplete short citation\|dateOctober 2023}}</ref> In Yalta he completed two more plays for the Art Theatre, composing with greater difficulty than in the days when he "wrote serenely, the way I eat pancakes now". He took a year each over Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard.{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|pp170–171}} On 25 May 1901, Chekhov married Olga Knipper quietly, owing to his horror of weddings. She was a former protégée and sometime lover of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko whom he had first met at rehearsals for The Seagull.<ref>"I have a horror of weddings, the congratulations and the champagne, standing around, glass in hand with an endless grin on your face." Letter to Olga Knipper, 19 April 1901.</ref>{{sfn \|Benedetti \|1997 \|p[https://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/124/mode/2up 125]}}<ref>{{harvnb\|Rayfield\|1997\|p500\|ps"Olga's relations with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko were more than professional."}}</ref> Up to that point, Chekhov, known as "Russia's most elusive literary bachelor",<ref>Harvey Pitcher in ''Chekhov's Leading Lady'', quoted in {{harvnb\|Malcolm\|2004\|p59}}.</ref> had preferred passing liaisons and visits to brothels over commitment.<ref>"Chekhov had the temperament of a philanderer. Sexually, he preferred brothels or swift liaisons."{{harvnb\|Wood\|2000\|p=78}}</ref> He had once written to Suvorin: {{blockquote\|By all means I will be married if you wish it. But on these conditions: everything must be as it has been hitherto—that is, she must live in Moscow while I live in the country, and I will come and see her.... I promise to be an excellent husband, but give me a wife who, like the moon, won't appear in my sky every day.<ref>Letter to Suvorin, 23 March 1895. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref>}} , 1901, on their honeymoon]] The letter proved prophetic of Chekhov's marital arrangements with Olga: he lived largely at Yalta, she in Moscow, pursuing her acting career. In 1902, Olga suffered a miscarriage; and Donald Rayfield has offered evidence, based on the couple's letters, that conception occurred when Chekhov and Olga were apart, although other Russian scholars have rejected that claim.<ref>{{harvnb\|Rayfield\|1997\|pp556–557\|psRayfield also tentatively suggests, drawing on obstetric clues, that Olga suffered an ectopic pregnancy rather than a miscarriage.}}</ref><ref name "Simmons Benedetti">There was certainly tension between the couple after the miscarriage, though {{harvnb\|Simmons\|1970\|p569}}, and {{harvnb \|Benedetti \|1997 \|p[https://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/240/mode/2up 241]}}, put this down to Chekhov's mother and sister blaming the miscarriage on Olga's late-night socialising with her actor friends.</ref> The literary legacy of this long-distance marriage is a correspondence that preserves gems of theatre history, including shared complaints about Stanislavski's directing methods and Chekhov's advice to Olga about performing in his plays.{{sfn \|Benedetti \|1997 \|p}}{{page needed \|date=October 2023}} In Yalta, Chekhov wrote one of his most famous stories,<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://short-stories.co/@antonchekhov/lady-with-lapdog-g7e4vkp3zd06\|titleLady with lapdog\|lastChekhov\|firstAnton\|websiteShort Stories}}</ref> "The Lady with the Dog"<ref>{{cite news\|authorRosamund, Bartlett\|titleThe House That Chekhov Built \|journalLondon Evening Standard\|date2 February 2010\|page31}}</ref> (also translated from the Russian as "Lady with Lapdog"),<ref>Greenberg, Yael. "The Presentation of the Unconscious in Chekhov's Lady With Lapdog." Modern Language Review 86.1 (1991): 126–130. Academic Search Premier. Web. 3 November 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite web \|date2014-10-07 \|title7 Memorable Dogs From Literature (IMAGES) \|urlhttps://www.huffpost.com/entry/dogs-literature_b_5940408 \|access-date2025-02-15 \|websiteHuffPost \|languageen}}</ref> which depicts what at first seems a casual liaison between a cynical married man and an unhappy married woman who meet while holidaying in Yalta. Neither expects anything lasting from the encounter. Unexpectedly though, they gradually fall deeply in love and end up risking scandal and the security of their family lives. The story masterfully captures their feelings for each other, the inner transformation undergone by the disillusioned male protagonist as a result of falling deeply in love, and their inability to resolve the matter by either letting go of their families or of each other.<ref>"Overview: 'The Lady with the Dog'." Characters in 20th-Century Literature. Laurie Lanzen Harris. Detroit: Gale Research, 1990. Literature Resource Center. Web. 3 November 2011.</ref> Death In May 1903, Chekhov visited Moscow; the prominent lawyer Vasily Maklakov visited him almost every day. Maklakov signed Chekhov's will. By May 1904, Chekhov was terminally ill with tuberculosis. Mikhail Chekhov recalled that "everyone who saw him secretly thought the end was not far off, but the nearer [he] was to the end, the less he seemed to realise it".<ref name "Bio"/> On 3 June, he set off with Olga for the German spa town of Badenweiler in the Black Forest in Germany, from where he wrote outwardly jovial letters to his sister Masha, describing the food and surroundings, and assuring her and his mother that he was getting better. In his last letter, he complained about the way German women dressed.<ref>Letter to sister Masha, 28 June 1904. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Letters of Anton Chekhov.]</ref> Chekhov died on 15 July 1904 at the age of 44 after a long fight with tuberculosis, the same disease that killed his brother.<ref>{{cite web \| urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Anton-Chekhov \| titleAnton Chekhov &#124; Biography, Plays, Short Stories, & Facts &#124; Britannica \| date27 October 2023 }}</ref> Chekhov's death has become one of "the great set pieces of literary history"{{sfn\|Malcolm\|2004\|p=62}}{{mdash}}retold, embroidered, and fictionalized many times since, notably in the 1987 short story "Errand" by Raymond Carver. In 1908, Olga wrote this account of her husband's last moments: {{blockquote\|Anton sat up unusually straight and said loudly and clearly (although he knew almost no German): Ich sterbe ('I'm dying'). The doctor calmed him, took a syringe, gave him an injection of camphor, and ordered champagne. Anton took a full glass, examined it, smiled at me and said: 'It's a long time since I drank champagne.' He drained it and lay quietly on his left side, and I just had time to run to him and lean across the bed and call to him, but he had stopped breathing and was sleeping peacefully as a child&nbsp;...<ref>Olga Knipper, Memoir, in {{harvnb \|Benedetti \|1997 \|p=[https://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/284/mode/2up 284]}}</ref>}} Chekhov's body was transported to Moscow in a refrigerated railway-car meant for oysters, a detail that offended Gorky.<ref>"Banality revenged itself upon him by a nasty prank, for it saw that his corpse, the corpse of a poet, was put into a railway truck 'For the Conveyance of Oysters'." Maxim Gorky in [http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref> Some of the thousands of mourners followed the funeral procession of a General Keller by mistake, to the accompaniment of a military band.<ref>Chekhov's Funeral. M. Marcus.The Antioch Review, 1995</ref> Chekhov was buried next to his father at the Novodevichy Cemetery.<ref>{{harvnb\|Malcolm\|2004\|p91}}; Alexander Kuprin in [http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov]. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite news\|title Novodevichy Cemetery\|urlhttp://www.passportmagazine.ru/article/1099/\|access-date 12 September 2013\|workPassport Magazine\|date April 2008}}</ref> Legacy , Russia. It is the house where he stayed in Sakhalin during 1890.]] A few months before he died, Chekhov told the writer Ivan Bunin that he thought people might go on reading his writings for seven years. "Why seven?", asked Bunin. "Well, seven and a half", Chekhov replied. "That's not bad. I've got six years to live."{{sfn\|Payne\|1991\|p=XXXVI}} Chekhov's posthumous reputation greatly exceeded his expectations. The ovations for the play The Cherry Orchard in the year of his death served to demonstrate the Russian public's acclaim for the writer, which placed him second in literary celebrity only to Tolstoy, who outlived him by six years. Tolstoy was an early admirer of Chekhov's short stories and had a series that he deemed "first quality" and "second quality" bound into a book. In the first category were: Children, The Chorus Girl, A Play, Home, Misery, The Runaway, In Court, Vanka, Ladies, A Malefactor, The Boys, Darkness, Sleepy, The Helpmate, and The Darling; in the second: A Transgression, Sorrow, The Witch, Verochka, In a Strange Land, ''The Cook's Wedding, A Tedious Business, An Upheaval, Oh! The Public!, The Mask, A Woman's Luck, Nerves, The Wedding, A Defenceless Creature, and Peasant Wives.''{{sfn\|Simmons\|1970\|p=595}} Chekhov's work also found praise from several of Russia's most influential radical political thinkers. If anyone doubted the gloom and miserable poverty of Russia in the 1880s, the anarchist theorist Peter Kropotkin responded, "read only Chekhov's novels!"<ref>{{cite web \| title=The Constitutional Movement in Russia \| urlhttp://www.revoltlib.com/?id142 \| author=Peter Kropotkin \| publisher=The Nineteenth Century \| website=revoltlib.com \| date=1 January 1905 \| access-date=5 November 2019 \| archive-date=3 November 2019 \| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191103020419/http://www.revoltlib.com/?id142 \| url-status=dead }}</ref> Raymond Tallis further recounts that Vladimir Lenin believed his reading of the short story Ward No. 6 "made him a revolutionary".<ref>{{cite book \| title= In Defence of Wonder and Other Philosophical Reflections \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaFhsBAAAQBAJ&qKarl+Marx+ward+no+six&pgPT154 \| author=Raymond Tallis \| publisher=Routledge \| date=3 September 2014 \|isbn = 9781317547402}}</ref> Upon finishing the story, Lenin is said to have remarked: "I absolutely had the feeling that I was shut up in Ward 6 myself!"<ref>{{cite web \| title=To The Finland Station \| author=Edmund Wilson \| urlhttps://archive.org/details/WilsonToTheFinlandStation/page/n369/mode/2up?qWard+6+myself \| publisher=Doubleday \| website=archive.org \| date=1940 \| quote=When Vladimir finished reading this story, he was seized with such a horror that he could not bear to stay in his room. He went out to find someone to talk to, but it was late: they had all gone to bed. 'I absolutely had the feeling,' he told his sister next day,'that I was shut up in Ward 6 myself!' }}</ref> In Chekhov's lifetime, British and Irish critics generally did not find his work pleasing; E. J. Dillon thought "the effect on the reader of Chekhov's tales was repulsion at the gallery of human waste represented by his fickle, spineless, drifting people" and R. E. C. Long said "Chekhov's characters were repugnant, and that Chekhov revelled in stripping the last rags of dignity from the human soul".<ref>{{cite journal\|lastMeister\|firstCharles W.\|year1953\|titleChekhov's Reception in England and America\|journalAmerican Slavic and East European Review\|volume12\|issue1\|pages109–121\|jstor3004259\|doi10.2307/3004259}}</ref> After his death, Chekhov was reappraised. Constance Garnett's translations won him an English-language readership and the admiration of writers such as James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and Katherine Mansfield, whose story "The Child Who Was Tired" is similar to Chekhov's "Sleepy".<ref>{{cite book\|authorWilliam H. New\|titleReading Mansfield and Metaphors of Reform\|publisherMcGill-Queen's Press\|year1999\|isbn978-0-7735-1791-2\|pages15–17}}</ref> The Russian critic D. S. Mirsky, who lived in England, explained Chekhov's popularity in that country by his "unusually complete rejection of what we may call the heroic values".{{sfn\|Wood\|2000\|p77}} In Russia itself, Chekhov's drama fell out of fashion after the revolution, but it was later incorporated into the Soviet canon. The character of Lopakhin, for example, was reinvented as a hero of the new order, rising from a modest background so as eventually to possess the gentry's estates.{{sfn \|Allen \|2002 \|p[https://archive.org/details/performingchekho0000alle/page/88/mode/2up 88]}}<ref name = "Danchenko">"They won't allow a play which is seen to lament the lost estates of the gentry." Letter of Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, quoted by Anatoly Smeliansky in "Chekhov at the Moscow Art Theatre", from The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, 31–32.</ref> , Anton Chekhov, 1898, oil on canvas; Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow]] Despite Chekhov's reputation as a playwright, William Boyd asserts that his short stories represent the greater achievement.<ref name = "Boyd">"The plays lack the seamless authority of the fiction: there are great characters, wonderful scenes, tremendous passages, moments of acute melancholy and sagacity, but the parts appear greater than the whole." [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,6000,1261403,00.html A Chekhov Lexicon,] by William Boyd, The Guardian, 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref> Raymond Carver, who wrote the short story "Errand" about Chekhov's death, believed that Chekhov was the greatest of all short story writers: {{blockquote\|Chekhov's stories are as wonderful (and necessary) now as when they first appeared. It is not only the immense number of stories he wrote—for few, if any, writers have ever done more—it is the awesome frequency with which he produced masterpieces, stories that shrive us as well as delight and move us, that lay bare our emotions in ways only true art can accomplish.<ref>Bartlett, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,,1261382,00.html "From Russia, with Love"], The Guardian, 15 July 2004. Retrieved 17 February 2007.</ref>}} According to literary critic Daniel S. Burt, Chekhov was one of the greatest and most influential writers of all time.<ref name":8">{{Cite book \|lastBurt \|firstDaniel S. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/literary100ranki0000burt_v6e1/mode/2up \|titleThe Literary 100, Revised Edition: A Ranking of the Most Influential Novelists, Playwrights, and Poets of All Time \|publisherFacts On File \|year2009 \|pages137–139 \|languageen \|author-linkDaniel Burt (author)}}</ref> Style One of the first non-Russians to praise Chekhov's plays was George Bernard Shaw, who subtitled his Heartbreak House "A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes", and pointed out similarities between the predicament of the British landed class and that of their Russian counterparts as depicted by Chekhov: "the same nice people, the same utter futility".<ref>Anna Obraztsova in "Bernard Shaw's Dialogue with Chekhov", from Miles, 43–44.</ref> Ernest Hemingway, another writer influenced by Chekhov, was more grudging: "Chekhov wrote about six good stories. But he was an amateur writer."<ref>Letter from Ernest Hemingway to Archibald MacLeish, 1925 (from Selected Letters, p. 179), in Ernest Hemingway on Writing, Ed Larry W. Phillips, Touchstone, (1984) 1999, {{ISBN\|978-0-684-18119-6}}, 101.</ref> Comparing Chekhov to Tolstoy, Vladimir Nabokov wrote, "I do love Chekhov dearly. I fail, however, to rationalize my feeling for him: I can easily do so in regard to the greater artist, Tolstoy, with the flash of this or that unforgettable passage […], but when I imagine Chekhov with the same detachment all I can make out is a medley of dreadful prosaisms, ready-made epithets, repetitions, doctors, unconvincing vamps, and so forth; yet it is his works which I would take on a trip to another planet."<ref>Wikiquote quotes about Chekhov</ref> Nabokov called "The Lady with the Dog" "one of the greatest stories ever written" in its depiction of a problematic relationship, and described Chekhov as writing "the way one person relates to another the most important things in his life, slowly and yet without a break, in a slightly subdued voice".<ref>From Vladimir Nabokov's Lectures on Russian Literature, quoted by Francine Prose in Learning from Chekhov, 231.</ref> For the writer William Boyd, Chekhov's historical accomplishment was to abandon what William Gerhardie called the "event plot" for something more "blurred, interrupted, mauled or otherwise tampered with by life".<ref>"For the first time in literature the fluidity and randomness of life was made the form of the fiction. Before Chekhov, the event-plot drove all fictions." William Boyd, referring to the novelist William Gerhardie's analysis in Anton Chekhov: A Critical Study, 1923. [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,6000,1261403,00.html "A Chekhov Lexicon"] by William Boyd, The Guardian, 3 July 2004. Retrieved 16 February 2007.</ref> Virginia Woolf mused on the unique quality of a Chekhov story in The Common Reader (1925): {{blockquote\|But is it the end, we ask? We have rather the feeling that we have overrun our signals; or it is as if a tune had stopped short without the expected chords to close it. These stories are inconclusive, we say, and proceed to frame a criticism based upon the assumption that stories ought to conclude in a way that we recognise. In so doing we raise the question of our own fitness as readers. Where the tune is familiar and the end emphatic—lovers united, villains discomfited, intrigues exposed—as it is in most Victorian fiction, we can scarcely go wrong, but where the tune is unfamiliar and the end a note of interrogation or merely the information that they went on talking, as it is in Tchekov, we need a very daring and alert sense of literature to make us hear the tune, and in particular those last notes which complete the harmony.<ref>Woolf, Virginia, The Common Reader: First Series, Annotated Edition, Harvest/HBJ Book, 2002, {{ISBN\|0-15-602778-X}}, 172.</ref>}} Michael Goldman has said of the elusive quality of Chekhov's comedies: "Having learned that Chekhov is comic&nbsp;... Chekhov is comic in a very special, paradoxical way. His plays depend, as comedy does, on the vitality of the actors to make pleasurable what would otherwise be painfully awkward—inappropriate speeches, missed connections, faux pas, stumbles, childishness—but as part of a deeper pathos; the stumbles are not pratfalls but an energized, graceful dissolution of purpose."<ref>Michael Goldman, ''The Actor's Freedom: Towards a Theory of Drama'', p72.</ref> Influence on dramatic arts In the United States, Chekhov's reputation began its rise slightly later, partly through the influence of Stanislavski's system of acting, with its notion of subtext: "Chekhov often expressed his thought not in speeches", wrote Stanislavski, "but in pauses or between the lines or in replies consisting of a single word&nbsp;... the characters often feel and think things not expressed in the lines they speak."<ref>Reynolds, Elizabeth (ed), ''Stanislavski's Legacy, Theatre Arts Books, 1987, {{ISBN\|978-0-87830-127-0}}, 81, 83.</ref><ref name "Eßlin">"It was Chekhov who first deliberately wrote dialogue in which the mainstream of emotional action ran underneath the surface. It was he who articulated the notion that human beings hardly ever speak in explicit terms among each other about their deepest emotions, that the great, tragic, climactic moments are often happening beneath outwardly trivial conversation." Martin Esslin, from Text and Subtext in Shavian Drama, in 1922: Shaw and the last Hundred Years'', ed. Bernard. F. Dukore, Penn State Press, 1994, {{ISBN\|978-0-271-01324-4}}, 200.</ref> The Group Theatre, in particular, developed the subtextual approach to drama, influencing generations of American playwrights, screenwriters, and actors, including Clifford Odets, Elia Kazan and, in particular, Lee Strasberg. In turn, Strasberg's Actors Studio and the "Method" acting approach influenced many actors, including Marlon Brando and Robert De Niro, though by then the Chekhov tradition may have been distorted by a preoccupation with realism.<ref name"Tovstonogov 1968 pp. 146–155">{{cite journal \|lastTovstonogov \|firstGeorgii \|titleChekhov's "Three Sisters" at the Gorky Theatre \|journalThe Drama Review \|publisherJSTOR \|volume13 \|issue2 \|year1968 \|issn0012-5962 \|doi10.2307/1144419 \|jstor1144419 \|pages146–155 \|quote=Lee Strasberg became in my opinion a victim of the traditional idea of Chekhovian theatre&nbsp;... [he left] no room for Chekhov's imagery.}}</ref> In 1981, the playwright Tennessee Williams adapted The Seagull as The Notebook of Trigorin. One of Anton's nephews, Michael Chekhov, would also contribute heavily to modern theatre, particularly through his unique acting methods which developed Stanislavski's ideas further. Alan Twigg, the chief editor and publisher of the Canadian book review magazine B.C. BookWorld wrote: {{blockquote\|One can argue Anton Chekhov is the second-most popular writer on the planet. Only Shakespeare outranks Chekhov in terms of movie adaptations of their work, according to the movie database IMDb.&nbsp;... We generally know less about Chekhov than we know about mysterious Shakespeare.<ref>{{Cite book\|title Memories of Chekhov: Accounts of the Writer from His Family, Friends and Contemporaries. Foreword by Alan Twigg.\|last Sekirin\|first Peter\|publisher MacFarland Publishers\|year 2011\|isbn 978-0-7864-5871-4\|location Jefferson, NC\|pages 1}}</ref>}} Chekhov has also influenced the work of Japanese playwrights including Shimizu Kunio, Yōji Sakate, and Ai Nagai. Critics have noted similarities in how Chekhov and Shimizu use a mixture of light humour as well as an intense depictions of longing.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Rimer\|first1J.\|titleJapanese Theatre and the International Stage\|publisherKoninklijke Brill NV\|locationLeiden, The Netherlands\|isbn978-90-04-12011-2\|pages299–311\|year2001}}</ref> Sakate adapted several of Chekhov's plays and transformed them in the general style of nō.<ref nameClayton>{{cite book\|last1Clayton\|first1J. Douglas\|titleAdapting Chekhov: The Text and Its Mutations\|publisherRoutledge\|isbn978-0-415-50969-5\|pages269–270\|year2013}}</ref> Nagai also adapted Chekhov's plays, including Three Sisters, and transformed his dramatic style into Nagai's style of satirical realism while emphasising the social issues depicted in the play.<ref name=Clayton/> Chekhov's works have been adapted for the screen, including Sidney Lumet's Sea Gull and Louis Malle's Vanya on 42nd Street. Laurence Olivier's final effort as a film director was a 1970 adaptation of Three Sisters in which he also played a supporting role. His work has also served as inspiration or been referenced in numerous films. In Andrei Tarkovsky's 1975 film The Mirror, characters discuss his short story "Ward No. 6". Woody Allen has been influenced by Chekhov and references to his works are present in many of his films including Love and Death (1975), Interiors (1978) and Hannah and Her Sisters (1986). Plays by Chekhov are also referenced in François Truffaut's 1980 drama film The Last Metro, which is set in a theatre. The Cherry Orchard has a role in the comedy film ''Henry's Crime (2011). A portion of a stage production of Three Sisters appears in the 2014 drama film Still Alice. The 2022 Foreign Language Oscar winner, Drive My Car, is centered on a production of Uncle Vanya''. Several of Chekhov's short stories were adapted as episodes of the 1986 Indian anthology television series Katha Sagar. Another Indian television series titled Chekhov Ki Duniya aired on DD National in the 1990s, adapting different works of Chekhov.<ref>{{cite web \|titleChekhov Ki Duniya \|urlhttps://nettv4u.com/about/Hindi/tv-serials/chekhov-ki-duniya \|websitenettv4u \|languageen}}</ref> Nuri Bilge Ceylan's Palme d'Or winner Winter Sleep was adapted from the short story "The Wife" by Anton Chekhov.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastDiken \|firstBülent \|date1 September 2017 \|titleMoney, Religion, and Symbolic Exchange in Winter Sleep \|urlhttps://www.berghahnjournals.com/view/journals/religion-and-society/8/1/arrs080106.xml \|journalReligion and Society \|languageen-US \|volume8 \|issue1 \|pages94–108 \|doi10.3167/arrs.2017.080106 \|issn2150-9301}}</ref> Publications {{Main\|Anton Chekhov bibliography}} See also {{Portal\|Literature\|Biography\|Russia\|Soviet Union\|Anarchism\|Communism\|Socialism\|Organized Labour\|Environment\|Feminism}} * Chekhov's gun * Chekhov Library * Chekhov Monument in Rostov-on-Don * Ann Dunnigan, English-language translator * Jean-Claude van Itallie, English-language translator Explanatory notes {{notelist\|30em}} Citations {{Reflist\|22em}} General and cited sources {{refbegin\|30em}} * {{cite book \|lastAllen \|firstDavid \|titlePerforming Chekhov \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/performingchekho0000alle \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet Archive \|publication-placeLondon \|publisherRoutledge \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-203-01950-4 \|doi10.4324/9780203019504 \|oclc559297281}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastBartlett \|editor-firstRosamund \|editor-linkRosamund Bartlett \|translator-lastBartlett \|translator-firstRosamund \|translator-last2Phillips \|translator-first2Anthony \|titleAnton Chekhov: A Life in Letters \|publisherPenguin Books \|publication-placeLondon \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-14-044922-8 \|oclc1131582937 \|ref{{sfnref\|Bartlett\|2004a}}}} * {{cite book \|lastBartlett \|firstRosamund \|author-linkRosamund Bartlett \|titleChekhov: Scenes from a Life \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/chekhovscenesfro0000bart \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet ARchive \|publisherFree Press \|publication-placeLondon \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-7432-3074-2 \|oclc632112773 \|ref={{sfnref\|Bartlett\|2004b}}}} * {{cite book \|editor-lastBenedetti \|editor-firstJean \|editor-linkJean Benedetti\|translator-lastBenedetti \|translator-firstJean \|titleDear Writer, Dear Actress: The Love Letters of Olga Knipper and Anton Chekhov \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dearwriterdearac0000chek/page/n7/mode/2up \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet Archive \|publisherEcco Press \|publication-placeHopewell, N.J. \|year1997 \|isbn978-0-88001-550-9 \|oclc891822370}} * Benedetti, Jean, Stanislavski: An Introduction, Methuen Drama, 1989 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-413-50030-4}} * {{cite book \|lastBloom \|firstHarold \|author-linkHarold Bloom \|titleGenius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds \|publisherWarner Books \|publication-placeNew York \|year2002 \|isbn978-0-446-69129-1 \|oclc=1285554573}} * Borny, Geoffrey, Interpreting Chekhov, ANU Press, 2006, {{ISBN\|1-920942-68-8}}, [https://press.anu.edu.au/publications/interpreting-chekhov/download free download] * {{cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton \|translator-lastBartlett \|translator-firstRosamund \|translator-linkRosamund Bartlett\|titleAbout Love and Other Stories \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/aboutloveotherst0000chek \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet Archive \|publication-placeOxford & New York \|publisherOxford University Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-0-19-280260-6 \|oclc252643218 \|ref={{sfnref \|Chekhov \|Bartlett \|2004}}}} * Chekhov, Anton, The Undiscovered Chekhov: Fifty New Stories, translated by Peter Constantine, Duck Editions, 2001, {{ISBN\|978-0-7156-3106-5}} * {{cite book \|lastChekhov \|firstAnton Pavlovich \|translator-lastGarnett \|translator-firstConstance \|titleLetters of Anton Chekhov \|urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 \|publisherProject Gutenberg \|year2004 \|orig-year1920 \|oclc746986995 \|ref={{sfnref \|Chekhov \|Garnett \|2004}}}} {{open access}} ebooks also available at {{OCLC\|647111461\|647103583}} * Chekhov, Anton, Easter Week, translated by Michael Henry Heim, engravings by Barry Moser, Shackman Press, 2010 * {{cite book \|last1Chekhov \|first1Anton \|translator-lastPayne \|translator-firstRobert \|translator-linkPierre Stephen Robert Payne \|year1991 \|titleForty Stories \|publisherVintage Classics\|locationNew York City \|isbn978-0-679-73375-1 \|ref={{sfnref\|Payne\|1991}} }} * Chekhov, Anton, Letters of Anton Chekhov to His Family and Friends with Biographical Sketch, translated by Constance Garnett, Macmillan, 1920. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6408 Full text at Gutenberg.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007. * Chekhov, Anton, Note-Book of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W. Huebsch, 1921. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12494 Full text at Gutenberg.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007. * Chekhov, Anton, The Other Chekhov, edited by Okla Elliott and Kyle Minor, with story introductions by Pinckney Benedict, Fred Chappell, Christopher Coake, Paul Crenshaw, Dorothy Gambrell, Steven Gillis, Michelle Herman, Jeff Parker, Benjamin Percy, and David R. Slavitt. New American Press, 2008 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-9729679-8-3}} * Chekhov, Anton, Seven Short Novels, translated by Barbara Makanowitzky, W. W. Norton & Company, 2003 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-393-00552-3}} * Clyman, T. W. (Ed.). A Chekhov companion. Westport, Ct: Greenwood Press, (1985). {{ISBN\|9780313234231}} * Finke, Michael C., ''Chekhov's 'Steppe': A Metapoetic Journey, an essay in Anton Chekhov Rediscovered, ed Savely Senderovich and Munir Sendich, Michigan Russian Language Journal, 1988, {{OCLC\|17003357}} * Finke, Michael C., Seeing Chekhov: Life and Art, Cornell UP, 2005, {{ISBN\|978-0-8014-4315-2}} * Gerhardie, William, Anton Chekhov, Macdonald, (1923) 1974 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-356-04609-9}} * Gorky, Maksim, Alexander Kuprin, and I.A. Bunin, Reminiscences of Anton Chekhov, translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf, B.W.Huebsch, 1921. [http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm Read at eldritchpress.]. Retrieved 16 February 2007. * Gottlieb, Vera, and Paul Allain (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Chekhov, Cambridge University Press, 2000, {{ISBN\|978-0-521-58917-8}} * Jackson, Robert Louis, Dostoevsky in Chekhov's Garden of Eden&nbsp;– 'Because of Little Apples', in Dialogues with Dostoevsky, Stanford University Press, 1993, {{ISBN\|978-0-8047-2120-2}} * Klawans, Harold L., Chekhov's Lie, 1997, {{ISBN\|1-888799-12-9}}. About the challenges of combining writing with the medical life. * {{cite book \|last1Malcolm \|first1Janet \|author-link1Janet Malcolm\|titleReading Chekhov, a Critical Journey \|locationLondon \|publisherGranta Publications \|year2004 \|orig-year2001 \|isbn9781862076358 \|oclc224119811 }} {{cite book \|editor-lastMiles \|editor-firstPatrick \|editor-linkPatrick Miles (writer) \|titleChekhov on the British Stage \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/chekhovonbritish0000unse \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet Archive \|publisherCambridge Univ. Press \|publication-placeNew York, NY \|year1993 \|isbn978-0-521-38467-4 \|oclc26363574}} Nabokov, Vladimir, Anton Chekhov, in Lectures on Russian Literature, Harvest/HBJ Books, [1981] 2002 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-15-602776-2}}. * Pitcher, Harvey, Chekhov's Leading Lady: Portrait of the Actress Olga Knipper, J Murray, 1979, {{ISBN\|978-0-7195-3681-6}} * {{cite book \|last1Power \|first1Arthur \|last2Joyce \|first2James \|titleConversations with James Joyce \|publisherMillington \|publication-placeLondon \|date1974 \|isbn=978-0-86000-006-8}} Republished in 2012 as an ebook: {{OCLC\|817895885}} * Prose, Francine, Learning from Chekhov, in Writers on Writing, ed. Robert Pack and Jay Parini, UPNE, 1991, {{ISBN\|978-0-87451-560-2}} * {{cite book \|last1Rayfield \|first1Donald \|author-link1Donald Rayfield \|year1997 \|titleAnton Chekhov: A Life \|locationLondon \|publisherHarperCollins \|isbn9780805057478 \|id{{OCLC\|654644946\|229213309}} \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/antonchekhovlife0000rayf }} * Sekirin, Peter. "Memories of Chekhov: Accounts of the Writer from His Family, Friends and Contemporaries," MacFarland Publishers, 2011, {{ISBN\|978-0-7864-5871-4}} * {{cite book \|last1Simmons \|first1Ernest Joseph \|titleChekhov: A Biography \|locationChicago \|publisherUniversity of Chicago Press \|orig-year1962 \|year1970 \|isbn9780226758053 \|oclc682992 \|url-accessregistration \|url=https://archive.org/details/chekhovbiography0000simm_w9k2 }} * Speirs, L. Tolstoy and Chekhov. Cambridge, England: University Press, (1971), {{ISBN\|0521079500}} * Stanislavski, Constantin, My Life in Art, Methuen Drama, 1980 edition, {{ISBN\|978-0-413-46200-8}} * {{cite book \|lastStyan \|firstJohn Louis \|titleModern Drama in Theory and Practice \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/moderndramainthe0001stya \|url-accessregistration \|viaInternet Archive \|publisherCambridge University Press \|publication-placeCambridge \|year1981 \|isbn978-0-521-23068-1 \|oclc=752009093}} * Troyat, Henri, Chekhov, London: Macmillan, 1987, {{ISBN\|978-0-33344-141-1}} * {{cite book \|last1Wood \|first1James \|author-link1James Wood (critic) \|year2000 \|orig-year1999 \|chapterWhat Chekhov Meant by Life \|titleThe Broken Estate: Essays in Literature and Belief \|locationNew York, NY \|publisherModern Library \|isbn9780804151900 \|oclc=863217943}} * Zeiger, Arthur, The Plays of Anton Chekhov, Claxton House, Inc., New York, NY, 1945. * Tufarulo, G, M., La Luna è morta e lo specchio infranto. Miti letterari del Novecento, vol.1 – G. Laterza, Bari, 2009– {{ISBN\|978-88-8231-491-0}}. {{refend}} External links {{Sister project links \|wikt=no \|b=no \|q=Anton Chekhov \|s=Author:Anton Chekhov \|commons=Category:Anton Pavlovich Chekhov \|n=no \|v=no \|species=no}} {{Spoken Wikipedia\|En-Anton_Chekhov_(intro).ogg\|date=26 July 2012}} ; Biographical * {{Books and Writers \|idtsehov \|nameAnton Chekhov}} * [http://www.online-literature.com/anton_chekhov/ Biography] at The Literature Network'' * [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3845755 "Chekhov's Legacy"] by Cornel West at NPR, 2004 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090414073007/http://tgpi.ttn.ru/ The International competition of philological, culture and film studies works dedicated to Anton Chekhov's life and creative work] {{in lang\|ru}} ; Documentary * 2010: [https://www.srf.ch/sendungen/sternstunde-kunst/tschechow-lieben Tschechow lieben] (Tschechow and Women) – Director: Marina Rumjanzewa – Language: German ; Works * {{StandardEbooks\|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/anton-chekhov}} * {{Gutenberg author \|id708\| nameAnton Pavlovich Chekhov}}. All Constance Garnett's translations of the short stories and letters are available, plus the edition of the Note-book translated by S. S. Koteliansky and Leonard Woolf – see the "References" section for print publication details of all of these. Site also has translations of all the plays. * {{Internet Archive author}} * {{Librivox author \|id=147}} * [http://www.ibiblio.org/eldritch/ac/jr/index.htm 201 Stories by Anton Chekhov], translated by Constance Garnett presented in chronological order of Russian publication with annotations. * [http://public-library.ru/Chekhov.Anton/ Антон Павлович Чехов. Указатель] Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian, listed in chronological order, and also alphabetically by title. Retrieved June 2013. {{in lang\|ru}} * [http://ilibrary.ru/author/chekhov/ Антон Павлович Чехов] Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian. Retrieved 16 February 2007. {{in lang\|ru}} * {{OL author\|id=OL19677A}} {{Chekhov}} {{navboxes \|list= {{Uncle Vanya}} {{Three Sisters}} {{The Seagull}} {{The Cherry Orchard}} {{Modernism}} }} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chekhov, Anton}} Category:1860 births Category:1904 deaths Category:19th-century dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire Category:19th-century physicians from the Russian Empire Category:19th-century short story writers from the Russian Empire Category:20th-century deaths from tuberculosis Category:20th-century Russian dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century Russian physicians Category:20th-century Russian short story writers Category:Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery Category:Comedy writers Category:19th-century diarists from the Russian Empire Category:Dramaturges Category:Male writers from the Russian Empire Category:Modernist theatre Category:Moscow Art Theatre Category:Moscow State University alumni Category:19th-century non-fiction writers from the Russian Empire Category:Novelists from the Russian Empire Category:People from Yekaterinoslav Governorate Category:Philanthropists from the Russian Empire Category:Ecofeminists Category:Positivists Category:Pushkin Prize winners Category:Russian-language writers Category:Russian atheists Category:Russian anarchists Category:Russian communists Category:Russian socialists Category:Russian Marxists Category:Russian environmentalists Category:Russian feminists Category:Russian male dramatists and playwrights Category:Russian male novelists Category:Russian medical writers Category:Russian opinion journalists Category:Russian psychological fiction writers Category:Tuberculosis deaths in Germany Category:Writers from Taganrog Category:Wikipedia articles containing unlinked shortened footnotes <!-- Category:Literary realism -->	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov	2025-04-05T18:26:04.681304
2448	Action Against Hunger	{{Short description\|Global humanitarian aid organization}} {{Infobox organization \| name = Action Against Hunger \| image = Eng Col RGB - Copy.png \| image_border \| size 210px \| caption \| map \| msize \| mcaption \| formation = {{start date\|1979}} \| extinction \| type Non-profit \| purpose = To end child hunger whilst providing communities with access to safe water and amazing solutions to hunger. \| headquarters = New York, USA; Toronto, Canada; London, UK; Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; Mumbai, India; Milan, Italy \| location \| region_served Over 51 countries around the world \| membership \| language \| leader_title \| leader_name \| main_organ \| parent_organization \| affiliations \| num_staff Over 7000 \| website = [https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/ www.actioncontrelafaim.org (FR)] [http://www.actionagainsthunger.org www.actionagainsthunger.org (US)] [http://www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk (UK)] [http://www.actioncontrelafaim.ca www.actioncontrelafaim.ca (CA)] [https://www.accioncontraelhambre.org www.accioncontraelhambre.org (ES)] [https://www.actionagainsthunger.in www.actionagainsthunger.in (IN)] [https://www.azionecontrolafame.it www.azionecontrolafame.it (IT)] \| remarks = }} Action Against Hunger ({{langx\|fr\|Action Contre La Faim - ACF}}) is a global humanitarian organization which originated in France and is committed to ending world hunger. The organization helps malnourished children and provides communities with access to safe water and sustainable solutions to hunger. Pakistan's situation has significant ramifications for food security, particularly with the ongoing high levels of inflation. The added impact of climate change intensifies security concerns, leaving an increasing number of individuals without viable means to provide food and shelter for themselves and their families.<ref>{{Cite web \|lastHansberry \|firstCate \|date2023-09-15 \|titleEmpowering Pakistan's youth to address climate change risks \|urlhttps://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/issue-brief/empowering-pakistans-youth-to-address-climate-change-risks/ \|access-date2023-10-26 \|websiteAtlantic Council \|languageen-US}}</ref> In 2022, Action Against Hunger worked in 56 countries around the world with more than 8,990 employees helping 28 million people in need.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://actioncontrelafaim.ca/about-acf-canada/\|titleAbout Action Against Hunger Canada {{!}} Action Against Hunger\|websiteactioncontrelafaim.ca\|languageen-CA\|access-date=2017-07-27}}</ref><ref>ActionAgainstHunger_GlobalPerformanceReport_2020.pdf</ref> Action Against Hunger was established in 1979 by a group of French doctors, scientists, and writers. Nobel Prize-winning physicist Alfred Kastler served as the organization's first chairman. Currently, Mumbai-based businessman and philanthropist Ashwini Kakkar serves as International President of Action Against Hunger network.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/en/press/mr-ashwini-kakkar-elected-president-of-action-against-hunger-international/\|title Mr. Ashwini Kakkar elected chairman of Action Against Hunger's International network}}</ref> The group initially provided assistance to Afghan refugees in Pakistan, famine-stricken Ugandan communities, and Cambodian refugees in Thailand. It expanded to address additional humanitarian concerns in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, the Balkans, and elsewhere during the 1980s and 1990s. Action Against Hunger's Scientific Committee pioneered the therapeutic milk formula (F100), now used by all major humanitarian aid organizations to treat acute malnutrition. Early results showed that treatment with F100 has the capacity to reduce the mortality rate of severely malnourished children to below 5%, with a median hospital fatality rate quoted of 23.5%.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleDefinition and evaluation of therapeutic food for severely malnourished children in situations of humanitarian emergencies\| pmid10188315 \| volume182 \| journalBull Acad Natl Med\| pages1679–90; discussion 1691–5 \| last1 Desjeux \| first1 JF \| last2 Briend \| first2 A \| last3 Prudhon \| first3 C \| last4 Greletty \| first4 Y \| last5 Golden \| first5 MH\| year1998 \| issue=8 }}</ref> A few years later, the therapeutic milk was repackaged as ready-to-use therapeutic foods (RUTFs), a peanut-based paste packaged like a power bar. These bars allow for the treatment of malnutrition at home and do not require any preparation or refrigeration. The international network currently has headquarters in eight countries – France, Germany, Spain, the United States, Canada, Italy, India, and the UK. Its four main areas of work include nutrition, food security, water and sanitation, and advocacy.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/missions/\|titleNos missions humanitaires dans le monde\|websiteAction contre la Faim\|languagefr\|access-date=2019-04-02}}</ref> The integrated approaches with various sectors of intervention are: * Nutrition and Health * Water, Sanitation and Hygiene * Food Security & Livelihoods * Emergency Response In 2022, Action Against Hunger USA is leading a USAID-funded project to address health and nutrition challenges associated with policy, advocacy, financing, and governance in communities around the world, and will work in partnership with leading organizations such as Pathfinder International, Amref Health Africa, Global Communities, Humanity & Inclusion, Kupenda for the Children, and Results for Development.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.actionagainsthunger.org/press-releases/action-against-hunger-usa-to-lead-usaid-funded-global-propel-adapt-project/\|titleAction Against Hunger USA to Lead USAID-Funded Global PROPEL Adapt Project\|websiteAction Against Hunger\|languageen\|access-date2023-02-06}}</ref> Restaurants against hunger Action Against Hunger partners with leaders from the food and beverage industry to bring attention to global hunger. Each year, several campaigns are run by the network to raise funds and support the organisation's programs : Restaurants Against Hunger and Love Food Give Food.<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk/who-are-we/our-supporters/restaurant-industry-supporters\|titleRestaurant fundraising {{!}} Action Against Hunger UK\|websitewww.actionagainsthunger.org.uk\|access-date2019-04-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttps://www.actionagainsthunger.org/restaurants-against-hunger\|titleRestaurants Against Hunger\|date2015-08-07\|websiteAction Against Hunger\|languageen\|access-date2019-04-02}}</ref> Countries of intervention In 2022, Action Against Hunger International Network is present in 56 countries:<ref>{{Cite web\|urlhttp://www.actionagainsthunger.org/countries\|titleCountries {{!}} Action Against Hunger\|websitewww.actionagainsthunger.org\|date7 August 2013\|languageen\|access-date2017-07-27}}</ref> Africa Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Chad, Zimbabwe, Zambia Asia Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, South Caucasus Caribbean Haïti Europe Turkey, Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, Poland Middle East Afghanistan, Lebanon, Syria, Palestinian Occupied Territories, Yemen, Jordan, Iraq Latin America Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Honduras, Venezuela Action Against Hunger international network Since 1995 Action Against Hunger developed an international network to have a bigger global impact. The Network has headquarters around the world: France, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India, and Italy. Action Against Hunger has also a West Africa Regional Office (WARO) located in Dakar, a Horn and Eastern Africa Regional Office in Nairobi, and five logistic platforms (Lyon, Paris, Barcelona, Dubai, Panama). This network increases the human and financial capacities and enables specialisation per headquarter. * Action Against Hunger in France, Spain and the USA are the operational headquarters. They manage the interventions directly on the field. In order to maximize efficiency and coherence, these three operational headquarters work under the principle of one headquarter per country of intervention. * Action Against Hunger UK focuses on research, monitoring and evaluation, notably with Hunger Watch. The UK headquarters also plays an intermediary role with DFID. * Action Against Hunger Canada raises public and private funds in North America and plays an increasing role on the national level. * Action Against Hunger / Azione contro la Fame Italia raises private funds and promotes important campaigns in order to sensitize the Italian public opinion on hunger and malnutrition. See also 2006 Trincomalee massacre of NGO workers References {{Reflist}} Further reading Michelle Jurkovich. 2020. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvrxk1j8 Feeding the Hungry: Advocacy and Blame in the Global Fight against Hunger.] Cornell University Press. External links [http://www.actionagainsthunger.org/ Action Against Hunger US website] [http://www.actionagainsthunger.org.uk/ Action Against Hunger UK website] [http://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/ Action Contre la Faim France website] [http://www.accioncontraelhambre.org/ Acción Contra el Hambre Spain website] [http://www.actioncontrelafaim.ca/ Action Contre la Faim Canada website] [http://www.aktiongegendenhunger.de/ Aktion gegen den Hunger Germany website] {{in lang\|de}} *[http://www.azionecontrolafame.it/ Azione contro la Fame Italy website] {{in lang\|it}} {{Humanitarian Aid}} {{Humanitarian partners of the European Commission}} {{Authority control}} Category:Development charities based in France Category:Hunger relief organizations Category:International charities Category:Organizations based in Paris Category:Organizations established in 1979 Category:1979 establishments in France	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_Against_Hunger	2025-04-05T18:26:04.689019
2452	AW	A&W, AW, Aw, aW or aw may refer to: Companies A&W Restaurants A&W Root Beer A&W (Canada) Addison-Wesley, publishers Africa World Airlines, IATA code Prefix for helicopters made by AgustaWestland Alienware Allied Waste Industries, Inc, stock symbol on NYSE Armstrong Whitworth, a British manufacturing company Media and entertainment Accel World, a Japanese light novel series Active Worlds, a 3D virtual reality platform Another World (TV series), an American soap opera Athletics Weekly, a monthly track and field magazine published in the United Kingdom Aviation Week, magazine Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, an action video game People A. H. Weiler (1908 – 2002), The New York Times film critic whose early reviews were signed with his initials A. W. A. W. (poet), anonymous 16th century poet Abraham Washington (A. W.), American professional wrestler and wrestling commentator Alan Walker (born 1997), English-Norwegian music producer and DJ Aw (father), honorific title in the Harari and Somali languages Aw (surname), a Cantonese surname John-Allison Weiss, an American singer-songwriter formerly known as A. W. Andy Warhol, a leading figure in the pop art movement. Places Ahrweiler (district), Germany, vehicle registration code Aruba (ISO 3166-1 2-letter country code AW) Science and technology .aw, the internet top level domain country code for Aruba Airwatt, a unit of the effectiveness of vacuum cleaners Aw, categorization for tropical savanna climate in the Köppen classification system AW, in German email subject line, equivalent to Re: aw, or attowatt, an SI unit of power aw, or water activity, the relative availability of water in a substance Other uses Agencja Wywiadu, the Polish foreign intelligence service Ahnapee and Western Railway, A&W Arctic Warfare, a sniper rifle Anthony Wayne Local School District, an American school district in Ohio Aviation Warfare Systems Operator, a rating in the United States Navy Aw, a digraph in Latin-script A US Navy hull classification symbol: Distilling ship (AW) See also Av	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AW	2025-04-05T18:26:04.693722
2457	Apoptosis	{{Short description\|Form of programmed cell death}} {{Infobox anatomy \| Name = Apoptosis \| Latin \| Image Apoptosis DU145 cells mosaic.jpg \| Caption = An etoposide-treated DU145 prostate cancer cell exploding into a cascade of apoptotic bodies. The sub images were extracted from a 61-hour time-lapse microscopy video, created using quantitative phase-contrast microscopy. The optical thickness is color-coded. With increasing thickness, color changes from gray to yellow, red, purple and finally black. [http://www.cellimagelibrary.org/images/43705<br />See the video at The Cell: An Image Library] \| Width = 306 \| Image2 \| Caption2 \| Precursor \| System \| Artery \| Vein \| Nerve \| Lymph }} Apoptosis (from {{langx\|grc\|ἀπόπτωσις\|apóptōsis\|falling off}}) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast.<ref>{{cite book\|vauthorsGreen D\|titleMeans to an End: Apoptosis and other Cell Death Mechanisms\|year2011\|publisherCold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press\|locationCold Spring Harbor, NY\|isbn978-0-87969-888-1\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ids8jBcQAACAAJ\|access-date2020-05-25\|archive-date2020-07-26\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726071718/https://books.google.com/books?ids8jBcQAACAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death.<ref name"pmid14499155">{{cite journal \|vauthorsBöhm I, Schild H \|titleApoptosis: the complex scenario for a silent cell death \|journalMol Imaging Biol \|volume5 \|issue1 \|pages2–14 \|year2003 \|pmid14499155 \|doi10.1016/S1536-1632(03)00024-6}}</ref> These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and mRNA decay. The average adult human loses 50 to 70 billion cells each day due to apoptosis.{{efn\|Note that the average human adult has more than 13 trillion cells ({{val\|1.3\|e13}}),{{sfn\|Alberts\|p2}} of which at most only 70 billion ({{val\|7.0\|e10}}) die per day. That is, about 5 out of every 1,000 cells (0.5%) die each day due to apoptosis.}} For the average human child between 8 and 14 years old, each day the approximate loss is 20 to 30 billion cells.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Karam JA \|titleApoptosis in Carcinogenesis and Chemotherapy\|year2009\|publisherSpringer\|locationNetherlands\|isbn978-1-4020-9597-9}}</ref> In contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is a highly regulated and controlled process that confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the separation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the digits undergo apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytes are able to engulf and remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage to them.<ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P \|titleMolecular Biology of the Cell (textbook) \|edition5th \|publisherGarland Science \|page1115 \|chapterChapter 18 Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death Eliminates Unwanted Cells \|year2008 \|isbn978-0-8153-4105-5\|title-link=Molecular Biology of the Cell (textbook) }}</ref> Because apoptosis cannot stop once it has begun, it is a highly regulated process. Apoptosis can be initiated through one of two pathways. In the intrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because it senses cell stress, while in the extrinsic pathway the cell kills itself because of signals from other cells. Weak external signals may also activate the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Raychaudhuri S \| title A minimal model of signaling network elucidates cell-to-cell stochastic variability in apoptosis \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 5 \| issue 8 \| pages e11930 \| date August 2010 \| pmid 20711445 \| pmc 2920308 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0011930 \| arxiv 1009.2294 \| doi-access free \| bibcode = 2010PLoSO...511930R }}</ref> Both pathways induce cell death by activating caspases, which are proteases, or enzymes that degrade proteins. The two pathways both activate initiator caspases, which then activate executioner caspases, which then kill the cell by degrading proteins indiscriminately. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in a wide variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer. Some factors like Fas receptors and caspases promote apoptosis, while some members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins inhibit apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Elmore S \| title Apoptosis: A Review of Programmed Cell Death \| journal Toxicologic Pathology \| volume 35 \| issue 4 \| pages 495–516 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17562483 \| pmc 2117903 \| doi 10.1080/01926230701320337 }}</ref> Discovery and etymology {{Main\|History of apoptosis research}} German scientist Carl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Kerr at the University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis from traumatic cell death.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kerr JF \| title A histochemical study of hypertrophy and ischaemic injury of rat liver with special reference to changes in lysosomes \| journal The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology \| volume 90 \| issue 2 \| pages 419–435 \| date October 1965 \| pmid 5849603 \| doi 10.1002/path.1700900210 }}</ref> Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, who was Currie's graduate student,<ref name"AHW 1972">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.a-star.edu.sg/astar/biomed/action/biomed_dvp_abstract.do?id2901ddeb02dH \|titleProf Andrew H. Wyllie – Lecture Abstract \|access-date2007-03-30 \|author Agency for Science, Technology and Research \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071113101931/http://www.a-star.edu.sg/astar/biomed/action/biomed_dvp_abstract.do?id2901ddeb02dH \|archive-date2007-11-13 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> at the University of Aberdeen. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer.<ref name"Kerr1972">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kerr JF, Wyllie AH, Currie AR \| title Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics \| journal British Journal of Cancer \| volume 26 \| issue 4 \| pages 239–257 \| date August 1972 \| pmid 4561027 \| pmc 2008650 \| doi 10.1038/bjc.1972.33 }}</ref> Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called apoptosis. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist H. Robert Horvitz.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors O'Rourke MG, Ellem KA \| title John Kerr and apoptosis \| journal The Medical Journal of Australia \| volume 173 \| issue 11–12 \| pages 616–617 \| year 2000 \| pmid 11379508 \| doi 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb139362.x \| s2cid 38265127 }}</ref> For many years, neither "apoptosis" nor "programmed cell death" was a highly cited term. Two discoveries brought cell death from obscurity to a major field of research: identification of the first component of the cell death control and effector mechanisms, and linkage of abnormalities in cell death to human disease, in particular cancer. This occurred in 1988 when it was shown that BCL2, the gene responsible for follicular lymphoma, encoded a protein that inhibited cell death.<ref namebcl2>{{cite journal \|vauthorsVaux DL, Cory S, Adams JM \|titleBcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells \|journalNature \|volume335 \|issue6189 \|pages440–2 \|dateSeptember 1988 \|pmid3262202 \|doi10.1038/335440a0 \|bibcode1988Natur.335..440V \|s2cid23593952 }}</ref> The 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded to Sydney Brenner, H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston for their work identifying genes that control apoptosis. The genes were identified by studies in the nematode C. elegans and homologues of these genes function in humans to regulate apoptosis.<ref>{{Cite web \|titleThe Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2002 \|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/summary/#content \|access-date2025-01-13 \|websiteNobelPrize.org \|language=en-US}}</ref> won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2002, for his pioneering research on apoptosis.]] In Greek, apoptosis translates to the "falling off" of leaves from a tree.{{sfn\|Alberts\|p1021}} Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before. Hippocrates used the term to mean "the falling off of the bones". Galen extended its meaning to "the dropping of the scabs". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second p silent ({{IPAc-en\|æ\|p\|ə\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|s\|ᵻ\|s}} {{respell\|ap-ə\|TOH\|sis}}<ref nameahdictionary>{{cite web \|titleThe American Heritage Dictionary entry: apoptosis \|urlhttps://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?qapoptosis \|websiteahdictionary.com \|publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company \|access-date26 July 2021 \|date2020 \|archive-date26 July 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210726211047/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?qapoptosis \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"aboutapop">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.nih.gov/sigs/aig/Aboutapo.html\|titleAbout apoptosis\|access-date2006-12-15\|year1999\|authorApoptosis Interest Group\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061228100402/http://www.nih.gov/sigs/aig/Aboutapo.html\|archive-date28 December 2006\|url-statusdead}}</ref>) and the second p pronounced ({{IPAc-en\|ei\|p\|ə\|p\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|s\|ᵻ\|s}}).<ref nameahdictionary/><ref name"webster.com">{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.webster.com/dictionary/apoptosis\|titleDefinition of apoptosis\|websitewww.webster.com\|access-date2007-08-11\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070703020311/http://webster.com/dictionary/apoptosis\|archive-date2007-07-03\|url-status=dead}}</ref> In English, the p of the Greek -pt- consonant cluster is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g. pterodactyl, Ptolemy), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in helicopter or the orders of insects: diptera, lepidoptera, etc. In the original Kerr, Wyllie & Currie paper,<ref name=Kerr1972/> there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation: <blockquote>We are most grateful to Professor James Cormack of the Department of Greek, University of Aberdeen, for suggesting this term. The word "apoptosis" ({{lang\|grc\|ἀπόπτωσις}}) is used in Greek to describe the "dropping off" or "falling off" of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees. To show the derivation clearly, we propose that the stress should be on the penultimate syllable, the second half of the word being pronounced like "ptosis" (with the "p" silent), which comes from the same root "to fall", and is already used to describe the drooping of the upper eyelid.</blockquote> Activation mechanisms The initiation of apoptosis is tightly regulated by activation mechanisms, because once apoptosis has begun, it inevitably leads to the death of the cell.{{sfn\|Alberts\|p1029}}<ref name"pmid14499155"/> The two best-understood activation mechanisms are the intrinsic pathway (also called the mitochondrial pathway) and the extrinsic pathway.{{sfn\|Alberts\|p1023}} The intrinsic pathway is activated by intracellular signals generated when cells are stressed and depends on the release of proteins from the intermembrane space of mitochondria.{{sfn\|Alberts\|p1032}} The extrinsic pathway is activated by extracellular ligands binding to cell-surface death receptors, which leads to the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC).{{sfn\|Alberts\|p=1024}} A cell initiates intracellular apoptotic signaling in response to a stress,<ref>{{cite journal \| last1Nirmala \| first1J. Grace \| last2Lopus \| first2Manu \| titleCell death mechanisms in eukaryotes \| journalCell Biology and Toxicology \| volume36 \| issue2 \| date2020 \| issn1573-6822 \| pmid31820165 \| doi10.1007/s10565-019-09496-2 \| pages145–164\| s2cid208869679 }}</ref> which may bring about cell death. The binding of nuclear receptors by glucocorticoids,<ref name"robspath">{{cite book \| titleRobbins Pathologic Basis of Disease\| vauthors Cotran RS, Kumar C \| publisherW.B Saunders Company\| locationPhiladelphia\| isbn978-0-7216-7335-6 \| year1998 }}</ref> heat,<ref name"robspath"/> radiation,<ref name"robspath"/> nutrient deprivation,<ref name"robspath"/> viral infection,<ref name"robspath"/> hypoxia,<ref name"robspath"/> increased intracellular concentration of free fatty acids<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hardy S, El-Assaad W, Przybytkowski E, Joly E, Prentki M, Langelier Y \| title Saturated fatty acid-induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. A role for cardiolipin \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 278 \| issue 34 \| pages 31861–31870 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 12805375 \| doi 10.1074/jbc.m300190200 \| doi-access free}}</ref> and increased intracellular calcium concentration,<ref name"pmid14647298">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mattson MP, Chan SL \| title Calcium orchestrates apoptosis \| journal Nature Cell Biology \| volume 5 \| issue 12 \| pages 1041–1043 \| date December 2003 \| pmid 14647298 \| doi 10.1038/ncb1203-1041 \| s2cid 38427579 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/1233353 \| access-date 2018-05-18 \| archive-date 2019-11-21 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20191121062421/https://zenodo.org/record/1233353 \| url-status live }}</ref><ref name"pmid19898892">{{cite journal \| vauthors Uğuz AC, Naziroğlu M, Espino J, Bejarano I, González D, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA \| title Selenium modulates oxidative stress-induced cell apoptosis in human myeloid HL-60 cells through regulation of calcium release and caspase-3 and -9 activities \| journal The Journal of Membrane Biology \| volume 232 \| issue 1–3 \| pages 15–23 \| date December 2009 \| pmid 19898892 \| doi 10.1007/s00232-009-9212-2 \| s2cid 22215706 }}</ref> for example, by damage to the membrane, can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as poly ADP ribose polymerase, may also help regulate apoptosis.<ref name"parp1">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chiarugi A, Moskowitz MA \| title Cell biology. PARP-1--a perpetrator of apoptotic cell death? \| journal Science \| volume 297 \| issue 5579 \| pages 200–201 \| date July 2002 \| pmid 12114611 \| doi 10.1126/science.1074592 \| s2cid 82828773 }}</ref> Single cell fluctuations have been observed in experimental studies of stress induced apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Goldstein JC, Waterhouse NJ, Juin P, Evan GI, Green DR \| title The coordinate release of cytochrome c during apoptosis is rapid, complete and kinetically invariant \| journal Nature Cell Biology \| volume 2 \| issue 3 \| pages 156–162 \| date March 2000 \| pmid 10707086 \| doi 10.1038/35004029 \| s2cid 2283955 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lee JK, Lu S, Madhukar A \| title Real-Time dynamics of Ca2+, caspase-3/7, and morphological changes in retinal ganglion cell apoptosis under elevated pressure \| journal PLOS ONE \| volume 5 \| issue 10 \| pages e13437 \| date October 2010 \| pmid 20976135 \| pmc 2956638 \| doi 10.1371/journal.pone.0013437 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 2010PLoSO...513437L }}</ref> Before the actual process of cell death is precipitated by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to initiate the apoptosis pathway. This step allows those signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: the targeting of mitochondria functionality,<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bejarano I, Espino J, González-Flores D, Casado JG, Redondo PC, Rosado JA, Barriga C, Pariente JA, Rodríguez AB \| display-authors 6 \| title Role of Calcium Signals on Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Apoptosis in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells \| journal International Journal of Biomedical Science \| volume 5 \| issue 3 \| pages 246–256 \| date September 2009 \| doi 10.59566/IJBS.2009.5246 \| pmid 23675144 \| pmc 3614781 }}</ref> or directly transducing the signal via adaptor proteins to the apoptotic mechanisms. An extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastMoon \|firstDong-Oh \|date19 May 2023 \|titleCalcium's Role in Orchestrating Cancer Apoptosis: Mitochondrial-Centric Perspective \|journalInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences \|languageen \|volume24 \|issue10 \|pages8982 \|doi10.3390/ijms24108982 \|doi-accessfree \|issn\|pmc 10218825\|pmid37240331}}</ref>Intrinsic pathwayThe intrinsic pathway is also known as the mitochondrial pathway. Mitochondria are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to respire aerobically and quickly dies. This fact forms the basis for some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and cause apoptotic effectors to leak out.<ref name"robspath"/><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gonzalez D, Bejarano I, Barriga C, Rodriguez AB, Pariente JA \|doi10.2174/157436210791112172\|titleOxidative Stress-Induced Caspases are Regulated in Human Myeloid HL-60 Cells by Calcium Signal\|journalCurrent Signal Transduction Therapy\|volume5\|issue2\|pages181–186\|year2010 }}</ref> There is also a growing body of evidence indicating that nitric oxide is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the membrane potential of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable.<ref name"NO">{{cite journal \| vauthors Brüne B \| title Nitric oxide: NO apoptosis or turning it ON? \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 10 \| issue 8 \| pages 864–869 \| date August 2003 \| pmid 12867993 \| doi 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401261 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Nitric oxide has been implicated in initiating and inhibiting apoptosis through its possible action as a signal molecule of subsequent pathways that activate apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Brüne B, von Knethen A, Sandau KB \| title Nitric oxide (NO): an effector of apoptosis \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 6 \| issue 10 \| pages 969–975 \| date October 1999 \| pmid 10556974 \| doi 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400582 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> During apoptosis, cytochrome c is released from mitochondria through the actions of the proteins Bax and Bak. The mechanism of this release is enigmatic, but appears to stem from a multitude of Bax/Bak homo- and hetero-dimers of Bax/Bak inserted into the outer membrane.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Uren RT, Iyer S, Kluck RM \| title Pore formation by dimeric Bak and Bax: an unusual pore? \| journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences \| volume 372 \| issue 1726 \| pages 20160218 \| date August 2017 \| pmid 28630157 \| pmc 5483520 \| doi 10.1098/rstb.2016.0218 }}</ref> Once cytochrome c is released it binds with Apoptotic protease activating factor – 1 (Apaf-1) and ATP, which then bind to pro-caspase-9 to create a protein complex known as an apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of caspase-9, which in turn cleaves and activates pro-caspase into the effector caspase-3.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1Li \|first1Peng \|last2Nijhawan \|first2Deepak \|last3Budihardjo \|first3Imawati \|last4Srinivasula \|first4Srinivasa M \|last5Ahmad \|first5Manzoor \|last6Alnemri \|first6Emad S \|last7Wang \|first7Xiaodong \|dateNovember 1997 \|titleCytochrome c and dATP-Dependent Formation of Apaf-1/Caspase-9 Complex Initiates an Apoptotic Protease Cascade \|urlhttps://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(00)80434-1?_returnURLhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867400804341?showalltrue \|journalCell \|languageEnglish \|volume91 \|issue4 \|pages479–489 \|doi10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80434-1 \|pmid9390557 \|issn0092-8674 \|archive-urlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20220414022143/https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(00)80434-1?_returnURLhttps%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867400804341%3Fshowall%3Dtrue \|archive-date2022-04-14}}</ref> Mitochondria also release proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases) into the cell's cytosol following the increase in permeability of the mitochondria membranes. SMAC binds to proteins that inhibit apoptosis (IAPs) thereby deactivating them, and preventing the IAPs from arresting the process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of cysteine proteases called caspases,<ref name"caspcontrol">{{cite journal \| vauthors Fesik SW, Shi Y \| title Structural biology. Controlling the caspases \| journal Science \| volume 294 \| issue 5546 \| pages 1477–1478 \| date November 2001 \| pmid 11711663 \| doi 10.1126/science.1062236 \| s2cid 11392850 }}</ref> which carry out the degradation of the cell. Therefore, the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}} Extrinsic pathway {{multiple image \| image1 = TFN-signalling.svg \| width1 = 250 \| image2 = Fas-signalling.svg \| width2 = 250 \| footer = Overview of TNF (left) and Fas (right) signalling in apoptosis, an example of direct signal transduction }} Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the TNF-induced (tumor necrosis factor) model and the Fas-Fas ligand-mediated model, both involving receptors of the TNF receptor (TNFR) family<ref name"fas">{{cite journal \| vauthors Wajant H \| title The Fas signaling pathway: more than a paradigm \| journal Science \| volume 296 \| issue 5573 \| pages 1635–1636 \| date May 2002 \| pmid 12040174 \| doi 10.1126/science.1071553 \| s2cid 29449108 \| bibcode 2002Sci...296.1635W }}</ref> coupled to extrinsic signals. TNF pathway TNF-alpha is a cytokine produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF-alpha: TNFR1 and TNFR2. The binding of TNF-alpha to TNFR1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain (TRADD) and Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD). cIAP1/2 can inhibit TNF-α signaling by binding to TRAF2. FLIP inhibits the activation of caspase-8.<ref name"tnfr1">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chen G, Goeddel DV \| title TNF-R1 signaling: a beautiful pathway \| journal Science \| volume 296 \| issue 5573 \| pages 1634–1635 \| date May 2002 \| pmid 12040173 \| doi 10.1126/science.1071924 \| s2cid 25321662 \| bibcode 2002Sci...296.1634C }}</ref> Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of transcription factors involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses.<ref name"tfnpathway">{{cite journal\| vauthorsGoeddel, DV\| titleConnection Map for Tumor Necrosis Factor Pathway\| journalScience's STKE\| urlhttp://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7107\| doi10.1126/stke.3822007tw132\| volume2007\| issue382\| pagestw132\| year2007\| s2cid85404086\| access-date2004-01-01\| archive-date2009-07-10\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090710024231/http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7107\| url-statusdead}}</ref> However, signalling through TNFR1 might also induce apoptosis in a caspase-independent manner.<ref name"LAPFapoptosis">{{cite journal \| vauthors Chen W, Li N, Chen T, Han Y, Li C, Wang Y, He W, Zhang L, Wan T, Cao X \| display-authors 6 \| title The lysosome-associated apoptosis-inducing protein containing the pleckstrin homology (PH) and FYVE domains (LAPF), representative of a novel family of PH and FYVE domain-containing proteins, induces caspase-independent apoptosis via the lysosomal-mitochondrial pathway \| journal The Journal of Biological Chemistry \| volume 280 \| issue 49 \| pages 40985–40995 \| date December 2005 \| pmid 16188880 \| doi 10.1074/jbc.M502190200 \| doi-access free }}{{Retracted\|doi10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100764\|http://retractionwatch.com/?s%22Xuetao+Cao%22 Retraction Watch\|intentionalyes}}</ref>{{better source needed\|dateOctober 2024}} The link between TNF-alpha and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF-alpha plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases. The TNF-alpha receptor superfamily also includes death receptors (DRs), such as DR4 and DR5. These receptors bind to the protein TRAIL and mediate apoptosis. Apoptosis is known to be one of the primary mechanisms of targeted cancer therapy.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gerl R, Vaux DL \| title Apoptosis in the development and treatment of cancer \| journal Carcinogenesis \| volume 26 \| issue 2 \| pages 263–270 \| date February 2005 \| pmid 15375012 \| doi 10.1093/carcin/bgh283 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrids (IPHs) have recently been designed, which mimic TRAIL and bind to death receptors on cancer cells, thereby inducing their apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Masum AA, Yokoi K, Hisamatsu Y, Naito K, Shashni B, Aoki S \| title Design and synthesis of a luminescent iridium complex-peptide hybrid (IPH) that detects cancer cells and induces their apoptosis \| journal Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry \| volume 26 \| issue 17 \| pages 4804–4816 \| date September 2018 \| pmid 30177492 \| doi 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.08.016 \| s2cid 52149418 }}</ref> Fas pathway {{main\|Activation-induced cell death}} The fas receptor (First apoptosis signal) – (also known as Apo-1 or CD95) is a transmembrane protein of the TNF family which binds the Fas ligand (FasL).<ref name"fas"/> The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis of the cell. In other types of cells (type II), the Fas-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8.<ref name"fassignal">{{cite journal\| vauthorsWajant H\| titleConnection Map for Fas Signaling Pathway\| journalScience's STKE\| urlhttp://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7966\| doi10.1126/stke.3802007tr1\| volume2007\| issue380\| pagestr1\| year2007\| s2cid84909531\| access-date2004-01-01\| archive-date2009-05-03\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090503010824/http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7966\| url-statusdead}}</ref> Common components Following TNF-R1 and Fas activation in mammalian cells{{Citation needed\|reasonThis is only relevant Type II (pancreatic B-cells and hemaetapoetic stem cells), FAS depdnent apoptosis is indepdnent of MOMP\|dateOctober 2020}} a balance between proapoptotic (BAX,<ref name"bax">{{cite journal \| vauthors Murphy KM, Ranganathan V, Farnsworth ML, Kavallaris M, Lock RB \| title Bcl-2 inhibits Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria during drug-induced apoptosis of human tumor cells \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 7 \| issue 1 \| pages 102–111 \| date January 2000 \| pmid 10713725 \| doi 10.1038/sj.cdd.4400597 \| doi-access free \| author-link4 Maria Kavallaris }}</ref> BID, BAK, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-Xl and Bcl-2) members of the Bcl-2 family are established. This balance is the proportion of proapoptotic homodimers that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The proapoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the Bcl-2 family.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Westphal D, Kluck RM, Dewson G \| title Building blocks of the apoptotic pore: how Bax and Bak are activated and oligomerize during apoptosis \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 21 \| issue 2 \| pages 196–205 \| date February 2014 \| pmid 24162660 \| pmc 3890949 \| doi 10.1038/cdd.2013.139 }}</ref> Caspases Caspases play the central role in the transduction of ER apoptotic signals. Caspases are proteins that are highly conserved, cysteine-dependent aspartate-specific proteases. There are two types of caspases: initiator caspases (caspases 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12) and effector caspases (caspases 3, 6, and 7). The activation of initiator caspases requires binding to specific oligomeric activator protein. Effector caspases are then activated by these active initiator caspases through proteolytic cleavage. The active effector caspases then proteolytically degrade a host of intracellular proteins to carry out the cell death program.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}} Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor).<ref name"pmid9989411">{{cite journal \| vauthors Susin SA, Lorenzo HK, Zamzami N, Marzo I, Snow BE, Brothers GM, Mangion J, Jacotot E, Costantini P, Loeffler M, Larochette N, Goodlett DR, Aebersold R, Siderovski DP, Penninger JM, Kroemer G \| display-authors 6 \| title Molecular characterization of mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor \| journal Nature \| volume 397 \| issue 6718 \| pages 441–446 \| date February 1999 \| pmid 9989411 \| doi 10.1038/17135 \| s2cid 204991081 \| bibcode 1999Natur.397..441S }}</ref> Apoptosis model in amphibians The frog Xenopus laevis serves as an ideal model system for the study of the mechanisms of apoptosis. In fact, iodine and thyroxine also stimulate the spectacular apoptosis of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins in amphibian's metamorphosis, and stimulate the evolution of their nervous system transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Jewhurst K, Levin M, McLaughlin KA \| title Optogenetic Control of Apoptosis in Targeted Tissues of Xenopus laevis Embryos \| journal Journal of Cell Death \| volume 7 \| pages 25–31 \| year 2014 \| pmid 25374461 \| pmc 4213186 \| doi 10.4137/JCD.S18368 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \| vauthors Venturi S \| title Evolutionary Significance of Iodine \|journalCurrent Chemical Biology \|volume5 \|pages155–62 \|year2011 \|doi10.2174/187231311796765012 \|issue3\| doi-broken-date 8 January 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|authorVenturi, Sebastiano \|titleIodine, PUFAs and Iodolipids in Health and Disease: An Evolutionary Perspective \|journalHuman Evolution \|volume 29 \|issue1–3 \|pages185–205 \|year2014 \|issn0393-9375}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tamura K, Takayama S, Ishii T, Mawaribuchi S, Takamatsu N, Ito M \| title Apoptosis and differentiation of Xenopus tail-derived myoblasts by thyroid hormone \| journal Journal of Molecular Endocrinology \| volume 54 \| issue 3 \| pages 185–192 \| date June 2015 \| pmid 25791374 \| doi 10.1530/JME-14-0327 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Negative regulators of apoptosis Negative regulation of apoptosis inhibits cell death signaling pathways, helping tumors to evade cell death and developing drug resistance. The ratio between anti-apoptotic&nbsp;(Bcl-2) and pro-apoptotic&nbsp;(Bax) proteins determines whether a cell lives or dies.<ref name"pmid31380246" /><ref name"pmid29149100">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kale J, Osterlund EJ, Andrews DW \| title BCL-2 family proteins: changing partners in the dance towards death \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 25 \| issue 1 \| pages 65–80 \| date January 2018 \| pmid 29149100 \| pmc 5729540 \| doi 10.1038/cdd.2017.186 }}</ref> Many families of proteins act as negative regulators categorized into either antiapoptotic factors, such as IAPs and Bcl-2 proteins or prosurvival factors like cFLIP, BNIP3, FADD, Akt, and NF-κB.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Razaghi A, Heimann K, Schaeffer PM, Gibson SB \| title Negative regulators of cell death pathways in cancer: perspective on biomarkers and targeted therapies \| journal Apoptosis \| volume 23 \| issue 2 \| pages 93–112 \| date February 2018 \| pmid 29322476 \| doi 10.1007/s10495-018-1440-4 \| s2cid 3424489 }}</ref> Proteolytic caspase cascade: Killing the cell Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but these converge on a single mechanism that actually causes the death of the cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic caspases. In addition to the destruction of cellular organelles, mRNA is rapidly and globally degraded by a mechanism that is not yet fully characterized.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Thomas MP, Liu X, Whangbo J, McCrossan G, Sanborn KB, Basar E, Walch M, Lieberman J \| display-authors 6 \| title Apoptosis Triggers Specific, Rapid, and Global mRNA Decay with 3' Uridylated Intermediates Degraded by DIS3L2 \| journal Cell Reports \| volume 11 \| issue 7 \| pages 1079–1089 \| date May 2015 \| pmid 25959823 \| pmc 4862650 \| doi = 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.04.026 }}</ref> mRNA decay is triggered very early in apoptosis. A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a series of characteristic morphological changes. Early alterations include: # Cell shrinkage and rounding occur because of the retraction of lamellipodia and the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Böhm I \| title Disruption of the cytoskeleton after apoptosis induction with autoantibodies \| journal Autoimmunity \| volume 36 \| issue 3 \| pages 183–189 \| date May 2003 \| pmid 12911286 \| doi 10.1080/0891693031000105617 \| s2cid 37887253 }}</ref> # The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed.{{citation needed\|date=November 2024}} # Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the nuclear envelope (also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as pyknosis, a hallmark of apoptosis.<ref name"nuclearapopt">{{cite journal \| vauthors Susin SA, Daugas E, Ravagnan L, Samejima K, Zamzami N, Loeffler M, Costantini P, Ferri KF, Irinopoulou T, Prévost MC, Brothers G, Mak TW, Penninger J, Earnshaw WC, Kroemer G \| display-authors 6 \| title Two distinct pathways leading to nuclear apoptosis \| journal The Journal of Experimental Medicine \| volume 192 \| issue 4 \| pages 571–580 \| date August 2000 \| pmid 10952727 \| pmc 2193229 \| doi 10.1084/jem.192.4.571 }}</ref><ref name"chromatindegrad">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kihlmark M, Imreh G, Hallberg E \| title Sequential degradation of proteins from the nuclear envelope during apoptosis \| journal Journal of Cell Science \| volume 114 \| issue Pt 20 \| pages 3643–3653 \| date October 2001 \| pmid 11707516 \| doi 10.1242/jcs.114.20.3643 }}</ref> # The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis. The nucleus breaks into several discrete chromatin bodies or nucleosomal units due to the degradation of DNA.<ref name"nuclearfrag">{{cite journal \| vauthors Nagata S \| title Apoptotic DNA fragmentation \| journal Experimental Cell Research \| volume 256 \| issue 1 \| pages 12–18 \| date April 2000 \| pmid 10739646 \| doi 10.1006/excr.2000.4834 }}</ref> Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize on classical histology sections. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic "laddered" appearance on agar gel after electrophoresis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Gong J, Traganos F, Darzynkiewicz Z \| title A selective procedure for DNA extraction from apoptotic cells applicable for gel electrophoresis and flow cytometry \| journal Analytical Biochemistry \| volume 218 \| issue 2 \| pages 314–319 \| date May 1994 \| pmid 8074286 \| doi 10.1006/abio.1994.1184 }}</ref> Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from ischemic or toxic cell death.<ref nameIwata>{{cite journal \| vauthors Iwata M, Myerson D, Torok-Storb B, Zager RA \| title An evaluation of renal tubular DNA laddering in response to oxygen deprivation and oxidant injury \| journal Journal of the American Society of Nephrology \| volume 5 \| issue 6 \| pages 1307–1313 \| date December 1994 \| pmid 7893995 \| doi 10.1681/ASN.V561307 \| doi-access free }}</ref> Apoptotic cell disassembly Before the apoptotic cell is disposed of, there is a process of disassembly. There are three recognized steps in apoptotic cell disassembly:<ref name"pmid28102458">{{cite journal \| vauthors Tixeira R, Caruso S, Paone S, Baxter AA, Atkin-Smith GK, Hulett MD, Poon IK \| title Defining the morphologic features and products of cell disassembly during apoptosis \| journal Apoptosis \| volume 22 \| issue 3 \| pages 475–477 \| date March 2017 \| pmid 28102458 \| doi 10.1007/s10495-017-1345-7 \| s2cid = 34648758 }}</ref> # Membrane blebbing: The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as blebs. Initially these are smaller surface blebs. Later these can grow into larger so-called dynamic membrane blebs.<ref name"pmid28102458"/> An important regulator of apoptotic cell membrane blebbing is ROCK1 (rho associated coiled-coil-containing protein kinase 1).<ref name"pmid11283606">{{cite journal \| vauthors Coleman ML, Sahai EA, Yeo M, Bosch M, Dewar A, Olson MF \| title Membrane blebbing during apoptosis results from caspase-mediated activation of ROCK I \| journal Nature Cell Biology \| volume 3 \| issue 4 \| pages 339–345 \| date April 2001 \| pmid 11283606 \| doi 10.1038/35070009 \| s2cid 2537726 }}</ref><ref name"pmid11283607">{{cite journal \| vauthors Sebbagh M, Renvoizé C, Hamelin J, Riché N, Bertoglio J, Bréard J \| title Caspase-3-mediated cleavage of ROCK I induces MLC phosphorylation and apoptotic membrane blebbing \| journal Nature Cell Biology \| volume 3 \| issue 4 \| pages 346–352 \| date April 2001 \| pmid 11283607 \| doi 10.1038/35070019 \| s2cid = 36187702 }}</ref> # Formation of membrane protrusions: Some cell types, under specific conditions, may develop different types of long, thin extensions of the cell membrane called membrane protrusions. Three types have been described: microtubule spikes, apoptopodia (feet of death), and beaded apoptopodia (the latter having a beads-on-a-string appearance).<ref name"pmid16723742">{{cite journal \| vauthors Moss DK, Betin VM, Malesinski SD, Lane JD \| title A novel role for microtubules in apoptotic chromatin dynamics and cellular fragmentation \| journal Journal of Cell Science \| volume 119 \| issue Pt 11 \| pages 2362–2374 \| date June 2006 \| pmid 16723742 \| pmc 1592606 \| doi 10.1242/jcs.02959 }}</ref><ref name"pmid24646995">{{cite journal \| vauthors Poon IK, Chiu YH, Armstrong AJ, Kinchen JM, Juncadella IJ, Bayliss DA, Ravichandran KS \| title Unexpected link between an antibiotic, pannexin channels and apoptosis \| journal Nature \| volume 507 \| issue 7492 \| pages 329–334 \| date March 2014 \| pmid 24646995 \| pmc 4078991 \| doi 10.1038/nature13147 \| bibcode 2014Natur.507..329P }}</ref><ref name"pmid26074490">{{cite journal \| vauthors Atkin-Smith GK, Tixeira R, Paone S, Mathivanan S, Collins C, Liem M, Goodall KJ, Ravichandran KS, Hulett MD, Poon IK \| display-authors 6 \| title A novel mechanism of generating extracellular vesicles during apoptosis via a beads-on-a-string membrane structure \| journal Nature Communications \| volume 6 \| pages 7439 \| date June 2015 \| pmid 26074490 \| pmc 4490561 \| doi 10.1038/ncomms8439 \| bibcode 2015NatCo...6.7439A }}</ref> Pannexin 1 is an important component of membrane channels involved in the formation of apoptopodia and beaded apoptopodia.<ref name"pmid24646995"/> # Fragmentation: The cell breaks apart into multiple vesicles called apoptotic bodies, which undergo phagocytosis. The plasma membrane protrusions may help bring apoptotic bodies closer to phagocytes.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}}Removal of dead cellsThe removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed efferocytosis.<ref name"pmid16778289">{{cite journal \| vauthors Vandivier RW, Henson PM, Douglas IS \| title Burying the dead: the impact of failed apoptotic cell removal (efferocytosis) on chronic inflammatory lung disease \| journal Chest \| volume 129 \| issue 6 \| pages 1673–1682 \| date June 2006 \| pmid 16778289 \| doi = 10.1378/chest.129.6.1673 }}</ref> Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as phosphatidylserine, on their cell surface.<ref name"Phosphatidylserine">{{cite journal \| vauthors Li MO, Sarkisian MR, Mehal WZ, Rakic P, Flavell RA \| title Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells \| journal Science \| volume 302 \| issue 5650 \| pages 1560–1563 \| date November 2003 \| pmid 14645847 \| doi 10.1126/science.1087621 \| s2cid 36252352 \| bibcode 2003Sci...302.1560O }}</ref> Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the inner leaflet surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as scramblase.<ref name"phago2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Wang X, Wu YC, Fadok VA, Lee MC, Gengyo-Ando K, Cheng LC, Ledwich D, Hsu PK, Chen JY, Chou BK, Henson P, Mitani S, Xue D \| display-authors 6 \| title Cell corpse engulfment mediated by C. elegans phosphatidylserine receptor through CED-5 and CED-12 \| journal Science \| volume 302 \| issue 5650 \| pages 1563–1566 \| date November 2003 \| pmid 14645848 \| doi 10.1126/science.1087641 \| url http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/handle/246246/161415 \| access-date 2017-02-26 \| url-status dead \| s2cid 25672278 \| bibcode 2003Sci...302.1563W \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210414033822/http://ntur.lib.ntu.edu.tw/handle/246246/161415 \| archive-date 2021-04-14 }}</ref> These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages.<ref name"phago1">{{cite journal \| vauthors Savill J, Gregory C, Haslett C \| title Cell biology. Eat me or die \| journal Science \| volume 302 \| issue 5650 \| pages 1516–1517 \| date November 2003 \| pmid 14645835 \| doi 10.1126/science.1092533 \| hdl-access free \| s2cid 13402617 \| hdl 1842/448 }}</ref> The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response.<ref name"phago1B">{{cite book \|vauthorsKrysko DV, Vandenabeele P \|veditorsKrysko DV, Vandenabeele P \|titlePhagocytosis of dying cells: from molecular mechanisms to human diseases \|urlhttps://www.springer.com/biomed/cancer/book/978-1-4020-9292-3 \|isbn978-1-4020-9292-3 \|date2009-01-14 \|publisherSpringer \|doi10.1007/978-1-4020-9293-0 \|access-date2017-08-28 \|archive-date2022-04-30 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220430005601/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4020-9293-0 \|url-statuslive }}</ref> During apoptosis cellular RNA and DNA are separated from each other and sorted to different apoptotic bodies; separation of RNA is initiated as nucleolar segregation.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Halicka HD, Bedner E, Darzynkiewicz Z \| title Segregation of RNA and separate packaging of DNA and RNA in apoptotic bodies during apoptosis \| journal Experimental Cell Research \| volume 260 \| issue 2 \| pages 248–256 \| date November 2000 \| pmid 11035919 \| doi 10.1006/excr.2000.5027 }}</ref>Pathway knock-outsMany knock-outs have been made in the apoptosis pathways to test the function of each of the proteins. Several caspases, in addition to APAF1 and FADD, have been mutated to determine the new phenotype. In order to create a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) knockout, an exon containing the nucleotides 3704–5364 was removed from the gene.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wang C, Youle RJ \| title The role of mitochondria in apoptosis \| journal Annual Review of Genetics \| volume 43 \| issue 1 \| pages 95–118 \| date 2009-12-01 \| pmid 19659442 \| pmc 4762029 \| doi 10.1146/annurev-genet-102108-134850 }}</ref> This exon encodes a portion of the mature TNF domain, as well as the leader sequence, which is a highly conserved region necessary for proper intracellular processing. TNF-/- mice develop normally and have no gross structural or morphological abnormalities. However, upon immunization with SRBC (sheep red blood cells), these mice demonstrated a deficiency in the maturation of an antibody response; they were able to generate normal levels of IgM, but could not develop specific IgG levels.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Marino MW, Dunn A, Grail D, Inglese M, Noguchi Y, Richards E, Jungbluth A, Wada H, Moore M, Williamson B, Basu S, Old LJ \| display-authors 6 \| title Characterization of tumor necrosis factor-deficient mice \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 94 \| issue 15 \| pages 8093–8098 \| date July 1997 \| pmid 9223320 \| pmc 21562 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.94.15.8093 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 1997PNAS...94.8093M }}</ref> Apaf-1 is the protein that turns on caspase 9 by cleavage to begin the caspase cascade that leads to apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Bratton SB, Salvesen GS \| title Regulation of the Apaf-1-caspase-9 apoptosome \| journal Journal of Cell Science \| volume 123 \| issue Pt 19 \| pages 3209–3214 \| date October 2010 \| pmid 20844150 \| pmc 2939798 \| doi 10.1242/jcs.073643 }}</ref> Since a -/- mutation in the APAF-1 gene is embryonic lethal, a gene trap strategy was used in order to generate an APAF-1 -/- mouse. This assay is used to disrupt gene function by creating an intragenic gene fusion. When an APAF-1 gene trap is introduced into cells, many morphological changes occur, such as spina bifida, the persistence of interdigital webs, and open brain.<ref name"auto">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mailhos C, Howard MK, Latchman DS \| title A common pathway mediates retinoic acid and PMA-dependent programmed cell death (apoptosis) of neuronal cells \| journal Brain Research \| volume 644 \| issue 1 \| pages 7–12 \| date April 1994 \| pmid 8032951 \| doi 10.1016/0006-8993(94)90339-5 \| s2cid 22542598 }}</ref> In addition, after embryonic day 12.5, the brain of the embryos showed several structural changes. APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation. A BAX-1 knock-out mouse exhibits normal forebrain formation and a decreased programmed cell death in some neuronal populations and in the spinal cord, leading to an increase in motor neurons.<ref name"auto"/> The caspase proteins are integral parts of the apoptosis pathway, so it follows that knock-outs made have varying damaging results. A caspase 9 knock-out leads to a severe brain malformation {{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2022}}. A caspase 8 knock-out leads to cardiac failure and thus embryonic lethality {{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2022}}. However, with the use of cre-lox technology, a caspase 8 knock-out has been created that exhibits an increase in peripheral T cells, an impaired T cell response, and a defect in neural tube closure {{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2022}}. These mice were found to be resistant to apoptosis mediated by CD95, TNFR, etc. but not resistant to apoptosis caused by UV irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, and other stimuli. Finally, a caspase 3 knock-out was characterized by ectopic cell masses in the brain and abnormal apoptotic features such as membrane blebbing or nuclear fragmentation {{Citation needed\|dateOctober 2022}}. A remarkable feature of these KO mice is that they have a very restricted phenotype: Casp3, 9, APAF-1 KO mice have deformations of neural tissue and FADD and Casp 8 KO showed defective heart development, however, in both types of KO other organs developed normally and some cell types were still sensitive to apoptotic stimuli suggesting that unknown proapoptotic pathways exist.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}}Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic cellsLabel-free live cell imaging, time-lapse microscopy, flow fluorocytometry, and transmission electron microscopy can be used to compare apoptotic and necrotic cells. There are also various biochemical techniques for analysis of cell surface markers (phosphatidylserine exposure versus cell permeability by flow cytometry), cellular markers such as DNA fragmentation<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Lozano GM, Bejarano I, Espino J, González D, Ortiz A, García JF, Rodríguez AB, Pariente JA \| year 2009 \| title Density gradient capacitation is the most suitable method to improve fertilization and to reduce DNA fragmentation positive spermatozoa of infertile men \| url https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259983025 \| journal Anatolian Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology \| volume 3 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–7 \| access-date 2016-03-08 \| archive-date 2022-04-30 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20220430005522/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259983025_Density_gradient_capacitation_is_the_most_suitable_method_to_improve_fertilization_and_to_reduce_DNA_fragmentation_positive_spermatozoa_of_infertile_men \| url-status live }}</ref> (flow cytometry),<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Darzynkiewicz Z, Juan G, Li X, Gorczyca W, Murakami T, Traganos F \| title Cytometry in cell necrobiology: analysis of apoptosis and accidental cell death (necrosis) \| journal Cytometry \| volume 27 \| issue 1 \| pages 1–20 \| date January 1997 \| pmid 9000580 \| doi 10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19970101)27:1<1::aid-cyto2>3.0.co;2-l \| doi-access }}</ref> caspase activation, Bid cleavage, and cytochrome c release (Western blotting). Supernatant screening for caspases, HMGB1, and cytokeratin 18 release can identify primary from secondary necrotic cells. However, no distinct surface or biochemical markers of necrotic cell death have been identified yet, and only negative markers are available. These include absence of apoptotic markers (caspase activation, cytochrome c release, and oligonucleosomal DNA fragmentation) and differential kinetics of cell death markers (phosphatidylserine exposure and cell membrane permeabilization). A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references.<ref name"methods">{{cite book \| vauthors Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, Parthoens E, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P \| chapter Chapter 16 Methods for Distinguishing Apoptotic from Necrotic Cells and Measuring Their Clearance \| title Programmed Cell Death, General Principles for Studying Cell Death, Part A \| series Methods in Enzymology \| volume 442 \| pages 307–41 \| year 2008 \| pmid 18662577 \| doi 10.1016/S0076-6879(08)01416-X \| isbn 9780123743121 \| url https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/431717/file/2936374 }}</ref><ref name"methods2">{{cite journal \| vauthors Krysko DV, Vanden Berghe T, D'Herde K, Vandenabeele P \| title Apoptosis and necrosis: detection, discrimination and phagocytosis \| journal Methods \| volume 44 \| issue 3 \| pages 205–221 \| date March 2008 \| pmid 18314051 \| doi 10.1016/j.ymeth.2007.12.001 }}</ref><ref name"methods3">{{cite journal \| vauthors Vanden Berghe T, Grootjans S, Goossens V, Dondelinger Y, Krysko DV, Takahashi N, Vandenabeele P \| title Determination of apoptotic and necrotic cell death in vitro and in vivo \| journal Methods \| volume 61 \| issue 2 \| pages 117–129 \| date June 2013 \| pmid 23473780 \| doi 10.1016/j.ymeth.2013.02.011 \| url https://zenodo.org/record/3423520 \| access-date 2019-11-05 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20191105075341/https://zenodo.org/record/3423520 \| archive-date 2019-11-05 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors Wlodkowic D, Telford W, Skommer J, Darzynkiewicz Z \| title Recent Advances in Cytometry, Part B - Advances in Applications \| chapter Apoptosis and beyond: cytometry in studies of programmed cell death \| series Methods in Cell Biology \| volume 103 \| pages 55–98 \| year 2011 \| pmid 21722800 \| pmc 3263828 \| doi 10.1016/B978-0-12-385493-3.00004-8 \| isbn 9780123854933 }}</ref>Implication in diseaseto show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange)]]Defective pathwaysThe many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood.<ref name"pathogenesis">{{cite journal \| vauthors Thompson CB \| title Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease \| journal Science \| volume 267 \| issue 5203 \| pages 1456–1462 \| date March 1995 \| pmid 7878464 \| doi 10.1126/science.7878464 \| s2cid 12991980 \| bibcode 1995Sci...267.1456T }}</ref> As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism, this can have disastrous effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: The normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its "use-by date" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell's becoming cancerous or diseased.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}} A recently described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called NCI-H460.<ref name"h460">{{cite journal \| vauthors Yang L, Mashima T, Sato S, Mochizuki M, Sakamoto H, Yamori T, Oh-Hara T, Tsuruo T \| display-authors 6 \| title Predominant suppression of apoptosome by inhibitor of apoptosis protein in non-small cell lung cancer H460 cells: therapeutic effect of a novel polyarginine-conjugated Smac peptide \| journal Cancer Research \| volume 63 \| issue 4 \| pages 831–837 \| date February 2003 \| pmid 12591734 \| url http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid12591734 \| access-date 2008-09-04 \| archive-date 2012-12-20 \| archive-url https://archive.today/20121220182836/http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?viewlong&pmid12591734 \| url-status live }}</ref> The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in cells of the H460 cell line. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9 and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the number of proapoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Defects in regulation of apoptosis in cancer cells occur often at the level of control of transcription factors. As a particular example, defects in molecules that control transcription factor NF-κB in cancer change the mode of transcriptional regulation and the response to apoptotic signals, to curtail dependence on the tissue that the cell belongs. This degree of independence from external survival signals, can enable cancer metastasis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vlahopoulos SA \| title Aberrant control of NF-κB in cancer permits transcriptional and phenotypic plasticity, to curtail dependence on host tissue: molecular mode \| journal Cancer Biology & Medicine \| volume 14 \| issue 3 \| pages 254–270 \| date August 2017 \| pmid 28884042 \| pmc 5570602 \| doi 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2017.0029 }}</ref>Dysregulation of p53The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical factors. Part of this pathway includes alpha-interferon and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the p53 gene, resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis.<ref name"takaoka">{{cite journal \| vauthors Takaoka A, Hayakawa S, Yanai H, Stoiber D, Negishi H, Kikuchi H, Sasaki S, Imai K, Shibue T, Honda K, Taniguchi T \| display-authors 6 \| title Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signalling to p53 responses in tumour suppression and antiviral defence \| journal Nature \| volume 424 \| issue 6948 \| pages 516–523 \| date July 2003 \| pmid 12872134 \| doi 10.1038/nature01850 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 2003Natur.424..516T }}</ref> p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the cell cycle at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair; however, it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail.<ref name"pmid12052432">{{cite journal \| vauthors Bernstein C, Bernstein H, Payne CM, Garewal H \| title DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in five major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection against carcinogenesis \| journal Mutation Research \| volume 511 \| issue 2 \| pages 145–178 \| date June 2002 \| pmid 12052432 \| doi 10.1016/S1383-5742(02)00009-1 \| bibcode 2002MRRMR.511..145B }}</ref> Any disruption to the regulation of the p53 or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.<ref>{{Cite journal \|lastSoussi \|firstThierry \|date2000 \|titleThe p53 Tumor Suppressor Gene: From Molecular Biology to Clinical Investigation \|urlhttps://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06705.x \|journalAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences \|languageen \|volume910 \|issue1 \|pages121–139 \|doi10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06705.x \|pmid10911910 \|bibcode2000NYASA.910..121S \|issn1749-6632}}</ref>InhibitionInhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. It was originally believed that the associated accumulation of cells was due to an increase in cellular proliferation, but it is now known that it is also due to a decrease in cell death. The most common of these diseases is cancer, the disease of excessive cellular proliferation, which is often characterized by an overexpression of IAP family members. As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: Cycle-regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors. Some apoptotic factors are vital during mitochondrial respiration e.g. cytochrome C.<ref name"iopscience.iop.org">{{cite journal \| vauthors Kaczanowski S \| title Apoptosis: its origin, history, maintenance and the medical implications for cancer and aging \| journal Physical Biology \| volume 13 \| issue 3 \| pages 031001 \| date May 2016 \| pmid 27172135 \| doi 10.1088/1478-3975/13/3/031001 \| url http://eprints.ibb.waw.pl/1615/1/Apoptosis2016.pdf \| access-date 2019-12-26 \| url-status dead \| bibcode 2016PhBio..13c1001K \| s2cid 5549982 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190428231913/http://eprints.ibb.waw.pl/1615/1/Apoptosis2016.pdf \| archive-date 2019-04-28 }}</ref> Pathological inactivation of apoptosis in cancer cells is correlated with frequent respiratory metabolic shifts toward glycolysis (an observation known as the "Warburg hypothesis".<ref name"Warburg_1956">{{cite journal \| vauthors Warburg O \| title On the origin of cancer cells \| journal Science \| volume 123 \| issue 3191 \| pages 309–314 \| date February 1956 \| pmid 13298683 \| doi 10.1126/science.123.3191.309 \| bibcode 1956Sci...123..309W }}</ref>HeLa cellApoptosis in HeLa{{efn\|HeLa cells are an immortalized cancer cell line used frequently in research. The cell line was established by removing cells directly from Henrietta Lacks, a cancer patient.}} cells is inhibited by proteins produced by the cell; these inhibitory proteins target retinoblastoma tumor-suppressing proteins.<ref nameDelPuerto/> These tumor-suppressing proteins regulate the cell cycle, but are rendered inactive when bound to an inhibitory protein.<ref nameDelPuerto/> HPV E6 and E7 are inhibitory proteins expressed by the human papillomavirus, HPV being responsible for the formation of the cervical tumor from which HeLa cells are derived.<ref nameLiu>{{cite journal \| vauthors Liu HC, Chen GG, Vlantis AC, Tse GM, Chan AT, van Hasselt CA \| title Inhibition of apoptosis in human laryngeal cancer cells by E6 and E7 oncoproteins of human papillomavirus 16 \| journal Journal of Cellular Biochemistry \| volume 103 \| issue 4 \| pages 1125–1143 \| date March 2008 \| pmid 17668439 \| doi 10.1002/jcb.21490 \| s2cid 1651475 }}</ref> HPV E6 causes p53, which regulates the cell cycle, to become inactive.<ref nameNiu>{{cite journal \| vauthors Niu XY, Peng ZL, Duan WQ, Wang H, Wang P \| title Inhibition of HPV 16 E6 oncogene expression by RNA interference in vitro and in vivo \| journal International Journal of Gynecological Cancer \| volume 16 \| issue 2 \| pages 743–751 \| year 2006 \| pmid 16681755 \| doi 10.1111/j.1525-1438.2006.00384.x \| doi-broken-date 27 March 2025 }}</ref> HPV E7 binds to retinoblastoma tumor suppressing proteins and limits its ability to control cell division.<ref nameNiu/> These two inhibitory proteins are partially responsible for HeLa cells' immortality by inhibiting apoptosis to occur.<ref name"Liu McKalip">{{cite journal \| vauthors Liu Y, McKalip A, Herman B \| title Human papillomavirus type 16 E6 and HPV-16 E6/E7 sensitize human keratinocytes to apoptosis induced by chemotherapeutic agents: roles of p53 and caspase activation \| journal Journal of Cellular Biochemistry \| volume 78 \| issue 2 \| pages 334–349 \| date May 2000 \| pmid 10842327 \| doi 10.1002/(sici)1097-4644(20000801)78:2<334::aid-jcb15>3.3.co;2-6 }}</ref> Treatments {{Further\|topic=a clinical pathology test that measures apoptosis\|MiCK assay}} The main method of treatment for potential death from signaling-related diseases involves either increasing or decreasing the susceptibility of apoptosis in diseased cells, depending on whether the disease is caused by either the inhibition of or excess apoptosis. For instance, treatments aim to restore apoptosis to treat diseases with deficient cell death and to increase the apoptotic threshold to treat diseases involved with excessive cell death. To stimulate apoptosis, one can increase the number of death receptor ligands (such as TNF or TRAIL), antagonize the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 pathway, or introduce Smac mimetics to inhibit the inhibitor (IAPs).<ref name"pmid31380246">{{cite journal \| vauthors Jan R, Chaudhry GE \| title Understanding Apoptosis and Apoptotic Pathways Targeted Cancer Therapeutics \| journal Advanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin \| volume 9 \| issue 2 \| pages 205–218 \| date June 2019 \| pmid 31380246 \| pmc 6664112 \| doi 10.15171/apb.2019.024 }}</ref> The addition of agents such as Herceptin, Iressa, or Gleevec works to stop cells from cycling and causes apoptosis activation by blocking growth and survival signaling further upstream. Finally, adding p53-MDM2 complexes displaces p53 and activates the p53 pathway, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or to inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Boehm I \| title Apoptosis in physiological and pathological skin: implications for therapy \| journal Current Molecular Medicine \| volume 6 \| issue 4 \| pages 375–394 \| date June 2006 \| pmid 16900661 \| doi 10.2174/156652406777435390 }}</ref> Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Lowe \|first1Scott W. \|last2Lin \|first2Albert W. \|titleApoptosis in cancer \|journalCarcinogenesis \|date2000-03-01 \|volume21 \|issue3 \|pages485–495 \|doi10.1093/carcin/21.3.485 \|pmid10688869 \|urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/4401986 \|access-date2025-01-22}}</ref> Hyperactive apoptosis On the other hand, loss of control of cell death (resulting in excess apoptosis) can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Neurons that rely on mitochondrial respiration undergo apoptosis in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's<ref name"pmid7704018">{{cite journal \| vauthors LaFerla FM, Tinkle BT, Bieberich CJ, Haudenschild CC, Jay G \| title The Alzheimer's A beta peptide induces neurodegeneration and apoptotic cell death in transgenic mice \| journal Nature Genetics \| volume 9 \| issue 1 \| pages 21–30 \| date January 1995 \| pmid 7704018 \| doi 10.1038/ng0195-21 \| s2cid 20016461 }}</ref> and Parkinson's.<ref name"pmid8782165">{{cite journal \| vauthors Mochizuki H, Goto K, Mori H, Mizuno Y \| title Histochemical detection of apoptosis in Parkinson's disease \| journal Journal of the Neurological Sciences \| volume 137 \| issue 2 \| pages 120–123 \| date May 1996 \| pmid 8782165 \| doi 10.1016/0022-510X(95)00336-Z \| s2cid 44329454 }}</ref> (an observation known as the "Inverse Warburg hypothesis"<ref name"iopscience.iop.org"/><ref name"pmid25642192">{{cite journal \| vauthors Demetrius LA, Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L \| title Alzheimer's disease: the amyloid hypothesis and the Inverse Warburg effect \| journal Frontiers in Physiology \| volume 5 \| pages 522 \| date 2014 \| pmid 25642192 \| pmc 4294122 \| doi 10.3389/fphys.2014.00522 \| doi-access free }}</ref>). Moreover, there is an inverse epidemiological comorbidity between neurodegenerative diseases and cancer.<ref name"pmid23843468">{{cite journal \| vauthors Musicco M, Adorni F, Di Santo S, Prinelli F, Pettenati C, Caltagirone C, Palmer K, Russo A \| display-authors 6 \| title Inverse occurrence of cancer and Alzheimer disease: a population-based incidence study \| journal Neurology \| volume 81 \| issue 4 \| pages 322–328 \| date July 2013 \| pmid 23843468 \| doi 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31829c5ec1 \| s2cid 22792702 }}</ref> The progression of HIV is directly linked to excess, unregulated apoptosis. In a healthy individual, the number of CD4+ lymphocytes is in balance with the cells generated by the bone marrow; however, in HIV-positive patients, this balance is lost due to an inability of the bone marrow to regenerate CD4+ cells. In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated. At the molecular level, hyperactive apoptosis can be caused by defects in signaling pathways that regulate the Bcl-2 family proteins. Increased expression of apoptotic proteins such as BIM, or their decreased proteolysis, leads to cell death and can cause a number of pathologies, depending on the cells where excessive activity of BIM occurs. Cancer cells can escape apoptosis through mechanisms that suppress BIM expression or by increased proteolysis of BIM.{{Citation needed\|dateDecember 2019\|reasonremoved citation to predatory publisher content}} Treatments Treatments aiming to inhibit works to block specific caspases. Finally, the Akt protein kinase promotes cell survival through two pathways. Akt phosphorylates and inhibits Bad (a Bcl-2 family member), causing Bad to interact with the 14-3-3 scaffold, resulting in Bcl dissociation and thus cell survival. Akt also activates IKKα, which leads to NF-κB activation and cell survival. Active NF-κB induces the expression of anti-apoptotic genes such as Bcl-2, resulting in inhibition of apoptosis. NF-κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and a proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.<ref name"Farhana_2005">{{cite journal \| vauthors Farhana L, Dawson MI, Fontana JA \| title Apoptosis induction by a novel retinoid-related molecule requires nuclear factor-kappaB activation \| journal Cancer Research \| volume 65 \| issue 11 \| pages 4909–4917 \| date June 2005 \| pmid 15930313 \| doi 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-4124 \| doi-access }}</ref>HIV progressionThe progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection into AIDS is due primarily to the depletion of CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:<ref name"Judie">{{cite journal \| vauthors Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR \| title Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS \| journal The Journal of General Virology \| volume 84 \| issue Pt 7 \| pages 1649–1661 \| date July 2003 \| pmid 12810858 \| doi 10.1099/vir.0.19110-0 \| doi-access free }}</ref> # HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. This does not directly cause cell death but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic procaspase-8, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis. # HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins that prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis. # HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane. # Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby "bystander" T helper cells. # HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue. # The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell. Cells may also die as direct consequences of viral infections. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Vashistha H, Husain M, Kumar D, Yadav A, Arora S, Singhal PC \| title HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis \| journal Renal Failure \| volume 30 \| issue 6 \| pages 655–664 \| year 2008 \| pmid 18661417 \| doi 10.1080/08860220802134672 \| s2cid 25787186 \| doi-access }}</ref> The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity toward CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's CD4+ cell count falls below 200.<ref>{{cite web \|authorIndiana University Health \|urlhttp://iuhealth.org/riley/infectious-diseases/hiv/aids-defining-criteria/ \|titleAIDS Defining Criteria &#124; Riley \|publisherIU Health \|access-date2013-01-20 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130526052627/http://iuhealth.org/riley/infectious-diseases/hiv/aids-defining-criteria/ \|archive-date2013-05-26 \|url-status=dead }}</ref> Researchers from Kumamoto University in Japan have developed a new method to eradicate HIV in viral reservoir cells, named "Lock-in and apoptosis." Using the synthesized compound Heptanoylphosphatidyl L-Inositol Pentakisphophate (or L-Hippo) to bind strongly to the HIV protein PR55Gag, they were able to suppress viral budding. By suppressing viral budding, the researchers were able to trap the HIV virus in the cell and allow for the cell to undergo apoptosis (natural cell death). Associate Professor Mikako Fujita has stated that the approach is not yet available to HIV patients because the research team has to conduct further research on combining the drug therapy that currently exists with this "Lock-in and apoptosis" approach to lead to complete recovery from HIV.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Tateishi H, Monde K, Anraku K, Koga R, Hayashi Y, Ciftci HI, DeMirci H, Higashi T, Motoyama K, Arima H, Otsuka M, Fujita M \| display-authors 6 \| title A clue to unprecedented strategy to HIV eradication: "Lock-in and apoptosis" \| journal Scientific Reports \| volume 7 \| issue 1 \| pages 8957 \| date August 2017 \| pmid 28827668 \| pmc 5567282 \| doi 10.1038/s41598-017-09129-w \| bibcode 2017NatSR...7.8957T }}</ref> Viral infection Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are<!--plural predicate to agree with "cells"--> infected with a virus, leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation.<ref nameIndran>{{cite journal \| vauthors Indran IR, Tufo G, Pervaiz S, Brenner C \| title Recent advances in apoptosis, mitochondria and drug resistance in cancer cells \| journal Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics \| volume 1807 \| issue 6 \| pages 735–745 \| date June 2011 \| pmid 21453675 \| doi 10.1016/j.bbabio.2011.03.010 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells. Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including: * Receptor binding * Activation of protein kinase R (PKR) * Interaction with p53 * Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as natural killer and cytotoxic T cells) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis.<ref nameEverett>{{cite journal \| vauthors Everett H, McFadden G \| title Apoptosis: an innate immune response to virus infection \| journal Trends in Microbiology \| volume 7 \| issue 4 \| pages 160–165 \| date April 1999 \| pmid 10217831 \| doi 10.1016/S0966-842X(99)01487-0 }}</ref> Canine distemper virus (CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro.<ref nameNishi>{{cite journal \| vauthors Nishi T, Tsukiyama-Kohara K, Togashi K, Kohriyama N, Kai C \| title Involvement of apoptosis in syncytial cell death induced by canine distemper virus \| journal Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases \| volume 27 \| issue 6 \| pages 445–455 \| date November 2004 \| pmid 15325517 \| doi 10.1016/j.cimid.2004.01.007 }}</ref> Apoptosis caused by CDV is typically induced via the extrinsic pathway, which activates caspases that disrupt cellular function and eventually leads to the cells death.<ref nameDelPuerto>{{cite journal \| vauthors Del Puerto HL, Martins AS, Milsted A, Souza-Fagundes EM, Braz GF, Hissa B, Andrade LO, Alves F, Rajão DS, Leite RC, Vasconcelos AC \| display-authors 6 \| title Canine distemper virus induces apoptosis in cervical tumor derived cell lines \| journal Virology Journal \| volume 8 \| issue 1 \| pages 334 \| date June 2011 \| pmid 21718481 \| pmc 3141686 \| doi 10.1186/1743-422X-8-334 \| doi-access free }}</ref> In normal cells, CDV activates caspase-8 first, which works as the initiator protein followed by the executioner protein caspase-3.<ref nameDelPuerto/> However, apoptosis induced by CDV in HeLa cells does not involve the initiator protein caspase-8. HeLa cell apoptosis caused by CDV follows a different mechanism than that in vero cell lines.<ref nameDelPuerto/> This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the intrinsic pathway, excluding the need for the initiator caspase-8. The executioner protein is instead activated by the internal stimuli caused by viral infection not a caspase cascade.<ref nameDelPuerto/> The Oropouche virus (OROV) is found in the family Bunyaviridae. The study of apoptosis brought on by Bunyaviridae was initiated in 1996, when it was observed that apoptosis was induced by the La Crosse virus into the kidney cells of baby hamsters and into the brains of baby mice.<ref nameAcrani>{{cite journal \| vauthors Acrani GO, Gomes R, Proença-Módena JL, da Silva AF, Carminati PO, Silva ML, Santos RI, Arruda E \| display-authors 6 \| title Apoptosis induced by Oropouche virus infection in HeLa cells is dependent on virus protein expression \| journal Virus Research \| volume 149 \| issue 1 \| pages 56–63 \| date April 2010 \| pmid 20080135 \| doi 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.12.013 \| doi-access free }}</ref> OROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (Culicoides paraensis).<ref nameAzevedo>{{cite journal \| vauthors Azevedo RS, Nunes MR, Chiang JO, Bensabath G, Vasconcelos HB, Pinto AY, Martins LC, Monteiro HA, Rodrigues SG, Vasconcelos PF \| display-authors 6 \| title Reemergence of Oropouche fever, northern Brazil \| journal Emerging Infectious Diseases \| volume 13 \| issue 6 \| pages 912–915 \| date June 2007 \| pmid 17553235 \| pmc 2792853 \| doi 10.3201/eid1306.061114 }}</ref> It is referred to as a zoonotic arbovirus and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.<ref nameSantos>{{cite journal \| vauthors Santos RI, Rodrigues AH, Silva ML, Mortara RA, Rossi MA, Jamur MC, Oliver C, Arruda E \| display-authors 6 \| title Oropouche virus entry into HeLa cells involves clathrin and requires endosomal acidification \| journal Virus Research \| volume 138 \| issue 1–2 \| pages 139–143 \| date December 2008 \| pmid 18840482 \| pmc 7114418 \| doi 10.1016/j.virusres.2008.08.016 }}</ref> The Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells – cells that are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in HeLa cells, whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected.<ref name=Acrani/> With the use of gel electrophoresis, it can be observed that OROV causes DNA fragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting, measuring, and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population.<ref nameAcrani/> When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the cytochrome C is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.<ref nameIndran/> In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli. However, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria.<ref name=Acrani/> Many viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis.<ref nameTeodora>{{cite journal \| vauthors Teodoro JG, Branton PE \| title Regulation of apoptosis by viral gene products \| journal Journal of Virology \| volume 71 \| issue 3 \| pages 1739–1746 \| date March 1997 \| pmid 9032302 \| pmc 191242 \| doi 10.1128/jvi.71.3.1739-1746.1997 }}</ref> Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit proapoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the Epstein-Barr virus BHRF1 protein and the adenovirus E1B 19K protein.<ref namePolster>{{cite journal \| vauthors Polster BM, Pevsner J, Hardwick JM \| title Viral Bcl-2 homologs and their role in virus replication and associated diseases \| journal Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular Cell Research \| volume 1644 \| issue 2–3 \| pages 211–227 \| date March 2004 \| pmid 14996505 \| doi 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2003.11.001 \| doi-access }}</ref> Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF receptor and inducing a response.<ref nameHay>{{cite journal \| vauthors Hay S, Kannourakis G \| title A time to kill: viral manipulation of the cell death program \| journal The Journal of General Virology \| volume 83 \| issue Pt 7 \| pages 1547–1564 \| date July 2002 \| pmid 12075073 \| doi 10.1099/0022-1317-83-7-1547 \| citeseerx 10.1.1.322.6923 }}</ref> Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. As a consequence, p53 cannot induce apoptosis, since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the hepatitis B virus HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function.<ref nameWang>{{cite journal \| vauthors Wang XW, Gibson MK, Vermeulen W, Yeh H, Forrester K, Stürzbecher HW, Hoeijmakers JH, Harris CC \| display-authors 6 \| title Abrogation of p53-induced apoptosis by the hepatitis B virus X gene \| journal Cancer Research \| volume 55 \| issue 24 \| pages 6012–6016 \| date December 1995 \| pmid = 8521383 }}</ref> Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis in particular in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the apoptotic bodies that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell, and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus.<ref name"Hay"/> Prions can cause apoptosis in neurons.PlantsProgrammed cell death in plants has a number of molecular similarities to that of animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notable ones being the presence of a cell wall and the lack of an immune system that removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a vacuole that ruptures as the cell dies. Additionally, plants do not contain phagocytic cells, which are essential in the process of breaking down and removing apoptotic bodies.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors van Doorn WG, Beers EP, Dangl JL, Franklin-Tong VE, Gallois P, Hara-Nishimura I, Jones AM, Kawai-Yamada M, Lam E, Mundy J, Mur LA, Petersen M, Smertenko A, Taliansky M, Van Breusegem F, Wolpert T, Woltering E, Zhivotovsky B, Bozhkov PV \| display-authors 6 \| title Morphological classification of plant cell deaths \| journal Cell Death and Differentiation \| volume 18 \| issue 8 \| pages 1241–1246 \| date August 2011 \| pmid 21494263 \| pmc 3172093 \| doi 10.1038/cdd.2011.36 }}</ref> Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name apoptosis (as opposed to the more general programmed cell death) is unclear.<ref>{{Cite journal \| vauthors Collazo C, Chacón O, Borrás O \| url http://elfosscientiae.cigb.edu.cu/PDFs/BA/2006/23/1/BA002301RV001-010.pdf \| title Programmed cell death in plants resembles apoptosis of animals \| journal Biotecnología Aplicada \| year 2006 \| volume 23 \| pages 1–10 \| url-status dead \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090303235946/http://elfosscientiae.cigb.edu.cu/PDFs/BA/2006/23/1/BA002301RV001-010.pdf \| archive-date 2009-03-03 }}</ref><ref namedickman2017>{{cite journal \| vauthors Dickman M, Williams B, Li Y, de Figueiredo P, Wolpert T \| title Reassessing apoptosis in plants \| journal Nature Plants \| volume 3 \| issue 10 \| pages 773–779 \| date October 2017 \| pmid 28947814 \| doi 10.1038/s41477-017-0020-x \| bibcode 2017NatPl...3..773D \| s2cid 3290201 }}</ref> Caspase-independent apoptosis The characterization of the caspases allowed the development of caspase inhibitors, which can be used to determine whether a cellular process involves active caspases. Using these inhibitors it was discovered that cells can die while displaying a morphology similar to apoptosis without caspase activation.<ref name"pmid8962091">{{cite journal \| vauthors Xiang J, Chao DT, Korsmeyer SJ \| title BAX-induced cell death may not require interleukin 1 beta-converting enzyme-like proteases \| journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| volume 93 \| issue 25 \| pages 14559–14563 \| date December 1996 \| pmid 8962091 \| pmc 26172 \| doi 10.1073/pnas.93.25.14559 \| doi-access free \| bibcode 1996PNAS...9314559X }}</ref> Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS (nuclear localization signal). Inside the mitochondria, AIF is anchored to the inner membrane. In order to be released, the protein is cleaved by a calcium-dependent calpain protease.{{citation needed\|dateNovember 2024}} See also {{Portal\|Biology}} {{div col\|colwidth=22em}} * Anoikis * Apaf-1 * Apo2.7 * Apoptotic DNA fragmentation * Atromentin induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors Kim JH, Lee CH \| title Atromentin-induced apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells \| journal Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology \| volume 19 \| issue 9 \| pages 946–950 \| date September 2009 \| pmid 19809251 \| doi 10.4014/jmb.0811.617 \| s2cid 11552839 }}</ref> * Autolysis * Autophagy * Cisplatin * Cytotoxicity * Entosis * Ferroptosis * Homeostasis * Immunology * Necrobiosis * Necrosis * Necrotaxis * Nemosis * Mitotic catastrophe * p53 * Paraptosis * Pseudoapoptosis * PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway {{div col end}} Explanatory footnotes {{notelist}} Citations {{Reflist\|35em}} General bibliography {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book \| vauthors Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P \|year2015 \|titleMolecular Biology of the Cell \|edition6th \|publisherGarland Science \|page2 \|isbn978-0815344322 \|ref{{sfnRef\|Alberts}}}} {{Refend}} External links {{Scholia\|Q29892216}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4D0YxGi5Ec Apoptosis & Caspase 3], The Proteolysis Map&nbsp;– animation * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29AMumxsEo0 Apoptosis & Caspase 8], The Proteolysis Map&nbsp;– animation * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YYboqiol_w Apoptosis & Caspase 7], The Proteolysis Map&nbsp;– animation * [http://www.copewithcytokines.de/cope.cgi?key=Apoptosis%20MiniCOPE%20Dictionary Apoptosis MiniCOPE Dictionary&nbsp;– list of apoptosis terms and acronyms] * [http://www.biochemweb.net/apoptosis.shtml Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210425180849/http://www.biochemweb.net/apoptosis.shtml \|date2021-04-25 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140825065034/http://www.caspases.org/ Apoptosis Research Portal] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070111132934/http://apoptosisinfo.com/ Apoptosis Info] Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070111190837/http://www.apoptosis-db.org/welcome.html Database of proteins involved in apoptosis] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070630103651/http://stke.sciencemag.org/content/vol2007/issue380/images/data/tr1/DC1/Apoptosis_WEHI.mov Apoptosis Video] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DR80Huxp4y8 Apoptosis Video (WEHI on YouTube )] * [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Apoptosis.html#The_Mechanisms_of_Apoptosis The Mechanisms of Apoptosis] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309073759/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/Apoptosis.html#The_Mechanisms_of_Apoptosis \|date2018-03-09 }} Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007. * WikiPathways – [http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:Homo_sapiens:Apoptosis Apoptosis pathway] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080916135457/http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:Homo_sapiens:Apoptosis \|date2008-09-16 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141227072014/http://www.crmagazine.org/archive/Spring2007/Pages/FindingCancersSelf-DestructButton.aspx "Finding Cancer's Self-Destruct Button"]. CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer. * [http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/cell-biology/xiaodong-wang-part-1.html Xiaodong Wang's lecture: Introduction to Apoptosis] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029222808/http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/cell-biology/xiaodong-wang-part-1.html \|date2013-10-29 }} * [https://www.ibiology.org/cell-biology/programmed-cell-death/ Robert Horvitz's Short Clip: Discovering Programmed Cell Death] * [http://bcl2db.ibcp.fr/BCL2DB/ The Bcl-2 Database] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131023061339/http://bcl2db.ibcp.fr/BCL2DB/ \|date2013-10-23 }} * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515224643/http://www.deathbase.org/ DeathBase: a database of proteins involved in cell death, curated by experts] * [http://www.ecdo.eu European Cell Death Organization] * [https://www.cusabio.com/Apoptosis/ Apoptosis signaling pathway] created by Cusabio {{Cell cycle proteins}} {{Signal transduction}} {{Apoptosis signaling pathway}} {{Authority control}} Category:Cell signaling Category:Cellular senescence Category:Immunology Category:Medical aspects of death Category:Programmed cell death	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis	2025-04-05T18:26:04.759490
2459	Appomattox	Appomattox, shorthand for the surrender of Robert E. Lee to Ulysses S. Grant in the American Civil War, may refer to: Battle of Appomattox Court House, a battle of the American Civil War that was a culmination of the Appomattox Campaign and resulted in the surrender of Robert E. Lee Appomattox Court House National Historical Park, a National Historical Park in Virginia at the site of the surrender Appomattox may also refer to: Appomattox County, Virginia, in the United States Appomattox, Virginia, a town and the seat of that county Appomattox Court House (disambiguation), several courthouses in Appomattox, Virginia Appomattox River, a tributary of the James River in Virginia Appomattox Basin, a name for the Tri-Cities, Virginia region Appomattox Manor, a manor in City Point, Hopewell, Virginia Battle of Appomattox Station, a battle of the American Civil War in Appomattox, Virginia, a day before the Battle of Appomattox Court House SS Appomattox, a large American wooden steamship operated mainly on the Great Lakes SS Appomattox (1893), a British steamship of the early 20th century Appomattox (opera), a 2007 opera in based on the American Civil War, composed by Philip Glass Appomattox (statue), a bronze Confederate soldier memorial in Alexandria, Virginia See also Appomattoc (people)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appomattox	2025-04-05T18:26:04.763470
2460	Anal sex	{{Short description\|Insertion of the penis into the anus or other sexual activity involving the anus}} {{pp-semi\|small=yes}} {{Use mdy dates\|date=January 2024}} anal sex]] Anal sex or anal intercourse is generally the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum,<!-- NOTE: "Anus and rectum" is used instead of "anus or rectum" because one cannot sexually enter the rectum without sexually penetrating the anus. Additionally, using "and/or" is against the WP:ANDOR guideline. --> for sexual pleasure.<ref name"Weiten">{{cite book \|authorWeiten \|first1Wayne \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id09S5DQAAQBAJ&pgPA349 \|titlePsychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st century \|last2Lloyd \|first2Margaret A. \|last3Dunn \|first3Dana S. \|last4Yost Hammer \|first4Elizabeth \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2016 \|isbn978-1305968479 \|page349 \|quoteAnal intercourse involves insertion of the penis into a partner's anus and rectum. \|access-dateMarch 11, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312140211/https://books.google.com/books?id09S5DQAAQBAJ&pgPA349 \|archive-dateMarch 12, 2017}}</ref><ref name"Carroll">See [https://books.google.com/books?id5f8mQx7ULs4C&pgPA271 pages 270–271] for anal sex information, and [https://books.google.com/books?id5f8mQx7ULs4C&pgPA118 page 118] for information about the clitoris. {{cite book \|authorCarroll \|firstJanell L. \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/sexualitynowembr0000carr_x0m8 \|titleSexuality Now: Embracing Diversity \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-495-60274-3 \|pages629 pages \|access-dateDecember 19, 2010}}</ref><ref name"WebMD">{{cite web \|lastDunkin \|firstMary Anne \|titleAnal Sex Safety: What to Know \|urlhttp://www.webmd.com/sex/anal-sex-health-concerns \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171112202705/https://www.webmd.com/sex/anal-sex-health-concerns \|archive-dateNovember 12, 2017 \|access-dateAugust 19, 2013 \|websiteWebMD \|quoteOften referred to simply as anal sex, anal intercourse is sexual activity that involves inserting the penis into the anus.}}</ref> Other forms of anal sex include anal fingering, the use of sex toys, anilingus, and pegging. Although anal sex most commonly means penile{{endash}}anal penetration,<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Answer">{{cite book \|authorKomisaruk \|first1Barry R. \|author1-linkBarry Komisaruk \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/orgasmanswerguid00komi \|titleThe Orgasm Answer Guide \|last2Whipple \|first2Beverly \|author2-linkBeverly Whipple \|last3Nasserzadeh \|first3Sara \|author3-linkSara Nasserzadeh \|last4Beyer-Flores \|first4Carlos \|publisherJHU Press \|year2009 \|isbn978-0-8018-9396-4 \|pages[https://archive.org/details/orgasmanswerguid00komi/page/108 108]–109 \|access-dateNovember 6, 2011 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"McBride and Fortenberry">{{cite journal \|authorMcBride \|first1Kimberly R. \|last2Fortenberry \|first2J. Dennis \|dateMarch 2010 \|titleHeterosexual anal sexuality and anal sex behaviors: a review \|journalJournal of Sex Research \|volume47 \|issue2–3 \|pages123–136 \|doi10.1080/00224490903402538 \|pmid20358456 \|s2cid37930052 \| issn0022-4499}}</ref> sources sometimes use anal intercourse to exclusively denote penile{{endash}}anal penetration, and anal sex to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/><ref name"Discovery.com">{{cite web\|titleAnal Sex, defined\|publisherDiscovery.com\|access-dateJuly 23, 2013\|urlhttp://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/analsex.html\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020613200634/http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/analsex.html\|archive-date June 13, 2002}}</ref> While anal sex is commonly associated with male homosexuality, research shows that not all homosexual men engage in anal sex and that it is not uncommon in heterosexual relationships.<ref name"journal2011">{{cite journal \|last1Rosenberger \|first1Joshua G. \|last2Reece \|first2Michael \|last3Schick \|first3Vanessa \|last4Herbenick \|first4Debby \|last5Novak \|first5David S. \|last6van der Poi \|first6Barbara \|last7Fortenberry \|first7J. Dennis \|author4-linkDebby Herbenick \|titleSexual Behaviors and Situational Characteristics of Most Recent Male-Partnered Sexual Event among Gay and Bisexually Identified Men in the United States \|journalThe Journal of Sexual Medicine \|date24 August 2011 \|volume8 \|issue11 \|pages3040–3050 \|doi10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02438.x \|urlhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02438.x \|access-date17 March 2025 \|publisherWiley}}</ref><ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"Not all">{{cite web\|titleNot all gay men have anal sex\|publisherGo Ask Alice!\|dateJune 13, 2008\|access-dateApril 19, 2021\|urlhttps://goaskalice.columbia.edu/answered-questions/not-all-gay-men-have-anal-sex\|archive-dateApril 21, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210421052659/https://goaskalice.columbia.edu/answered-questions/not-all-gay-men-have-anal-sex/\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Wellings">{{cite book\|authorKaye Wellings\|author2Kirstin Mitchell\|author3Martine Collumbien\|titleSexual Health: A Public Health Perspective\|isbn978-0335244812\|publisherMcGraw-Hill International\|year2012\|page91\|access-dateAugust 29, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZKveuj7dLd4C&pgPA91\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150326183233/http://books.google.com/books?idZKveuj7dLd4C&pgPA91\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Types of anal sex can also be a part of lesbian sexual practices.<ref name"Newman">{{cite book \|authorNewman \|firstFelice \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOquFdu3Qt9sC&pgPA205 \|titleThe Whole Lesbian Sex Book: A Passionate Guide For All Of Us \|publisherCleis Press \|year2004 \|isbn978-1-57344-199-5 \|pages205–224 \|access-dateNovember 6, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000427/https://books.google.com/books?idOquFdu3Qt9sC&pgPA205 \|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021}}</ref> People may experience pleasure from anal sex by stimulation of the anal nerve endings, and orgasm may be achieved through anal penetration&nbsp;– by indirect stimulation of the prostate in men, indirect stimulation of the clitoris or an area of the vagina (sometimes called the G-spot)<!-- NOTE: Worded this way because the existence of the G-spot, especially as a distinct structure, is highly debated. --> in women, and other sensory nerves (especially the pudendal nerve).<ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"Answer"/><ref name"Rosenthal">{{cite book \|lastRosenthal \|firstMartha \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd58z5hgQ2gsC&pgPT153 \|titleHuman Sexuality: From Cells to Society \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2012 \|isbn978-0-618-75571-4 \|pages133–135 \|access-dateSeptember 17, 2012 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160520211405/https://books.google.com/books?idd58z5hgQ2gsC&pgPT153 \|archive-dateMay 20, 2016}}</ref> However, people may also find anal sex painful, sometimes extremely so,<ref name"Anal Pain">{{cite web\|titlePain from anal sex, and how to prevent it\|publisherGo Ask Alice!\|dateJune 26, 2009\|access-dateApril 7, 2011\|urlhttp://goaskalice.columbia.edu/pain-anal-sex-and-how-prevent-it\|archive-dateAugust 11, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150811153612/http://goaskalice.columbia.edu/pain-anal-sex-and-how-prevent-it\|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Heidelbaugh">{{cite book \|authorHeidelbaugh \|firstJoel J. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4N_6nOH5BAEC&pgPA273 \|titleClinical men's health: evidence in practice \|publisherElsevier Health Sciences \|year2007 \|isbn978-1-4160-3000-3 \|page273 \|access-dateOctober 14, 2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201219100558/https://books.google.com/books?id4N_6nOH5BAEC&pgPA273 \|archive-dateDecember 19, 2020 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> which may be due to psychological factors in some cases.<ref name="Heidelbaugh"/> As with most forms of sexual activity, anal sex can facilitate the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Anal sex is considered a high-risk sexual practice because of the vulnerability of the anus and rectum. The anal and rectal tissue are delicate and do not, unlike the vagina, provide lubrication. They can easily tear and permit disease transmission, especially if a personal lubricant is not used.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"Krasner">{{cite book \|authorKrasner \|firstRobert I \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnThtlYxP84QC&pgPA416 \|titleThe Microbial Challenge: Science, Disease and Public Health \|publisherJones & Bartlett Publishers \|year2010 \|isbn978-0763797355 \|pages416–417 \|access-dateAugust 28, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210321125847/https://books.google.com/books?idnThtlYxP84QC&pgPA416 \|archive-dateMarch 21, 2021 \|url-statuslive}}</ref> Anal sex without protection of a condom is considered the riskiest form of sexual activity,<ref name"Krasner"/><ref name"Hales">{{Cite book \|authorHales \|firstDianne \|urlhttps://archive.org/details/invitationtoheal00hale \|titleAn Invitation to Health Brief 2010-2011 \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2008 \|isbn978-0495391920 \|pages269–271 \|access-dateAugust 29, 2013 \|url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Werner">{{cite book \|authorHoeger \|first1Werner W. K. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0aw8AAAAQBAJ&pgPA455 \|titleLifetime Fitness and Wellness: A Personalized Program \|last2Hoeger \|first2Sharon A. \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2010 \|isbn978-1133008583 \|page455 \|access-dateAugust 28, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210406131243/https://books.google.com/books?id0aw8AAAAQBAJ&pgPA455 \|archive-dateApril 6, 2021}}</ref> and therefore health authorities such as the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend safe sex practices for anal sex.<ref name"Who">World Health Organization, Department of Reproductive Health and Research [http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241563475_eng.pdf Global strategy for the prevention and control of sexually transmitted infections: 2006–2015. Breaking the chain of transmission] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140323122753/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241563475_eng.pdf \|dateMarch 23, 2014 }}, 2007, {{ISBN\|978-92-4-156347-5}}</ref> Strong views are often expressed about anal sex. It is controversial in various cultures, often because of religious prohibitions against anal sex among males or teachings about the procreative purpose of sexual activity.<ref name"LeRoy">{{cite book \|authorLeRoy Bullough \|first1Vern \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy5HFtMkmFMYC&pgPA27 \|titleHuman Sexuality: An Encyclopedia \|last2Bullough \|first2Bonnie \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|year1994 \|isbn0824079728 \|pages27–28 \|access-dateJuly 5, 2013 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200917172401/https://books.google.com/books?idy5HFtMkmFMYC&pgPA27 \|archive-dateSeptember 17, 2020 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Discovery.com"/> It may be considered taboo or unnatural, and is a criminal offense in some countries, punishable by corporal or capital punishment.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Discovery.com"/> By contrast, anal sex may also be considered<!--NOTE: Refer to the Discovery.com source. A Template:By whom tag is not needed. --> a natural and valid form of sexual activity as fulfilling as other desired sexual expressions, and can be an enhancing or primary element of a person's sex life.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Discovery.com"/> Anatomy and stimulation {{See also\|Prostate massage}} The abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men and women.<ref name"Answer"/><ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"LeRoy"/> The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex.<ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"LeRoy"/> Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia states that "the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure" and that "the rectum is a curved tube about {{convert\|8\|or\|9\|in\|cm\|0\|spellin\|dispsqbr}} long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand".<ref name"LeRoy"/> Research indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors,<ref name"Weiten"/> but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Understanding">{{cite book\|authorJoann S. DeLora\|author2Carol A. B. Warren\|author3Carol Rinkleib Ellison\|titleUnderstanding Sexual Interaction\|isbn978-0-395-29724-7\|publisherHoughton Mifflin (Original from the University of Virginia)\|orig-date1981\|year2008\|page123\|access-dateNovember 6, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlP4cAAAAYAAJ\|quoteMany men find anal intercourse more exciting than penile-vaginal intercourse because the anal opening is usually smaller and tighter than the vagina. Probably the forbidden aspect of anal intercourse also makes it more exciting for some people.\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000722/https://books.google.com/books?idlP4cAAAAYAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"dailyuw.com">{{cite news\|firstCelia\|lastHunko\|titleAnal sex: Let's get to the bottom of this\|newspaperThe Daily of the University of Washington\|dateFebruary 6, 2009\|access-dateMarch 11, 2017\|urlhttps://www.dailyuw.com/news/anal-sex-lets-get-to-the-bottom-of-this/article_7fc8aaaa-0d87-55cb-9c49-49172db59f01.html\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230905125612/https://www.dailyuw.com/news/anal-sex-lets-get-to-the-bottom-of-this/article_7fc8aaaa-0d87-55cb-9c49-49172db59f01.html\|archive-dateSeptember 5, 2023\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in anal fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation, figging or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Hawley">{{cite book\|first John C\|last Hawley\|title LGBTQ America Today: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1\|publisher Greenwood Press\|year 2008\|page 977\|access-date July 5, 2013\|isbn 978-0313339905\|url https://books.google.com/books?idMUIOAQAAMAAJ\|archive-date March 10, 2021\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210310000811/https://books.google.com/books?idMUIOAQAAMAAJ\|url-status live}}</ref> Fisting is the least practiced of the activities,{{cn\|dateFebruary 2025}} partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.<ref name="LeRoy"/> In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the object of insertion rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall.<ref name"Answer"/><ref name"Rosenthal"/> This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases.<ref name"Answer"/><ref name"Rosenthal"/> Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only.<ref name"Answer"/><ref name"Rosenthal"/> The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands.<ref name"Lentz">{{cite book\|authorGretchen M Lentz\|author2Rogerio A. Lobo\|author3David M Gershenson\|author4Vern L. Katz\|titleComprehensive Gynecology\|publisherElsevier Health Sciences\|year2012\|access-dateMarch 9, 2015\|page41\|isbn978-0323091312\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX5KT_w6Nye8C&pgPA41\|archive-dateDecember 10, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201210124759/https://books.google.com/books?idX5KT_w6Nye8C&pgPA41\|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex.<ref name"W. Ross">{{cite book\|authorMichael W. Ross\|titlePsychopathology and Psychotherapy in Homosexuality\|isbn978-0866564991\|publisherPsychology Press\|year1988\|pages49–50\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDWN2-QpbvY8C&pgPA50\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000723/https://books.google.com/books?idDWN2-QpbvY8C&pgPA50\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"McConaghy">{{cite book\|authorNathaniel McConaghy\|titleSexual Behavior: Problems and Management\|isbn978-0306441776\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|year1993\|page186\|access-dateMarch 25, 2018\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt31pR2FybjMC&pgPA186\|quoteIn homosexual relations, most men do not reach orgasm in receptive anal intercourse, and a number report not reaching orgasm by any method in many of their sexual relationships, which they nevertheless enjoy.\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180506053119/https://books.google.com/books?idt31pR2FybjMC&pgPA186\|archive-dateMay 6, 2018}}</ref> General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm.<ref name"Rosenthal"/><ref name"Flaherty">{{cite book\|authorJoseph A. Flaherty\|author2John Marcell Davis\|author3Philip G. Janicak\|titlePsychiatry: Diagnosis & therapy. A Lange clinical manual\|isbn978-0-8385-1267-8\|publisherAppleton & Lange (Original from Northwestern University)\|date1993\|page[https://archive.org/details/psychiatrydiagno00flah/page/217 217]\|quoteThe amount of time of sexual arousal needed to reach orgasm is variable&nbsp;— and usually much longer&nbsp;— in women than in men; thus, only 20–30% of women attain a coital climax. b. Many women (70–80%) require manual clitoral stimulation...\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/psychiatrydiagno00flah/page/217}}</ref><ref name"Kammerer-Doak">{{cite journal \| first1 Dorothy \| last1 Kammerer-Doak \| first2 Rebecca G. \| last2 Rogers \| title Female Sexual Function and Dysfunction \| journal Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America \| volume 35 \| issue 2 \| pages 169–183 \| doi 10.1016/j.ogc.2008.03.006 \|dateJune 2008 \| pmid 18486835 \| quoteMost women report the inability to achieve orgasm with vaginal intercourse and require direct clitoral stimulation ... About 20% have coital climaxes...}}</ref> The vaginal walls contain significantly fewer nerve endings than the clitoris (which has many nerve endings specifically intended for orgasm), and therefore intense sexual pleasure, including orgasm, from vaginal sexual stimulation is less likely to occur than from direct clitoral stimulation in the majority of women.<ref name"Sex and Society">{{cite book\|authorMarshall Cavendish Corporation\|titleSex and Society, Volume 2\|isbn978-0-7614-7907-9\|publisherMarshall Cavendish Corporation\|year2009\|page590\|access-dateAugust 17, 2012\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYtsxeWE7VD0C&pgPA590\|archive-dateApril 12, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412102723/https://books.google.com/books?idYtsxeWE7VD0C&pgPA590\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Kilchevsky"/><ref name"Weiten 2">{{Cite book\|authorWayne Weiten\|author2Dana S. Dunn\|author3Elizabeth Yost Hammer\|titlePsychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century\|isbn9781111186630\|publisherCengage Learning\|year2011\|page386\|access-dateJanuary 5, 2012\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCGu96TeAZo0C&pgPT423\|archive-dateJune 14, 2013\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130614031527/http://books.google.com/books?idCGu96TeAZo0C&pgPT423\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The clitoris is composed of more than the externally visible glans (head).<ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"Di Marino">{{cite book\|lastDi Marino\|firstVincent\|titleAnatomic Study of the Clitoris and the Bulbo-Clitoral Organ\|publisherSpringer\|year2014\|page81\|isbn978-3319048949\|access-dateSeptember 4, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwKMpBAAAQBAJ\|archive-dateSeptember 18, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150918185550/https://books.google.com/books?idwKMpBAAAQBAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The vagina, for example, is flanked on each side by the clitoral crura, the internal legs of the clitoris, which are highly sensitive and become engorged with blood when sexually aroused.<ref name"O'Connell">{{cite journal \|vauthorsO'Connell HE, Sanjeevan KV, Hutson JM \|s2cid26109805 \|titleAnatomy of the clitoris \|journalThe Journal of Urology \|volume174 \|issue4 Pt 1 \|pages1189–95 \|dateOctober 2005 \|pmid16145367 \|doi10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd}} {{cite news \|authorSharon Mascall \|dateJune 11, 2006 \|titleTime for rethink on the clitoris \|workBBC News \|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5013866.stm \|access-dateApril 22, 2010 \|archive-dateNovember 4, 2022 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221104231647/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5013866.stm \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Yang">{{cite journal \| last1 Yang \| first1 Claire J. \| last2 Cold \| first2 Christopher \| last3 Yilmaz \| first3 Ugur \| last4Kenneth \| first4R. Maravilla \| title Sexually responsive vascular tissue of the vulva \| journal BJUI \| volume 97 \| issue 4 \| pages 766–772 \| date April 2006 \| pmid 16536770\| doi 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2005.05961.x \| s2cid 31001005 \| display-authors 2 \| doi-access }}</ref><ref>{{cite book \| first1 John P. \| last1 Mulhall \| first2 Luca \| last2 Incrocci \| first3 Irwin \| last3 Goldstein \| first4 Ray \| last4 Rosen \| title Cancer and Sexual Health \| isbn 978-1-60761-915-4 \| publisher Springer \| year 2011 \| page 783 \| access-date June 23, 2012 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idGpIadil3YsQC&pgPA13 \| archive-date December 16, 2019 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20191216021705/https://books.google.com/books?idGpIadil3YsQC&pgPA13 \| url-status live }}</ref> Indirect stimulation of the clitoris through anal penetration may be caused by the shared sensory nerves, especially the pudendal nerve, which gives off the inferior anal nerves and divides into the perineal nerve and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris.<ref name"Answer"/> Although the anus has many nerve endings, their purpose is not specifically for inducing orgasm, and so a woman achieving orgasm solely by anal stimulation is rare.<ref name"Tarrant">{{cite book\|authorShira Tarrant\|titlePolitics: In the Streets and Between the Sheets in the 21st Century\|isbn978-1317814757\|publisherRoutledge\|year2015\|pages247–248\|access-dateMarch 11, 2017\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idt6nwCQAAQBAJ&pgPT247\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310001003/https://books.google.com/books?idt6nwCQAAQBAJ&pgPT247\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Valdez">{{cite book\|authorNatasha Janina Valdez\|titleVitamin O: Why Orgasms Are Vital to a Woman's Health and Happiness, and How to Have Them Every Time!\|isbn978-1-61608-311-3\|publisherSkyhorse Publishing Inc.\|year2011\|page79\|access-dateNovember 6, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5PsNKTB87isC&pgPT79\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000932/https://books.google.com/books?id5PsNKTB87isC&pgPT79\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Stimulation from anal sex can additionally be affected by popular perception or portrayals of the activity, such as erotica or pornography. In pornography, anal sex is commonly portrayed as a desirable, painless routine that does not require personal lubricant; this can result in couples performing anal sex without care, and men and women believing that it is unusual for women, as receptive partners, to find discomfort or pain instead of pleasure from the activity.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/><ref name"Crooks">See [https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC&pgPA560 page 560] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000401/https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC&pgPA560 \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }} for effects of viewing pornography with regard to anal sex, and [https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC&pgPA286 pages 286–289] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000810/https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC&pgPA286 \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }} for anal sex as a birth control method. {{cite book \| title Our Sexuality \| publisher Cengage Learning \| year 2010–2011 \| pages 570 pages \| access-date May 7, 2013 \| isbn 978-0495812944 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC \| author1 Robert Crooks \| author2 Karla Baur \| archive-date March 10, 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210310000903/https://books.google.com/books?idMpRnPtmdRVwC \| url-status live }}</ref><ref name"Boyle">{{Citation \|last Flood \| first Michael \| author-link Michael Flood \| contribution Young men using pornography \| editor-last Boyle \| editor-first Karen \| editor-link Karen Boyle \| title Everyday pornography \| pages 170–171 \| publisher Routledge \| location London New York \| year 2010 \| isbn 9780415543781 \| postscript .}} [http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20Young%20men%20using%20porn.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161020075102/http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood%2C%20Young%20men%20using%20porn.pdf \|archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood%2C%20Young%20men%20using%20porn.pdf \|archive-dateOctober 9, 2022 \|url-statuslive \|dateOctober 20, 2016 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id8yznvRX-hfAC&pgPA170 Preview.] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000812/https://books.google.com/books?id8yznvRX-hfAC&pgPA170 \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }}</ref><ref name"Johansson">{{cite book \| title The Transformation of Sexuality: Gender And Identity In Contemporary Youth Culture \| publisher Ashgate Publishing \| year 2007 \| pages 56–58 \| access-date May 7, 2013 \| isbn 978-1409490784 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idXPm3JEiunnsC&pgPA56 \| author Thomas Johansson \| archive-date March 10, 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210310000808/https://books.google.com/books?idXPm3JEiunnsC&pgPA56 \| url-status live }}</ref> By contrast, each person's sphincter muscles react to penetration differently, the anal sphincters have tissues that are more prone to tearing, and the anus and rectum, unlike the vagina, do not provide lubrication for sexual penetration. Researchers say adequate application of a personal lubricant, relaxation, and communication between sexual partners are crucial to avoid pain or damage to the anus or rectum.<ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"Heidelbaugh"/><ref namelubrication>{{Cite journal\|last1 Carballo-Diéguez\|first1Alex\|last2 Stein\|first2Z.\|year 2000 \|titleFrequent use of lubricants for anal sex among men who have sex with men\|journal American Journal of Public Health\|volume90\|issue 7\|pages1117–1121\|doi10.2105/AJPH.90.7.1117 \|last3Saez \|first3 H. \|last4Dolezal \|first4 C. \|last5Nieves-Rosa \|first5 L. \|last6Diaz \|first6 F.\|pmid10897191 \|pmc1446289}}</ref> Additionally, ensuring that the anal area is clean and the bowel is empty, for both aesthetics and practicality, may be desired by participants.<ref name"Zdrok">{{cite book\|firstVictoria\|lastZdrok\|titleThe Anatomy of Pleasure\|publisherInfinity Publishing\|year2004\|pages100–102\|access-dateJuly 5, 2013\|isbn978-0741422484\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCx62zwSwbcsC&pgPA100\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000809/https://books.google.com/books?idCx62zwSwbcsC&pgPA100\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Male to female Behaviors and views by Paul Avril depicting male-to-female anal sex.]] The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Taormino">See [https://books.google.com/books?idbG8XqRO6rRQC&pgPA3 page 3] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310001121/https://books.google.com/books?idbG8XqRO6rRQC&pgPA3 \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }} for women preferring anal sex to vaginal sex, and [https://books.google.com/books?idbG8XqRO6rRQC&pgPA15 page 15] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000904/https://books.google.com/books?idbG8XqRO6rRQC&pgPA15 \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }} for reaching orgasm through indirect stimulation of the G-spot. {{cite book\|authorTristan Taormino\|author-linkTristan Taormino\|titleThe Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women\|isbn978-1-57344-221-3\|publisherCleis Press\|year1997\|pages282 pages\|access-dateNovember 6, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhLv1ohTIiicC\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000836/https://books.google.com/books?idhLv1ohTIiicC\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Understanding"/> Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name="Understanding"/> While some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/><ref name"Taormino"/><ref name"Howe">{{cite book \| author Adrian Howe \| title Sex, Violence and Crime: Foucault and the 'Man' Question \| publisher Routledge \| year 2008 \| page 35 \| access-date July 16, 2013 \| isbn 978-0203891278 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idW6aoQfurvT4C&pgPA35 \| archive-date April 9, 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210409210256/https://books.google.com/books?idW6aoQfurvT4C&pgPA35 \| url-status live }}</ref><ref name"Alters and Schiff">{{cite book \| author Sandra Alters \| author2 Wendy Schiff \| title Essential Concepts for Healthy Living \| publisher Jones & Bartlett Publishers \| year 2012 \| page 144 \| access-date July 16, 2013 \| isbn 978-1449630621 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idVegUiVbruBMC \| archive-date April 20, 2021 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210420024847/https://books.google.com/books?idVegUiVbruBMC \| url-status = live }}</ref> In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, anal intercourse is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and anal sex is used to denote any form of anal sexual activity. The review suggests that anal sex is exotic among the sexual practices of some heterosexuals and that "for a certain number of heterosexuals, anal intercourse is pleasurable, exciting, and perhaps considered more intimate than vaginal sex".<ref name="McBride and Fortenberry"/> Anal intercourse is sometimes used as a substitute for vaginal intercourse during menstruation.<ref name"LeRoy"/> The likelihood of pregnancy occurring<!-- NOTE: This paragraph, including this line, relates to practice far more than it does to health, so it seemingly fits better here than in the Health risks section. --> during anal sex is greatly reduced, as anal sex alone cannot lead to pregnancy unless sperm is somehow transported to the vaginal opening. Because of this, some couples practice anal intercourse as a form of contraception, often in the absence of a condom.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Crooks"/><ref>SIECUS Prevalence of Unprotected Anal Sex among Teens Requires New Education Strategies[https://web.archive.org/web/20171231103438/http://www.sexedlibrary.org/index.cfm?fuseactionFeature.showFeature&featureid1036&pageid682&parentid=478] Accessed January 26, 2010</ref> Some couples may practice anal sex as a way of preserving female virginity because it is non-procreative and does not tear the hymen; this has been reported in Christian communities in the United States.<ref>{{Cite magazine \|date2017-02-06 \|titleThe Poophole Loophole: Exploring the paradox of having anal sex to preserve purity \|urlhttps://therooster.com/articles/poophole-loophole-exploring-paradox-having-anal-sex-preserve-purity/\|magazineRooster\|locationLongmont, Colorado\|quote}}</ref><ref nameClub>{{cite magazine\|urlhttps://slate.com/culture/2021/07/brigham-young-university-virginity-club-byuvirgin-instagram-interview.html\| magazineSlate \|date21 July 2021 \| lastMalone Kircher \|firstMadeline \|titleIs the Brigham Young University Virginity Club for Real? An Investigation\|quoteBut, then, a closer look at a post about the 'poophole loophole'—anal sex as a workaround for religious tenet—and you’re right back to laughing and thinking the account is just good performance art. }}</ref> A person, especially a teenage girl or woman, who engages in anal sex or other sexual activity with no history of having engaged in vaginal intercourse may be regarded as not having yet experienced virginity loss. This is sometimes called technical virginity.<ref name"Carpenter">See [https://books.google.com/books?id6qNCeI2AcY4C&pgPT11 here] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200814105404/https://books.google.com/books?id6qNCeI2AcY4C&pgPT11 \|dateAugust 14, 2020 }} and [https://books.google.com/books?idpXXZn_qSoDoC&pgPA48 pages 48–49] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201074430/https://books.google.com/books?idpXXZn_qSoDoC&pgPA48 \|dateDecember 1, 2016 }} for the majority of researchers and heterosexuals defining virginity loss/"technical virginity" by whether or not a person has engaged in vaginal sex. {{Cite book\|authorLaura M. Carpenter\|titleVirginity lost: an intimate portrait of first sexual experiences\|publisherNYU Press\|year2005\|access-dateOctober 9, 2011\|pages295 pages\|isbn978-0-8147-1652-6\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpXXZn_qSoDoC\|archive-dateApril 28, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428003620/https://books.google.com/books?idpXXZn_qSoDoC\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Intimate">{{Cite book \|author1Bryan Strong \|author2Christine DeVault \|author3Theodore F. Cohen \|titleThe Marriage and Family Experience: Intimate Relationship in a Changing Society \|publisherCengage Learning \|year2010 \|access-dateOctober 8, 2011 \|page186 \|isbn978-0-534-62425-5 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqjvoSOMB5JMC&pgPA186 \|quoteMost people agree that we maintain virginity as long as we refrain from sexual (vaginal) intercourse. But occasionally we hear people speak of 'technical virginity' [...] Data indicate that 'a very significant proportion of teens ha[ve] had experience with oral sex, even if they haven't had sexual intercourse, and may think of themselves as virgins' [...] Other research, especially research looking into virginity loss, reports that 35% of virgins, defined as people who have never engaged in vaginal intercourse, have nonetheless engaged in one or more other forms of heterosexual sexual activity (e.g., oral sex, anal sex, or mutual masturbation). \|archive-dateJuly 24, 2020 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724205226/https://books.google.com/books?idqjvoSOMB5JMC&pgPA186 \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Jayson">{{Cite news\|firstSharon\|lastJayson\|title'Technical virginity' becomes part of teens' equation\|workUSA Today\|dateOctober 19, 2005\|access-dateAugust 7, 2009\|urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-10-19-teens-technical-virginity_x.htm\|archive-dateApril 28, 2011\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110428054421/http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-10-19-teens-technical-virginity_x.htm\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Plummer">{{cite book \| author Ken Plummer \| title Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences \| publisher Routledge \| year 2002 \| pages 187–191 \| access-date August 24, 2013 \| isbn 1134922426 \| url https://books.google.com/books?idOSO3q4XEfz4C&pgPA189 \| quote The social construction of 'sex' as vaginal intercourse affects how other forms of sexual activity are evaluated as sexually satisfying or arousing; in some cases whether an activity is seen as a sexual act at all. For example, unless a woman has been penetrated by a man's penis she is still technically a virgin even if she has had lots of sexual experience. \| archive-date March 18, 2015 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150318215831/http://books.google.com/books?idOSO3q4XEfz4C&pgPA189 \| url-status = live }}</ref> Heterosexuals may view anal sex as "fooling around" or as foreplay; scholar Laura M. Carpenter stated that this view "dates to the late 1600s, with explicit 'rules' appearing around the turn of the twentieth century, as in marriage manuals defining petting as 'literally every caress known to married couples but does not include complete sexual intercourse.'"<ref name"Carpenter"/> One study found US teens who pledged to not have sex until marriage were more likely to engage in anal sex without vaginal sex than teens who had not made a sexual abstinence pledge, and found pledge-takers were just as likely to test positive for an STI five years after taking the pledge as those who had not pledged to abstinence.<ref>{{Cite journal\|titleAfter the promise: The STD consequences of adolescent virginity pledges\|journalJournal of Adolescent Health\|publisherElsevier\|urlhttps://www.jahonline.org/action/showPdf?piiS1054-139X%2805%2900055-8\|dateApril 2005\|volume36\|issue4\|first1Hannah\|last1Brückner\|first2Peter\|last2Bearman\|page274,276\|doi10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.01.005 \|pmid15780782 }}</ref> Prevalence Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/><ref nameColeman>{{cite book \|editor-firstHardin L.K. \|editor-lastColeman \|editor2-firstChristine \|editor2-lastYeh\|title Handbook of School Counseling\|isbn 978-1135283599\|publisherRoutledge\|year2011\|page247\|access-dateDecember 10, 2016\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrBiPAgAAQBAJ&pgPA247}}</ref> In Kimberly R. McBride's 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n1,299) and women (n1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral–anal sex, manual–anal sex, or anal sex toy use.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/> The report states the majority of men (n631) and women (n856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively.<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/> The review added that because "relatively little attention [is] given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners", this means that it is "quite rare" to have research "that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics. As a result, we do not know the extent to which anal intercourse differs qualitatively from coitus."<ref name"McBride and Fortenberry"/> According to a 2010 study from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) that was authored by Debby Herbenick et al., although anal intercourse is reported by fewer women than other partnered sex behaviors, partnered women in the age groups between 18 and 49 are significantly more likely to report having anal sex in the past 90 days. Women engaged in anal intercourse less commonly than men. Vaginal intercourse was practiced more than insertive anal intercourse among men, but 13% to 15% of men aged 25 to 49 practiced insertive anal intercourse.<ref name"Carroll 2">{{cite book\|authorJanell L. Carroll\|titleDiscovery Series: Human Sexuality\|edition1st\|publisherCengage Learning\|pages285–286\|isbn978-1111841898\|year2012\|access-dateDecember 10, 2016\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgU3SZSh-eXsC&pgPT316\|archive-dateMarch 5, 2017\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170305140952/https://books.google.com/books?idgU3SZSh-eXsC&pgPT316\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalsexstudy.indiana.edu/ National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB).] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140201060530/http://www.nationalsexstudy.indiana.edu/ \|date=February 1, 2014 }} Findings from the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior, Center for Sexual Health Promotion, Indiana University. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, Vol. 7, Supplement 5. 2010.</ref> With regard to adolescents, limited data also exists.<ref nameColeman/> This may be because of the taboo nature of anal sex and that teenagers and caregivers subsequently avoid talking to one another about the topic. It is also common for subject review panels and schools to avoid the subject.<ref nameColeman/> A 2000 study found that 22.9% of college students who self-identified as non-virgins had anal sex. They used condoms during anal sex 20.9% of the time as compared with 42.9% of the time with vaginal intercourse.<ref name=Coleman/> Anal sex being more common among heterosexuals today than it was previously has been linked to the increase in consumption of anal pornography among men, especially among those who view it on a regular basis.<ref name"Boyle"/><ref name"Johansson"/><ref name"Seidman">{{cite book\|titleIntroducing the New Sexuality Studies\|edition2nd\|authorSteven Seidman\|author2Nancy Fischer\|author3Chet Meeks\|publisherRoutledge\|year2011\|pages108–112\|isbn978-1136818103\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2rmjynItoEkC&pgPA108\|archive-dateMay 5, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210505053108/https://books.google.com/books?id2rmjynItoEkC&pgPA108\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Seidman et al. argued that "cheap, accessible and, especially, interactive media have enabled many more people to produce as well as consume pornography", and that this modern way of producing pornography, in addition to the buttocks and anus having become more eroticized, has led to a significant interest in or obsession with anal sex among men.<ref name"Seidman"/> Male to male Behaviors and views and Antinous (detail), by Paul Avril.]] Anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, not all homosexual men engage in anal sex.<ref name"journal2011"/><ref nameHeywood>{{cite journal \|first1Wendy \|last1Heywood \|last2Smith \|first2M. A. Anthony \|year2012 \|titleAnal sex practices in heterosexual and male homosexual populations: a review of population-based data. \|journalSexual Health \|volume9 \|issue6 \|pages517–526 \|doi10.1071/SH12014\|pmid22951046 }}</ref> Oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common than anal stimulation among men in sexual relationships with other men.<ref name"Weiten"/><ref name"Johnson and Johnson">{{cite book\|titleGay Perspective: Things Our Homosexuality Tells Us about the Nature of God & the Universe\|isbn978-1-59021-015-4\|publisherLethe Press\|year2008\|page139\|access-dateFebruary 12, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLPyhsuVbUlAC&pgPA139\|authorEdwin Clark Johnson\|author2Toby Johnson\|author2-linkToby Johnson\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000652/https://books.google.com/books?idLPyhsuVbUlAC&pgPA139\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref nameBrannon>{{cite book \|author Linda Brannon\|titleGender: Psychological Perspectives, Sixth Edition\|isbn 978-1317348139\|publisherPsychology Press\|year2015\|page484\|access-dateDecember 10, 2016\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqd85CgAAQBAJ&pgPT484}}</ref> Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the top and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the bottom. Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as versatile.<ref name"Underwood">{{cite book\|authorSteven Gregory Underwood\|titleGay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles\|isbn978-1-56023-375-6\|publisherHarrington Park Press\|year2003\|pages4–225\|access-dateFebruary 12, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi4wRl0_8NuUC&pgPA4\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000601/https://books.google.com/books?idi4wRl0_8NuUC&pgPA4\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Though some men who have sex with men may find that being a receptive partner during anal sex makes them question their masculinity,<ref name"Harvey, Wenzel, and Sprecher">{{cite book\|author1John H. Harvey\|author2Amy Wenzel\|author3Susan Sprecher\|titleThe handbook of sexuality in close relationships\|isbn0805845488\|publisherRoutledge\|year2004\|pages355–356\|access-dateMarch 12, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqsl4AgAAQBAJ&pgPA355\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310001122/https://books.google.com/books?idqsl4AgAAQBAJ&pgPA355\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"BAMTW">{{Cite book\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRhBGAQAAQBAJ&pgPT104\|titleBeing a Man in a Transnational World: The Masculinity and Sexuality of Migration Routledge Advances in Feminist Studies and Intersectionality\|isbn978-1134601882\|publisherRoutledge\|last1Vasquez del Aguila\|first1Ernesto\|date2013\|pages104–105\|access-dateJune 29, 2021\|archive-dateJune 29, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210629015826/https://books.google.com/books?idRhBGAQAAQBAJ&pgPT104\|url-statuslive}}</ref> playing bottom in sexual intercourse is at least as common as playing top among western gay and bisexual men and, among committed male couples, anal intercourse is rated as providing the most satisfying orgasms.<ref namekarenb>{{cite journal\|titleNot All Orgasms Were Created Equal: Differences in Frequency and Satisfaction of Orgasm Experiences by Sexual Activity in Same-Sex Versus Mixed-Sex Relationships\|year2018\|author1Karen L. Blair\|author2Jaclyn Cappell\|author3Caroline F Pukall\|volume55\|issue6\|journalJ Sex Res\|pages719–733 \|doi10.1080/00224499.2017.1303437\|pmid28362180 }}</ref>PrevalenceReports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among men who have sex with men vary. According to 2011 research from the Journal of Sexual Medicine, in the most recent sexual intercourse between homosexual men, the most common behavior was kissing the partner on the mouth, followed by oral sex, and mutual masturbation. Anal sex occurred in less than half of the sexual relationships between homosexual men.<ref name"journal2011"/> A survey publish by The Advocate in 1994 indicated that 46% of homosexual men who have anal sex, preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner.<ref name"Underwood"/> Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of homosexual men have had anal sex at least one time, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms.<ref nameUnderwood/> In a 2012 sex survey conducted by the NSSHB in the U.S., among homosexual men who have anal sex, 83.3% report ever having anal sex in the insertive position, and 90% in the receptive position.<ref namedodge>{{cite journal\|titleSexual Behaviors of U.S. Men by Self-Identified Sexual Orientation: Results From the 2012 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior\|firstBrian \|lastDodge \|display-authorsetal \|year2016\|journalJ Sex Med\|volume13\|issue4 \|pages637–649\|doi10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.01.015 \|pmid26936073}}</ref> According to Weiten et al., anal intercourse is more popular among homosexual male couples than among heterosexual couples, but "it ranks behind oral sex and mutual masturbation" among both sexual orientations in prevalence.<ref name"Weiten" /> Wellings et al. reported that "the equation of 'homosexual' with 'anal' sex among men is common among lay and health professionals alike" and that "yet an Internet survey of 180,000 MSM across Europe (EMIS, 2011) showed that oral sex was most commonly practised, followed by mutual masturbation, with anal intercourse in third place".<ref name"Wellings" /> Though anal sex is less common than oral sex and handjobs among committed male couples, they rate orgasms derived from anal intercourse as more satisfying than that of any other sexual practice.<ref namekarenb /> Female to male about to engage in anal sex with a man (pegging)]] Women may sexually stimulate a man's anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Zdrok"/><ref name"Keesling">{{cite book\|firstBarbara\|lastKeesling\|titleSexual Pleasure: Reaching New Heights of Sexual Arousal and Intimacy\|publisherHunter House\|year2005\|page221\|access-dateJuly 6, 2013\|isbn9780897934350\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEG2qGvbgneoC\|archive-dateApril 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210410043629/https://books.google.com/books?idEG2qGvbgneoC\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used.<ref name"LeRoy" /><ref name"Zdrok" /> The practice of a woman penetrating a man's anus with a strap-on dildo for sexual activity is called pegging.<ref name"Hawley"/><ref>{{Cite book \|last1Beckett \|first1Cooper S. \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3HZ5EAAAQBAJ \|titleThe Pegging Book: A Complete Guide to Anal Sex with a Strap-On Dildo \|last2Miller \|first2Lyndzi \|dateOctober 14, 2022 \|publisherThorntree Press LLC \|isbn978-1-952125-22-5 \|language=en}}</ref> Reece et al. reported in 2010 that receptive anal intercourse is infrequent among men overall, stating that "an estimated 7% of men 14 to 94 years old reported being a receptive partner during anal intercourse".<ref name"Carroll2">{{cite book\|authorJanell L. Carroll\|titleDiscovery Series: Human Sexuality\|edition1st\|publisherCengage Learning\|page285\|isbn978-1111841898\|year2012\|access-dateAugust 25, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgU3SZSh-eXsC&pgPT317\|archive-dateMarch 24, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210324013314/https://books.google.com/books?idgU3SZSh-eXsC&pgPT317\|url-status=live}}</ref> The BMJ stated in 1999:{{Blockquote\|There are little published data on how many heterosexual men would like their anus to be sexually stimulated in a heterosexual relationship. Anecdotally, it is a substantial number. What data we do have almost all relate to penetrative sexual acts, and the superficial contact of the anal ring with fingers or the tongue is even less well documented but may be assumed to be a common sexual activity for men of all sexual orientations.<ref name"Robin Bell">{{cite journal\|firstRobin\|lastBell\|titleABC of sexual health: Homosexual men and women\|publisherNational Institutes of Health/BMJ\|pmc1114912\|pmid9974466\|volume318\|issue7181\|dateFebruary 1999\|journalBMJ\|pages452–5\|doi10.1136/bmj.318.7181.452}}</ref>}}Female to female on another woman]] With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes anal fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus.<ref name"Newman" /><ref name"Loulan">{{cite book \|authorJoAnn Loulan\|titleLesbian Sex \|isbn0-933216-13-0 \|publisherThe University of California \|date1984 \|page53 \|access-dateFebruary 3, 2011\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbS0EAQAAIAAJ \|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000428/https://books.google.com/books?idbS0EAQAAIAAJ \|url-status=live}}</ref> There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a lesbian social organization in Colorado. When asked what techniques they used in their last ten sexual encounters, lesbians in their 30s were twice as likely as other age groups to engage in anal stimulation (with a finger or dildo).<ref nameCarroll/> A 2014 study of partnered lesbian women in Canada and the U.S. found that 7% engaged in anal stimulation or penetration at least once a week; about 10% did so monthly and 70% did not at all.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1Cohen \|first1Jacqueline N. \|last2Byers \|first2E. Sandra \|titleBeyond Lesbian Bed Death: Enhancing Our Understanding of the Sexuality of Sexual-Minority Women in Relationships \|journalJournal of Sex Research \|date2014 \|volume51 \|issue8 \|pages893–903 \|doi10.1080/00224499.2013.795924 \|pmid23924274\|s2cid205443248 \|issn0022-4499}}</ref>{{Non-primary source needed\|dateFebruary 2025}} Anilingus is also less often practiced among female same-sex couples.<ref name"Zenilman & Shahmanesh">{{cite book \|titleSexually Transmitted Infections: Diagnosis, Management, and Treatment \|publisherJones & Bartlett Publishers \|year2011 \|pages329–330 \|access-dateNovember 4, 2012 \|isbn978-0495812944 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlO5BND02eBwC&pgPA329 \|author1Jonathan Zenilman \|author2Mohsen Shahmanesh \|archive-dateMarch 12, 2017 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170312224711/https://books.google.com/books?idlO5BND02eBwC&pgPA329 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal\|author-link2Janet Lever \|vauthorsDiamant AL, Lever J, Schuster M \|titleLesbians' Sexual Activities and Efforts to Reduce Risks for Sexually Transmitted Diseases \|journalJ Gay Lesbian Med Assoc \|volume4 \|issue2 \|pages41–8 \|dateJun 2000 \|doi10.1023/A:1009513623365 \|s2cid140505473 }}</ref>Health risksGeneral risks ]] Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers: infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility.<ref name"Krasner"/><ref name"Werner"/> Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as barebacking,<ref>{{Cite book \|last1Partridge \|first1Eric \|year2006 \|titleThe New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English: A-I \|first2Tom \|last2Dalzell \|first3Terry \|last3Victor \|editionreprint \|publisherTaylor & Francis \|isbn978-0-415-25937-8 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4YfsEgHLjboC \|quoteBareback&nbsp;– to engage in sex without a condom. \|page92 \|access-dateJune 3, 2020 \|archive-dateMay 17, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160517031540/https://books.google.com/books?id4YfsEgHLjboC \|url-statuslive}}</ref> carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens.<ref name"Krasner"/><ref name"Werner"/> Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing,<ref name"Carroll"/><ref namelubrication/> and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STIs.<ref name"Werner"/><ref name"Ignatavicius and Workman">{{cite book\| author Donna D. Ignatavicius\| author2 M. Linda Workman\| title Medical-Surgical Nursing: Patient-Centered Collaborative Care\| publisher Elsevier Health Sciences\| year 2013\| page 1655\| access-date April 30, 2015\| isbn 978-0323293440\| url https://books.google.com/books?id-rjwAwAAQBAJ&pgPA1655\| archive-date March 10, 2021\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210310000430/https://books.google.com/books?id-rjwAwAAQBAJ&pgPA1655\| url-status live}}</ref> However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other sex acts because of the tightness of the anal sphincters during friction.<ref name="Werner"/> Unprotected receptive anal sex (with an HIV positive partner) is the sex act most likely to result in HIV transmission.<ref name"Krasner"/><ref name"Werner"/> As with other sexual practices, people without sound knowledge about the sexual risks involved are susceptible to STIs. Because of the view that anal sex is not "real sex" and therefore does not result in virginity loss, or pregnancy, teenagers and other young people who are unaware of the risks of the anal sex may consider vaginal intercourse riskier than anal intercourse and also they may believe that an STI can only result from vaginal intercourse.<ref name"Kumar">{{cite book \|first1Bhushan \|last1Kumar \|first2Somesh \|last2Gupta \|titleSexually Transmitted Infections \|publisherElsevier Health Sciences \|year2014 \|page123 \|access-dateDecember 15, 2016 \|isbn978-8131229781\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkQ9tAwAAQBAJ&pgPA123}}</ref><ref name"White">{{cite book \|authorKatharine O'Connell White \|titleTalking Sex With Your Kids: Keeping Them Safe and You Sane - By Knowing What They're Really Thinking \|publisherAdams Media \|year2010 \|pages85–86 \|access-dateMay 1, 2015 \|isbn978-1440506840 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSGSJfC8ku_4C&pgPA85 \|archive-dateApril 7, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407194052/https://books.google.com/books?idSGSJfC8ku_4C&pgPA85 \|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Pearson">{{cite book \|authorTwila Pearson \|titleThe Challenging Years: Shedding Light on Teen Sexuality \|publisherWestBow Press \|year2012 \|page63 \|access-dateDecember 15, 2016 \|isbn978-1449773281 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAiedzzsCoz0C&pgPT63}}</ref> It may be because of these views that condom use with anal sex is often reported to be low and inconsistent across all groups in various countries.<ref name"Kumar" /> Although anal sex alone does not lead to pregnancy, pregnancy can still occur with anal sex or other forms of sexual activity if the penis is near the vagina (such as during intercrural sex or other genital-genital rubbing) and its sperm is deposited near the vagina's entrance and travels along the vagina's lubricating fluids; the risk of pregnancy can also occur without the penis being near the vagina because sperm may be transported to the vaginal opening by the vagina coming in contact with fingers or other non-genital body parts that have come in contact with semen.<ref>{{cite book\|lastThomas\|firstR. Murray\|titleSex and the American Teenager: Seeing through the Myths and Confronting the Issues\|publisherRowman & Littlefield Education\|locationLanham, Md.\|isbn9781607090182\|page81\|year2009\|access-dateMay 21, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgM9EFgsJHyoC&pgPA81\|archive-dateNovember 16, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161116155105/https://books.google.com/books?idgM9EFgsJHyoC&pgPA81\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book\|lastEdlin\|firstGordon\|titleHealth & Wellness.\|publisherJones & Bartlett Learning\|isbn9781449636470\|page213\|year2012\|access-dateMay 21, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcsGk6j5rlN0C&pgPA213\|archive-dateNovember 16, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161116175037/https://books.google.com/books?idcsGk6j5rlN0C&pgPA213\|url-status=live}}</ref> There are a variety of factors that make male-to-female anal intercourse riskier than vaginal intercourse for women, including the risk of HIV transmission being higher for anal intercourse than for vaginal intercourse.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Hales 2">{{cite book\|author Dianne Hales\|title An Invitation to Health\|publisher Cengage Learning\|year 2014\|page 363\|access-date May 1, 2015\|isbn 978-1305142961\|url https://books.google.com/books?id2OTKAgAAQBAJ&pgPT382\|archive-date March 10, 2021\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210310000600/https://books.google.com/books?id2OTKAgAAQBAJ&pgPT382\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Leichliter \| first1 Jami S\| year 2008 \| title Heterosexual Anal Sex: Part of an Expanding Sexual Repertoire?\| journal Sexually Transmitted Diseases \| volume 35 \| issue 11 \| pages 910–911\| doi 10.1097/olq.0b013e31818af12f\| pmid 18813143\| s2cid27348658\| doi-access free}}</ref> The risk of injury to the woman during anal intercourse is also significantly higher than the risk of injury to her during vaginal intercourse because of the durability of the vaginal tissues compared to the anal tissues.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Rosenthal2">{{cite book \|authorM. Sara Rosenthal\| title The Gynecological Sourcebook\| publisherMcGraw Hill Professional\|year 2003\|page[https://archive.org/details/gynecologicalsou00msar/page/153 153]\|access-date August 28, 2013\| isbn 0071402799 \|url https://archive.org/details/gynecologicalsou00msar\|url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Dortzbach">{{cite book \|authorDeborah Dortzbach \|author2W. Meredith Long\| title The AIDS Crisis: What We Can Do\| publisher InterVarsity Press\|year 2006\|page[https://archive.org/details/aidscrisiswhatwe0000dort/page/97 97]\|access-date August 28, 2013\| isbn 0830833722 \|url https://archive.org/details/aidscrisiswhatwe0000dort\|url-accessregistration }}</ref> Additionally, if a man moves from anal intercourse immediately to vaginal intercourse without a condom or without changing it, infections can arise in the vagina (or urinary tract) due to bacteria present within the anus; these infections can also result from switching between vaginal sex and anal sex by the use of fingers or sex toys.<ref name"Carroll"/><ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Hasler">{{cite book\|author Nikol Hasler\|title An Uncensored Introduction\|publisher Houghton Mifflin Harcourt\|year 2015\|page 91\|access-date May 1, 2015\|isbn 978-1936976843\|url https://books.google.com/books?id_Mp5CAAAQBAJ&pgPA91\|archive-date April 10, 2021\|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210410055459/https://books.google.com/books?id_Mp5CAAAQBAJ&pgPA91\|url-status = live}}</ref> Pain during receptive anal sex is formally known as anodyspareunia.<ref nameHeidelbaugh/><ref nameRitter_Terndrup>[https://books.google.com/books?id0sHWnt9WmRsC Handbook of affirmative psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men] {{Webarchive\|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310001007/https://books.google.com/books?id0sHWnt9WmRsC \|dateMarch 10, 2021 }} By Kathleen Ritter, Anthony I. Terndrup; p350</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite journal \|last1Nercessian \|first1Tiga-Rose \|last2Banbury \|first2Samantha \|last3Chandler \|first3Chris \|date2023-10-03 \|titleA Systematic Review Looking at Anodyspareunia Among Cisgender Men and Women \|urlhttps://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/8525/1/anos.pdf \|journalJournal of Sex & Marital Therapy \|languageen \|volume49 \|issue7 \|pages829–841 \|doi10.1080/0092623X.2023.2196265 \|pmid37089031 \|issn0092-623X \|url-access}}</ref> Factors predictive of pain during anal sex include inadequate lubrication, feeling tense or anxious, lack of stimulation, as well as lack of social ease with being gay and being closeted. Research has found that psychological factors can in fact be the primary contributors to the experience of pain during anal intercourse and that adequate communication between sexual partners can prevent it, countering the notion that pain is always inevitable during anal sex.<ref nameHeidelbaugh/><ref nameRitter_Terndrup/> The prevalence of anodyspareunia is difficult to measure; in two population studies of men receiving anal sex, 18% and 14% reported experiencing anodyspareunia. In a study of 2002 women, 8.7% of those who had engaged in anal sex reported experiencing severe pain.<ref name":0" /> Damage Anal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Kelley">{{cite book\|authorJanet R. Weber\|author2Jane H. Kelley\|titleHealth Assessment in Nursing\|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins\|isbn978-1469832227\|page588\|year2013\|access-dateMay 1, 2015\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXuGdAgAAQBAJ&pgPA588\|archive-dateMarch 24, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210324112614/https://books.google.com/books?idXuGdAgAAQBAJ&pgPA588\|url-statuslive}}</ref> If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention.<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Kelley"/> Because of the rectum's lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible.<ref name="Werner"/> By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Miletich">{{cite book\|authorJohn J. Miletich\|author2Tia Laura Lindstrom\|titleAn Introduction to the Work of a Medical Examiner: From Death Scene to Autopsy Suite\|publisherABC-CLIO\|isbn978-0275995089\|page29\|year2010\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_l_9peGFRz0C&pgPA29\|archive-dateApril 28, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210428003636/https://books.google.com/books?id_l_9peGFRz0C&pgPA29\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the anal sphincters becoming weakened, which may cause rectal prolapse or affect the ability to hold in feces (a condition known as fecal incontinence).<ref name"WebMD"/><ref name"Kelley"/> Rectal prolapse is very uncommon, and its causes are not well understood.<ref name"Altomare">{{cite book\|authorDonato F. Altomare\|author2Filippo Pucciani\|titleRectal Prolapse: Diagnosis and Clinical Management\|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media\|isbn978-8847006843\|pages12–14\|year2008\|access-dateMay 1, 2015\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduv8PNLiIOmEC&pgPA12\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000404/https://books.google.com/books?iduv8PNLiIOmEC&pgPA12\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Walters">{{cite book\|authorMark D. Walters\|author2Mickey M. Karram\|titleUrogynecology and Reconstructive Pelvic Surgery\|publisherElsevier Health Sciences\|isbn978-0323262576\|page501\|year2015\|access-dateMay 1, 2015\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZZu9BwAAQBAJ&pgPA501\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000402/https://books.google.com/books?idZZu9BwAAQBAJ&pgPA501\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the anal sphincters and overall pelvic floor, and may help prevent or remedy fecal incontinence.<ref name"WebMD"/>CancerMost cases of anal cancer are related to infection with the human papilloma virus (HPV). The risk of anal cancer through anal sex is attributed to HPV infection, which is often contracted through unprotected anal sex.<ref name"Anal cancer">{{cite web \|dateMay 2, 2014 \|titleDetailed Guide: Anal Cancer What Are the Key Statistics About Anal Cancer? \|urlhttp://www.cancer.org/cancer/analcancer/detailedguide/anal-cancer-what-is-key-statistics \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161203184456/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/analcancer/detailedguide/anal-cancer-what-is-key-statistics \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2016 \|access-dateSeptember 14, 2014 \|publisherAmerican Cancer Society}} {{cite web \|dateMay 2, 2014 \|titleWhat are the risk factors for anal cancer? \|urlhttp://www.cancer.org/cancer/analcancer/detailedguide/anal-cancer-risk-factors \|url-statuslive \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161123132121/http://www.cancer.org/cancer/analcancer/detailedguide/anal-cancer-risk-factors \|archive-dateNovember 23, 2016 \|access-dateSeptember 14, 2014 \|publisherAmerican Cancer Society}}</ref> Anal cancer is significantly less common than cancer of the colon or rectum (colorectal cancer); the American Cancer Society estimates that in 2023 there were approximately 9,760 new cases (6,580 in women and 3,180 in men) and approximately 1,870 deaths (860 women and 1,010 men) in the United States, and that, though anal cancer has been on the rise for many years, it is mainly diagnosed in adults, "with an average age being in the early 60s" and it "affects women somewhat more often than men."<ref name"Anal cancer" />Cultural viewsGeneral Attic red-figure kylix]] , A shunga print depicting an older and a younger man]] Different cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Seidman"/><ref name"Nevid">{{cite book\|titlePsychology: Concepts and Applications\|authorJeffrey S. Nevid\|publisherCengage Learning\|year2008\|page417\|isbn978-0547148144\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLsVK0kSpzx8C&pgPA417\|quoteSome cultures are more permissive with respect to such sexual practices as oral sex, anal sex, and masturbation, whereas others are more restrictive.\|archive-dateMay 3, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210503084813/https://books.google.com/books?idLsVK0kSpzx8C&pgPA417\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Discovery.com"/><ref name"Seidman"/> A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished.<ref name"Discovery.com"/><ref name"Smith">{{cite book\|titleEncyclopedia of AIDS: A Social, Political, Cultural and Scientific Record of the HIV Epidemic\|authorRaymond A. Smith\|publisherTaylor & Francis\|year1998\|pages73–76\|isbn0203305493\|access-dateDecember 23, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvuAWLtgnUm0C&pgPA73\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000937/https://books.google.com/books?idvuAWLtgnUm0C&pgPA73\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Haggerty">{{cite book\|titleEncyclopedia of Gay Histories and Cultures\|authorGeorge Haggerty\|publisherRoutledge\|year2000–2013\|pages788–790\|isbn1135585067\|access-dateDecember 23, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBe39AQAAQBAJ&pgPA789\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000837/https://books.google.com/books?idBe39AQAAQBAJ&pgPA789\|url-statuslive}}</ref> In some societies, if discovered to have engaged in the practice, the individuals involved were put to death, such as by decapitation, burning, or even mutilation.<ref name"LeRoy"/> Anal sex has been more accepted in modern times; it is often considered a natural, pleasurable form of sexual expression.<ref name"LeRoy"/><ref name"Discovery.com"/><ref name"Nevid"/> The buttocks and anus have become more eroticized in modern culture, including via pornography.<ref name"Seidman"/> Engaging in anal sex is still, however, punished in some societies.<ref name"Discovery.com"/><ref name"amnesty.org">{{cite web \|titlePUBLIC AI Index: MDE 13/010/2008. UA 17/08 Fear of imminent execution/ flogging \|dateJanuary 18, 2008 \|publisherAmnesty International \|access-dateDecember 22, 2013 \|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde13/010/2008/en/ \|archive-dateOctober 25, 2015 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151025191259/http://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/MDE13/010/2008/en/ \|url-statuslive }}</ref> For example, regarding LGBT rights in Iran, Iran's Penal Code states in Article 109 that "both men involved in same-sex penetrative (anal) or non-penetrative sex will be punished" and "Article 110 states that those convicted of engaging in anal sex will be executed and that the manner of execution is at the discretion of the judge".<ref name"amnesty.org"/>Ancient and non-Western cultures {{See also\|Homosexuality in ancient Greece\|Homosexuality in ancient Rome\|Sexuality in ancient Rome#Anal sex}} From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex<ref name"Dening1996">{{cite book\|lastDening\|firstSarah\|date1996\|chapterChapter 3: Sex in Ancient Civilizations\|titleThe Mythology of Sex\|chapter-urlhttp://www.ishtartemple.org/myth.htm\|locationLondon, England\|publisherMacmillan\|isbn978-0-02-861207-2\|url-accessregistration\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/mythologyofsexan0000deni}}</ref> and did not regard anal sex as taboo.<ref name"Dening1996"/> {{lang\|sux\|Entu}} priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring<ref name"Leick2013">{{citation\|lastLeick\|firstGwendolyn\|titleSex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature\|publisherRoutledge\|year2013\|isbn978-1-134-92074-7\|locationNew York City, New York\|page219\|orig-date1994\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWKoWblE4pd0C&pgPA64\|access-dateJanuary 3, 2018\|archive-dateApril 14, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210414055100/https://books.google.com/books?idWKoWblE4pd0C&pgPA64\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"NemetNejat">{{cite book\|lastNemet-Nejat\|firstKaren Rhea\|date1998\|titleDaily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia\|locationSanta Barbara, California\|publisherGreenwood\|isbn978-0313294976\|page[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/137 137]\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/137}}</ref> and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control.<ref name"Leick2013"/><ref name"Dening1996"/><ref name"NemetNejat"/> Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man "keeps saying to his wife: 'Bring your backside.{{' "}}<ref name"NemetNejat"/> Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse.<ref name"Dening1996"/> The {{lang\|sux\|gala}}, a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities.<ref name"Roscoe">{{cite book\|last1Roscoe\|first1Will\|last2Murray\|first2Stephen O.\|date1997\|titleIslamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature\|locationNew York City, New York\|publisherNew York University Press\|isbn0-8147-7467-9\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Zw-AAAAQBAJ&qGordon+1959+gala&pgPA65\|pages65–66\|access-dateOctober 24, 2020\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000906/https://books.google.com/books?id6Zw-AAAAQBAJ&qGordon+1959+gala&pgPA65\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Sumerian sign for {{lang\|sux\|gala}} was a ligature of the signs for 'penis' and 'anus'.<ref name"Roscoe"/> One Sumerian proverb reads: "When the {{lang\|sux\|gala}} wiped off his ass [he said], 'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress [i.e., Inanna].'"<ref name="Roscoe"/> The term Greek love has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, "doing it the Greek way" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex.<ref name"Davies">{{cite book\|titleJokes and Target\|authorChristie Davies\|publisherIndiana University Press\|year2011\|pages155–156\|isbn978-0253223029\|access-dateDecember 23, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcKQt-nCJEOAC&pgPA155\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000431/https://books.google.com/books?idcKQt-nCJEOAC&pgPA155\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies.<ref name"Roughgarden">{{cite book\|titleEvolution's Rainbow: Diversity, Gender, and Sexuality in Nature and People\|authorJoan Roughgarden\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|year2004\|pages[https://archive.org/details/evolutionsrainbo00roug/page/367 367]–376\|isbn0520240731\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/evolutionsrainbo00roug\|url-accessregistration}}</ref> Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, "Most citizens are {{lang\|grc\|europroktoi}} ('wide-arsed') now."<ref name"Rosen">{{cite book\|titleAndreia: Studies in Manliness and Courage in Classical Antiquity\|authorRalph Mark Rosen\|author2Ineke Sluiter\|publisherBrill\|year2003\|page115\|isbn9004119957\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idko1iAAAAMAAJ\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310001004/https://books.google.com/books?idko1iAAAAMAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref> The terms {{lang\|grc\|kinaidos}}, {{lang\|grc\|europroktoi}}, and {{lang\|grc\|katapygon}} were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically<ref>{{cite journal\|last1Nussbaum\|first1Martha C.\|titlePlatonic Love and Colorado Law: The Relevance of Ancient Greek Norms to Modern Sexual Controversies\|journalVirginia Law Review\|date1994\|volume80\|issue7\|pages1562–3\|doi10.2307/1073514\|jstor1073514\|quotethe kinaidos is clearly a person who chronically plays the passive role [...] More recently, I have been convinced by arguments of the late John J. Winkler that kinaidos usually connotes willingness to accept money for sex, as well as habitual passivity [...] In any case, there is no doubt that we are not dealing with an isolated act, but rather a type of person who habitually chooses activity that Callicles finds shameful. That, and no view about same-sex relations per se, is the basis of his criticism. In fact, Callicles is depicted as having a young boyfriend of his own. The boyfriend is named Demos, also the name for the Athenian "people," to whom Callicles is also devoted. It is likely that the pun on the name is sexual: as Callicles seduces Demos, so also the demos. (It would be assumed that he would practice intercrural intercourse with this boyfriend, thus avoiding putting him in anything like the kinaidos shamed position}}</ref> practiced passive anal intercourse.<ref name"Ember">{{cite book\|titleEncyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures Topics and Cultures A-K - Volume 1; Cultures L-Z -\|authorCarol R. Ember\|author2Melvin Ember\|publisherSpringer Science+Business Media\|year2004\|page207\|isbn030647770X\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXUAsskBg8ywC&pgPA207\|archive-dateMay 15, 2016\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160515091537/https://books.google.com/books?idXUAsskBg8ywC&pgPA207\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys,<ref name"Clark">{{cite book\|titleDesire: A History of European Sexuality\|authorAnna Clark\|publisherRoutledge\|year2012\|page23\|isbn978-1135762919\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfFaoI5RbVKQC&pgPA23\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000910/https://books.google.com/books?idfFaoI5RbVKQC&pgPA23\|url-statuslive}}</ref> while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Dover\|first1Kenneth J.\|titleGreek Homosexuality\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greekhomosexuali00dove_0\|url-accessregistration\|date1978\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn0674362616\|page[https://archive.org/details/greekhomosexuali00dove_0/page/99 99]}}</ref> Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a "clean" act.<ref name"Roughgarden"/> Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris.<ref name"Clark"/><ref>David Cohen, "Sexuality, Violence, and the Athenian Law of Hubris" Greece and Rome; V.38.2, pp 171-188</ref> Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the {{lang\|grc\|eromenos}}) did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being 'feminine'.<ref>{{cite book\|last1Dover\|first1Kenneth J.\|titleGreek Homosexuality\|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greekhomosexuali00dove_0\|url-accessregistration\|date1978\|publisherHarvard University Press\|isbn0674362616\|page=[https://archive.org/details/greekhomosexuali00dove_0/page/107 107]}}</ref> males on the Warren Cup, British Museum]] In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with "eligible" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him. Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal \| last1 Miller \| first1 James E.\|year 1995 \| title The Practices of Romans 1:26: Homosexual or Heterosexual? \| journal Novum Testamentum \| volume 37 \| issue 1\| page 9 \| quote Heterosexual anal intercourse is best illustrated in Classical vase paintings of hetaerae with their clients, and some scholars interpret this as a form of contraception \| doi10.1163/1568536952613631}}</ref> A male citizen taking the passive (or receptive) role in anal intercourse ({{lang\|la\|paedicatio}} in Latin)<ref name"Pollini">{{cite journal \|lastPollini\|firstJohn\|titleThe Warren Cup: Homoerotic Love and Symposial Rhetoric in Silver \| journal The Art Bulletin\| volume 81 \| issue 1 \| pages 21–52 \|dateMarch 1999 \| doi 10.2307/3051285\|jstor3051285\|quote"I have derived the word pedicate from the Latin paedicare or pedicare, meaning "to penetrate anally." Note 6.}}</ref> was condemned in Rome as an act of {{lang\|la\|impudicitia}} ('immodesty' or 'unchastity'); free men, however, could take the active role with a young male slave, known as a {{lang\|la\|catamite}} or {{lang\|la\|puer delicatus}}. The latter was allowed because anal intercourse was considered equivalent to vaginal intercourse in this way; men were said to "take it like a woman" ({{lang\|la\|muliebria pati}} 'to undergo womanly things') when they were anally penetrated, but when a man performed anal sex on a woman, she was thought of as playing the boy's role.<ref name"Skinner">{{cite book\|titleInvading the Roman Body: Manliness and Impenetrability in Roman Thought. Roman Sexualities\|authorMarilyn B. Skinner\|publisherPrinceton University Press\|year1997\|pages14–31\|isbn0-691-01178-8\|access-dateFebruary 22, 2012\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1ZPC3TqBZEQC&pgPA14\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000603/https://books.google.com/books?id1ZPC3TqBZEQC&pgPA14\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Likewise, women were believed to only be capable of anal sex or other sex acts with women if they possessed an exceptionally large clitoris or a dildo.<ref name"Skinner"/> The passive partner in any of these cases was always considered a woman or a boy because being the one who penetrates was characterized as the only appropriate way for an adult male citizen to engage in sexual activity, and he was therefore considered unmanly if he was the one who was penetrated; slaves could be considered "non-citizen".<ref name"Skinner"/> Although Roman men often availed themselves of their own slaves or others for anal intercourse, Roman comedies and plays presented Greek settings and characters for explicit acts of anal intercourse, and this may be indicative that the Romans thought of anal sex as something specifically "Greek".<ref name"Hubbard">{{cite book\|titleHomosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents\|authorThomas K. Hubbard\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|year2003\|page309\|isbn0520234308\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnE9RxOP4OE4C&pgPA309\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000724/https://books.google.com/books?idnE9RxOP4OE4C&pgPA309\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Culture. 300&nbsp;C.E. Larco Museum Collection.]] In Japan, records (including detailed shunga) show that some males engaged in penetrative anal intercourse with males.<ref name"Leupp">{{cite book\|titleMale Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan\|authorGary P. Leupp\|publisherUniversity of California Press\|year1997\|page122\|isbn052091919X\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida6q-PqPDAmIC&pgPA122\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000606/https://books.google.com/books?ida6q-PqPDAmIC&pgPA122\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Evidence suggestive of widespread male-female anal intercourse in a pre-modern culture can be found in the erotic vases, or stirrup-spout pots, made by the Moche people of Peru; in a survey, of a collection of these pots, it was found that 31 percent of them depicted male-female anal intercourse significantly more than any other sex act.<ref name"Tannahill">{{cite book\|titleSex In History\|authorReay Tannahill\|publisherAbacus Books\|year1989\|pages297–298\|isbn0349104867\|access-dateDecember 22, 2013\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz7SUHAAACAAJ\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000605/https://books.google.com/books?idz7SUHAAACAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Moche pottery of this type belonged to the world of the dead, which was believed to be a reversal of life. Therefore, the reverse of common practices was often portrayed. The Larco Museum houses an erotic gallery in which this pottery is showcased.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.museolarco.org/iep_er.shtml \|titleLarco Museum - Lima Peru - Experience Ancient Peru - Permanent Exhibition \|publisherMuseolarco.org \|access-dateMarch 14, 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130304101359/http://www.museolarco.org/iep_er.shtml \|archive-dateMarch 4, 2013 }}</ref>Religion , Sodomites provoking divine wrath, from Le pot-pourri (1781)]] {{Further\|Sodomy}} {{See also\|Buddhism and sexual orientation\|LGBT topics and Hinduism}} Judaism The Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects,<ref>Isidore Twersky, Introduction to the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Yale Judaica Series, vol. XII (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1980). passim, and especially Chapter VII, "Epilogue", pp. 515–538.</ref> states "since a man's wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any organ of her body he wishes, and he may have intercourse with her naturally or unnaturally [traditionally, unnaturally refers to anal and oral sex], provided that he does not expend semen to no purpose. Nevertheless, it is an attribute of piety that a man should not act in this matter with levity and that he should sanctify himself at the time of intercourse."<ref>{{cite book \|titleMishneh Torah \|firstMoshe \|lastMaimonides \|pageLaws Concerning Forbidden Relations 21:9}}</ref> Christianity {{See also\|Sodomy#Christianity}} Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the {{lang\|la\|peccatum contra naturam}} ('the sin against nature', after Thomas Aquinas) or {{lang\|la\|Sodomitica luxuria}} ('sodomitical lusts', in one of Charlemagne's ordinances), or {{lang\|la\|peccatum illud horribile, inter christianos non nominandum}} ('that horrible sin that among Christians is not to be named').<ref name"Classen">{{cite book\|titleSexuality in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Times: New Approaches to a Fundamental Cultural-historical and Literary-anthropological Theme\|authorAlbrecht Classen\|publisherWalter de Gruyter\|year2010\|page13\|isbn978-3110205749\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddX0LAQAAMAAJ\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000312/https://books.google.com/books?iddX0LAQAAMAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Fone">{{cite book\|titleHomophobia: A History\|authorByrne Fone\|publisherMacmillan\|year2001\|page133\|isbn1466817070\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxB-z1WUCKOEC&pgPA133\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150326174742/http://books.google.com/books?idxB-z1WUCKOEC&pgPA133\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Crompton">{{cite book\|authorLouis Crompton\|titleHomosexuality and Civilization\|publisherHarvard University Press\|year2009\|page529\|isbn978-0674030060\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTfBYd9xVaXcC&pgPA529\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150326171737/http://books.google.com/books?idTfBYd9xVaXcC&pgPA529\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Islam {{Main\|Islamic views on anal sex}} illustration depicting two young men having sex (from Sawaqub al-Manaquib)]] {{transl\|ar\|Liwat}}, or the sin of Lot's people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to "unnatural" sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it.<ref name"Leach">{{cite book\|authorMark M Leach\|titleCultural Diversity and Suicide: Ethnic, Religious, Gender, and Sexual Orientation Perspectives\|publisherRoutledge\|year2014\|page121\|isbn978-1317786597\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNqLrAgAAQBAJ&pgPA121\|archive-dateMarch 26, 2015\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150326182308/http://books.google.com/books?idNqLrAgAAQBAJ&pgPA121\|url-statuslive}}</ref> Same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called luti or lutiyin in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.<ref name"Bambale">{{cite book\|authorYahaya Yunusa Bambale\|titleCrimes and Punishments Under Islamic Law\|publisherMalthouse Press Limited\|orig-date2003\|year2008\|page40\|isbn978-9780231590\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPVGPAAAAMAAJ\|archive-dateMarch 10, 2021\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210310000311/https://books.google.com/books?idPVGPAAAAMAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Conner">{{cite book\|authorRandy P. Conner\|author2David Hatfield Sparks\|author3Mariya Sparks\|titleCassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol, and Spirit: Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Lore\|publisherCassell\|orig-date1997\|year2006\|pages20; 216\|isbn0304337609\|access-dateSeptember 15, 2014\|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyGoYAAAAIAAJ\|quoteIndeed, homoeroticism in general and anal intercourse in particular are referred to as liwat, while those (primarily men) engaging in these behaviors are referred to as qaum Lut or Luti, 'the people of Lot.'\|archive-dateSeptember 26, 2020\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200926183704/https://books.google.com/books?idyGoYAAAAIAAJ\|url-statuslive}}</ref>Other animalsAs a form of non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals, anal sex has been observed in a few other primates, both in captivity and in the wild.<ref>{{cite journal\|titleAmbisexual behavior with male-male anal insertion in male rhesus monkeys\|year1976\|author1Erwin J.\|author2-linkTerry Maple\|author2Maple T\|journalArchives of Sexual Behavior\|volume5\|issue1\|pages9–14\|doi10.1007/bf01542236\|pmid816329\|s2cid46074855}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1Busia \|first1L \|last2Denice \|first2AR \|last3Aureli \|first3F \|last4Schaffner \|first4CM \|titleHomosexual behavior between male spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) \|journalArchives of Sexual Behavior \|dateMay 2018 \|volume47 \|issue4 \|pages857–861 \|doi10.1007/s10508-018-1177-8 \|pmid29536259 \|s2cid3855790 \|urlhttp://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/8340/3/Homosexual%20Behavior%20Between%20Male%20Spider%20Monkeys%20%28Ateles%20geoffroyi%29..pdf \|access-dateNovember 11, 2021 \|archive-dateOctober 11, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211011075625/http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/8340/3/Homosexual%20Behavior%20Between%20Male%20Spider%20Monkeys%20%28Ateles%20geoffroyi%29..pdf \|url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|titleMale-Male Mounting Behaviour in Free-Ranging Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) \|dateApril 2018 \|publisherKarger Publishers \|doi10.1159/000487004 \|access-dateDecember 3, 2021 \|urlhttps://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/487004 \|last1Fang \|first1Gu \|last2Dixson \|first2Alan F. \|last3Qi \|first3Xiao-Guang \|last4Li \|first4Bao-Guo \|journalFolia Primatologica \|volume89 \|issue2 \|pages150–156 \|pmid29621754 \|s2cid4597770 \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2021 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211203183124/https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/487004 \|url-statuslive \|url-accesssubscription }}</ref>See also {{Portal\|Human sexuality\|LGBTQ}} {{div col\|colwidth=20em}} * Anal eroticism * Ass to mouth * Autosodomy * Coprophilia * Creampie (sexual act) * Felching * Gay bowel syndrome * Klismaphilia * Sodomy law {{div col end}} {{clear}} References {{Reflist\|refs<ref name"Kilchevsky">{{cite journal\|titleIs the Female G-Spot Truly a Distinct Anatomic Entity?\|journalThe Journal of Sexual Medicine\|volume9\|dateJanuary 2012 \|pmid22240236\|doi10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02623.x \|vauthorsKilchevsky A, Vardi Y, Lowenstein L, Gruenwald I \|issue3\|pages=719–26}} {{cite news \|dateJanuary 19, 2012 \|titleG-Spot Does Not Exist, 'Without A Doubt,' Say Researchers \|workThe Huffington Post \|urlhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/19/g-spot-does-not-exist_n_1215822.html \|access-dateNovember 21, 2012 \|archive-dateDecember 3, 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161203053641/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/19/g-spot-does-not-exist_n_1215822.html \|url-statuslive }}</ref> }} Further reading Brent, Bill Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Men, Cleis Press, 2002. * DeCitore, David Arouse Her Anal Ecstasy (2008) {{ISBN\|978-0-615-39914-0}} * Houser, Ward Anal Sex, Encyclopedia of Homosexuality Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp.&nbsp;48–50. * Morin, Jack Anal Pleasure & Health: A Guide for Men and Women, Down There Press, 1998. {{ISBN\|978-0-940208-20-9}} * Sanderson, Terry ''The Gay Man's Kama Sutra, Thomas Dunne Books, 2004. * Tristan Taormino The Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women, Cleis Press, 1997, 2006. {{ISBN\|978-1-57344-028-8}} * Underwood, Steven G. Gay Men and Anal Eroticism: Tops, Bottoms, and Versatiles'', Harrington Park Press, 2003 External links {{Commons category\|Anal sex}} {{Sex}} {{Human sexuality}} {{Sex positions}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Anal Sex}} Category:Anal eroticism Category:Sexology Category:Sexual acts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_sex	2025-04-05T18:26:04.846279
2466	Aarau	{{distinguish\|text=Arau, royal capital of Perlis, Malaysia}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2014}} {{Infobox Switzerland municipality \|subject_name = Aarau \|image_photo = Aarau Altstadt.jpg \|image_caption = Aarau old town \|imagepath_coa Wappen Aarau.svg\|pixel_coa \|imagepath_flag = CHE Aarau Flag.svg \|canton = Aargau \|iso-code-region = CH-AG \|district = Aarau \|coordinates {{coord\|47\|24\|N\|8\|03\|E\|displayinline,title}} \|postal_code = 5000, 5004 Aarau, 5032 Aarau Rohr \|municipality_code = 4001 \|area = 12.34 \|elevation 381 \|elevation_description \|highestHungerberg \|highest_m471 \|lowestAar \|lowest_m365\| \|population {{Swiss populations NC\|CH-AG\|4001}} \|populationof {{Swiss populations YM\|CH-AG}} \|popofyear = {{Swiss populations Y\|CH-AG}} \|website = www.aarau.ch \|mayor Hanspeter Hilfiker \|mayor_asofFebruary 2018 \|mayor_party=FDP \|mayor_title = Stadtpräsident \|executive_name Stadtrat \|executive_number_of_members 7 \|parliament_name Einwohnerrat\|parliament_number_of_members 50 \|list_of_mayors = List of mayors of Aarau \|places = Aarau \|demonym = {{langx\|de\|Aarauer(in)}} \|neighboring_municipalities= Buchs, Suhr, Unterentfelden, Eppenberg-Wöschnau, Erlinsbach \|twintowns = Neuchâtel (Switzerland), Delft (Netherlands), Reutlingen (Germany) }} Aarau ({{IPA\|de-CH\|ˈaːraʊ\|lang}}, {{IPA\|gsw\|ˈɑːræu̯\|gsw}}) is a town, a municipality, and the capital of the northern Swiss canton of Aargau. The town is also the capital of the district of Aarau. It is German-speaking and predominantly Protestant. Aarau is situated on the Swiss plateau, in the valley of the Aare, on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the Jura Mountains,<ref nameCVDE>{{harvnb\|Bridgwater\|Aldrich\|1968\|p11}}</ref> and is west of Zürich,<ref nameEB/> {{convert\|58\|km\|miles}} south of Basel and {{convert\|65\|km\|miles}} northeast of Bern.<ref nameColliers>{{harvnb\|Van Valkenburg\|Haefner\|1997\|p2}}</ref> The municipality borders directly on the canton of Solothurn to the west. It is the largest town in Aargau. At the beginning of 2010 Rohr became a district of Aarau.<ref nameFusion>{{harvnb\|Oberholzer\|2013}}</ref> The official language of Aarau is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect. Geography and geology The old city of Aarau is situated on a rocky outcrop at a narrowing of the Aare river valley, at the southern foot of the Jura mountains.<ref nameCohen/> Newer districts of the city lie to the south and east of the outcrop, as well as higher up the mountain, and in the valley on both sides of the Aare. The neighboring municipalities are Küttigen to the north and Buchs to the east, Suhr to the south-east, Unterentfelden to the south, and Eppenberg-Wöschnau and Erlinsbach to the west. Aarau and the nearby neighboring municipalities have grown together and now form an interconnected agglomeration. The only exception is Unterentfelden whose settlements are divided from Aarau by the extensive forests of Gönhard and Zelgli. Approximately nine-tenths of the city is south of the Aare, and one tenth is to the north. It has an area, {{as of\|2006\|lcon}}, of {{convert\|8.9\|km2\|sqmi\|abbron}}. Of this area, 6.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while 34% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 55.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (4.5%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).<ref nameSFSO/> The lowest elevation, {{convert\|365\|m\|ft\|spus}}, is found at the banks of the Aar, and the highest elevation, at {{convert\|471\|m\|ft\|spus}}, is the Hungerberg on the border with Küttigen. Climate {{Weather box \|location Aarau, elevation {{convert\|387\|m\|ft\|abbron}}, (1991–2020) \|metric first = Yes \|single line = Yes \|Jan high C = 3.9 \|Feb high C = 5.9 \|Mar high C = 11.1 \|Apr high C = 15.6 \|May high C = 19.6 \|Jun high C = 23.5 \|Jul high C = 25.6 \|Aug high C = 25.0 \|Sep high C = 20.2 \|Oct high C = 14.5 \|Nov high C = 8.0 \|Dec high C = 4.3 \|year high C = 14.8 \|Jan mean C = 1.2 \|Feb mean C = 1.9 \|Mar mean C = 5.9 \|Apr mean C = 9.9 \|May mean C = 14.0 \|Jun mean C = 17.7 \|Jul mean C = 19.4 \|Aug mean C = 18.8 \|Sep mean C = 14.6 \|Oct mean C = 10.1 \|Nov mean C = 5.0 \|Dec mean C = 1.9 \|year mean C = 10.0 \|Jan low C = -1.5 \|Feb low C = -1.7 \|Mar low C = 1.2 \|Apr low C = 4.3 \|May low C = 8.5 \|Jun low C = 12.1 \|Jul low C = 13.6 \|Aug low C = 13.5 \|Sep low C = 9.8 \|Oct low C = 6.5 \|Nov low C = 2.3 \|Dec low C = -0.5 \|year low C = 5.7 \|precipitation colour = green \|Jan precipitation mm = 63.1 \|Feb precipitation mm = 52.6 \|Mar precipitation mm = 61.3 \|Apr precipitation mm = 63.2 \|May precipitation mm = 98.5 \|Jun precipitation mm = 92.2 \|Jul precipitation mm = 98.4 \|Aug precipitation mm = 98.3 \|Sep precipitation mm = 69.6 \|Oct precipitation mm = 72.0 \|Nov precipitation mm = 69.1 \|Dec precipitation mm = 81.4 \|year precipitation mm = 919.7 \| Jan snow cm = 7.7 \| Feb snow cm = 8.6 \| Mar snow cm = 3.0 \| Apr snow cm = 0.1 \| May snow cm = 0.0 \| Jun snow cm = 0.0 \| Jul snow cm = 0.0 \| Aug snow cm = 0.0 \| Sep snow cm = 0.0 \| Oct snow cm = 0.2 \| Nov snow cm = 2.5 \| Dec snow cm = 9.5 \| year snow cm = 31.6 \|unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm \|Jan precipitation days = 9.6 \|Feb precipitation days = 8.6 \|Mar precipitation days = 9.5 \|Apr precipitation days = 10.2 \|May precipitation days = 11.6 \|Jun precipitation days = 11.3 \|Jul precipitation days = 10.9 \|Aug precipitation days = 11.2 \|Sep precipitation days = 8.5 \|Oct precipitation days = 10.1 \|Nov precipitation days = 9.8 \|Dec precipitation days = 11.6 \|year precipitation days = 122.9 \|Jan snow days = 2.8 \|Feb snow days = 2.5 \|Mar snow days = 1.1 \|Apr snow days = 0.1 \|May snow days = 0.0 \|Jun snow days = 0.0 \|Jul snow days = 0.0 \|Aug snow days = 0.0 \|Sep snow days = 0.0 \|Oct snow days = 0.1 \|Nov snow days = 0.7 \|Dec snow days = 2.4 \|year snow days = 9.7 \|Jan humidity = 83 \|Feb humidity = 79 \|Mar humidity = 73 \|Apr humidity = 69 \|May humidity = 72 \|Jun humidity = 72 \|Jul humidity = 71 \|Aug humidity = 75 \|Sep humidity = 80 \|Oct humidity = 85 \|Nov humidity = 86 \|Dec humidity = 85 \|year humidity = 78 \|Jan sun = 41.2 \|Feb sun = 74.2 \|Mar sun = 133.2 \|Apr sun = 166.8 \|May sun = 180.6 \|Jun sun = 200.2 \|Jul sun = 219.8 \|Aug sun = 204.1 \|Sep sun = 148.7 \|Oct sun = 86.3 \|Nov sun = 42.8 \|Dec sun = 31.1 \|year sun = 1529.0 \|Jan percentsun = 19 \|Feb percentsun = 30 \|Mar percentsun = 40 \|Apr percentsun = 45 \|May percentsun = 43 \|Jun percentsun = 48 \|Jul percentsun = 52 \|Aug percentsun = 51 \|Sep percentsun = 44 \|Oct percentsun = 29 \|Nov percentsun = 19 \|Dec percentsun = 15 \|year percentsun = 39 \| source 1 NOAA<ref nameNOAA1>{{cite web \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20241211054625/https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/oceans/archive/arc0216/0253808/5.5/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Switzerland/CSV/BuchsAarau_06633.csv \| archive-date = 11 December 2024 \| url = https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/data/oceans/archive/arc0216/0253808/5.5/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Switzerland/CSV/BuchsAarau_06633.csv \| title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991–2020 \| work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020) \| publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \| access-date = 11 December 2024}}</ref> \|source 2 MeteoSwiss<ref name meteo>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013a}}</ref> }} History Prehistory ]] A few artifacts from the Neolithic period were found in Aarau. Near the location of the present train station, the ruins of a settlement from the Bronze Age (about 1000 BC) have been excavated. The Roman road between Salodurum (Solothurn) and Vindonissa passed through the area, along the route now covered by the Bahnhofstrasse. In 1976 divers in the Aare found part of a seven-meter wide wooden bridge from the late Roman times. Middle Ages Aarau was founded around AD 1240 by the counts of Kyburg.<ref nameEB/> Aarau is first mentioned in 1248 as Arowe. Around 1250 it was mentioned as Arowa. However the first mention of a city sized settlement was in 1256.<ref nameHDS>{{harvnb\|Lüthi\|2009}}</ref> The town was ruled from the "Rore" tower, which has been incorporated into the modern city hall. In 1273 the counts of Kyburg died out. Agnes of Kyburg, who had no male relations, sold the family's lands to King Rudolf I von Habsburg. He granted Aarau its city rights in 1283.<ref name=Colliers/> In the 14th century the city was expanded in two stages, and a second defensive wall was constructed. A deep ditch separated the city from its "suburb;" its location is today marked by a wide street named "Graben" (meaning Ditch). In 1415 Bern invaded lower Aargau with the help of Solothurn. Aarau capitulated after a short resistance, and was forced to swear allegiance to the new rulers.<ref name=Colliers/> In the 16th century, the rights of the lower classes were abolished. In March 1528 the citizens of Aarau allowed the introduction of Protestantism at the urging of the Bernese. A growth in population during the 16th Century led to taller buildings and denser construction methods. Early forms of industry developed at this time; however, unlike in other cities, no guilds were formed in Aarau. On 11 August 1712, the Peace of Aarau was signed into effect. This granted each canton the right to choose their own religion thereby ending Catholicism's control.<ref>{{harvnb\|Luck\|1985\|p227}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Hall\|1991\|p134}}</ref> Starting in the early 18th century, the textile industry was established in Aarau. German immigration contributed to the city's favorable conditions, in that they introduced the cotton and silk factories. These highly educated immigrants were also responsible for educational reform and the enlightened, revolutionary spirit that developed in Aarau. 1798: Capital of the Helvetic Republic On 27 December 1797, the last Tagsatzung of the Old Swiss Confederacy was held in Aarau. Two weeks later a French envoy continued to foment the revolutionary opinions of the city. The contrast between a high level of education and a low level of political rights was particularly great in Aarau, and the city refused to send troops to defend the Bernese border. By Mid-March 1798 Aarau was occupied by French troops. On 22 March 1798 Aarau was declared the capital of the Helvetic Republic.<ref nameCohen/> It is therefore the first capital of a unified Switzerland. Parliament met in the city hall. On 20 September, the capital was moved to Lucerne.Aarau as canton capital In 1803, Napoleon ordered the fusion of the cantons of Aargau, Baden and Fricktal. Aarau was declared the capital of the new, enlarged canton of Aargau. In 1820 the city wall was torn down, with the exception of the individual towers and gates, and the defensive ditches were filled in. The wooden bridge, dating from the Middle Ages, across the Aare was destroyed by floods three times in thirty years, and was replaced with a steel suspension bridge in 1851. This was replaced by a concrete bridge in 1952. The city was linked up to the Swiss Central Railway in 1856. The textile industry in Aarau broke down in about 1850 because of the protectionist tariff policies of neighboring states. Other industries had developed by that time to replace it, including the production of mathematical instruments, shoes and cement. Beginning in 1900, numerous electrical enterprises developed. By the 1960s, more citizens worked in service industries or for the canton-level government than in manufacturing. During the 1980s many of the industries left Aarau completely. In 1802 the Canton School was established; it was the first non-parochial high school in Switzerland. It developed a good reputation, and was home to Nobel Prize winners Albert Einstein, Paul Karrer, and Werner Arber, as well as several Swiss politicians and authors. The purchase of a manuscript collection in 1803 laid the foundation for what would become the Cantonal Library, which contains a Bible annotated by Huldrych Zwingli,<ref nameOgr/> along with the manuscripts and incunabula.<ref nameColliers/> More newspapers developed in the city, maintaining the revolutionary atmosphere of Aarau. Beginning in 1820, Aarau has been a refuge for political refugees. The urban educational and cultural opportunities of Aarau were extended through numerous new institutions. A Theatre and Concert Hall was constructed in 1883, which was renovated and expanded in 1995–96. The Aargau Nature Museum opened in 1922. A former cloth warehouse was converted into a small theatre in 1974, and the alternative culture center KIFF (Culture in the fodder factory) was established in a former animal fodder factory. Origin of the name The earliest use of the place name was in 1248 (in the form Arowe), and probably referred to the settlement in the area before the founding of the city. It comes, along with the name of the River Aare (which was called Arula, Arola, and Araris in early times), from the German word Au, meaning floodplain. Old town The historic old town forms an irregular square, consisting of four parts (called Stöcke). To the south lies the Laurenzenvorstadt, that is, the part of the town formerly outside the city wall. One characteristic of the city is its painted gables, for which Aarau is sometimes called the "City of beautiful Gables". The old town, Laurenzenvorstadt, government building, cantonal library, state archive and art museum are all listed as heritage sites of national significance.<ref name SWS>{{harvnb\|Swiss Confederation\|2009\|p33}}</ref> The buildings in the old city originate, on the whole, from building projects during the 16th century, when nearly all the Middle Age period buildings were replaced or expanded. The architectural development of the city ended in the 18th century, when the city began to expand beyond its (still existing) wall. Most of the buildings in the "suburb" date from this time. The "Schlössli" (small Castle), Rore Tower and the upper gate tower have remained nearly unchanged since the 13th century. The "Schlössli" is the oldest building in the city. It was already founded at the time of the establishment of the city shortly after 1200; the exact date is not known. City hall was built around Rore Tower in 1515. The upper gate tower stands beside the southern gate in the city wall, along the road to Lucerne and Bern. The jail has been housed in it since the Middle Ages. A Carillon was installed in the tower in the middle of the 20th century, the bells for which were provided by the centuries-old bell manufacturers of Aarau. The town church was built between 1471 and 1478. During the Reformation, in 1528, its twelve altars and accompanying pictures were destroyed. The "Justice fountain" (Gerechtigkeitsbrunnen) was built in 1634, and is made of French limestone; it includes a statue of Lady Justice made of sandstone, hence the name. It was originally in the street in front of city hall, but was moved to its present location in front of the town church in 1905 due to increased traffic. Economy {{as of\|2007\|In 2007}}, Aarau had an unemployment rate of 2.35%. {{as of\|2005}}, there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 9 businesses involved in this sector. 4,181 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 164 businesses in this sector. 20,186 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,461 businesses in this sector.<ref nameSFSO/> This is a total of over 24,000 jobs, since Aarau's population is about 16,000 it draws workers from many surrounding communities. {{as of\|2000}} there were 8,050 total workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 4,308 or about 53.5% of the residents worked outside Aarau while 17,419 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 21,161 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.<ref nameagch>{{harvnb\|Department of Finance and Resources\|2013}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} The largest employer in Aarau is the cantonal government, the offices of which are distributed across the entire city at numerous locations. One of the two head offices of the Aargauer Zeitung, Switzerland's fifth largest newspaper, is located in Aarau, as are the Tele M1 television channel studios, and several radio stations. Kern & Co., founded in 1819, was an internationally known geodetic instrument manufacturer based in Aarau. However, it was taken over by Wild Leitz in 1988, and was closed in 1991. The small scale of Aarau causes it to continually expand the borders of its growth. The urban center lies in the middle of the "Golden Triangle" between Zürich, Bern, and Basel, and Aarau is having increasing difficulty in maintaining the independence of its economic base from the neighboring large cities. The idea of merging Aarau with its neighboring suburbs has been recently discussed in the hope of arresting the slowly progressing losses. Manufacture include bells, mathematical instruments, electrical goods, cotton textiles, cutlery, chemicals, shoes, and other products. Aarau is famous for the quality of their instruments, cutlery and their bells.<ref nameColliers/><ref nameCohen/><ref nameOgr>{{harvnb\|Ogrizek\|Rufenacht\|1949\|p43}}</ref> Markets and fairs Every Saturday morning there is a vegetable market in the Graben at the edge of the Old City. It is supplied with regional products. In the last week of September the MAG (Market of Aarauer Tradesmen) takes place there, with regional companies selling their products. The "Rüeblimärt" is held in the same place on the first Wednesday in November, which is a Carrot fair. The Aarau fair is held at the ice skating rink during the Spring. Transport Aarau railway station is a terminus of the S-Bahn Zürich on the line S11. The town is also served with public transport provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG. Routes {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Number ! Start point ! End point \|- \| 1 \| Küttigen \| Buchs \|- \| 2 \| Barmelweid \| Rohr \|- \| 3 \| Gretzenbach \| Aarau \|- \| 4 \| Biberstein \| Suhr \|- \| 5 \| Goldern \| Aarau \|- \| 6 \| Damm \| Suhr \|- \| 7 \| Zelgli \| Aarau \|} Population The population of Aarau grew continuously from 1800 until about 1960, when the city reached a peak population of 17,045, more than five times its population in 1800. However, since 1960 the population has fallen by 8%. There are three reasons for this population loss: firstly, since the completion of Telli (a large apartment complex), the city has not had any more considerable land developments. Secondly, the number of people per household has fallen; thus, the existing dwellings do not hold as many people. Thirdly, population growth was absorbed by neighboring municipalities in the regional urban area, and numerous citizens of Aarau moved into the countryside. This trend might have stopped since the turn of the 21st century. Existing industrial developments are being used for new purposes instead of standing empty. Aarau has a population (as of {{Swiss populations date\|CH-AG}}) of {{Swiss populations\|CH-AG\|4001}}.{{Swiss populations ref\|CH-AG}} {{as of\|2008}}, 19.8% of the population was made up of foreign nationals.<ref nameAG_pop>{{harvnb\|Department of Finance and Resources\|2013a}}</ref> Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 1%. Most of the population ({{as of\|2000\|lcon}}) speaks German (84.5%), with Italian being second most common ( 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 2.9%).<ref name=SFSO>{{harvnb\|Anon\|2013}}</ref> The age distribution, {{as of\|2008\|lcon}}, in Aarau is; 1,296 children or 8.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 1,334 teenagers or 8.4% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 2,520 people or 15.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 2,518 people or 15.8% are between 30 and 39, 2,320 people or 14.6% are between 40 and 49, and 1,987 people or 12.5% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 1,588 people or 10.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 1,219 people or 7.7% are between 70 and 79, there are 942 people or 5.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 180 people or 1.1% who are 90 and older.<ref namestructure>{{harvnb\|Department of Finance and Resources\|2013b}}</ref> {{as of\|2000}}, there were 1,365 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 3,845 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 2,119 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 1.99 individuals.<ref namezahlen/> {{as of\|2008\|altIn 2008}} there were 1,594 single family homes (or 18.4% of the total) out of a total of 8,661 homes and apartments.<ref nameAG_data>{{harvnb\|Department of Finance and Resources\|2013d}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|dateNovember 2013}} In Aarau about 74.2% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a {{lang\|de\|Fachhochschule}}).<ref nameSFSO/> Of the school age population ({{as of\|2009\|altin the 2008/2009 school year}}), there are 861 students attending primary school, there are 280 students attending secondary school, there are 455 students attending tertiary or university level schooling, there are 35 students who are seeking a job after school in the municipality.<ref name=zahlen/> {\|border"1" cellpadding"2" cellspacing"0" style"margin-left:0.5em;" style="border-collapse: collapse;" \|- bgcolor="#E3E3E3" !colspan"8" bgcolor"#E3E3E3" \| Population Growth<ref nameEB>{{harvnb\|Hoiberg\|2010\|pp1–2}}</ref><ref nameHDS/><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/regionalstatistik/regionale-portraets-kennzahlen/gemeinden/gemeindeportraets.html \|titleGemeindeporträts \|websitewww.bfs.admin.ch \|publisherSwiss Federal Statistical Office \|access-date1 November 2018}}</ref> \|- bgcolor="#E3E3E3" ! year ! population ! Swiss<br /> Nationals ! % German<br /> Speaking ! % French<br /> Speaking ! % Italian<br /> Speaking ! % Protestant ! % Roman<br /> Catholic \|- \| 1558 \|\| align="center" \| ca. 1,200\|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| 1764 \|\| align="center" \| 1, 868\|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| 1798 \|\| align="center" \| 2, 458\|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| 1850 \|\| align"center" \| 4,657 \|\| align"center" \| 4,299\|\| align"center" \| 0.0% \|\| align"center" \| 0.0% \|\| align"center" \| 0.0% \|\| align"center" \| 0.0% \|\| align="center" \| 0.0% \|- \| 1880a \|\| align"center" \| 5,914 \|\| align"center" \| 5,381\|\| align"center" \| 99.2% \|\| align"center" \| 0.7% \|\| align"center" \| 0.2% \|\| align"center" \| 81.9% \|\| align="center" \| 17.4% \|- \| 1910 \|\| align"center" \| 9,593 \|\| align"center" \| 7,986\|\| align"center" \| 90.6% \|\| align"center" \| 2.2% \|\| align"center" \| 6.7% \|\| align"center" \| 71.7% \|\| align="center" \| 26.6% \|- \| 1930 \|\| align"center" \| 11,666 \|\| align"center" \| 10,472\|\| align"center" \| 95.3% \|\| align"center" \| 1.7% \|\| align"center" \| 2.3% \|\| align"center" \| 72.7% \|\| align="center" \| 25.4% \|- \| 1950 \|\| align"center" \| 14,280 \|\| align"center" \| 13,373\|\| align"center" \| 93.8% \|\| align"center" \| 2.2% \|\| align"center" \| 3.2% \|\| align"center" \| 70.4% \|\| align="center" \| 27.9% \|- \| 1970 \|\| align"center" \| 16,881 \|\| align"center" \| 13,782\|\| align"center" \| 82.4% \|\| align"center" \| 1.6% \|\| align"center" \| 11.2% \|\| align"center" \| 60.1% \|\| align="center" \| 37.6% \|- \| 1987 \|\| align"center" \| 15,750 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center"\| \|\|align"center"\| \|\|align"center" \| 75% \|\| align="center"\| \|- \| 1990 \|\| align"center" \| 16,481 \|\| align"center" \| 13,146\|\| align"center" \| 81.7% \|\| align"center" \| 1.0% \|\| align"center" \| 5.3% \|\| align"center" \| 49.7% \|\| align="center" \| 33.0% \|- \| 1993 \|\| align"center" \| 15,900<ref nameCohen>{{harvnb\|Cohen\|1998\|p=1}}</ref> \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|\| \| \|- \| 2010 \|\| align"center" \| 19,497 \|\| align"center" \| 15,695\|\| align"center" \| 85.0% \|\| align"center" \| 1.0% \|\| align"center" \| 3.3% \|\| align"center" \| 44.4% \|\| align="center" \| 28.8% \|- \| 2016 \|\| align"center" \| 21,036 \|\| align"center" \| 16,534\|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align="center" \| \|} Sport The football club FC Aarau play in the Stadion Brügglifeld. From 1981 until 2010 they played in the top tier of the Swiss football league system when they were relegated to the Swiss Challenge League. In the 2013/2014 they climbed back to the highest tier only to be relegated again. In the 2016/17 season they will play in the Swiss Challenge League. They won the Swiss Cup in 1985 and were three times Swiss football champions, in 1912, in 1914 and in 1993. The Argovia Stars play in the MySports League, the third highest league of Swiss ice hockey. They play their home games in the 3,000-seat KeBa Aarau Arena. BC Alte Kanti Aarau plays in the Swiss Women's Basketball Championship, the country's top division. Sites Heritage sites of national significance Aarau is home to a number of sites that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. The list includes three churches; the Christian Catholic parish house, the Roman Catholic parish house, and the Reformed City Church. There are five government buildings on the list; the Cantonal Library, which contains many pieces important to the nation's history,<ref>{{harvnb\|Young\|Stetler\|1987\|p699}}</ref> and Art Gallery, the old Cantonal School, the Legislature, the Cantonal Administration building, and the archives. Three gardens or parks are on the list; Garten Schmidlin, Naturama Aargau and the Schlossgarten. The remaining four buildings on the list are; the former Rickenbach Factory, the Crematorium, the Haus zum Erker at Rathausgasse 10 and the Restaurant Zunftstube at Pelzgasse.<ref nameSWS/> Tourist sites The Bally Shoe company has a unique shoe museum in the city.<ref nameOgr/> There is also the Trade Museum which contain stained glass windows from Muri Convent and paintings.<ref nameOgr/> Annual events Each May, Aarau plays host to the annual [https://www.jazzaar.com/ Jazzaar Festival] attracting the world's top jazz musicians. Religion From the {{as of\|2000\|alt2000 census}}, 4,473 or 28.9% are Roman Catholic, while 6,738 or 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 51 individuals (or about 0.33% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic i.e. Old Catholic faith.<ref namezahlen>{{harvnb\|Department of Finance and Resources\|2013c}}</ref>{{full citation needed\|dateNovember 2013}}GovernmentLegislative In place of a town meeting, a town assembly (Einwohnerrat) of 50 members is elected by the citizens, and follows the policy of proportional representation. It is responsible for approving tax levels, preparing the annual account, and the business report. In addition, it can issue regulations. The term of office is four years. In the last two elections the parties had the following representation: {\| class="wikitable" ! Party ! 2001 ! 2018 \|- \| FDP \|\| 13 \|\| 11 \|- \| SP \|\| 12 \|\| 14 \|- \| SVP \|\| 11 \|\| 10 \|- \| Die Mitte (Formerly Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland, CVP) \|\| 4 \|\| 3 \|- \| Pro Aarau \|\| 4 \|\| 3 \|- \| Green \|\| 2 \|\| 5 \|- \| EVP \|\| 3 \|\| 2 \|- \| GLP \|\| 0 \|\| 2 \|} At the district level, some elements of the government remain a direct democracy. There are optional and obligatory referendums, and the population retains the right to establish an initiative. Executive The executive authority is the town council (Stadtrat). The term of office is four years, and its members are elected by a plurality voting system. It leads and represents the municipality. It carries out the resolutions of the assembly, and those requested by the canton and national level governments. The seven members (and their party) are: * Hanspeter Hilfiker (FDP) (City President) * Werner Schib (Die Mitte) (City Vice President) * Angelica Cavegn Leitner (Pro Aarau) * Franziska Graf (SP) * Daniel Siegenthaler (SP) * Hanspeter Thür (Grüne) * Suzanne Marclay-Merz (FDP) National elections In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 27.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (22.1%), the FDP (17.5%) and the Green Party (11.8%).<ref nameSFSO/>Coat of armsThe blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent an Eagle displayed Sable beaked langued and membered Gules and a Chief of the last.<ref>{{harvnb\|Heimer\|2001}}</ref> Notable people Born in Aarau * Ferdinand Rudolph Hassler (1770–1843), first director of the United States Coast Survey<ref name"Marquis 1607-1896">{{harvnb\|Galgoul\|Wilson\|Konya\|1963\|p=308}}</ref> * Hans Herzog (1819–1894), Swiss army General.<ref>{{Cite EB1911\|wstitleHerzog, Hans \| volume 13 \|lastCoolidge \|first William Augustus Brevoort \|author-linkW. A. B. Coolidge\| page 406 \|short= 1}}</ref> * Carl Feer-Herzog (1820–1880), politician, President of the Swiss National Council 1874 * Friedrich Mühlberg (1840–1915), a Swiss geologist * Hans Renold (1852–1943), a Swiss/British engineer, inventor and industrialist in Britain * Friedrich Zschokke (1860–1936), zoologist and parasitologist, grandson of Heinrich Zschokke * Emil Hassler (1864–1937), physician, ethnographer, naturalist and botanist * Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939), physician, pioneer nutritionist popularised muesli * Frederick Sutermeister (1873–1934), a Swiss theologian and pastor * Martha Burkhardt (1874–1956), painter and photographer * Otto Hunziker (1879–1940), politician and author * Eugen Bircher (1882–1956), politician * Edmund Heuberger (1883–1962), art director, screenwriter and film director<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0381810/ IMDb Database] retrieved 1 January 2019</ref> * Karl Ballmer (1891–1958), painter, anthroposophical philosopher and writer * Felix Hoffmann (1911–1975), graphic designer, illustrator and stained glass artist * Erika Burkart (1922–2010), writer and poet * Fritz Vogelsang (born 1932), decathlete, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/75932 \|titleFritz Vogelsang \|websiteOlympedia \|publisherOlyMADMen \|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> * Hansruedi Jost (1934–2016), hammer thrower, competed at the 1960 Summer Olympics<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/75833 \|titleHansruedi Jost \|websiteOlympedia \|publisherOlyMADMen \|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> * Klaus Merz (born 1945), writer * Martin Schlumpf (born 1947), musician, composer, conductor, improviser and academic teacher * {{ill\|Urs Faes\|de}} (born 1947), author<ref>{{Cite web \|urlhttps://www.viceversaliteratur.ch/author/1890 \|titleUrs Faes \|date\|access-date2023-10-10 \|websiteViceversa Literatur \|publisherService de Presse Suisse \|language=de}}</ref> * Charlotte Walter (born 1951), figure skater, competed in the 1968 and 1972 Winter Olympics<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/82987 \|titleCharlotte Walter \|websiteOlympedia \|publisherOlyMADMen \|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> * Jürg Frey (born 1953), composer and clarinettist * Jörg Müller (born 1961), retired track cyclist and road bicycle racer, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics * Christian Reich (born 1967), bobsledder, competed in four Winter Olympics, winning silver<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/96767 \|titleChristian Reich \|websiteOlympedia \|publisherOlyMADMen \|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> * Andreas Hilfiker (born 1969), former international footballer, 376 club caps * Daniel Wermelinger (born 1971), football referee, president of the Swiss Referees Union * Ivan Benito (born 1976), retired professional football goalkeeper, 327 club caps * Marisa Brunner (born 1982), retired football goalkeeper, 75 caps for Switzerland women's national football team * Stefan Eichenberger (born 1984), film director and film producer<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/name/nm3022531/ IMDb Database] retrieved 1 January 2019</ref> * Ricardo Feller (born 2000), racing driver and ADAC GT Masters champion Lived in Aarau * {{ill\|Johann Rudolf Dolder\|de}} (1753–1807), politician * {{ill\|Johann Kaspar Riesbeck\|de}} (1754–1786), author and actor * {{ill\|Sebastian Fahrländer\|de}} (1768–1841), politician, physician * Heinrich Zschokke (1771–1848), German, later Swiss, author and reformer<ref>{{cite EB1911\|wstitleZschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel \|volume 28 \|short=x}}</ref> * Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780–1866), physician, politician, philosopher * Johann Rudolph Rengger (1795–1832), naturalist and doctor * Albert Einstein (1879–1955), scientist, professor, physicist, and technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office * {{ill\|Charles Tschopp\|de}} (1899–1982), writer * Bruno Hunziker (1930–2000), a Swiss attorney and politician * Sylvia Flückiger-Bäni (born 1952), politician * David Hönigsberg (1959–2005), a South African classical composer, conductor and musicologist * Nicolas Müller (born 1982), a Swiss snowboarder * Nivin Pauly (born 1984), an Indian actor * Alexander Estis (born 1986), a Swiss author, translator and journalist International relations {{See also\|List of twin towns and sister cities in Switzerland}} Twin towns – sister cities Aarau is twinned with: {\| class="wikitable" \|- valign="top" \| * {{flagicon\|NED}} Delft, Netherlands \|\| * {{flagicon\|SUI}} Neuchâtel, Switzerland \|\| * {{flagicon\|GER}} Reutlingen, Germany \|} See also Lenzburg (boasts a historical museum) History of the Canton of Aargau Footnotes {{Reflist\|30em}} References * {{cite web\|authorAnon \|publisherSwiss Federal Statistics Office \|urlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/02/key.html \|titleRegional Portraits: Communes \|access-date15 November 2013 \|year2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160105172441/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/02/key.html \|archive-date=5 January 2016 }} * {{cite web \| author Anon \| url https://www.meteoswiss.admin.ch/product/output/climate-data/climate-diagrams-normal-values-station-processing/BUS/climsheet_BUS_np9120_e.pdf \| title Climate Normals Buchs/Aarau 1991–2020 \| work Climate Diagrams and Normals from Swiss Measuring Stations \| publisher Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology (MeteoSwiss) \| access-date 20 January 2022\| year = 2013a }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last Bridgwater \| editor1-first W. \| editor2-lastAldrich \| editor2-first Beatrice \| encyclopedia The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia \| publisher Viking Press \| title Aarau \| year 1968 \| asin = B000HMLHXA }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Cohen \| editor-first Saul B. \| encyclopedia The Columbia Gazetteer of the World \| title Aarau \| isbn 0-231-11040-5 \| publisher Columbia University Press \| location New York, NY \| year 1998 }} * {{cite web \| author Department of Finance and Resources \| year 2013 \| url http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| title Statistical Department of Canton Aargau – Area 11 – Transport and Communications \| access-date 21 January 2010 \| archive-date 22 February 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045014/http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Department of Finance and Resources \| year 2013a \| url http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| title Statistical Department of Canton Aargau – Area 01 – Population \| access-date 20 January 2010 \| archive-date 22 February 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045014/http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Department of Finance and Resources \| year 2013b \| url http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| title Statistical Department of Canton Aargau – Bevölkerungsdaten für den Kanton Aargau und die Gemeinden (Archiv) \| trans-title Population data for the canton of Aargau and the municipalities (archive) \| access-date 20 January 2010 \| archive-date 22 February 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045014/http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|dateNovember 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Department of Finance and Resources \| year 2013c \| url http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| title Statistical Department of Canton Aargau – Aargauer Numbers 2009 \| access-date 20 January 2010 \| archive-date 22 February 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045014/http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Department of Finance and Resources \| year 2013d \| url http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| title Statistical Department of Canton Aargau \| access-date 20 January 2010 \| archive-date 22 February 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120222045014/http://www.ag.ch/staag/ \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite journal \| last Hall \| first Richard T. \| url http://www.swiss-stamps.us/Tell/T174.pdf \| pages 132–136 \| title Switzerland – A Capsule History \| journal Tell \| publisher American Helvetia Philatelic Society \| volume XVII \| issue 4 \| date July 1991 \| access-date 29 March 2014 \| archive-date 4 March 2016 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003557/http://www.swiss-stamps.us/Tell/T174.pdf \| url-status dead }} * {{cite web \| last Heimer \| first Željko \| url http://www.fotw.us/flags/ch-ag001.html \| website Flags of the World.com \| access-date 15 November 2013 \| year 2001 \| title Aarau Commune (Aargau Canton, Switzerland) \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20121002021629/http://www.fotw.us/flags/ch-ag001.html \| archive-date 2 October 2012 \| url-status dead \| df = dmy-all }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Hoiberg \| editor-first Dale H. \| encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica \| title Aarau \| edition 15th \| year 2010 \| publisher Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. \| volume I: A–Ak – Bayes \| location Chicago, Illinois \| isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 \| url = https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }} * {{cite book \| last Luck \| first J. Murray \| title History of Switzerland, The first 100,000 Years: Before the Beginnings to the Days of the Present \| publisher The Society for the Promotion of Science and Scholarship, Inc. \| location Palo Alto, CA \| year 1985 \| isbn 0-930664-06-X \| url https://archive.org/details/historyofswitzer00luck }} * {{cite web \| last Lüthi \| first Alfred \| url http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D1620.php \| title Aarau \| website Historical Dictionary of Switzerland \| year 2009 \| access-date = 10 April 2014 }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last Galgoul \| editor1-first Barbara Wardell \| editor2-last Wilson \| editor2-first Juanita \| editor3-last Konya \| editor3-first Rose \| title Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph \| encyclopedia Who Was Who in America, Historical Volume, 1607–1896 \| publisher Marquis Who's Who \| location Chicago, Illinois \| year 1963 \| edition Revised \| isbn = 978-0837902364 }} * {{cite web \| last Oberholzer \| first Ernst \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/infothek/nomenklaturen/blank/blank/gem_liste/03.Document.112644.pdf \| title Amtliches Gemeindeverzeichnis der Schweiz \| trans-title Unofficial community directory of Switzerland \| publisher Swiss Federal Statistical Office \| year 2013 \| access-date 15 November 2013 }} * {{cite book \| editor1-last Ogrizek \| editor1-first Doré \| editor2-last Rufenacht \| editor2-first J. G. \| title Switzerland \| series The World in Color \| publisher Whittlesey House \| location USA \| year 1949 \| asin B007T2XM5W }} * {{cite web \| author Swiss Confederation \| url http://www.bevoelkerungsschutz.admin.ch/internet/bs/de/home/themen/kgs/kgs_inventar/a-objekte.parsys.00012.DownloadFile.tmp/ag2013.pdf \| title Schweizerisches Inventar der Kulturgüter von nationaler Bedeutung \| trans-title Swiss Inventory of Cultural Property of National and Regional Significance \| year 2009 \| access-date 15 November 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184437/http://www.bevoelkerungsschutz.admin.ch/internet/bs/de/home/themen/kgs/kgs_inventar/a-objekte.parsys.00012.DownloadFile.tmp/ag2013.pdf \| archive-date 23 September 2015 \| url-status dead \| df dmy-all }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| last1 Van Valkenburg \| first1 Samuel \| last2 Haefner \| first2 Harold \| editor-last Johnston \| editor-first Bernard \| encyclopedia Collier's Encyclopedia \| title Aarau \| edition 1st \| year 1997 \| publisher P.F. Collier \| volume I: A to Ameland \| location = New York, NY }} * {{Cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last Young \| editor1-first Margaret Walsh \| editor2-last Stetler \| editor2-first Susan L. \| encyclopedia Cities of the World \| edition 3rd \| volume 3: Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East \| publisher Gale Research Company \| location Detroit, MI \| year 1987 \| isbn 0-8103-2541-1 \| title Other cities \| chapter Switzerland }}External links {{Wikivoyage\|Aarau}} [http://www.aarau.ch Aarau.ch] {{HDS\|1620}} Sister projects {{commons category-inline}} {{Wikisource-inline\|list{{cite EB9 \|wstitle Aarau \|volumeI \| page3 \|short=1}} {{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAarau \|volume I \| page3\|shortx \|noicon=x}} *{{Cite Collier's\|wstitleAarau \|shortx \|noicon=x}} }} {{Municipalities of the district of Aarau}} {{Cantons of Switzerland}} {{List of European capitals by region}} {{Authority control}} Category:Cities in Switzerland Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland Category:Municipalities of Aargau Category:Aargau Category:Cultural property of national significance in Aargau Category:Populated places on the Aare Category:Former national capitals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarau	2025-04-05T18:26:04.891791
2467	Aargau	{{short description\|Canton of Switzerland}} {{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2014}} {{Infobox settlement <!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions -->\| name = Canton of Aargau \| native_name = {{native name\|de\|Kanton Aargau}} \| settlement_type = Canton \| image_flag = Flag of Canton of Aargau.svg \| image_shield = CHE Aargau COA.svg \| shield_size = 80x80px \| shield_link \| image_map {{maplink\|framey\|plainyes\|frame-aligncenter\|zoom6\|typeshape\|stroke-width2\|frame-lat46.7\|frame-long8.25\|frame-width275\|frame-height175}} \| map_alt = Map of Switzerland, location of Aargau highlighted \| map_caption = Location in Switzerland {{hidden \|ta1 left\| border 1px solid grey \| header Map of Aargau \| content <br /> }} \| coordinates {{coord\|47\|5\|N\|8\|0\|E\|region:CH-AG\|displayinline,title}} \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = Switzerland \| seat_type = Capital and largest city \| seat = Aarau \| parts_type = Subdivisions \| parts_style = para \| p1 = 198 municipalities \| p2 = 11 districts \| leader_title = Executive \| leader_name = Executive Council (5) \| leader_title1 = Legislative \| leader_name1 = Grand Council (140) \| area_footnotes = {{Swiss area data\|\|QUELLE-KT}} \| area_total_km2 {{Swiss area\|AG\|kmyes }} \| population_footnotes = {{Swiss populations ref\|CH-AG }} \| population_total = {{Swiss populations NC\|CH-AG\|CH-AG}} \| population_as_of = {{Swiss populations data CH-AG\|YM}} \| population_density_km2 = auto \| demographics_type1 = GDP \| demographics1_footnotes <ref>{{Cite web \|lastStatistik \|firstBundesamt für \|date2021-01-21 \|titleBruttoinlandsprodukt (BIP) nach Grossregion und Kanton - 2008-2018 {{!}} Tabelle \|urlhttps://www.bfs.admin.ch/asset/de/15304856 \|access-date2023-07-01 \|websiteBundesamt für Statistik \|language=de}}</ref> \| demographics1_title1 = Total \| demographics1_info1 = CHF 43.590 billion (2020) \| demographics1_title2 = Per capita \| demographics1_info2 = CHF 63,177 (2020) \| iso_code = CH-AG \| blank_name_sec1 = Highest point \| blank_info_sec1 {{convert\|908\|m\|ft\|0\|abbron}}: Geissfluegrat \| blank1_name_sec1 = Lowest point \| blank1_info_sec1 {{convert\|260\|m\|ft\|0\|abbron}}: Rhine at Kaiseraugst \| blank_name_sec2 = Joined \| blank_info_sec2 = 1803 \| blank1_name_sec2 = Languages \| blank1_info_sec2 = German \| website = {{URL\|http://www.AG.ch}} \| image_blank_emblem = Aargau.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Brandmark \| blank_emblem_size = 120px }} Aargau ({{IPAc-en\|ˈ\|ɑr\|ɡ\|aʊ}} {{respell\|AR\|gow}}; {{IPA\|de\|ˈaːrɡaʊ\|lang\|de-Aargau2.ogg}}), more formally<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttps://www.ag.ch/en/verwaltung/dvi/wirtschaft_arbeit/aargau_services_neu/der_s\|titleThe Aargau location - your advantage\|workDepartement Volkswirtschaft und Inneres, ag.ch.\|access-date2021-01-30}}{{Dead link\|dateJuly 2023 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> the Canton of Aargau ({{langx\|de\|Kanton Aargau}}; {{langx\|rm\|Chantun Argovia}}; {{langx\|fr\|Canton d'Argovie}}; {{langx\|it\|Canton Argovia}}), is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of eleven districts and its capital is Aarau. Aargau is one of the most northerly cantons of Switzerland, by the lower course of the Aare River, which is why it is called Aar-gau ("Aare province"). It is one of the most densely populated regions of Switzerland.<ref nameColliers>{{harvnb\|Van Valkenburg\|1997\|p3}}</ref> History {{main\|History of the Canton of Aargau}} Early history {{further\|Early history of Switzerland}} The area of Aargau and the surrounding areas were controlled by the Helvetians, a tribe of Celts, as far back as 200&nbsp;BC.<ref nameoR/> It was eventually occupied by the Romans and then by the 6th century, the Franks.<ref nameCohen/> The Romans built a major settlement called Vindonissa, near the present location of Brugg.<ref nameoR>{{harvnb\|Ogrizek\|Rufenacht\|1949\|p4}}</ref> Medieval Aargau {{See also\|List of castles and fortresses in Switzerland#Aargau\|Medieval Switzerland}} The reconstructed Old High German name of Aargau is Argowe, first unambiguously attested (in the spelling Argue) in 795. The term described a territory only loosely equivalent to that of the modern canton, including the region between Aare and Reuss rivers, including Pilatus and Napf, i.e. including parts of the modern cantons of Bern (Bernese Aargau, Emmental, parts of the Bernese Oberland), Solothurn, Basel-Landschaft, Lucerne, Obwalden and Nidwalden, but not the parts of the modern canton east of the Reuss (Baden District), which were part of Zürichgau. Within the Frankish Empire (8th to 10th centuries), the area was a disputed border region between the duchies of Alamannia and Burgundy. A line of the von Wetterau (Conradines) intermittently held the countship of Aargau from 750 until about 1030, when they lost it (having in the meantime taken the name von Tegerfelden). This division became the ill-defined (and sparsely settled) outer border of the early Holy Roman Empire at its formation in the second half of the 10th century. Most of the region came under the control of the ducal house of Zähringen and the comital houses of Habsburg and Kyburg by about 1200. In the second half of the 13th century, the territory became divided between the territories claimed by the imperial cities of Bern, Lucerne and Solothurn and the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. The remaining portion, largely corresponding to the modern canton of Aargau, remained under the control of the Habsburgs until the "conquest of Aargau" by the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1415.<ref>{{harvnb\|Farbkarte\|2002\|p283}}</ref> Habsburg Castle itself, the original seat of the House of Habsburg, was taken by Bern in April 1415.<ref>Peter Frey. "Die Habsburg. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen von 1994/95" in: Argovia, Jahresschrift der Historischen Gesellschaft des Kantons Aargau 109 (1997), p. 167.</ref> The Habsburgs had founded a number of monasteries (with some structures enduring, e.g., in Wettingen and Muri), the closing of which by the government in 1841 was a contributing factor to the outbreak of the Swiss civil war – the "Sonderbund War" – in 1847.Under the Swiss ConfederationWhen Frederick IV of Habsburg sided with Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, Emperor Sigismund placed him under the Imperial ban.{{refn \| group nb \| The Imperial Ban outlawed all possessions of that person or family, in this case the Habsburgs. Thereafter, the Habsburg lands were open to the taking.<ref nameLuck>{{harvnb\|Luck\|1985\|p98}}</ref>}} In July 1414, the Pope visited Bern and received assurances from them, that they would move against the Habsburgs.<ref nameLuck/> A few months later the Swiss Confederation denounced the Treaty of 1412. Shortly thereafter in 1415, Bern and the rest of the Swiss Confederation used the ban as a pretext to invade the Aargau. The Confederation was able to quickly conquer the towns of Aarau, Lenzburg, Brugg and Zofingen along with most of the Habsburg castles. Bern kept the southwest portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), northward to the confluence of the Aare and Reuss.<ref nameLuck/> The important city of Baden was taken by a united Swiss army and governed by all 8 members of the Confederation.<ref nameLuck/> Some districts, named the Freie Ämter (free bailiwicks) – Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten, with the countship of Baden – were governed as "subject lands" by all or some of the Confederates. Shortly after the conquest of the Aargau by the Swiss, Frederick humbled himself to the Pope. The Pope reconciled with him and ordered all of the taken lands to be returned. The Swiss refused and years later after no serious attempts at re-acquisition, the Duke officially relinquished rights to the Swiss.<ref nameLuck1>{{harvnb\|Luck\|1985\|p88}}</ref>Unteraargau or Berner AargauBern's portion of the Aargau came to be known as the Unteraargau, though can also be called the Berner or Bernese Aargau. In 1514 Bern expanded north into the Jura and so came into possession of several strategically important mountain passes into the Austrian Fricktal. This land was added to the Unteraargau and was directly ruled from Bern. It was divided into seven rural bailiwicks and four administrative cities, Aarau, Zofingen, Lenzburg and Brugg. While the Habsburgs were driven out, many of their minor nobles were allowed to keep their lands and offices, though over time they lost power to the Bernese government. The bailiwick administration was based on a very small staff of officials, mostly made up of Bernese citizens, but with a few locals.<ref nameHDS_BA>{{harvnb\|Sauerlände\|2002}}</ref> When Bern converted during the Protestant Reformation in 1528, the Unteraargau also converted. At the beginning of the 16th century a number of anabaptists migrated into the upper Wynen and Rueder valleys from Zürich. Despite pressure from the Bernese authorities in the 16th and 17th centuries anabaptism never entirely disappeared from the Unteraargau.<ref name=HDS_BA/> Bern used the Aargau bailiwicks mostly as a source of grain for the rest of the city-state. The administrative cities remained economically only of regional importance. However, in the 17th and 18th centuries Bern encouraged industrial development in Unteraargau and by the late 18th century it was the most industrialized region in the city-state. The high industrialization led to high population growth in the 18th century, for example between 1764 and 1798, the population grew by 35%, far more than in other parts of the canton. In 1870 the proportion of farmers in Aarau, Lenzburg, Kulm, and Zofingen districts was 34–40%, while in the other districts it was 46–57%.<ref nameHDS_BA/>Freie ÄmterThe rest of the Freie Ämter were collectively administered as subject territories by the rest of the Confederation. Muri Amt was assigned to Zürich, Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug and Glarus, while the Ämter of Meienberg, Richensee and Villmergen were first given to Lucerne alone. The final boundary was set in 1425 by an arbitration tribunal and Lucerne had to give the three Ämter to be collectively ruled.<ref nameHDS_FA>{{harvnb\|Wohle\|2006}}</ref> The four Ämter were then consolidated under a single Confederation bailiff into what was known in the 15th century as the Waggental Bailiwick ({{langx\|de\|linkno\|Vogtei im Waggental}}). In the 16th century, it came to be known as the Vogtei der Freien Ämter. While the Freien Ämter often had independent lower courts, they were forced to accept the Confederation's sovereignty. Finally, in 1532, the canton of Uri became part of the collective administration of the Freien Ämter.<ref>{{harvnb\|Gasser\|Keller\|1932\|p82}}</ref> At the time of the Protestant Reformation, the majority of the Ämter converted to the new faith. In 1529, a wave of iconoclasm swept through the area and wiped away much of the old religion. After the defeat of Zürich in the second Battle of Kappel in 1531, the victorious five Catholic cantons marched their troops into the Freie Ämter and reconverted them to Catholicism.<ref name=HDS_FA/> In the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712, the Freie Ämter became the staging ground for the warring Reformed and Catholic armies. While the peace after the 1656 war did not change the status quo, the fourth Peace of Aarau in 1712 brought about a reorganization of power relations. The victory gave Zürich the opportunity to force the Catholic cantons out of the government in the county of Baden and the adjacent area of the Freie Ämter. The Freie Ämter were then divided in two by a line drawn from the gallows in Fahrwangen to the Oberlunkhofen church steeple. The northern part, the so-called Unteren Freie Ämter (lower Freie Ämter), which included the districts of Boswil (in part) and Hermetschwil and the Niederamt, were ruled by Zürich, Bern and Glarus. The southern part, the Oberen Freie Ämter (upper Freie Ämter), were ruled by the previous seven cantons but Bern was added to make an eighth.<ref name=HDS_FA/> During the Helvetic Republic (1798–1803), the county of Baden, the Freie Ämter and the area known as the Kelleramt were combined into the canton of Baden. County of Baden The County of Baden was a shared condominium of the entire Old Swiss Confederacy. After the Confederacy conquest in 1415, they retained much of the Habsburg legal structure, which caused a number of problems. The local nobility had the right to hold the low court in only about one fifth of the territory. There were over 30 different nobles who had the right to hold courts scattered around the surrounding lands. All these overlapping jurisdictions caused numerous conflicts, but gradually the Confederation was able to acquire these rights in the county. The cities of Baden, Bremgarten and Mellingen became the administrative centers and held the high courts. Together with the courts, the three administrative centers had considerable local autonomy, but were ruled by a governor who was appointed by the Acht Orte every two years. After the Protestant victory at the Second Battle of Villmergen, the administration of the County changed slightly. Instead of the Acht Orte appointing a bailiff together, Zürich and Bern each appointed the governor for 7 out of 16 years while Glarus appointed him for the remaining two years.<ref name=HDS_CB>{{harvnb\|Steigmeier\|2002}}</ref> The chaotic legal structure and fragmented land ownership combined with a tradition of dividing the land among all the heirs in an inheritance prevented any large scale reforms. The governor tried in the 18th century to reform and standardize laws and ownership across the county, but with limited success. With an ever-changing administration, the County lacked a coherent long-term economic policy or support for reforms. By the end of the 18th century there were no factories or mills and only a few small cottage industries along the border with Zürich. Road construction first became a priority after 1750, when Zürich and Bern began appointing a governor for seven years.<ref name=HDS_CB/> During the Protestant Reformation, some of the municipalities converted to the new faith. However, starting in 1531, some of the old parishes were converted back to the old faith. The governors were appointed from both Catholic and Protestant cantons and since they changed every two years, neither faith gained a majority in the county.<ref name=HDS_CB/> After the French invasion, on 19 March 1798, the governments of Zürich and Bern agreed to the creation of the short lived canton of Baden in the Helvetic Republic. With the Act of Mediation in 1803, the canton of Baden was dissolved. Portions of the lands of the former County of Baden now became the District of Baden in the newly created canton of Aargau. After World War II, this formerly agrarian region saw striking growth and became the district with the largest and densest population in the canton (110,000 in 1990, 715 persons per km<sup>2</sup>).<ref nameHDS_CB/>Forming the canton of Aargau The contemporary canton of Aargau was formed in 1803, a canton of the Swiss Confederation as a result of the Act of Mediation. It was a combination of three short-lived cantons of the Helvetic Republic: Aargau (1798–1803), Baden (1798–1803) and Fricktal (1802–1803). Its creation is therefore rooted in the Napoleonic era. In the year 2003, the canton of Aargau celebrated its 200th anniversary. French forces occupied the Aargau from 10 March to 18 April 1798; thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau and the remainder formed the canton of Baden. Aborted plans to merge the two halves came in 1801 and 1802, and they were eventually united under the name Aargau,<ref nameColliers/><ref>{{harvnb\|Bridgwater\|Aldrich\|1968\|p11}}</ref> which was then admitted as a full member of the reconstituted Confederation following the Act of Mediation. Some parts of the canton of Baden at this point were transferred to other cantons: the Amt of Hitzkirch to Lucerne, whilst Hüttikon, Oetwil an der Limmat, Dietikon and Schlieren went to Zürich. In return, Lucerne's Amt of Merenschwand was transferred to Aargau (district of Muri). The Fricktal, ceded in 1802 by Austria via Napoleonic France to the Helvetic Republic, was briefly a separate canton of the Helvetic Republic (the canton of Fricktal) under a Statthalter ('Lieutenant'), but on 19 March 1803 (following the Act of Mediation) was incorporated into the canton of Aargau. The former cantons of Baden and Fricktal can still be identified with the contemporary districts – the canton of Baden is covered by the districts of Zurzach, Baden, Bremgarten, and Muri (albeit with the gains and losses of 1803 detailed above); the canton of Fricktal by the districts of Rheinfelden and Laufenburg (except for Hottwil which was transferred to that district in 2010). Chief magistracy The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly: * first two consecutive Regierungsstatthalter : April 1798 – November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (1754–1833) 1802–1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (1766–1833) * Presidents of the Government Commission 10 March 1803 – 26 April 1803 Johann Rudolf Dolder (1753–1807) 26 April 1803 – 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly) * annual Amtsbürgermeister 1815–1831 * annual Landammänner since 1815 Jewish history in Aargau ’s collection. ]] In the 17th century, Aargau was the only federal condominium where Jews were tolerated. In 1774, they were restricted to just two towns, Endingen and Lengnau. While the rural upper class pressed incessantly for the expulsion the Jews, the financial interests of the authorities prevented it. They imposed special taxes on peddling and cattle trading, the primary Jewish professions. The Protestant occupiers also enjoyed the discomfort of the local Catholics by the presence of the Jewish community.<ref name"E+L">{{cite news\|urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/.premium-oldest-jewish-community-in-switzerland-is-disappearing-but-not-without-a-fight-1.6554118\|titleOldest Jewish Community in Switzerland Is Disappearing, but Not Without a Fight\|authorAriel David\|newspaperHaaretz\|date2018-10-14}}</ref> The Jews were directly subordinate to the governor; from 1696, they were compelled to renew a letter of protection from him every 16 years.<ref name=HDS_CB/> During this period, Jews and Christians were not allowed to live under the same roof, neither were Jews allowed to own land or houses. They were taxed at a much higher rate than others and, in 1712, the Lengnau community was "pillaged."<ref nameis/> In 1760, they were further restricted regarding marriages and procreation. An exorbitant tax was levied on marriage licenses; oftentimes, they were outright refused.<ref name"E+L"/> This remained the case until the 19th century. In 1799, the Helvetic republic abolished all special tolls, and, in 1802, removed the poll tax.<ref nameis/> On 5 May 1809, they were declared citizens and given broad rights regarding trade and farming. They were still restricted to Endingen and Lengnau until 7 May 1846, when their right to move and reside freely within the canton of Aargau was granted. On 24 September 1856, the Swiss Federal Council granted them full political rights within Aargau, as well as broad business rights; however the majority Christian population did not fully abide by these new liberal laws. The time of 1860 saw the canton government voting to grant suffrage in all local rights and to give their communities autonomy. Before the law was enacted, it was however repealed due to vocal opposition led by the Ultramonte Party.<ref nameis/> Finally, the federal authorities in July 1863, granted all Jews full rights of citizens. However, they did not receive all of the rights in Endingen and Lengnau until a resolution of the Grand Council, on 15 May 1877, granted citizens' rights to the members of the Jewish communities of those places, giving them charters under the names of New Endingen and New Lengnau.<ref nameis>{{harvnb\|Kayserling\|1906\|pp1–2}}</ref> The Swiss Jewish Kulturverein was instrumental in this fight from its founding in 1862 until it was dissolved 20 years later.<ref nameis/> During this period of diminished rights, they were not even allowed to bury their dead in Swiss soil and had to bury their dead on an island called Judenäule (Jews' Isle) on the Rhine near Waldshut.<ref nameis/> Beginning in 1603, the deceased Jews of the Surbtal communities were buried on the river island which was leased by the Jewish community. As the island was repeatedly flooded and devastated, in 1750 the Surbtal Jews asked the Tagsatzung to establish the Endingen cemetery in the vicinity of their communities.<ref name"hds-judenäule">{{cite web \|lastSteigmeier \|firstAndreas \|urlhttp://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D13087.php\|titleJudenäule\|publisherHDS\|languagede\|date2008-02-04\|access-date2015-12-17}}</ref><ref name"judaica">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.alemannia-judaica.de/endingen_lengnau_friedhof.htm\|titleJüdischer Friedhof Endingen / Lengau (Kanton Aargau / CH)\|publisheralemannia-judaica.de\|languagede\|access-date17 December 2015}}</ref>Geography from Bözberg]] The capital of the canton is Aarau, which is located on its western border, on the Aare. The canton borders Germany (Baden-Württemberg) to the north, the Rhine forming the border. To the west lie the Swiss cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn and Bern; the canton of Lucerne lies south, and Zürich and Zug to the east. Its total area is {{convert\|1404\|km2\|sqmi\|spus}}. Besides the Rhine, it contains two large rivers, the Aare and the Reuss.<ref nameCohen>{{harvnb\|Cohen\|1998\|p=1}}</ref> The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is diversified with undulating tracts and well-wooded hills, alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aare and its tributaries.<ref name"eb"/> The valleys alternate with hills, many of which are wooded. Slightly over one-third of the canton is wooded ({{convert\|518\|km2\|sqmi\|spus}}), while nearly half is used from farming ({{convert\|635.7\|km2\|sqmi\|spus}}). {{convert\|33.5\|km2\|sqmi\|spus}} or about 2.4% of the canton is considered unproductive, mostly lakes (notably Lake Hallwil) and streams. With a population density of 450/km<sup>2</sup> (1,200/sq mi), the canton has a relatively high amount of land used for human development, with {{convert\|216.7\|km2\|sqmi\|sp=us}} or about 15% of the canton developed for housing or transportation.<ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2006}}</ref> It contains the hot sulphur springs of Baden and Schinznach-Bad, while at Rheinfelden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Königsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa (Windisch). Fahr Monastery forms a small exclave of the canton, otherwise surrounded by the canton of Zürich, and since 2008 is part of the Aargau municipality of Würenlos. Political subdivisions Districts {{See also\|Districts of Switzerland}} Aargau is divided into 11 districts: Aarau with capital Aarau Baden with capital Baden Bremgarten with capital Bremgarten Brugg with capital Brugg Kulm with capital Unterkulm Laufenburg with capital Laufenburg Lenzburg with capital Lenzburg Muri with capital Muri Rheinfelden with capital Rheinfelden Zofingen with capital Zofingen Zurzach with capital Zurzach The most recent change in district boundaries occurred in 2010 when Hottwil transferred from Brugg to Laufenburg, following its merger with other municipalities, all of which were in Laufenburg. Municipalities {{main\|Municipalities of the canton of Aargau\|Municipalities of Switzerland}} There are (as of 2014) 213 municipalities in the canton of Aargau. As with most Swiss cantons there has been a trend since the early 2000s for municipalities to merge, though mergers in Aargau have so far been less radical than in other cantons. Coat of arms The blazon of the coat of arms is Per pale, dexter: sable, a fess wavy argent, charged with two cotises wavy azure; sinister: sky blue, three mullets of five argent.<ref>{{harvnb\|Heimer\|2000}}</ref> The flag and arms of the canton of Aargau date to 1803 and are an original design by Samuel Ringier-Seelmatter; the current official design, specifying the stars as five-pointed, dates to 1930. Demographics Aargau has a population ({{as of\|{{Swiss populations YM\|CH-AG}}\|lcon}}) of {{Swiss populations\|CH-AG\|CH-AG}}.{{Swiss populations ref\|CH-AG}} {{as of\|2010}}, 21.5% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11%. Migration accounted for 8.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 2.8%.<ref nameSFSO>{{harvnb\|Swiss Federal Statistical Office\|2013}}{{full citation needed\|dateNovember 2013}}</ref> Most of the population ({{as of\|2000\|lcon}}) speaks German (477,093 or 87.1%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (17,847 or 3.3%) and Serbo-Croatian is the third (10,645 or 1.9%). There are 4,151 people who speak French and 618 people who speak Romansh.<ref name=STAT2000/> Of the population in the canton, 146,421 or about 26.7% were born in Aargau and lived there in 2000. There were 140,768 or 25.7% who were born in the same canton, while 136,865 or 25.0% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 107,396 or 19.6% were born outside of Switzerland.<ref name=STAT2000/> {{as of\|2000}}, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 62.3% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.4%.<ref name=SFSO/> {{as of\|2000}}, there were 227,656 people who were single and never married in the canton. There were 264,939 married individuals, 27,603 widows or widowers and 27,295 individuals who are divorced.<ref name=STAT2000>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2000}}</ref> {{as of\|2000}}, there were 224,128 private households in the canton, and an average of 2.4 persons per household.<ref nameSFSO/> There were 69,062 households that consist of only one person and 16,254 households with five or more people. {{as of\|2009}}, the construction rate of new housing units was 6.5 new units per 1000 residents.<ref nameSFSO/> The vacancy rate for the canton, {{as of\|2010\|altin 2010}}, was 1.54%.<ref nameSFSO/> The majority of the population is centered on one of three areas: the Aare Valley, the side branches of the Aare Valley, or along the Rhine.<ref nameColliers/>Historic populationThe historical population is given in the following chart:<ref nameHDS>{{harvnb\|Steigmeier\|2010}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2011}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2011a}}</ref> <timeline> Colors= id:lightgrey value:gray(0.9) id:darkgrey value:gray(0.8) ImageSize = width:800 height:500 PlotArea = top:10 left: 100 bottom:90 right:100 Legend = columns:3 left:220 top:70 columnwidth:160 AlignBars = justify DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:550000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = justify ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:110000 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:22000 start:0 Colors= id:TO value:yellowgreen legend:Total id:GE value:teal legend:German_Speaking id:IT value:green legend:Italian_Speaking id:PR value:lightpurple legend:Protestant id:CA value:oceanblue legend:Catholic id:SW value:red legend:Swiss PlotData= color:yellowgreen width:60 mark:(line,white) align:center bar:1850 from:start till:199852 text:"199,852" color:TO bar:1900 from:start till:206498 text:"206,498" color:TO bar:1950 from:start till:300782 text:"300,782" color:TO bar:1990 from:start till:507508 text:"507,508" color:TO bar:2000 from:start till:547493 text:"547,493" color:TO LineData = points:(260,238)(400,302) color:GE points:(400,302)(540,406) color:GE points:(540,406)(680,437) color:GE points:(260,92)(400,94) color:IT points:(400,94)(540,108) color:IT points:(540,108)(680,103) color:IT points:(120,168)(260,173) color:PR points:(260,173)(400,215) color:PR points:(400,215)(540,249) color:PR points:(540,249)(680,238) color:PR points:(120,156)(260,156) color:CA points:(260,156)(400,179) color:CA points:(400,179)(540,254) color:CA points:(540,254)(680,250) color:CA points:(120,233)(260,233) color:SW points:(260,233)(400,301) color:SW points:(400,301)(540,396) color:SW </timeline> {\| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! colspan"12" \| Historic Population Data<ref nameHDS/> \|- ! Year ! Total Population ! German Speaking ! Italian Speaking ! Protestant ! Catholic ! Christian Catholic ! Jewish ! Other ! No religion given ! Swiss ! Non-Swiss \|- ! scope="row" \| 1850 \| align"center" \| 199,852 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|107,194 \|\| align"center" \|91,096 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|1,562 \|\| align"center" \|79 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|196,890 \|\| align="center" \|2,962 \|- ! scope="row" \| 1900 \| align"center" \| 206,498 \|\| align"center" \|203,071 \|\| align"center" \|2,415 \|\| align"center" \|114,176 \|\| align"center" \|91,039 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|990 \|\| align"center" \|293 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|196,455 \|\| align="center" \|10,043 \|- ! scope="row" \| 1950 \| align"center" \| 300,782 \|\| align"center" \|291,101 \|\| align"center" \|5,335 \|\| align"center" \|171,296 \|\| align"center" \|122,172 \|\| align"center" \|5,096 \|\| align"center" \|496 \|\| align"center" \|1,722 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align"center" \|290,049 \|\| align="center" \|10,733 \|- ! scope="row" \| 1990 \| align"center" \| 507,508 \|\| align"center" \|435,103 \|\| align"center" \|24,758 \|\| align"center" \|218,379 \|\| align"center" \|224,836 \|\| align"center" \|3,676 \|\| align"center" \|405 \|\| align"center" \|29,736 \|\| align"center" \|30,476 \|\| align"center" \|420,616 \|\| align="center" \|86,892 \|- ! scope "row" \| 1993<ref nameCohen/> \| align = "center" \| 512,000 \|- ! scope="row" \| 2000 \| align"center" \| 547,493 \|\| align"center" \|477,093 \|\| align"center" \|17,847 \|\| align"center" \|203,949 \|\| align"center" \|219,800 \|\| align"center" \|3,418 \|\| align"center" \|342 \|\| align"center" \|20,816 \|\| align"center" \|57,573 \|\| align"center" \| \|\| align="center" \| \|- \|} Politics In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the SVP which received 34.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP/PS (18.0%), the FDP (11.5%) and the CVP (10.6%).<ref>{{harvnb\|Heer\|2013}}</ref> The SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (36.2% in 2007 vs 34.7% in 2011). The SPS retained about the same popularity (17.9% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (13.6% in 2007) and the CVP retained about the same popularity (13.5% in 2007).<ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2013}}</ref> Federal election results {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! colspan"17"\| Percentage of the total vote per party in the canton in the National Council Elections 1971-2023<ref>{{cite report \|titleNationalratswahlen: Stärke der Parteien nach Kantonen (Schweiz 100%) \|publisherSwiss Federal Statistical Office \|date2015 \|urlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/dos/09.html \|access-date8 August 2016 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160802014002/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/dos/09.html \|archive-date2 August 2016 \|url-statusdead \|df=dmy-all }}</ref> \|- ! colspan"2" \| Party !! class"unsortable" \| Ideology !! 1971 !! 1975 !! 1979 !! 1983 !! 1987 !! 1991 !! 1995 !! 1999 !! 2003 !! 2007 !! 2011 !! 2015 !! 2019 !! 2023 \|- ! SVP/UDC \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Swiss People's Party}}"\| \|\| Swiss nationalism \|\| 12.5 \|\| 12.8 \|\| 13.9 \|\| 14.1 \|\| 15.7 \|\| 17.9 \|\| 19.8 \|\| 31.8 \|\| 34.6 \|\| 36.2 \|\| 34.7 \|\| 38.0 \|\| 31.5 \|\| 35.5 \|- ! SP/PS \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Social Democratic Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Social democracy \|\| 23.9 \|\| 24.2 \|\| 27.6 \|\| 27.5 \|\| 18.5 \|\| 17.4 \|\| 19.4 \|\| 18.7 \|\| 21.2 \|\| 17.9 \|\| 18.0 \|\| 16.1 \|\| 16.5 \|\| 16.4 \|- ! FDP.The Liberals{{ref\|a\|a}} \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|FDP.The Liberals}}"\| \|\| Classical liberalism \|\| 15.9 \|\| 17.7 \|\| 20.5 \|\| 20.2 \|\| 20.3 \|\| 16.4 \|\| 15.8 \|\| 17.2 \|\| 15.3 \|\| 13.6 \|\| 11.5 \|\| 15.1 \|\| 13.6 \|\| 13.1 \|- ! The Centre \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Christian democracy \|\| \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 12.0 \|- ! GLP/PVL \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Green Liberal Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Green liberalism \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 5.7 \|\| 5.2 \|\| 8.5 \|\| 8.5 \|- ! GPS/PES \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Green Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Green politics \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 6.8 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 4.4 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 8.1 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 7.1 \|- ! EVP/PEV \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Christian democracy \|\| 3.8 \|\| 4.6 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 3.4 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 5.2 \|\| 4.2 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 4.5 \|- ! EDU/UDF \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Christian right \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.4 \|\| * \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.0 \|- ! CVP/PDC/PPD/PCD \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|The Centre (political party)}}"\| \|\| Christian democracy \|\| 20.0 \|\| 20.6 \|\| 22.5 \|\| 21.5 \|\| 18.9 \|\| 14.5 \|\| 14.2 \|\| 16.3 \|\| 15.6 \|\| 13.5 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 9.9 \|\| * {{ref\|d\|d}} \|- ! BDP/PBD \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Conservatism \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 6.1 \|\| 5.1 \|\| 3.1 \|\| * {{ref\|d\|d}} \|- ! SD/DS \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Swiss Democrats}}"\| \|\| National conservatism \|\| 3.4 \|\| 3.5 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 4.5 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 0.4 \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! FPS/PSL \| style="color:inherit;background:{{party color\|Freedom Party of Switzerland}}"\| \|\| Right-wing populism \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 5.3 \|\| 13.2 \|\| 11.3 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 0.2 \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! FGA \| \|\| Feminist \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| 6.9 \|\| * {{ref\|c\|c}} \|\| 0.1 \|\| * \|\| 0.8 \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! Ring of Independents \| \|\| Social liberalism \|\| 9.4 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 2.0 \|\| * {{ref\|b\|b}} \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! Rep. \| \|\| Right-wing populism \|\| 5.8 \|\| 6.5 \|\| 2.1 \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! POCH \| \|\| Progressivism \|\| * \|\| 0.6 \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|\| * \|- ! Other \| \|\| \|\| 5.2 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 0.9 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 4.7 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.9 \|- ! Voter participation % \|\| \|\| \|\| 62.5 \|\| 50.7 \|\| 45.6 \|\| 44.9 \|\| 43.1 \|\| 42.3 \|\| 42.1 \|\| 42.0 \|\| 42.3 \|\| 47.9 \|\| 48.5 \|\| 48.3 \|\| \|\| \|- \|} :{{note\|a\|a}} FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009 :{{note\|b\|b}} "" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton. :{{note\|c\|c}} Part of the GPS :{{note\|d\|d}} CVP and BDP merged to form The Centre party. Cantonal politics The Grand Council of the canton of Aargau is called Grosser Rat. It is the legislature of the canton, has 140 seats, with members elected every four years. Religion From the {{as of\|2000\|alt2000 census}}, 219,800 or 40.1% were Roman Catholic, while 189,606 or 34.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 11,523 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.10% of the population), there were 3,418 individuals (or about 0.62% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 29,580 individuals (or about 5.40% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 342 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 30,072 (or about 5.49% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 1,463 individuals who were Buddhist, 2,089 individuals who were Hindu and 495 individuals who belonged to another church. 57,573 (or about 10.52% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 15,875 individuals (or about 2.90% of the population) did not answer the question.<ref nameSTAT2000/> Education In Aargau about 212,069 or (38.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 70,896 or (12.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 70,896 who completed tertiary schooling, 63.6% were Swiss men, 20.9% were Swiss women, 10.4% were non-Swiss men and 5.2% were non-Swiss women.<ref nameSTAT2000/>Economy ]] {{as of\|2010\|In 2010}}, Aargau had an unemployment rate of 3.6%. {{as of\|2008}}, there were 11,436 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 3,927 businesses involved in this sector. 95,844 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 6,055 businesses in this sector. 177,782 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 21,530 businesses in this sector.<ref name=SFSO/> {{as of\|2008\|alt=In 2008}} the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 238,225. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 7,167, of which 6,731 were in agriculture, 418 were in forestry or lumber production and 18 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 90,274 of which 64,089 or (71.0%) were in manufacturing, 366 or (0.4%) were in mining and 21,705 (24.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 140,784. In the tertiary sector; 38,793 or 27.6% were in the sale or repair of motor vehicles, 13,624 or 9.7% were in the movement and storage of goods, 8,150 or 5.8% were in a hotel or restaurant, 5,164 or 3.7% were in the information industry, 5,946 or 4.2% were the insurance or financial industry, 14,831 or 10.5% were technical professionals or scientists, 10,951 or 7.8% were in education and 21,952 or 15.6% were in health care.<ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2013a}}</ref> Of the working population, 19.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 55.3% used a private car.<ref name=SFSO/> Public transportation – bus and train – is provided by Busbetrieb Aarau AG. The farmland of the canton of Aargau is some of the most fertile in Switzerland. Dairy farming, cereal and fruit farming are among the canton's main economic activities.<ref nameCohen/> The canton is also industrially developed, particularly in the fields of electrical engineering, precision instruments, iron, steel, cement and textiles.<ref nameCohen/> Three of Switzerland's five nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau I + II and Leibstadt). Additionally, the many rivers supply enough water for numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called "the energy canton". A significant number of people commute into the financial center of the city of Zürich, which is just across the cantonal border. As such the per capita cantonal income (in 2005) is 49,209 CHF.<ref>{{harvnb\|Federal Department of Statistics\|2013b}} {{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}}</ref> Tourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach-Bad, the ancient castles, the landscape, and the many old museums in the canton.<ref name"eb">{{harvnb\|Hoiberg\|2010\|p4}}</ref> Hillwalking is another tourist attraction but is of only limited significance. See also Aargauer Zeitung * FC Aarau * Grand Prix of Aargau Canton, bicycle race Notes {{reflist\|groupnb}}Footnotes{{Reflist\|25em}}References {{refbegin\|2}} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor1-last Bridgwater \| editor1-first W. \| editor2-last Aldrich \| editor2-first Beatrice \| encyclopedia The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia \| publisher Columbia University Press \| location New York, NY \| isbn 978-0670230709 \| year 1968 \| edition 3rd \| title = Aargau }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Cohen \| editor-first Saul B. \| year 1998 \| title Aargau \| encyclopedia The Columbia Gazetteer of the World \| publisher Columbia University Press \| location New York, NY \| isbn 0-231-11040-5 }} * {{cite book\| last Farbkarte \| first S. \| editor1-last Neuenschwander \| editor1-first Eva Meret \| editor2-last Schneider \| editor2-first Jürg \| title Schweiz mit Liechtenstein \| trans-title Switzerland with Liechtenstein \| language de \| publisher Reise Know-how Verlag \| location Bielefeld, Germany \| isbn 3-8317-1064-3 \| year = 2002 }} * {{cite web \| author Federal Department of Statistics \| title Nationalratswahlen 2007: Stärke der Parteien nach Kanton \| trans-title Election 2007: strength of the parties to Canton \| year 2013 \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/data/04/03.Document.110671.xls \| access-date 19 November 2013 \| format Excel \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20130929170659/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/17/02/blank/data/04/03.Document.110671.xls \| archive-date 29 September 2013 \| url-status dead }} * {{cite web\|authorFederal Department of Statistics \|titleSTAT-TAB: Die interaktive Statistikdatenbank: Datenwürfel für Thema 06.2 – Unternehmen \|trans-titleSTAT-TAB: The interactive statistical database: Data cube for about 06.2 – company \|year2013a \|urlhttp://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_06%20-%20Industrie%20und%20Dienstleistungen/06.2%20-%20Unternehmen/06.2%20-%20Unternehmen.asp?lang1&prod06&secprod2&openChildtrue \|access-date19 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141225013454/http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_06%20-%20Industrie%20und%20Dienstleistungen/06.2%20-%20Unternehmen/06.2%20-%20Unternehmen.asp?lang1&prod06&secprod2&openChildtrue \|archive-date=25 December 2014 }} * {{cite web \| author Federal Department of Statistics \| title Federal Department of Statistics \| year 2013b \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/themen/04/02/05/key/pro-kopf-einkommen.html \| access-date 22 December 2010 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101116153513/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/themen/04/02/05/key/pro-kopf-einkommen.html \| archive-date 16 November 2010 \| url-status dead }}{{full citation needed\|date=November 2013}} * {{cite web \| author Federal Department of Statistics \| title Sprachen, Religionen – Daten, Indikatoren Religionen \| trans-title Languages, religions – Data, indicators religions \| year 2011 \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/religionen.html \| access-date 19 November 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081229131401/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/religionen.html \| archive-date 29 December 2008 \| url-status dead \| df dmy-all }} * {{cite web \| author Federal Department of Statistics \| title Sprachen, Religionen – Daten, Indikatoren Sprachen \| trans-title Languages, religions – Data, indicators languages \| year 2011a \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html \| access-date 19 November 2013 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160114180444/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/01/05/blank/key/sprachen.html \| archive-date 14 January 2016 \| url-status dead \| df dmy-all }} * {{cite web\|authorFederal Department of Statistics \|titleArealstatistik – Kantonsdaten nach 15 Nutzungsarten \|trans-titleLand Use Statistics – Canton data after 15 uses \|year2006 \|urlhttp://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/02/03/blank/key/01/zustand_und_entwicklung__tabelle.html \|formatExcel \|access-date15 January 2009 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090725063713/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/02/03/blank/key/01/zustand_und_entwicklung__tabelle.html \|archive-date25 July 2009 }} * {{cite web\|authorFederal Department of Statistics \|titleSTAT-TAB: Die interaktive Statistikdatenbank \|trans-titleSTAT-TAB: The interactive statistical database \|year2000 \|urlhttp://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.3%20-%202000/40.3%20-%202000.asp?lang1&prod40&secprod3&openChildtrue \|access-date19 November 2013 \|url-statusdead \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140409212530/http://www.pxweb.bfs.admin.ch/Database/German_40%20-%20Eidgen%C3%B6ssische%20Volksz%C3%A4hlung/40.3%20-%202000/40.3%20-%202000.asp?lang1&prod40&secprod3&openChildtrue \|archive-date=9 April 2014 }} * {{cite book \| last1 Gasser \| first1 Adolf \| last2 Keller \| first2 Ernst \| title Die territoriale Entwicklung der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft 1291–1797 \| trans-title The territorial development of the Swiss Confederation, 1291–1797 \| publisher Sauerländer \| year 1932 \| location Aarau \| language de }} * {{cite web \| last Heer \| first Oliver \| year 2013 \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/news/01.Document.137072.xls \| title Eingereichte Listen bei den Nationalratswahlen 1971 – 2011, nach Parteien \| trans-title Submitted lists for the National Council elections 1971 – 2011, after parties \| access-date 19 November 2013 \| format Excel \| publisher Federal Office of Statistics \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131220055311/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/news/01.Document.137072.xls \| archive-date 20 December 2013 \| url-status dead }} * {{cite web \| last Heimer \| first Željko \| url http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ch-ag.html \| website Flags of the World.com \| access-date 19 November 2013 \| year 2000 \| title = Aargau canton (Switzerland) }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| editor-last Hoiberg \| editor-first Dale H. \| encyclopedia Encyclopædia Britannica \| title Aargau \| edition 15th \| year 2010 \| publisher Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. \| volume I: A-ak Bayes \| location Chicago, Illinois \| isbn 978-1-59339-837-8 \| url = https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency }} * {{cite encyclopedia \| last Kayserling \| first Moritz \| editor-last Singer \| editor-first Isidore \| url http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid3&letterA \| title Aargau \| year 1906 \| encyclopedia The Jewish Encyclopedia \| publisher KTAV Publishing House Inc. \| location New York, NY }} * {{cite book \| last Luck \| first James Murray \| title A History of Switzerland: The First 100,000 years: Before the Beginnings to the days of the Present \| year 1985 \| publisher Sposs Inc. \| location Palo Alto, CA \| isbn 0-930664-06-X \| url https://archive.org/details/historyofswitzer00luck }} * {{cite book \| editor1-last Ogrizek \| editor1-first Doré \| editor2-last Rufenacht \| editor2-first J. G. \| title Switzerland \| year 1949 \| publisher Whittlesey House \| location New York, NY \| series World in Color Series \| asin B0027ESLB2 }} * {{wikicite \| reference {{HDS\|29288\|Berner Aargau\|authorSauerlände, Dominik (2002)}} \| ref = {{harvid\|Sauerlände\|2002}} }} * {{wikicite \| reference {{HDS\|7392\| Aargau\|authorSteigmeier, Andreas (2010)}} \| ref = {{harvid \| Steigmeier \| 2010 }} }} * {{wikicite \| reference {{HDS\|8296\|Baden (AG), County\|authorSteigmeier, Andreas (2002)}} \| ref = {{harvid \| Steigmeier \| 2002 }} }} * {{cite web \| author Swiss Federal Statistical Office \| url http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/regionalportraets.html \| title Swiss Statistics Web site \| year 2013 \| access-date 26 January 2012 \| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120115203755/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/regionalportraets.html \| archive-date 15 January 2012 \| url-status dead \| df dmy-all }}{{full citation needed\|dateNovember 2013}} * {{cite encyclopedia \| last1 Van Valkenburg \| first1 Samuel \| editor-last Johnston \| editor-first Bernard \| encyclopedia Collier's Encyclopedia \| title Aargau \| edition 1st \| year 1997 \| publisher P.F. Collier \| volume I: A to Ameland \| location = New York, NY }} * {{wikicite \| reference {{HDS\|8298\|Freie Ämter\|authorWohle, Anton (2006)}} \| ref = {{harvid \| Wohle \| 2006}} }} {{refend}} External links {{Commons category}} * {{official website}} {{in lang\|de}} * {{HDS\|7392}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131115014012/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/regionen/kantone/ag/key.html Official statistics] (archived 15 November 2013) {{Wikisource-inline\|list{{cite EB9 \|wstitle Aargau \|volumeI \| page3 \|short=1}} {{Cite Nuttall\|titleAargau \|shortx \|noicon=x}} {{Cite EB1911\|wstitleAargau \|volume I \| page3\|shortx \|noicon=x}} *{{Cite Collier's\|wstitleAargau \|shortx \|noicon=x}} }} {{Cantons of Switzerland}} {{Switzerland topics}} {{Portal bar\|Switzerland}} {{Authority control}} Category:Cantons of Switzerland Category:Cantons of the Helvetic Republic Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines Category:States and territories established in 1803 Category:1803 establishments in Switzerland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aargau	2025-04-05T18:26:04.952672
2470	Aba	Aba may refer to: Animals Aba roundleaf bat Gymnarchus (or aba), an electric fish People Clans Aba (family), in Hungary Aba people, in Russia Hape people, in North America In arts and entertainment Aba Bayefsky, Canadian artist and teacher Aba Cercato, Italian television presenter Vilmos Aba-Novák, a Hungarian painter Rulers Aba, ruler of Olba Samuel Aba, 11th-century Hungarian king Other people Aba I, patriarch of the Church of the East from 540 to 552 Aba II, patriarch of the Church of the East from 741 to 751 Aba Andam, Ghanaian physicist Johnny Aba (born 1956), a Papua New Guinean boxer Places Africa Aba, Nigeria Aba River (Nigeria) Aba Island, on Sudan's White Nile river Aba, Democratic Republic of the Congo Asia Aba (Russia), a river Aba, Okayama, Japan Aba Prefecture, Sichuan, China Aba County Aba, Sichuan Upu (also transliterated Aba), a historic region around Damascus Europe Aba, Hungary Religion and mythology Aba (mythology), Hellenic Thracian naiad nymph Anglican Province of Aba, Nigeria Roman Catholic Diocese of Aba, Nigeria Aba, the Great Spirit of Choctaw mythology Other uses Aba (Dune), a robe in the fictional Dune universe Aba (film), a 2008 Sri Lanka film Aba Women's War, period of unrest in colonial Nigeria A short form of Abaya, a middle eastern robe Applied behavioral analysis See also Abaá, a Fang longhouse Abba (disambiguation) Abas (disambiguation) Ab (Semitic), "father" in Semitic languages ABA (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aba	2025-04-05T18:26:04.967850
2471	Ababda people	{{Short description\|Tribe in eastern Egypt and Sudan}}{{Infobox tribe\|nameAbabda\|typeBedouin tribe\|imageAbabda.jpg\|captionBedouin of Ababda\|ethnicityArab<ref name":0" /> or Beja<ref name":1" />\|locationEastern Egypt and Sudan\|descendedZubayr ibn al-Awwam\|population250,000+<ref>{{Cite book \|lastOlson \|firstJames Stuart \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMdaAdBC-_S4C&pgPA1 \|titleThe Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary \|date1996 \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-313-27918-8 \|pages1 \|languageen}}</ref>\|languageArabic\|religion=Sunni Islam}} The Ababda ({{langx\|ar\|العبابدة\|al-ʿabābdah}} or {{langx\|ar\|العبّادي\|al-ʿabbādī}}) are an Arab<ref name":0" /> or Beja<ref name":1" /> tribe<ref>{{Cite web \|date2019-05-10 \|titleThe Ababda Tribe in Egypt: On the desert that suffocates its residents \|urlhttps://nawaat.org/2019/05/10/the-ababda-tribe-in-egypt-on-the-desert-that-suffocates-its-residents/ \|access-date2022-09-03 \|websiteNawaat}}</ref> in eastern Egypt and Sudan. Historically, most were Bedouins living in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea, with some settling along the trade route linking Korosko with Abu Hamad. Numerous traveler accounts from the nineteenth century report that some Ababda at that time still spoke Beja or a language of their own, hence many secondary sources consider the Ababda to be a Beja subtribe. Most Ababda now speak Arabic and identify as an Arab tribe from the Hijaz. The Ababda have a total population of over 250,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastOlson \|firstJames Stuart \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMdaAdBC-_S4C&pgPA1 \|titleThe Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary \|date1996 \|publisherGreenwood Publishing Group \|isbn978-0-313-27918-8 \|pages1 \|languageen}}</ref> Origin and history Ababda tribal origin narratives identify them as an Arab people from the Hijaz, descended from Zubayr ibn al-Awwam (possibly through his son Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr) following the Muslim conquest of Egypt.<ref name":0">{{cite book \|last1Paul \|first1Andrew \|titleA History of the Beja Tribes of the Sudan \|date1954 \|publisherFrank Cass and Company, Ltd. \|locationLondon \|isbn0714617105 \|page143}}</ref><ref name"The History of the Peoples of the Eastern Desert">{{cite book \|last1Abdel-Qadr \|first1Mustafa \|last2Wendrich \|first2Willeke \|last3Kosc \|first3Zbigniew \|last4Barnard \|first4Hans \|titleThe History of the Peoples of the Eastern Desert \|date2012 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaWmRDwAAQBAJ \|typeHistory / Middle East / Egypt, Social Science / Archaeology, Social Science / Sociology / General, Desert people -- Congresses -- History -- Egypt -- Eastern Desert -- Antiquities, Eastern Desert (Egypt) -- Congresses -- Antiquities -- Antiquities, Roman, Excavations (Archaeology) -- Congresses -- Egypt -- Eastern Desert\|publisherThe Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press \|locationLos Angeles \|isbn978-1-931745-96-3 \|pages399–418 \|chapterGiving a Voice to the Ababda}}</ref> Many published sources in Western languages identify the Ababda as a subtribe of the Beja, or as descendants of speakers of a Cushitic language.<ref name":1">{{cite book \|editor1-lastStokes \|editor1-firstJamie \|titleEncyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East \|date2009 \|publisherInfobase Publishing, Inc. \|locationNew York \|isbn978-0-8160-7158-6 \|page1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book \|last1de Jong \|first1Rudolf \|editor1-lastArnold \|editor1-firstWerner \|editor2-lastBobzin \|editor2-firstHartmut \|title"Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!": 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik: Festschrift für Otto Jastrwo zum 60. Geburtstag \|date2002 \|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag \|locationWiesbaden \|isbn978-3447044912 \|pages337–360 \|chapterNotes on the dialect of the ʿAbābda}}</ref> {{further\|Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1820-24#Invasion of Nubia}} Language Arabic Today, virtually all Ababda communities speak Arabic. There is no oral tradition of having spoken any other language prior to Arabic, in keeping with Ababda Arab origin narratives.<ref>{{cite book \|last1ضرار \|first1محمّد صالح \|titleتاريخ شرق السودان: ممالك البجة‥ قبائلها وتاريخها \|date2012 \|publisherمكتبة التوبة \|locationKhartoum \|page=36}}</ref> In a 1996 study, Rudolf de Jong found that the Ababda dialect of Arabic was quite similar to that of the Shukriya people of the Sudan, and concluded that it was an extension of the northern Sudanese dialect area.<ref>{{cite book \|last1de Jong \|first1Rudolf \|editor1-lastArnold \|editor1-firstWerner \|editor2-lastBobzin \|editor2-firstHartmut \|title"Sprich doch mit deinen Knechten aramäisch, wir verstehen es!": 60 Beiträge zur Semitistik: Festschrift für Otto Jastrow zum 60. Geburtstag \|date2002 \|publisherHarrassowitz Verlag \|locationWiesbaden \|isbn978-3447044912 \|pages356–358 \|chapter=Notes on the dialect of the ʿAbābda}}</ref> Alfred von Kremer reported in 1863 that the Ababda had developed an Arabic-based thieves' cant that only they understood.<ref>{{cite book \|last1von Kremer \|first1Alfred \|titleAegypten: Forschungen über Land und Volk während eines zehnjährigen Aufenthalts \|volume1 \|date1863 \|publisherF.A. Brockhaus \|locationLeipzig \|pages126, 131–132}}</ref> Ababda or Beja Language There is rich evidence confirming that as late as the second half of the 19th century the Ababda were bilingual in Arabic and a Beja language that was either identical or closely related to Bisharin.<ref>{{cite journal \|titlePräarabische Sprachen der Ja'aliyin und Ababde in der europäischen Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts \|lastGerhards \|firstGabriel \|year2023 \|urlhttps://www.academia.edu/110748602 \|journalDer Antike Sudan \|volume34 \|pages135–138}}</ref> A distinct language being spoken by the Ababda has been reported by several early travellers, either identified as Beja or left without further description. In around 1770 the Scottish traveller James Bruce claimed that they spoke the "Barabra" language, Nubian.<ref>James Bruce (1813): Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, In the Years 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 & 1773. Volume VII, p. 104</ref> At the turn of the 19th century, during the French campaign in Egypt and Syria, the engineer Dubois-Aymé wrote that the Ababda understood Arabic, but still spoke a language of their own.<ref>M. du Bois Aymé (1809): "Mémoire sur la ville de Qoçeyr et ses environs" in ''Description de l'Égypte: ou recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont été faites en Égypte pendant l'expédition de l'armée française, publié par les ordres de Sa Majesté l'Empereur Napoléon le Grand, p. 6</ref> In the 1820s Eduard Rüppell briefly stated that the Ababda spoke their own, seemingly non-Arabic language.<ref>Eduard Rüppel (1829): "Reisen in Nubien, Kordofan und dem peträischen Arabien". Friedrich Wilmans. p. 212</ref> A similar opinion was written by Pierre Trémaux after his journey in Sudan in the late 1840s.<ref>Trémaux, Pierre (1862): Voyage en Ethiopie au Soudan Oriental et dans la Nigritie. Hachette. pp. 168-170</ref> John Lewis Burckhardt reported that in 1813 those Ababda who co-resided with the Bishari tribe spoke Beja.<ref>{{cite book \|last1Burckhardt \|first1John Lewis \|titleTravels in Nubia \|date1819 \|publisherJohn Murray \|locationLondon \|page149}}</ref> Alfred von Kremer believed them to be native Beja-speakers and was told that the Ababda were bilingual in Arabic, which they spoke with a heavy accent. Those who resided with the Nubians spoke Kenzi.<ref>{{cite book \|last1von Kremer \|first1Alfred \|titleAegypten: Forschungen über Land und Volk während eines zehnjährigen Aufenthalts \|volume1 \|date1863 \|publisherF.A. Brockhaus \|locationLeipzig \|pages126–127}}</ref> Robert Hartmann, who visited the country in 1859/60, noted that the vast majority of the Ababda now spoke Arabic. However, in the past they used to speak a Beja dialect that was now, as he was told, solely restricted to a few nomadic families roaming the Eastern Desert. He believed that they abandoned their language in favour of Arabic due to their close contact with other arabophone tribes.<ref>Robert Hartmann (1863): Reise des Freiherrn Adalbert von Barnim durch Nord-Ost-Afrika in den Jahren 1859 und 1860. Georg Reimer. p. 230</ref> The Swedish linguist Herman Almkvist, writing in 1881, counted the Ababda to the Beja and noted that most had discarded the Beja language, supposedly identical to the Bishari dialect, in favour of Arabic, although "quite a lot" were still capable of understanding and even talking Beja. Bishari informants told him that in the past, the Bishari and Ababda were the same people.<ref>Herman Almkvist (1881): "Die Bischari-Sprache. Erster Band". EDV Berling. pp. 3; 20</ref> Joseph Russegger, who visited the country around 1840, noted that the Ababda spoke their own language, although he added that it was heavily mixed with Arabic. He believed it to be a "Nubian Bedouin" language and implied that this language, and the Ababda customs and appearance in general, is similar to that of the Bishari.<ref>Joseph Russegger (1843): Reisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika.'' Volume 2.1" Schweizerbart'sche Verlagshandlung. p. 379</ref> Traveller Bayard Taylor wrote in 1856 that the Ababda spoke a language different from that of the Bishari, although it "probably sprang from the same original stock."<ref>Taylor, Bayard (1856): A Journey to Central Africa; or, Life and landscapes from Egypt to the Negro Kingdoms of the White Nile. G.P. Putnam. p. 184</ref> The French Orientalist Eusèbe de Salle concluded in 1840, after attending a Beja conversation between Ababda and Bishari, that both understood each other reasonably well, but that the Ababda "definitely" had a language of their own.<ref>Eusèbe de Salle (1840): Pérégrinations en Orient, ou Voyage pittoresque, historique et politique en Égypte, Nubie, Syrie, Turquie, Grèce pendant les années 1837-38-39. Volume 2. p. 123</ref> The physician Carl Benjamin Klunzinger wrote in 1878 that the Ababda would always speak Arabic while conversing with strangers, avoiding to speak their own language which he thought was a mixture of Arabic and Beja.<ref>C. B. Klunzinger (1878): Upper Egypt, Its People and its Products. Blakie & son. 263–264</ref>See also Zubayrids Beja people Halaib Triangle Bir Tawil References {{reflist}} External links * {{cite EB9 \|wstitle Ababde \|volume I \| page4 \|short1}} {{Demographics of Sudan}} {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ababda People}} Category:African nomads Category:Arabic-speaking people Category:Cushitic-speaking peoples Category:Modern nomads Category:Blemmyes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ababda_people	2025-04-05T18:26:04.975379
2472	American Quarter Horse	{{short description\|American horse breed}} {{Infobox horse breed \| name = American Quarter Horse \| image = Roan.jpg \| image_caption = A chestnut American Quarter Horse \| features = Great speed over short distances; short, refined head; strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters \| altname = Quarter Horse \| nickname "America's Horse"<br />"World's Fastest Athlete" {{cvt\|55\|mph\|km/h\|abbron}} sprinter \| country = United States \| group1 = American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) \| std1 = http://www.aqha.com/ \| group2 \| std2 \| status \| note }} The American Quarter Horse, or Quarter Horse, is an American breed of horse that excels at sprinting short distances. Its name is derived from its ability to outrun other horse breeds in races of {{cvt\|1/4\|mi\|km\|adjon}} or less; some have been clocked at speeds up to {{cvt\|44\|mph\|km/h\|abbron}}. The development of the Quarter Horse traces to the 1600s. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with almost three million living American Quarter Horses registered in 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAQHA Annual Report - 2014 Horse Statistics \|urlhttp://www.aqha.com/~/media/Files/About/Annual%20Report/2014/Horse%20Statistics.ashx \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-dateAugust 24, 2015 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923172843/http://www.aqha.com/~/media/Files/About/Annual%20Report/2014/Horse%20Statistics.ashx \|archive-date=September 23, 2015 }}</ref> The American Quarter Horse is well known both as a race horse and for its performance in rodeos, horse shows, and as a working ranch horse. The compact body of the American Quarter Horse is well suited for the intricate and quick maneuvers required in reining, cutting, working cow horse, barrel racing, calf roping, and other western riding events, especially those involving live cattle. The American Quarter Horse is also used in English disciplines, driving, show jumping, dressage, hunting, and many other equestrian activities. The Texas Legislature designated the American Quarter Horse as the official "State Horse of Texas" in 2009,<ref>{{cite book \|last1Hatch \|first1Rosie (Ed.) \|titleTexas Almanac 2022-2023 \|date2022 \|publisherTexas State Historical Association \|locationAustin, Texas \|page22}}</ref> and Oklahoma also designated the Quarter Horse as its official state horse in 2022.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Izzo \|first1Kim \|titleQuarter Horses Get Official Status in Oklahoma \|urlhttps://horse-canada.com/horse-news/quarter-horses-get-official-status-oklahoma/ \|websiteHorse Canada \|date17 May 2022 \|access-date23 June 2023}}</ref> Breed history Colonial era In the 1600s, imported English Thoroughbred horses were first bred with assorted local horses on the Eastern seaboard of colonial America.<ref name=QRH4>Denhardt Quarter Running Horse pp. 4–8</ref> One of the most famous of these early imports was Janus, a Thoroughbred who was the grandson of the Godolphin Arabian. He was foaled in 1746, and imported to colonial Virginia in 1756.<ref nameQRH>Denhardt Quarter Running Horse pp. 20–32</ref> The influence of Thoroughbreds like Janus contributed genes crucial to the development of the colonial "Quarter Horse".<ref nameColonial106>Mackay-Smith Colonial Quarter Race Horse p. 106</ref><ref nameColonial138>Mackay-Smith Colonial Quarter Race Horse p. 138</ref> The resulting horse was small, hardy, quick, and was used as a work horse during the week and a race horse on the weekends.<ref name"Handbook">{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/tcq01\|title Quarter Horses\|access-date2006-05-30 \|author Beckmann, Bruce\|websiteHandbook of Texas Online\|publisher Texas State Historical Association}}</ref> As flat racing became popular with the colonists, the Quarter Horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter over courses that, by necessity, were shorter than the classic racecourses of England. These courses were often no more than a straight stretch of road or flat piece of open land. When competing against a Thoroughbred, local sprinters often won.{{Citation needed\|dateJanuary 2010}} As the Thoroughbred breed became established in America, many colonial Quarter Horses were included in the original American stud books.<ref nameColonialxxxi>Mackay-Smith Colonial Quarter Race Horse p. xxxi</ref> This began a long association between the Thoroughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the "Quarter Horse", named after the {{convert\|1/4\|mile}} race distance at which it excelled.<ref>"American Quarter Horse." Britannica School. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2015. Web. 1 Jul. 2015.</ref><ref>{{Citation \|titleStorey's Illustrated Guide to 96 Horse Breeds of North America \|first Judith \|lastDutson \|publisherStorey Publishing \|year2012 \|isbn 9781603429184 \|page64 \|url https://books.google.com/books?idPS6zop4lVSUC&pgPA64 }}</ref> Some Quarter Horses have been clocked at up to {{cvt\|44\|mph\|km/h\|abbron}}.<ref>{{Cite web\|titleAQHA World Records\|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/american-quarter-horse-racing-world-records\|url-statuslive\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210422122105/https://www.aqha.com/american-quarter-horse-racing-world-records\|archive-date2021-04-22\|access-date2021-06-27}}</ref>Westward expansion In the 19th century, pioneers heading West needed a hardy, willing horse. On the Great Plains, settlers encountered horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernán Cortés and other Conquistadors had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain, which became the Southwestern United States and Mexico. The horses of the West included herds of feral animals known as Mustangs, as well as horses domesticated by Native Americans, including the Comanche, Shoshoni and Nez Perce tribes.<ref>{{cite book \| editor-last Moulton \| editor-first Gary E. \| year 2003 \| title The Lewis and Clark Journals \| url https://archive.org/details/lewisclarkjourna00meri \| url-access registration \| publisher University of Nebraska Press \| location Lincoln, Nebraska \| isbn = 978-0-8032-8039-7}}</ref><ref>Murphy, Robert F., and Yolanda Murphy. Shoshone-Bannock Subsistence and Society. Good Press, 2019. </ref> As the colonial Quarter Horse was crossed with these western horses, the pioneers found that the new crossbred had innate "cow sense", a natural instinct for working with cattle, making it popular with cattlemen on ranches.<ref nameColonial193>Mackay-Smith Colonial Quarter Race Horse p. 193</ref>Development as a distinct breed {{See also\|American Quarter Horse Association\|American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame}} Early foundation sires of Quarter Horse type included Steel Dust, foaled 1843; Shiloh (or Old Shiloh), foaled 1844; Old Cold Deck (1862); Lock's Rondo, one of many "Rondo" horses, foaled in 1880; Old Billy—again, one of many "Billy" horses—foaled {{Circa\|1880}}; Traveler, a stallion of unknown breeding, known to have been in Texas by 1889;<ref name"Legends 2">Close, Legends 2: Outstanding Quarter Horse Stallions and Mares.</ref> and Peter McCue, foaled 1895, registered as a Thoroughbred but of disputed pedigree.<ref name"Handbook"/><ref name"Legends 2"/><ref>{{cite web \|url http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/quarter/\|titleQuarter Horse\|access-date2008-06-11 \|author Oklahoma State University\|website Breeds of Livestock\|publisherOklahoma State University\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080622082036/http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/quarter/\| archive-date22 June 2008 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref> Another early foundation sire for the breed was Copperbottom, foaled in 1828, who tracks his lineage through the Byerley Turk, a foundation sire of the Thoroughbred horse breed.<ref name"Copperbottom">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://quarterhorserecord.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Copperbottom.pdf \|titleCopperbottom \|access-date2019-10-26 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026145237/http://quarterhorserecord.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Copperbottom.pdf \|archive-date2019-10-26 \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Lost Bloodline">{{Cite web \|urlhttp://horsesonly.com/pednotes/WL/copperb.htm \|titleLost Bloodline \|access-date2019-10-26 \|archive-date2019-10-28 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191028170709/http://horsesonly.com/pednotes/WL/copperb.htm \|url-statusdead }}</ref><ref name"Sir Archy">[http://www.tbheritage.com/Portraits/SirArchy.html Sir Archy]</ref><ref name"History">[https://www.aqha.com/history-of-the-quarter-horse History of the Quarter Horse]</ref> The main duty of the ranch horse in the American West was working cattle. Even after the invention of the automobile, horses were still irreplaceable for handling livestock on the range. Thus, major Texas cattle ranches, such as the King Ranch, the 6666 (Four Sixes) Ranch, and the Waggoner Ranch played a significant role in the development of the modern Quarter Horse. The skills required by cowboys and their horses became the foundation of the rodeo, a contest which began with informal competition between cowboys and expanded to become a major competitive event throughout the west. The Quarter Horse dominates in events that require speed as well as the ability to handle cattle.<ref>{{Cite journal \|doi 10.1186/1471-2164-13-78\|pmid 22340285\|pmc 3309927\|title Whole-Genome sequencing and genetic variant analysis of a quarter Horse mare\|journal BMC Genomics\|volume 13\|page78\|year 2012\|last1 Doan\|first1 Ryan\|last2 Cohen\|first2 Noah D\|last3 Sawyer\|first3 Jason\|last4 Ghaffari\|first4 Noushin\|last5 Johnson\|first5 Charlie D\|last6 Dindot\|first6 Scott V \| doi-access=free }}</ref> Sprint races were also popular weekend entertainment and racing became a source of economic gain for breeders. As a result, more Thoroughbred blood was added into the developing American Quarter Horse breed. The American Quarter Horse also benefitted from the addition of Arabian, Morgan, and even Standardbred bloodlines.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://afs.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/quarter/\|titleBreeds of Livestock - Quarter Horse — Breeds of Livestock, Department of Animal Science\|websiteafs.okstate.edu\|date31 March 2021 }}</ref> In 1940, the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA) was formed by a group of horsemen and ranchers from the Southwestern United States dedicated to preserving the pedigrees of their ranch horses.<ref nameQH143>Denhardt Quarter Horse pp. 143–167</ref> After winning the 1941 Fort Worth Exposition and Fat Stock Show grand champion stallion, the horse honored with the first registration number, P-1, was Wimpy,<ref nameimh>{{cite web\|urlhttp://imh.org/horse-breeds-of-the-world/american-quarter-horse/ \|titleAmerican Quarter Horse \|access-date2008-06-11 \|authorKentucky Horse Park \|websiteInternational Museum of the Horse- Horse Breeds of the World \|publisherKentucky Horse Park \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100822025938/http://www.imh.org/horse-breeds-of-the-world/american-quarter-horse/ \|archive-date2010-08-22 }}</ref> a descendant of the King Ranch foundation sire Old Sorrel. Other sires alive at the founding of the AQHA were given the earliest registration numbers Joe Reed P-3, Chief P-5, Oklahoma Star P-6, Cowboy P-12, and Waggoner's Rainy Day P-13.<ref nameAQHASB1>American Quarter Horse Association Combined Stud Book 1-2-3-4-5 p. 1</ref> The Thoroughbred race horse Three Bars, alive in the early years of the AQHA, is recognized by the American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame as one of the significant foundation sires for the Quarter Horse breed.<ref nameHoF3Bars>{{cite web\|urlhttp://siteexec.aqha.com/foundation/halloffame/images/Three%20Bars.pdf \|publisherAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|titleThree Bars (TB) \|access-date2010-12-21 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110707153955/http://siteexec.aqha.com/foundation/halloffame/images/Three%20Bars.pdf \|archive-date2011-07-07 }}</ref> Other significant Thoroughbred sires seen in early AQHA pedigrees include Rocket Bar, Top Deck and Depth Charge.<ref nameWiggins166>Wiggins Great American Speedhorse p. 166</ref>"Appendix" and "Foundation" horsesSince the American Quarter Horse was formally established as a breed, the AQHA stud book has remained open to additional Thoroughbred blood via a performance standard. An "Appendix" American Quarter Horse is a first generation cross between a registered Thoroughbred and an American Quarter Horse or a cross between a "numbered" American Quarter Horse and an "appendix" American Quarter Horse. The resulting offspring is registered in the "appendix" of the American Quarter Horse Association's studbook, hence the nickname. Horses listed in the appendix may be entered in competition, but offspring are not initially eligible for full AQHA registration. If the Appendix horse meets certain conformational criteria and is shown or raced successfully in sanctioned AQHA events, the horse can earn its way from the appendix into the permanent studbook, making its offspring eligible for AQHA registration.<ref>{{cite web \|titleDocuments and Forms \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/documents-and-forms \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|publisherwww.aqha.com \|access-dateAugust 24, 2019}}</ref> Since Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this creates a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has altered many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation. Some breeders argue that the continued addition of Thoroughbred bloodlines are beginning to compromise the integrity of the breed standard. Some favor the earlier style of horse and have created several separate organizations to promote and register "Foundation" Quarter Horses.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.fqha.com/\|title Foundation Quarter Horse Association\|access-date2007-04-02 \|author Foundation Quarter Horse Association\|websiteFQHA Website\|publisher Foundation Quarter Horse Association\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070401064150/http://www.fqha.com/\| archive-date 1 April 2007 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|url http://www.foundationhorses.com/\|titleFoundation Bred Quarter Horses\|access-date2007-04-02 \|author Foundation Horses \|website FoundationHorses.com\|publisherFoundation Horses\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070426034539/http://www.foundationhorses.com/\| archive-date26 April 2007 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.nfqha.com/\|title National Foundation Quarter Horse Association\|access-date2007-04-02 \|author National Foundation Quarter Horse Association\|websiteNFQHA Website\|publisher National Foundation Quarter Horse Association\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070422065140/http://www.nfqha.com/\| archive-date 22 April 2007 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref> Modern American Quarter HorseThe American Quarter Horse is a show horse, race horse, reining and cutting horse, rodeo competitor, ranch horse, and all-around family horse. Quarter Horses are commonly used in rodeo events such as barrel racing, calf roping and team roping;<ref>{{Cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWy18dfDKYNEC&qQuarter+Horses+team+roping&pgPA1171 \| titleDiagnosis and Management of Lameness in the Horse - E-Book\| isbn978-1437711769\| last1Ross\| first1Michael W\| last2Dyson\| first2Sue J\| date2010-11-11\| publisherElsevier Health Sciences}}</ref><ref name"books.google.com">{{Cite book \| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmyQBSVVEhagC&qQuarter+Horses+barrel+racing&pgPA28 \| titleThe Official Horse Breeds Standards Guide: The Complete Guide to the Standards of All North American Equine Breed Associations\| isbn9781616731717\| last1Lynghaug\| first1Fran\| date2009-10-15\| publisherVoyageur Press}}</ref> and gymkhana or O-Mok-See.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.omoksee.com/\|titleNational Saddle Clubs Association - Home\|website=www.omoksee.com}}</ref> Other stock horse events such as cutting and reining are open to all breeds but are dominated by American Quarter Horse. The breed is not only well-suited for western riding and cattle work. Many race tracks offer Quarter Horses a wide assortment of pari-mutuel horse racing with earnings in the millions.<ref name"books.google.com"/> Quarter Horses have also been trained to compete in dressage and show jumping. They are also used for recreational trail riding and in mounted police units.<ref nameimh/> The American Quarter Horse has also been exported worldwide. European nations such as Germany and Italy have imported large numbers of Quarter Horses. Next to the American Quarter Horse Association (which also encompasses Quarter Horses from Canada), the second largest registry of Quarter Horses is in Brazil, followed by Australia.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://www.cqha.ca/\|titleThe Canadian Quarter Horse Association}}</ref> In the UK the breed is also becoming very popular, especially with the two Western riding Associations, the Western Horse Association and The Western Equestrian Society. The British American Quarter Horse breed society is the AQHA-UK.{{Citation needed\|dateJanuary 2019}} With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events of the World Equestrian Games, there is a growing international interest in Quarter Horses. The American Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States, and the American Quarter Horse Association is the largest breed registry in the world, with nearly 3 million American Quarter Horses registered worldwide in 2014.<ref>{{cite web\|titleAQHA Annual Report - 2014 Horse Statistics \|urlhttp://www.aqha.com/~/media/Files/About/Annual%20Report/2014/Horse%20Statistics.ashx \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-dateAugust 24, 2015 \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923172843/http://www.aqha.com/~/media/Files/About/Annual%20Report/2014/Horse%20Statistics.ashx \|archive-dateSeptember 23, 2015 }}</ref> Breed characteristics The Quarter Horse has a small, short, refined head with a straight profile, and a strong, well-muscled body, featuring a broad chest and powerful, rounded hindquarters. They usually stand between {{hands\|14\|and\|16}} high, although some Halter-type and English hunter-type horses may grow as tall as {{hands\|17}}. There are two main body types: the stock type and the hunter or racing type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and well-muscled, yet agile. The racing and hunter type Quarter Horses are somewhat taller and smoother muscled than the stock type, more closely resembling the Thoroughbred.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLight Horse: Breed Types and Uses \|urlhttp://alabamahorsecouncil.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/ANR-0899-Light-Horse-Breeds.pdf \|websiteAlabama Horse Council \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2019 \|date2011 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190819005140/http://alabamahorsecouncil.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/ANR-0899-Light-Horse-Breeds.pdf \|archive-dateAugust 19, 2019 \|url-statusdead }}</ref> Quarter Horses come in nearly all colors. The most common color is sorrel, a brownish red, part of the color group called chestnut by most other breed registries. Other recognized colors include bay, black, brown, buckskin, palomino, gray, dun, red dun, grullo (also occasionally referred to as blue dun), red roan, blue roan, bay roan, perlino, cremello, and white.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://siteexec.aqha.com/association/registration/pdf/registrationrules_07.pdf \|titleRegistration rules \|access-date2010-12-21 \|publisherAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|url-status dead\|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110707154313/http://siteexec.aqha.com/association/registration/pdf/registrationrules_07.pdf \|archive-date2011-07-07 }}</ref> In the past, spotted color patterns were excluded, but now with the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, the registry accepts all colors as long as both parents are registered.<ref>{{cite web \|titleAQHA Handbook of Rules & Regulations 2008 Rule 205 (d) \|urlhttp://www.aqha.org/association/registration/handbook.html \|access-dateAugust 9, 2008 \|authorAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|websiteAQHA Website \|publisherAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081007160004/http://www.aqha.org/association/registration/handbook.html \|archive-dateOctober 7, 2008 \|url-status dead}}</ref> Stock type {{See also\|Stock horse}} A stock horse is a horse of a type that is well suited for working with livestock, particularly cattle. Reining and cutting horses are smaller in stature, with quick, agile movements and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure show horses are often slightly taller, with slower movements, smoother gaits, and a somewhat more level topline – though still featuring the powerful hindquarters characteristic of the Quarter Horse.<ref>{{cite web \|titleLight Horse Breed Types and Uses \|urlhttp://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0899/ANR-0899.pdf \|websiteAlabama Cooperative Extension System \|access-dateMarch 6, 2025 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305041923/http://www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-0899/ANR-0899.pdf \|archive-dateMarch 5, 2016}}</ref> Halter type Horses shown in-hand in Halter competition are larger yet, with a very heavily muscled appearance, while retaining small heads with wide jowls and refined muzzles. There is controversy amongst owners, breeder and veterinarians regarding the health effects of the extreme muscle mass that is currently fashionable in the specialized halter horse, which typically is {{hands\|15.2\|to\|16}} and weighs in at over {{convert\|1200\|lb}} when fitted for halter competition. Not only are there concerns about the weight to frame ratio on the horse's skeletal system, but the massive build is also linked to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in descendants of the stallion Impressive (see Genetic diseases below). Racing and hunter type Quarter Horse race horses are bred to sprint short distances ranging from 220 to 870 yards. Thus, they have long legs and are leaner than their stock type counterparts, but are still characterized by muscular hindquarters and powerful legs. Quarter Horses race primarily against other Quarter Horses, and their sprinting ability has earned them the nickname, "the world's fastest athlete."<ref>{{Cite book\|titleThe American quarter horse\|lastEllen.\|firstFrazel\|date2012\|publisherBellwether Media\|isbn978-1612115436\|locationMinneapolis, MN\|oclc794554681}}</ref> The show hunter type is slimmer, even more closely resembling a Thoroughbred, usually reflecting a higher percentage of appendix breeding. They are shown in hunter/jumper classes at both breed shows and in open USEF-rated horse show competition.<ref>{{Cite book \|lastBaxter \|firstGary M. \|titleAdams and Stashak's Lameness in Horses \|date2011 \|publisherWiley \|isbn9780470961773 \|edition6th \|locationSomerset \|pagesChapter 2 \|oclc927499663}}</ref> Genetic diseases There are several genetic diseases of concern to Quarter Horse breeders. Most can now be identified by DNA testing so that breeders do not inadvertently produce foals with these conditions: Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP), which is caused by an autosomal dominant gene originally linked to the stallion Impressive. It is characterized by uncontrollable muscle twitching and substantial muscle weakness or paralysis among affected horses. Because it is a dominant gene,<ref>{{cite web \|titleDetails on AQHA HYP rules for registration \|urlhttp://www.aqha.com/association/registration/hypp.html \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090120043813/http://www.aqha.com/association/registration/hypp.html \|archive-date2009-01-20}}</ref> only one parent has to have the gene for it to be transmitted to offspring. There is a DNA test for HYPP, which is required by the AQHA. Since 2007, the AQHA bars registration of horses who possess the homozygous form (H/H) of the gene, and though heterozygous (H/N) horses are still eligible for registration, altering that status is periodically discussed. Additionally, all Quarter Horses born 2007 or later that are confirmed to be descendants of Impressive must carry a note about the risks of HYPP on their registration papers. Due to HYPP, there have been some rule changes for show competition, including the creation of a "Performance Halter class" in which a horse must possess a Register of Merit in performance or racing before it can compete.<ref>{{cite web\|urlhttp://services2.aqha.com/iphonedev/www/sections/sectionIV/rules/448.html \|titleAQHA Handbook, Section 448 Halter Classes, (j) Performance Halter \|access-date30 September 2012 }}{{dead link\|dateJuly 2017 \|botInternetArchiveBot \|fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Myosin-heavy chain myopathy (MYHM) is a genetic muscle disease added to the AQHA genetic testing panel in 2022.<ref name"MYHM added">{{cite web \|titleAQHA Adds MYHM Testing to Genetic Health Panel \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/-/aqha-adds-myhm-testing-to-genetic-health-panel \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref> It is a genetic dominant condition, though not all horses who inherit the gene will show clinical signs of being affected and the environmental triggers are not well understood at present. An estimated 7% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene. There are two forms, both linked to the same genetic variant. Affected horses may exhibit one or both forms. The first is Immune-Mediated Myositis (IMM). It may occur in response to a vaccine or infectious agent, where the immune system misinterprets the muscle cells as foreign and rapidly attacks them. Horses initially experience stiffness, weakness, and a decreased appetite followed by the rapid loss of 40% of muscle mass within 72 hours. The second presentation of MYHM is Nonexertional Rhabdomyolysis (compare to PSSM, below) and often presents as stiffness and possible swelling of muscles along the back and haunches without exercise. Clinical signs include pain, muscle cramping, and muscle damage, but may or may not result in muscle loss. When triggered, horses can recover but may have more frequent episodes. Horses that are homozygous (My/My) may have more severe symptoms.<ref name"MYHM">{{cite web \|titleMyosin-Heavy Chain Myopathy (MYHM) \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/myhm \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref> Malignant hyperthermia (MH) causes a horse's body to release uncontrolled amounts of calcium into the bloodstream when subjected to certain stressors, which results in painful muscle cramps, extremely high temperature up to 113 degrees Fahrenheit, irregular heart rhythm, excessive sweating and shallow breathing.<ref name"MH">{{cite web \|titleMalignant Hyperthermia (MH) \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/web/aqha/mh \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref> It manifests when horses receive certain anesthesia drugs or by stressors such as overwork or excitement.<ref name"pmid10659313">{{cite journal \|vauthorsValberg SJ, Mickelson JR, Gallant EM, MacLeay JM, Lentz L, de la Corte F \|titleExertional rhabdomyolysis in quarter horses and thoroughbreds: one syndrome, multiple aetiologies \|journalEquine Vet J Suppl \|volume30 \|issue30\|pages533–8 \|year1999 \|pmid10659313\|doi10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05279.x \|doi-accessfree }}</ref> Caused by a mutated allele, ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution,<ref>{{cite journal\|doi10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0274.x \| pmid19220734 \| volume23 \| issue2 \| titleMalignant Hyperthermia Associated with Ryanodine Receptor 1 (C7360G) Mutation in Quarter Horses \| year2009 \| journalJournal of Veterinary Internal Medicine \| pages329–334 \| authorAleman M\| doi-accessfree }}</ref> it is inherited as an autosomal dominant.<ref>{{cite web \|last1Lenz \|first1Tom R. \|titleHeritable Diseases of the American Quarter Horse and Their Management \|urlhttp://manc.umd.edu/Abstracts2010/LenzHYPP%20abstract.pdf \|websiteTom R. Lenz \|access-dateSeptember 9, 2019 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140609024924/http://manc.umd.edu/Abstracts2010/LenzHYPP%20abstract.pdf \|archive-date2014-06-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|titleMalignant hyperthermia: a review \|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/281816894 \|websiteResearchGate \|access-dateAugust 24, 2019 \|languageen}}</ref> Horses that carry PSSM or MYHM along with MH have more severe episodes.<ref name"MH"/> Hereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA), also known as hyperelastosis cutis (HC). This is caused by an autosomal recessive gene, and thus produces affected offspring only when both parents transmit the gene, but may produce unaffected carriers if only one copy is transmitted. When a horse is affected by this disease, there is a collagen defect that results in the layers of skin not being held firmly together. Thus, when the horse is ridden under saddle or suffers trauma to the skin, the outer layer often splits or separates from the deeper layer, or it can tear off completely. It rarely heals without disfiguring scars. Sunburn can also be a concern. In dramatic cases, the skin can split along the back and even roll down the sides, with the horse literally being skinned alive. Most horses with HERDA are euthanized for humane reasons between the age of two and four years. Researchers at Cornell University and Mississippi State University theorized that the sire line of the foundation stallion Poco Bueno is linked to the disease. In 2007, Researchers working independently at Cornell University and at the University of California, Davis announced that a DNA test for HERDA has been developed. Over 1,500 horses were tested during the development phase of the test, which is now available to the general public through both institutions.<ref>{{cite web \|titleHERDA: DNA Tests Available for Disfiguring Skin Disease \|urlhttps://thehorse.com/128263/herda-dna-tests-available-for-disfiguring-skin-disease/ \|websiteThe Horse \|access-dateAugust 24, 2019 \|dateMay 28, 2007}}</ref> Approximately 3.5% of all Quarter Horses are carriers, and as many as 28% of horses in cutting and related working cow horse disciplines.<ref name"HERDA">{{cite web \|titleHereditary Equine Regional Dermal Asthenia (HERDA) \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/web/aqha/herda \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref> Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) is a recessive genetic disease where the horse is lacking an enzyme necessary for storing glycogen, the horse's heart muscle and skeletal muscles cannot function, leading to rapid death. The disease manifests in foals who are homozygous for the lethal GBED allele, meaning both parents carry one copy of the gene. The stallion King P-234 has been linked to this disease. There is a DNA blood test available.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.cvm.umn.edu/umec/lab/gbed.html\|title Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) in Horses\|access-date2008-06-12 \|author1 Valberg, Stephanie \|author2James R Mickelson\|website Glycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED)\|publisherUniversity of Minnsesota\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080512055701/http://www.cvm.umn.edu/umec/lab/gbed.html\| archive-date12 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref> Roughly 10% of all Quarter Horses carry this gene.<ref name"GBED">{{cite web \|titleGlycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/web/aqha/gbed \|websiteAmerican QuarterHorse Association \|access-date=7 March 2024}}</ref> Equine polysaccharide storage myopathy, also called EPSM or PSSM, is a metabolic muscular condition in horses that causes tying up, and is also related to a glycogen storage disorder.<ref>Valberg et al., "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmdRetrieve&dbPubMed&list_uids10659313&doptAbstractPlus Exertional rhabdomyolysis in quarter horses and thoroughbreds]", Equine Vet Journal Supplement, pp. 533–38</ref> There are two forms, PSSM-1 and PSSM-2. PSSM-1 is found in Quarter Horses and has a genetic test available. PSSM-2, which is primarily found in other breeds, has no genetic test available but can be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy.<ref name"PSSM">{{cite web \|titleGlycogen Branching Enzyme Deficiency (GBED) \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/web/aqha/pssm \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref> PSSM-1 has been traced to three specific but undisclosed bloodlines in Quarter Horses, with an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern.<ref>{{cite web \|urlhttp://www.addl.purdue.edu/newsletters/2000/summer/eer.shtml\|title Equine Exertional Rhabdomyolysis\|access-date2008-06-12 \|author Ulman, Katherine\|websiteSummer 2000 Newsletter\|publisher Purdue University, Animal Disease Diagnostic Lab\| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080513155218/http://www.addl.purdue.edu/newsletters/2000/summer/eer.shtml\| archive-date 13 May 2008 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status live}}</ref> 11% of the Quarter Horse population carries PSSM, and 48% of Quarter Horses with symptoms of neuromuscular disease have PSSM. To some extent it can be diet controlled with specialized low-starch diets, but genetic testing is advised before breeding, as the condition exists at a subclinical level in approximately 6% of the general Quarter Horse population.<ref>{{cite web \|titlePrevalence of PSSM in Quarter Horses \|urlhttps://thehorse.com/130289/prevalence-of-pssm-in-quarter-horses/ \|websiteThe Horse \|access-dateAugust 24, 2019 \|date14 September 2006}}</ref> Lethal White Syndrome (LWS) is fatal when homozygous. Affected foals are born pure white in color, with an underdeveloped intestinal tract, and cannot defecate, thus dying within days if not euthanized first.<ref name"LWS">{{cite web \|last1Young \|first1Amy \|titleLethal White Overo Syndrome (LWO) {{!}} School of Veterinary Medicine \|urlhttps://ceh.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/health-topics/lethal-white-overo-syndrome-lwo \|websiteceh.vetmed.ucdavis.edu \|languageen \|date9 June 2020}}</ref> Although "cropout" Quarter Horses with pinto markings were not allowed to be registered for many years because white markings were thought to be a result of undesirable crossbreeding,<ref name"Paint"/> the gene that causes the condition also creates the frame overo color pattern when heterozygous, and the color pattern was not always visibly expressed. Thus, the condition continued to periodically appear in Quarter Horse foals. There is a DNA test for this condition, and in part because DNA testing can verify parentage and because the genetic mechanism of LWS is now understood, AQHA repealed its cropout rules, allowing horses with white patterns to be registered.<ref name"Paint">{{cite web \|titleFlashy Paint Coat Color \|urlhttps://www.aqha.com/-/flashy-paint-coat-color \|websiteAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|access-date7 March 2024}}</ref><ref nameUDCLWS>{{cite web\| url http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolorhorse.php\| titleHorse Coat Color Tests\| author University of California – Davis\| websiteVeterinary Genetics Laboratory\| publisher University of California at Davis\| access-date2008-03-08\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080219095454/http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolorhorse.php\| archive-date2008-02-19\| url-status dead}}</ref> Cleft Palate: a birth defect linked to multiple causative factors, including genetics, hormones, mineral deficiency, tranquilizers, or steroids. Cleft palates are extremely uncommon, but as most of the research done on the condition has utilized Quarter Horses, the defect is linked to the breed. The surgery to repair the cleft palate has about a 20% success rate. Clinical signs include: lifting head high when eating, dropping head low to drink, coughing when beginning of exercise, and taking an extremely long time to fully administer oral medications placed in the side of the jaw.<ref>{{Cite journal\|lastShaw\|firstSarah\|date2015\|titleClinical characteristics of horses and foals diagnosed with cleft palate in a referral population: 28 cases (1988–2011)\|journalCan Vet J\|volume56\|issue7\|pages756–760\|pmid26130841\|pmc4466833}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|lastKirkham\|firstLemcN\|date2002\|titleSurgical cleft soft palate repair in a foal\|journalAustralian Veterinary Journal\|volume80\|issue3\|pages143–146\|doi10.1111/j.1751-0813.2002.tb11375.x\|pmid12019699}}</ref> See also Quarab Quarter pony References {{Reflist}} Sources {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book \|author American Quarter Horse Association \|titleOfficial Stud Book and Registry Combined Books 1-2-3-4-5\|locationAmarillo, TX \|publisherAmerican Quarter Horse Association \|year=1961}} * {{cite journal \|author Church, Stephanie L.\|date2006-09-14\|titleACVIM 2006: Prevalence of PSSM in Quarter Horses\|journal The Horse Online News\|urlhttps://thehorse.com/130289/prevalence-of-pssm-in-quarter-horses/\|access-date2008-06-12\|issue# 7628\| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080606212010/http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID7628\| archive-date 6 June 2008 <!--DASHBot-->\|url-status = live}} * {{cite book \| last Close\| first Pat\| title Legends 2: Outstanding Quarter Horse Stallions and Mares\| url https://archive.org/details/legendsoutstandi00simm\| url-access registration\| publisher Western Horseman\| year 1994\| location Colorado Springs\|isbn=978-0-911647-30-3}} * {{cite book \|titleThe Quarter Running Horse: America's Oldest Breed \|lastDenhardt \|firstRobert M. \|year1979 \|publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press \|locationNorman, OK \|isbn=978-0-8061-1500-9}} * {{cite book \|author Mackay-Smith, Alexander \|titleThe Colonial Quarter Race Horse \|publisherWhittet & Shepperson\|locationRichmond, VA \|year=1983 }} * {{cite journal \|author Sellnow, Les\|date2007-05-28\| titleHERDA: DNA Tests Available for Disfiguring Skin Disease\|journal The Horse Online News\|urlhttps://thehorse.com/128263/herda-dna-tests-available-for-disfiguring-skin-disease/\|access-date2007-05-07}} * {{cite journal \|vauthorsValberg SJ, Mickelson JR, Gallant EM, MacLeay JM, Lentz L, de la Corte F \|dateJuly 1999\|titleExertional rhabdomyolysis in quarter horses and thoroughbreds: one syndrome, multiple aetiologies\|journal Equine Vet J Suppl \|volume30 \|issue30\|pmid10659313 \|pages533–8 \|doi10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05279.x\|doi-access free}} * {{cite book \|titleThe Great American Speedhorse: A Guide to Quarter Racing \|last Wiggins \|firstWalt \|year 1978 \|publisherSovereign Books \|location New York \|isbn= 978-0-671-18340-0 }} {{Refend}} Further reading {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book \| last Denhardt\| first Robert Moorman\| title Foundation Sires of the American Quarter Horse\| publisher University of Oklahoma Press\| year 1997\|isbn978-0-8061-2947-1}}<!--This book is not referenced in the article. If it becomes referenced at some point, move up to the references section. Otherwise, I think we can delete it before we go to GA, yes?--> {{Refend}} External links {{Commons}} [http://www.aqha.com American Quarter Horse Association] [https://web.archive.org/web/20071022093726/http://quarter-horse-europe.net/ Information about Quarter Horses in Europe] {{Horse breeds of Canada and the United States}} Category:Horse breeds Category:Horse breeds originating in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Quarter_Horse	2025-04-05T18:26:04.996132

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