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Identify and classify the seven types of available data: content, benchmark, procedural, medical, environmental, research, and quality assurance. A system must pragmatically balance these variables to come up with specific outputs in reaction to customized and changing inputs.
Establish preset scenarios, patterns, examples, and benchmarks so that the computer can make appropriate comparisons and subsequent interpretations.
Determine which functions the computer will perform after processing these data. Accordingly, design an interface that allows the user to easily navigate and execute the functions.
Strategize how executed software functions will be compatible with hardware and other peripherals networked in the communications loop.
Build protocols for security, system override, and redundancy, providing for a contingency should the technology malfunction or fail. Knowledge management will be a crucial consideration in building those protocols, as the desire is to provide information on a need-to-know basis but at the same time make information flexible enough for those who do have permission for access.
—Jason B. Lee
Back to Profiting from the BioShield
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| 0.884576 | 212 | 2.828125 | 3 |
The UAB played an important role in creating the system, which goes a step further than the World Wide Web in terms of services available on the internet
This release is also available in Spanish.
Ever since the internet was created, it has developed and advanced as new services have been introduced that have made it easier to access and send data between remote computers. Electronic mail and the easy-to-use interactive interface known as the World Wide Web are just two of the most important services that have helped to make the internet as popular as it is today. GRID technology, one of the latest systems that has been developed for linking computing resources, connects hundreds of large computers so they can share not only data itself, but also data processing capability and large storage capacity. This technology has now taken an important step forward: the hardware and tools required to make the interface interactive have become available. The UAB has participated in the project, taking charge of creating software to coordinate access between the different computers in the new system.
The most important new feature is that the system is interactive. The user works with a "virtual desktop" using commands and graphics windows that allow clear and easy access to all the resources on the GRID network, just like when someone browses through folders on a laptop computer. This system has enormous potential in many different fields.
One possible application is in those fields in which one needs to transform large quantities of information into knowledge, using simulations, analysis techniques and data mining, to make decisions. For example, a surgeon working from a remote location who needed to suggest different configurations for a bypass operation using information obtained through a scan on the patient could compare different simulations and observe in real time the blood flow in each simulation. Thanks to the new interactive system the surgeon would be able to use the simulations to make the best possible decision.
Another type of problem for which the new system could be useful would be in procedures requiring huge data processing capabilities and access to large distributed databases. This would be the case for an engineer in a thermal power station who needed to decide upon the best time to use different fuels, taking into account the way pollution would spread based on a specific weather model for the local area around the station.
Led by Miquel Ángel Senar, of the UAB's Graduate School of Engineering (ETSE), the research team at the Universitat Auṭnoma de Barcelona has developed the software needed to coordinate and manage interactive use of the GRID network. The software allows several processors to be used simultaneously. The task of this service developed at the UAB is to carry out automatically all the steps required so that the user applications may be run in one of the GRID resources selected in a clear way by the service itself.
The system was developed as part of CrossGRID, a European project which received a five million euro investment and the support of 21 institutions from across Europe. In Spain, in addition to those from the UAB, there are also researchers from the Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC) and the University of Santiago de Compostela playing a vital role in the project. The team from the CSIC was responsible for the first application of the system: a neural network to search for new elementary particles in physics; the team from the University of Santiago de Compostela adapted an application for measuring air pollution as explained above in the example of the thermal power station.
Source: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I--
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
-- Robert Frost
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The area of computer systems studies
the design and analysis of computers and programs that are used in practice.
- Compilers: programs that translate programs written in an easy-to-use
language (Scheme, Lisp, C, C++, Java, Pascal, etc.) into machine
language (the only language that actually runs on a machine).
- Operating Systems: programs that control the operation of a computer:
sharing resources among different programs, providing security, and providing
commonly needed utility programs.
- Data Bases: programs that store large amounts of data, can look up
data on request, provide security, allow multiple users to access the same data.
- Graphics: construction of pictures from models of objects.
- Performance: predicting how fast a computer system will operate.
- Real-time Systems: programs that must respond with an answer within
a limited amount of time.
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| 0.817684 | 186 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Most of these systems feature a three- or four-level structure, starting at the lowest level, the sensor level, in which sensitive sensors are installed directly on the production units to record quality and/or production data. They continue to higher levels, e.g. the machine level, where the signals arriving from the sensors are collected, processed and analyzed, and the result often indicated in a simple manner on the machine. The third level is the PC workstation level, where the data collected at machine level are systematically evaluated and displayed in a very informative way in the supervisor‘s office, for instance in the form of graphs.
The top level is usually a commercial host computer. Here again all the information arriving from the second or third level is collected in a condensed and compatible form by a local network, systematically evaluated and displayed in a manner easy to deal with, e.g. in diagram form (Fig. 65). The detailed analysis of the second, (third) and fourth level enables immediate action to be taken wherever anything strays even slightly from the required norm.
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| 0.916383 | 218 | 2.53125 | 3 |
It is necessary to represent the computer's knowledge of the world by some kind of data structures in the machine's memory. Traditional computer programs deal with large amounts of data that are structured in simple and uniform ways. A.I. programs need to deal with complex relationships, reflecting the complexity of the real world.
Several kinds of knowledge need to be represented:
Contents Page-10 Prev Next Page+10 Index
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| 0.875718 | 88 | 2.90625 | 3 |
In mathematics and computing, an algorithm is a procedure (a finite set of well-defined instructions) for accomplishing some task which, given an initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state. The computational complexity and efficient implementation of the algorithm are important in computing, and this depends on suitable data structures.
Presents algorithms for use in three-dimensional computer-aided design, simulation, virtual reality worlds, and games. Focusing on the graphics pipeline, the book has chapters on transforms,...
Sams Teach Yourself SQL in 10 Minutes is a tutorial-based book, organized into a series of easy-to-follow, 10-minute lessons. These well-targeted lessons teach you in 10 minutes what some books take...
Over one million readers have found "The Internet For Dummies" to be the best reference for
sending e-mail, browsing the Web, and enjoying the benefits of electronic...
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| 0.883651 | 188 | 3.46875 | 3 |
Data Structures and Algorithms in C++
* Each data structure is presented using ADTs and their respective implementations
* Helps provide an understanding of the wide spectrum of skills ranging from sound algorithm and data structure design to efficient implementation and coding of these designs in C++
Wiley Higher Education
Table of Contents
1. Basic C++ Programming.
2. Object-Oriented Design.
3. Analysis Tools.
4. Stacks, Queues, and Recursion.
5. Vectors, Lists, and Sequences.
7. Priority Queues.
9. Search Trees.
10. Sorting, Sets, and Selection.
11. Text Processing.
Appendix: Useful Mathematical Facts.
Integrated Computing Platforms, such as EMC VSPEX RAs, provide a solution by eliminating the time (and cost) of designing, testing, and engineering integrated environments with components built independently of one another. These validated architectures are ready for production environments upon delivery, and offer a single point of support should IT require it. Learn more on how a leading IT vendor has aligned product innovation with an IT market need to improve efficiency, performance, and value for SMBs.
SoftDisc is an image file tool that allows you to create, edit and manage your image files. It also lets you emulate a virtual CD ...
Allianz Shared Infrastructure Services SE (ASIC) wanted to replace its current suite of management tools, some of which had been developed in-house, with a standard solution for the management of 600 network components in its data centre, in order to reduce costs and further improve quality. Find out what approach they took download today.
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- IN PICTURES: Citrix Solutions expo (49 photos)
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- Analytics and personalisation drive leading marketer behaviour: Report
- Innovation and big data take centre stage during CMO panel
- Twitter targets second screen interaction with Amplify advertising partnerships
- Facebook talks hyper-targeting, analytics and cross-platform at AANA event
- Tapping into social experience: Tourism Australia
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| 0.851945 | 625 | 2.625 | 3 |
This book presents the concepts, methods, and results that are fundamental to the science of computing. The book begins with the basic ideas of algorithms such as the structure and the methods of data manipulation, and then moves on to demonstrate how to design an accurate and efficient algorithm. Inherent limitations to algorithmic design are also discussed throughout the second part of the text. The third edition features an introduction to the object-oriented paradigm along with new approaches to computation. Anyone interested in being introduced to the theory of computer science.
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| 0.945908 | 103 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Go to Selected Page
Display Links to Previous Content
Chapter 1: Computers: Tools for an Information Age
Chapter 2: Applications Software: Getting the Work Done
Chapter 3: Operating Systems: Software in the Background
Chapter 4: The Central Processing Unit: What Goes on Inside the...
Chapter 5: Input and Output: The User Connection
Chapter 6: Storage and Multimedia: The Facts and More
Chapter 7: Networking: Computer Connections
Chapter 8: The Internet: At Home and in the Workplace
Chapter 9: Social and Ethical Issues in Computing: Doing the Right...
Chapter 10: Security and Privacy: Computers and the Internet
Chapter 11: Word Processing and Desktop Publishing: Printing It
Chapter 12: Spreadsheets and Business Graphics: Facts and Figures
Chapter 13: Database Management: Getting Data Together
Chapter 14: Systems Analysis and Design: The Big Picture
Chapter 15: Programming and Languages: Telling the Computer What to Do
Chapter 16: Management Information Systems: Classical Models and New...
Help, Support and Browser Tuneup
[Skip Navigation and go to Site Search]
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http://wps.prenhall.com/bp_capron_computers_8/9/2484/636021.cw/sitenav/index.html
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| 0.727496 | 229 | 3.578125 | 4 |
US 20030157985 A1
A player who comes up with an innovative strategy in an electronic game is given benefits in the game environment and/or in the players' community because of creating this strategy. This extra dimension stimulates the involvement of the players and contributes to the evolution of the game.
1. A method of providing a virtual environment, the method comprising:
enabling to detect an innovative aspect in an interaction of a user with the environment;
enabling to register information about the innovative aspect; and
enabling the user to benefit from the registering of the information.
2. The method of
3. The method of
4. The method of
5. The method of
6. The method of
7. The method of
8. Software for use with a virtual environment to enable to detect an innovative aspect in user interaction with the environment.
9. A database for use with a virtual environment, the database being a repository for information about respective innovative aspects of interactions of respective users with the environment.
10. An interactive software application for enabling a user to interact with a virtual environment and including a software component to enable to detect an innovative aspect in user interaction with the environment.
FIG. 1 is a diagram of an innovation monitoring system in a client-server environment 100. Environment 100 comprises game consoles 102, 104, . . . , 106 that are coupled to a server 108 via the Internet or another data network 110. Server 108 runs a multi-user interactive application 112, e.g., a game, through which the users or participants at consoles 102-106 can interact with each other and with a virtual environment. Respective parts of application 112 may be stored locally at one or more of consoles 102-106.
Server 108 has a monitoring service 114 that monitors the progress or score history of each of the participants at consoles 102-106. For example, monitor 114 keeps track of how quickly or well a participant performs a task in the virtual environment, the manner wherein the participant performs the task in terms of, e.g., a history log of data representative of the user input at the relevant console and the state of the game, etc.
Assume that during a session of game 112 a specific participant, e.g., the one at console 102, performs significantly better at a specific stage of the game than the ones at consoles 104-106. An analyzer 116 then compares the stored input data and state data for this participant and for this stage with corresponding data relevant to the other participants in order to determine why the participant at console 102 performed significantly better than the others. Analyzer 116 comprises, e.g., software, such as an expert system, or is a human agent or involves both. If analyzer 116 finds a qualitative reason or other strategy explaining the significantly better performance, the finding is compared to strategies stored previously in a database 118. The comparing may be done by software, by a human operator or by both, depending on the complexity of the game and/or the resources available.
If database 118 does not comprise the currently found strategy, the latter is stored in database 118 for future reference, together with the name or nickname of the participant at console 102 who invented this strategy first. User identification and/or registration may be provided by a network-based service, e.g., Microsoft Passport, AOL instant messenger, and others. Accordingly, strategies developed during the operational use of game 112 get registered, and can be made accessible to the gamers community, e.g., so as to allow them to prepare for or continue the session. Preferably, the name of the person who invented this strategy is published as well. This contributes to this person's reputation and status in the community, which is a reward in its own. This publication also motivates other ambitious players to invent even better strategies so as to get their names published, thus acquiring status and esteem.
If a same or similar strategy is already stored in database 118, the participant at console 102 is listed in a database 120 as having used a strategy listed as invented by another participant. The use of a registered strategy by another can now be made beneficial to its inventor, e.g., by giving the inventor bonus points in his next or current session(s), by giving the relevant user a handicap in the next or current session(s), or by otherwise modifying or adapting the rules of the game for the user and/or inventor. Alternative compensation procedures can be implemented, e.g., a monetary reward to the inventor in terms of a royalty on a per-use basis (e.g., one cent), charged to the account of the user, or a monetary award supplied by the service provider as a token of appreciation that the game now is made more interesting, etc.
Environment 100 can be configured in a variety of manners. For example, the monitoring, analyzing and registering can be delegated to a service different from the one that is providing the game. Alternatively, the functionalities of the game, the monitoring thereof, etc., as described can be distributed among various components and/or parties including one or more of consoles 102-106 (or PCs, thin clients, etc) and/or the participants themselves. As to the latter, a person who has analyzed the data representing the history of the game and who has discovered a new strategy implemented by another who is unaware of its novelty could be made the beneficiary of this discovery, that otherwise would have gone unnoticed. Again, this stimulates people to really dig into the innards of the game so as to improve and extend its potential, and to stimulate people getting immersed in the game at the strategic and tactical levels.
In an alternative implementation (not shown), consoles 102-106 each have a local monitoring system that communicates with a local or a remote analyzer and strategy database. This implementation allows the user to study, and to keep track of his/her own game performance. The performance is then represented by the new strategies and tactics that this user has developed him/herself. A local repository then provides the history in terms of game interactions that are better than others.
In an embodiment of the invention, the participants may operate in a virtual environment that has zones wherein the use of a strategy or tactic registered by another may lead to extra handicaps or royalties, and other zones wherein that use is free.
In another embodiment of the invention, the user may actively and directly register his/her novelty with database 118 as if it were going to be patented. For example, in a race game, the user builds from standard, or newly to be designed, virtual components his/her own virtual vehicle. The personal vehicle is then one that he/she believes is the best match for the conditions that are expected to occur in the race later on. The configuration of the self-designed vehicle is personalized by selecting, e.g., the geometry of the chassis, location of the wheels, the size and weight and distribution of the drive train, the size and location of the fuel tank, the type of tires, the type and number of spare parts and tools to be taken along, etc. The user then can register his/her original design or parts thereof if it performs significantly better so as to benefit from his/her contribution to the virtual art. Of course, this can be a team effort, of the designer of the vehicle and of the driver.
FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a console 200 for a virtual motorcycle race wherein the user sees the virtual environment projected onto a large display monitor 202 in front of console 200 as if he/she were riding along the track. Console 200 comprises the controls for the virtual motorcycle, e.g., the handlebars with a throttle 204 to control the acceleration, a front wheel brake lever 206, a clutch lever 208 for changing gears, a rev counter 210, etc. The gear shift pedal and rear wheel brake pedal are not shown in the diagram. A front panel comprises a display monitor 212 to provide extra information to the user. In the example shown, monitor 212 shows an image 214 of the track. Image 214 has an indicium 216 that represents the user's current location along the track. Image 214 also has highlighted segments 218 and 220. The highlighting indicates that “patented” strategies are available to the user for negotiating these stretches in the currently fastest way. In the race, the user may select to adopt a patented strategy for negotiating such a stretch. Selection is done, for example, by pushing button 222 before entering highlighted segment 218 or 220. The selection activates the auto-pilot to guide the virtual motorcycle through the selected segment. At the end of the segment, the auto-pilot returns control to the user. In return for using the patented strategy, the user may have, for example, to return bonus points accumulated over time, pay a royalty, or adopt a handicap for the rest of the race, etc. Monitor 212 may indicate, e.g., in a window 224, the penalty or compensation that the user is to pay per segment for use of the patented strategy covering that segment.
If the user believes he/she is capable of negotiating a stretch of the track better than most others, he/she may want to claim the manner wherein he/she negotiates the stretch. This may be done before entering the stretch, e.g., by pressing “claim”-button 226, or afterwards, when the user has analyzed his/her performance and possibly that of others. If the claim is valid, i.e., the user has indeed found a way of traversing the stretch better than the others or better than is known in database 118, he/she can make this method of traversing available to others. If the user's belief of being better was in vain, bonus points may be subtracted from the user's score, or a compensation fee may be charged to the user's account.
The invention is explained in more detail, by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawing, wherein:
FIG. 1 is a diagram of an innovation monitoring system; and
FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a game console.
The invention relates to the field of networked virtual environments, in particular to on-line computer gaming and interactive systems.
On-line computer gaming is known. A number of Internet-based gaming portals, e.g., http://games.yahoo.com, offer multi-player games, tournaments, etc. The aforementioned yahoo web server indicated that on Friday Dec. 14, 2001, 78239 players were involved in a wide variety of games in multiple categories. Using an HTML browser, an individual or a team can select and then participate in a particular game or a tournament, e.g., with a particular opponent, earn points, ratings and other types of rewards reflecting their skill and ingenuity. Players are required to register with the site. Their game actions may be monitored and recorded. Similar sites specializing in a certain game category, e.g., action, strategy, board, etc., are also known. Consider http://www.strategy-gaming.com/—a strategy oriented web site that provides information, strategy guides, reviews and other services to the gaming community. A number of PC games, e.g., DOOM, also enable the user to play against the computer or against other players via a network, e.g., LAN, WAN. In another example “Motor City online” at http://mco.ea.com/main.html enables a PC user with an Internet connection to participate in a virtual car race. Users are also enabled to trade virtual equipment, modify original configurations, etc.
Standalone, specialized video gaming platforms, such as Sony PlayStation, Microsoft XBOX, Nintendo GameCube, are also known. In December of 2001, Microsoft Corp. announced that it was on track to ship 1,000,000 devices until the end of the year. Microsoft also announced plans to provide networking capabilities for the device some time in 2002 (see http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1006-200-8161627.html).
Playing electronic games successfully, whether against the computer or human opponents, involves diverse skills, e.g., motor skills, strategy skills, virtual equipment design, and requires innovation with regard to many aspects of a given virtual environment. Innovative approaches, e.g., strategies, are distributed via on-line publications, software patches, cheats and other means. A successful strategy or a combination of game tools, e.g., “magic spells”, may provide a player or a team with a significant advantage over their opponents. On the other hand, when the novel advancement is revealed, e.g., through a game against the opponent, nothing prevents other gamers to repeat the innovation without any compensation to the innovator. Therefore an incentive is created for withholding new ideas, thus limiting development of the game. Henceforth, a condition exists that prevents less advanced users from moving further within the game, which in turn may lead to frustration and limited participation in the activity. As discussed above, user participation is of a major economic value to game portal operators, game developers and distributors, and eventually to the gamers community.
Accordingly, a need exists for an efficient system for encouraging, protecting and distributing novel approaches, e.g., within a particular game context, especially in a network environment.
The inventor has noticed a parallel between the above scenario and the laws on intellectual property rights (IPR), which have been called into being in order to stimulate progress in the useful arts. Consider the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), whose basic role over 200 years has been to promote the progress of science and the useful arts by securing for limited times to inventors the exclusive right to their respective discoveries (Article 1, Section 8 of the United States Constitution). Similar national and supra-national organizations and arrangements exist all over the globe.
Direct application of traditional intellectual property rights in an environment created around an electronic game has some serious limitations. One is the length and the cost of the process to secure one's right to an invention. That is, it usually takes several years to obtain a patent, while the lifespan of a popular electronic game is much shorter. Also, patent applications are prepared and prosecuted by professionals, who possess the necessary technical, linguistic as well as legal skills.
Another set of problems relates to criteria currently applied to establishing the novelty of an idea. The parties involved have to conduct extensive searches among millions of documents, e.g., in order to identify proper prior art. Evolving technical fields, term definitions, semantic differences, drawing interpretation, etc., complicate the searches. In another aspect, important criteria such as “obviousness”, and “person skilled in the art” are open to interpretation and different interpretations emerge over time and in different jurisdictions.
Yet another group of problems relates to the enforcement and licensing of IPR. Patent infringement detection is a challenging task, especially in newer technology fields, such as software and semiconductors. The process involves teams of engineers as well as legal experts and has proved to be prone to prolonged litigation. IPR licensing is also time and resource consuming.
The inventor has realized that the aforementioned shortcomings and others can be overcome within an online innovation generation environment, e.g., a networked electronic game, virtual game processes on a server, a network of PCs, etc. The environment is made transparent in order to set and enforce rules related to innovation creation, distribution and usage. The environment enables monitoring of activities on at least one innovation station, e.g., a video game console, detection of a technique that enhances the performance of a user in a measurable manner, comparing the technique with a reference set, and registering the technique.
Creation of a new technique may be rewarded in accordance with the rules of the environment.
Consider, for example, a motorcycle race video game wherein a user is required to complete a certain number of laps on a virtual racetrack. The faster the user completes the task the more points he gets. The racetrack has a number of turns that allow for different traversing strategies under different (virtual) weather circumstances (wind, rain, dirt, etc.). Each strategy and/or a combination of such strategies result in a certain number of points, i.e., a measurable indicator of the strategy's efficiency. The game console or a third party on the network is enabled to monitor the user's actions and detect new strategies that consistently result in a higher score. When a new strategy is detected, it is registered, e.g., in a database. The novelty is established, e.g., at the time of the completion of the technique with a high score. The registration is done, e.g., by the monitoring system or at the user's request, e.g., when the user activates a designated hardware or software control (“Claim” button). The user is enabled to set up automatic tracking of the game, e.g., by entering into a service agreement with the monitoring system. The monitoring system notifies the user when a novel technique is detected.
Other examples of an innovative technique are troop formations for a battle, design of virtual apparatus or organism, such as motorcycle, car, game specie, a combination of defensive and attacking means, such as spells, shields, swords, etc.
In order to facilitate innovation monitoring and detection the environment can be further divided into segments, e.g., battlegrounds, racetrack segments, tournaments or other events, etc.
Furthermore, the user is enabled to claim a new technique as a “patent”, thus being able to exclude other users from using the technique. Accordingly, an incentive is created for potential participants to become a member of a new environment sooner rather than later.
Exclusion from a new technique can be conditionally lifted, e.g., when the innovator is provided with a certain amount of points, or for the duration of a training session, or in accordance with other rules and conditions of the game or community. A variety of IPR licensing models can be developed in such an environment in order to stimulate creation of an evolving social interaction between participants. In one example, an IPR free zone is established to promote learning. In another example, the innovator is enabled to freely share IPR with his/her team, while requiring a licensed use from an opposing team member.
The monitoring system enables detection of use of a registered technique and enforcement of licensing rules defined for the environment. In one example, enforcement is automatic, that is, every time a participant uses the technique he/she is charged a pre-defined number of points. In another example, enforcement is limited to competitive situations, such as tournaments, battles, etc, wherein competitors are required to license the opposing party's IPR. In yet another example, enforcement is limited to participants above a certain skill level. In one more example, a game developer designates specific segments of the environment for IPR enforcement.
Accordingly, an embodiment of the invention relates to a method of providing a virtual environment. The method comprises enabling to detect an innovative aspect in an interaction of a user with the environment; enabling to register information about the innovative aspect; and enabling the user to benefit from the registering of the information. As to the benefiting, this includes, e.g., providing the user with an advantage in the environment, a monetary award, or making the information about the innovation and the name of the inventor available to other users. The user may be allowed to claim an exclusive right to the innovative aspect with respect to other users in the environment, similar to, e.g., intellectual property rights such as patents. The registered information about the innovative aspect can be made conditionally available to one or more other users in the environment, e.g., determined by the inventor, depending on an elapse of a certain time period, depending on a location of an area in the virtual environment, depending on the willingness of other users to pay for the information in terms of genuine money or of handicap points in a game environment, etc.
Another embodiment relates to software for use with a virtual environment to enable to detect an innovative aspect in user interaction of one or more players with the environment. The software and/or hardware can be for the use of a specific player so as to be able to analyze several strategies based on data logged during his own sessions. The software can also be used to monitor multiple players to detect the best performer and to give an indication why this performer was the best. The software is typically specific to the environment. Similarly, yet another embodiment of the invention relates to an interactive software application, e.g., a video game, for enabling a user to interact with a virtual environment. The application includes a software component to enable to detect an innovative aspect in user interaction with the environment.
Consider, as an example, a strategy game, wherein a player guides his/her character through a labyrinth inhabited by unfriendly creatures. The character has attacking and protective attributes, which enable it to defeat the creatures. Certain combinations of attributes and/or the sequence of their use may prove to be more efficient against a particular set of unfriendly creatures assigned to a certain corridor of the labyrinth. The success of the user strategy can be easily established by, e.g., registering the number of unfriendly creatures that this user has rendered harmless and/or passing the corridor by the user's character. In order to claim a novel strategy, the user has, for example, to register his character's attributes before entering the corridor. This can be done automatically or under a certain condition, e.g., user action, game license, etc. After successful completion of the battle, the aforementioned attribute set may be registered with a virtual IPR authority by communicating the attributes to a remote computer. The timing of the claim to a new strategy or tactic can be established according to the rules of the virtual IPR system, e.g., upon successful completion of the battle, or upon submitting a log of the episode, etc. Additional requirements toward the user's gaming device, such as hardware/software integrity, use of certified accessories, and others, may be introduced to ensure novelty verification. A person ordinary skilled in the art would appreciate that a wide variety of strategy confirmation and implementation methods are available in an electronic gaming environment. For example, a graphic simulation of the claimed episode can be presented to demonstrate an implementation of the claimed strategy. The simulation may be created by recording signals or data from the user's input/output devices, such as keypad, monitor, feedback sensors, along with the portion of game software, e.g., assembly instructions and memory states, executed during the episode.
In another example, consider a game wherein the player controls a group of characters, e.g., battle groups, fortresses, etc., each or a combination of which having a set of attacking and defensive attributes. A person skilled in the art will appreciate that implementation of such a game will be substantially equivalent with the aforementioned example of the strategy game. For example, the combined attributes of all the characters can be assigned to, e.g., a software object, substantially equivalent to a character of a higher order described above.
In yet another example, consider a motorcycle racing game, wherein the user is required to drive a virtual device on a simulated racetrack. In one implementation, in order to claim IPR on traversing a particular turn, the user is required to identify the intended trajectory, which he intends to claim. The user is enabled to record and subsequently claim the trajectory, if he guides his virtual motorcycle using the designated trajectory and achieves a better result, e.g., shorter time, than other players, traversing the same turn. The time of each player is communicated to the server and is compared to existing records. The time differential, e.g., 1 sec. or 0.5 sec., necessary for a successful claim can be set up by the system, depending on the required skill level, complexity of the track configuration and other factors.
In another implementation, for lower skill levels, the user is not required to identify the intended trajectory before the race. The trajectory and speed combination is recorded automatically and claimed when a new best result is achieved.
Another embodiment of the invention relates to a database for use with a virtual environment. The database is the repository for information about respective innovative aspects of interactions of respective users with the environment. The database could be made conditionally accessible or available to the community of users.
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| 0.921664 | 5,031 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Preface to ”Text-Oriented-Software“, 1st edition, March 2010.
Software technology has progressed a lot in the last fifty years. In the 1960s the development of time-sharing systems emerged to bring computer power and networking to the people, research flourished in the 1970s at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, where the ground elements that define computing today were set up. In the last decades there have been many advances toward humanizing computing, making it accessible and intuitive. This is good and must be further pursued. But one important aspect has not been cultivated: making software more powerful for the intellectual work. The developments from Doug Engelbart toward more intelligent computer systems have not yet caught on, the ideas of Ted Nelson about an electronic literature and his criticism about the current software landscape have not yet been understood. It is about time to work on getting more intelligence from computers. That is what we are trying here.
This book presents a new principle for understanding computing. I am convinced that the idea presented here is right and opens up a promising path, but the theory as formulated here is perhaps still defective. This idea is extremely simple but also extremely hard to communicate. The multiple details that are treated here should lead in the reader's mind to a single point of view that underlies it all. This book is not intended to be read sequentially from the first page to the last, you will probably want to jump from one part to another to get answers to your own questions. You will find the materials in a rather logical order. The first section, ”Text“, presents a sketch of a text theory based on a general algebraic text formula. The section ”Imagine“ visualizes what kind of software could be built upon that theory. After that there are some case studies, including the description of an already existing implementation of the theory, the experimental software ”Universaltext Interpreter“. The last section, ”Background“, contains several considerations that might be useful as introductory notes.
The content of this book can be summarized with a single sentence: Computers are text machines. This does not mean that we can use computers for text among other purposes. It means that text is all computers are about, the only material that they store and manipulate. This book proposes a fundamental concept of text that reveals that documents, media, relational databases and source code are nothing but particular kinds of texts. This concept of text is not only a principle that can lead to a deeper understanding of computing, but it can also be directly implemented and produce computing systems that outdo the current ones.
Frankfurt, January 27th, 2010
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openOliIntroductionOlympiads in informatics are computer science competitions, where contestants are to solve problems of an algorithmic nature. Usually there is some input data in problem, and contestants should construct an algorithm. After applying this algorithm to input data they have to get some output data that suites conditions described in problem. There is also a story background in problem text. Analyzing it contestants will get some additional information, required for getting solution of the problem.
The solution is source file on some programming language that implements algorithm that processes input data and gets correct output data. Languages usually used at this olympiads are Pascal, C, C++ and Java.
There are also some conditions for memory usage and working time, output size limit described in problem.
Since all process is going on a computer, it is possible automate the checking process. And this is the key task for openOli. Another use-case for openOli is to use it's Engine for building an online judge, to create internet-based training for contestants.
openOli consists from web-based client-side interface, which works from web browsers like Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Opera, Internet Explorer and others and it can use any OS, and server-side which processes all incoming data from contestants. Server-side has to run a GNU/Linux OS. For now, openOli is tested to work with openSUSE distribution of this OS.
Olympiads in informatics are to form highly skilled programming professionals, and we hope openOli will help in such important mission.
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| 0.908537 | 324 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Computer science from A to Z
G is for Grid
A bicycle manufacturer may spread the manufacturing of its bicycles' constituent parts among several plants.
Computer scientists do the same when faced with some complex calculations: they break them down into multiple tasks, which are then assigned to different computers, which perform them simultaneously.
Together, all of these machines form a computing grid. The computing power generated is enormous, but difficult to control. Computers that are sometimes very far apart, and which operate in different modes and at different rates, must be linked efficiently.
To make the most of this tool, researchers are designing new programming methods capable of showing clearly the diversity of hardware involved. And specific software constantly analyses the information flows in order to achieve an optimal distribution of the workload between computers.
These computing grids are therefore performing a constant balancing act... just like the best bicycle acrobats!
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Computer science is the study of the use of computers to process information. The form of this information may vary widely, from the business person's records or the scientist's experimental results to the linguist's texts.
One of the fundamental concepts in computer science is the algorithm -- a list of instructions that specify the steps required to solve a problem. Computer science is concerned with producing correct, efficient, and maintainable algorithms for a wide variety of applications.
Closely related is the development of tools to foster these goals: programming languages for expressing algorithms; operating systems to manage the resources of a computer; and various mathematical and statistical techniques to study the correctness and efficiency of algorithms.
Theoretical computer science is also concerned with the inherent difficulty of problems that can make them intractable by computers. Numerical analysis, data management systems, computer graphics, and artificial intelligence are concerned with the applications of computers to specific problem areas.
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Parent Category: Computer Science
Computer science (or computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation, and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems. It is frequently described as the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information; the fundamental question underlying computer science is, "What can be (efficiently) automated?" Computer science has many sub-fields; some, such as computer graphics, emphasize the computation of specific results, while others, such as computational complexity theory, study the properties of computational problems. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies specific programming languages to solve specific computational problems, and human-computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to people.
No News In This Category
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| 0.903734 | 180 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Category:Algorithms and data structures
This category contains books on algorithms and data structures. An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions, an explicit, step-by-step procedure for solving a problem, often used for calculation and data processing. It is formally a type of effective method in which a list of well-defined instructions for completing a task, will when given an initial state, proceed through a well-defined series of successive states, eventually terminating in an end-state. A data structure is a particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.
The following 3 related categories may be of interest, out of 3 total.
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| 0.884016 | 137 | 3.109375 | 3 |
This book presents the "great ideas" of computer science, condensing a large amount of complex material into a manageable, accessible form; it does so using the Java programming language. The book is based on the problem-oriented approach that has been so successful in traditional quantitative sciences. For example, the reader learns about database systems by coding one in Java, about system architecture by reading and writing programs in assembly language, about compilation by hand-compiling Java statements into assembly language, and about noncomputability by studying a proof of noncomputability and learning to classify problems as either computable or noncomputable. The book covers an unusually broad range of material at a surprisingly deep level. It also includes chapters on networking and security. Even the reader who pursues computer science no further will acquire an understanding of the conceptual structure of computing and information technology that every well-informed citizen should have.
About the Authors
Alan W. Biermann is Professor of Computer Science at Duke University. He is also the author of the first two editions of Great Ideas in Computer Science (MIT Press, 1990, 1997).
Dietolf Ramm Associate Professor of the Practice of Computer Science at Duke University. He is also Director of Undergraduate Studies.
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Detailed description of the course:
The lectures make use of lecture notes (Development of Mathematical Software in Java) and, during
the practical part, of the book Just Java 2 by Peter van der Linden. The software that is used
during the course is Java, because Java is free, platform-independent and well structured.
- The course starts with an introduction to Java. During two mornings of lectures and two
mornings of exercises the trainees learn the basics of modern programming techniques such
as object-oriented programming and exception handling.
- In the third week the focus is on data structures, import and export functionality and
implementation of the algorithm in an object-oriented way. In this week the trainees will
start building a piece of software that incorporates a self-chosen mathematical algorithm.
This program will be developed during the rest of the course. Every week has one morning
devoted to lectures and one morning during which the trainees develop their software program.
Trainees can work on the project individually or together with another trainee.
- The fourth week the topic on I/O is completed and the focus will be on designing and building
a user interface. First, the trainees will learn the basic techniques of creating a simple
- In the next two or three weeks they will actually build user interfaces in mathematical
programs. First, a “wizard” to create or modify the input data will be developed. This is
followed by the graphical visualization of results in charts and tables. These charts and
tables can be saved to disk in common image formats, or they can be sent to a printer.
- When the user interface is finished, the lectures are devoted to some advanced topics such
as running and communicating with external programs and threads.
- The last week an installation CD-ROM is created that contains the program, documentation
and a set-up program.
- When the lectures are finished, the trainees have two weeks to finish their software
projects. After that, during one afternoon, each trainee gives a demonstration of the
software, the general class structure and the implementation of the algorithm.
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| 0.907954 | 447 | 2.9375 | 3 |
In recent years the development of computer capacities has brought a new aspect to scientific research : modelling and simulation. Computers allow scientists to build large mathematical models, and to test the relevance of their hypothesis.
In the modelling process three types of constraints are inherent to the use and the spread of the model to be built. A good calculation speed, an easy way to display and analyse the results, and a means of diffusion of the model to other people who may be interested.
Some powerful modelling software has been developed by computer experts, in order to fit the needs of as many users as possible. But they may not be well adapted for specific needs, either too slow to calculate if the model is rather complex and involves a great number of parameters, or without specific mathematical functions likely to be used. The solution is then to program oneself the model, through the use of a programming language. Depending on the computer powerfulness, a good calculation speed can be obtained, but the two other constraints are not always satisfied. Results may be displayed with any kind of graphical or mapping software (such as spreadsheet or GIS), which have then to be linked to the programming interface. And finally, because of many different computer configurations, a large-scale diffusion of the model is not always possible. For instance, there is almost no software that may be compatible with all Windows, Unix and Mac operating systems.
The purpose of this paper is then to present a new modelling methodology. The three constraints already mentioned are fully filled by crossing a programming language, for the calculation speed and the total flexibility of the modelling process, and an Internet interface, for the user-friendliness and the greatest diffusion of the model. The principle and the interests are firstly detailed, then an example application is presented.
First uses of the Internet deal with a simple displaying of information. By clicking on various kinds of buttons, the user can get directly the required information, i.e. all texts, graphs, pictures implemented on line by the webmaster. There is no return from the user, who is just a reader.
The second range of websites uses the Internet as an interactive interface between a user and a provider. By filling and submitting forms, directly on the interface, the user is able to ask for specific questions, to get registered, to chat and/or to buy and pay for merchant or non merchant goods.
A third range of application, more recent than the two others sub-cited, uses the Internet as a real scientific tool, not only for information and communication, but also as integrated software. This means that the Internet interface is thoroughly linked with other computer applications such as mathematical programs, graphical software. It is even more the cornerstone of the whole software, for that it is the only link between the user and the software, and also among the various applications of the software.
The method we present now belongs to this third range of Internet utilisation. In this paper, the Internet is used into a complex scientific model in the fisheries science field. But it appears that similar simulators were found on the web, dealing with various scientific fields. To give an idea of them, we give here a few examples of online simulators found on the web:
For some of these models, the number of inputs to be modified is quite small, even though the model seems to be rather complex. Others have wider simulation possibilities. And some models are protected by a password, yet the free-access interface may be only a simplified demonstrating model.
The principle of the method is to use a client/server application, i.e. physically to share the tasks between two computers, a local one and a remote one. All calculations are done by a server, the user-friendliness is implemented by client software, and Internet is the medium used between the client and the server. Yet for each of the two constraints that we have to face (calculation speed, user-friendliness, diffusion of information), the best solution can be used in a very flexible way.
The model itself, i.e. a number of datafiles linked by calculation programs, is located on the same computer as the web server. These computers are often powerful and with high calculation capacities. Yet a program run on them may be achieved rather faster than on a common computer, the fastest and the most reliable being obtained by a Unix operating system. But on the other hand, this kind of operating system is not friendly to use for most users, compared to other PC and Mac operating systems, and their accessibility may be often reduced. Yet the Internet media will then be the perfect tool in order to fit the two last constraints. The model can then be run from any remote computer, directly on the web server where it is located, with the only need of a Internet browser, the « client » (the most commonly used being Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer). A browser is one of the few items of software existing on any kind of operating systems. Yet the use of the model is no more limited by computer compatibility and/or geographical constraints, it can be used by anyone from anywhere (but of course, the accessibility may be restricted by a password).
And the Internet, through its simple language HTML, offers unlimited possibilities to make it friendly to use, not only for changing any desired inputs and running the model, but also for displaying the simulation results.
And as all (the model and the interface) is written with programming language, this methodology can be applied to any kind of scientific problematic.
As most modelling works, this method requires few skills in computer science. The model itself has to be written with a programming language adapted to output some Internet-compatible files. And as this methodology is mainly directed towards scientist modellers, rather than to computer experts, it is important to work with a language easy to learn and to implement. For instance a low-level language may be hard to learn for most scientists. Among all existing languages, there is one which seems to fit all these constraints : it is the language PERL (Practical Extracting Report Language), an easy-to-learn language, able to read the parameters of HTML input forms, manage a large number of files, make calculations, and outputs HTML files. Yet the same single program, located on the web server, will receive the information send by the user on his Internet browser, make the desired calculations, and display the results on the users Internet screen (Figure 1). In addition, this language owns many powerful graphical modules allowing a good visualisation of data. This language, which is currently not widely spread among scientists, is nowadays commonly used by computer experts and Internet programmers.
Figure 1: Schematic representation of the method
Of course, the computing implementation of this methodology has firstly been initiated by a computer expert. But it has been implemented in order to fit a specific scientific need. Although many scientists are used to programming languages, the use of new technologies need a previous apprenticeship with skilled computer expert. The case of application presented below has been possible only with a complete collaboration between a scientist and a computer expert. The scientist was totally in charge of the simulator construction, and the computer expert was responsible of the methodology coherence.
An example of an application : the bioeconomic simulation model of English Channel fisheries
This model has been built during the three years of a European-funded project FAIR CT-96-1993, a multidisciplinary project involving biologists and economists from both sides of the English Channel (France, UK and Belgium). The methodology presented here has been yet implemented in order to face different kinds of constraints, which are summarised below :
The model has then been built in order to take into account all these aspects. It is located on the Laboratoire Halieutique Linux web server in Rennes, and gathers the work of all partners. It is composed of three modules linked together :
In order to test the impacts of various management measures, the user can change a large number of parameters and compare the biological and economic consequences of these changes. For instance, it is possible to simulate direct measures on fishing effort (decreasing of number of fishing boats), technical measures (changes in net mesh size), taxes, etc.. Saving changes made on the Internet screen will directly modify the text files involved in the model.. An example of a change in the number of boats by fleet is presented Figure 2.
Figure 2: Inputs modification screen
Thanks to the powerful web server computer, each simulation can be run in few seconds of calculation. A result screen allow the user to choose the output to be displayed on the screen, among a large number of results (total effort by fleet and/or by gear, production by species and by fleet or gear, various economic indicators...). Some outputs are displayed as simple matrices, some others use a graphical application. The one we chose to use is a JAVA applet (a special Java program with limited capabilities) displaying lines, bars or areas graphs. The detail of the model is not presented here, for that it is just an example of application of the methodology we described. For more information, see Le Gallic & Ulrich, 1999. The Figure 3 shows an example of graphical results : expected production for a species by gear, when varying the total level of effort of one single gear, other gears being constant.
Figure 3: Graphical outputs
We have tried to explain how useful the addition of an Internet interface could be, compared to a usual programmed model. This methodology can be easily implemented, by adding HTML tags to outputs files. Given the fast development of new technologies, it is clear that this kind of methods will be more and more used in all scientific fields, providing a useful tool for data analysis.
The authors may be contacted at:Laboratoire Halieutique, ENSAR, 65 rue de St Brieuc, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
Le Gallic B., Ulrich C., 1999. BECHAMEL (BioEconomic Channel ModEL) : a bioeconomic simulation model for the fisheries of the English Channel. Xith annual conference of the EAFE, Dublin, April 7 to 10, 1999.
Schwartz R.L., Christiansen T., 1998. Introduction à Perl, 2ème édition. Editions OReilly, Paris.
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Get flash to fully experience Pearltrees
Professor Mitzenmacher's research focuses on developing randomized algorithms and analyzing random processes, especially for large, distributed computer networks such as the Web. He develops mathematical tools and methods to analyze complex systems and uses them to solve problems that arise in real applications.
Participate in research on software, graphics, artificial intelligence, networks, parallel and distributed systems, algorithms, and theory We like to say that Computer Science (CS) teaches you how to think more methodically and how to solve problems more effectively. As such, its lessons are applicable well beyond the boundaries of CS itself.
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| 0.934813 | 126 | 2.609375 | 3 |
To err is human… Can computers fix our mistakes?
Developing software that automatically detects errors
On June 4, 1996, the Ariane 5 launcher exploded less than a minute after take-off. The accident was not the result of a mechanical fault but rather due to an error in the design of the guidance software. At the Department of IT a research team is developing software to automatically detect and circumvent mistakes of this type.
Today it is possible to completely design and verify complex computer chips before the first prototype has been built. First engineers design the chip using specialised software, then a computer can simulate this chip and automatically find weak points with the help of mathematical methods.
These developments have been rapid. The first Pentium processors made mistakes when they divided one number by another. Today most makers of computer chips use software to discover and correct design glitches before the product goes to market. Since chips are getting more and more complex, researchers are forced to steadily improve their methods for making ever faster verification programs. A further area where automatic verification is useful is communications protocols, such as those used in mobile telephones to make it possible for people to communicate with each other. The first generation of mobile phones was limited to voice transfer, but modern equipment can transfer images and video films. New protocols are needed. Every protocol has to be able to guarantee that data is received by the proper destination within a reasonable period of time.
There are many other applications as well. The fact that computers
are making their way into more and more systems means that the field
of new uses is constantly expanding. The need to develop new algorithms
is growing apace.
Foto: © Martin Cejie
”A computer can simulate a chip and automatically find weak points with the help of mathematical methods.”
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I am new here, and I would be very grateful if somebody can tell which software is used for seti quest?
1. which OS
2. which programming language
3. which programming environment and tools
Kind regards and thanks in advance,
OS: Windows (almost any version, but many prefer XP or 7) or any distro of Linux
Programming Languages: C and C++ are very common, python can be used for quick prototyping, and MatLab is particularly powerful. Java, C#, and Visual Basic are also common, but personally I don't like them much.
Programming Tools, IDEs/Compilers: Visual Studio Express (C, C++, C#, Visual Basic), Eclipse (Java). I don't know of any good IDEs for linux, but GCC is commonly used for compiling.
Based on your question, it sounds like you're relatively new to programming. If so, I highly suggest you take a class in C++. However much you might hate spending the time or money, it is completely worth it.
Actually this means you can choose what ever you want to do processing because there is no any existing interface, just raw data ?
I work as professional programmer :)
That's right. I believe the staff is in the process of working out a list of software they would find useful, but other than that the field is wide open.
You can find the data released so far here.
We are posting data sets for people use for algorithm development with whatever OS, language, tools, etc. that they have on their own computers. We are developing some general software for the cloud that will provide an alternative to downloading the data files.
In the long run, we'd like to move successful algorithms to the near-real-time processing system at the observatory. Most of the software for that system is written in C++ and runs on a cluster of servers running Linux. This software will be part of the open source development. Parts of it will be released every three months starting in the near future.
Is there any way to participate in some project ?
I expect that as more people join setiQuest and start participating in the forums, groups will form in order to focus on particular algorithm ideas. You could be part of one or more of those groups. If you want to pursue your own ideas, we will provide more data and tools over time. If your interest is software development, you can participate in open source development. I think the first software release will be in July.
We hope to provide ways that anyone can participate in the search in some way.
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Friday 27th April, 2012
3:30pm to 4:45pm
The advantages of a single programming language for web development.
Computer Science Foundations
We understand so little about how the computing devices we use on a daily basis work. In this workshop, we will explore the fundamentals of computers from the ground up. Looking at how information is represented and how it is processed. From binary numbers to Turing machines, we'll take a whirlwind tour of the foundations of computer science.
Sign in to add slides, notes or videos to this session
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| 0.89346 | 112 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The Elements of Computing Systems: Building a Modern Computer from First Principles (EPub)
Publisher: The MIT Press | English | ISBN: 026214087X | 341 pages | EPub | 4.26 MB
In the in good time days of computer science, the interactions of hardware, software, compilers, and operating universe were simple enough to allow students to lo an overall picture of how computers worked. With the increasing complexity of computer technology and the resulting specialization of cognizance, such clarity is often lost. Unlike other texts that guard only one aspect of the opportunity, The Elements of Computing Systems gives students each integrated and rigorous picture of applied computer body of knowledge, as its comes to play in the rendering of a simple yet powerful computer arrangement.
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| 0.913556 | 154 | 2.875 | 3 |
Animation provides a rich environment for actively exploring algorithms. Multiple, dynamic, graphical displays of an algorithm reveal properties that might otherwise be difficult to comprehend or even remain unnoticed. This exciting new approach to the study of algorithms is taken up by Marc Brown in Algorithm Animation.Brown first provides a thorough and informative history of the topic, and then describes the development of a system for creating and interacting with such animations. The system incorporates many new insights and ideas about interactive computing, and provides paradigms that could be applied in a number of other contexts.Algorithm Animation makes a number of original and useful contributions: it describes models for programmers creating animations, for users interacting with the animations, for "script authors" creating and editing dynamic documents, and for "script viewers" replaying and interacting with the dynamic documents.Two primary applications of an algorithm animation environment are research in algorithm design and analysis, and instruction in computer science. Courses dealing with algorithms and data structures, such as compilers, graphics, algorithms, and programming are particularly well-suited. Other applications include performance tuning, program development, and technical drawings of data structures.Systems for algorithm animation can be realized with current hardware -- exploiting such characteristics of personal workstations as high-resolution displays, powerful dedicated processors, and large amounts of real and virtual memory -- and can take advantage of a number of features expected to become common in the future, such as color, sound, and parallel processors.Algorithm Animation is a 1987 ACM Distinguished Dissertation. It grew out of the Electronic Classroom project at Brown University where Marc H. Brown received his doctorate. He is currently a Principal Software Engineer at the Digital Equipment Corporation Systems Research Center in Palo Alto.
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To find the shortest round trip to 50 chosen cities in Europe a mathematician would usually recruit a massive computer, a complex program and set aside plenty of time. Researchers at BT, however, found the solution in record time, with a workstation and a collection of 'software ants' - autonomous programs a few hundred lines long which, together, can solve enormously difficult problems by dealing with their own simple ones.
BT, which has developed the programs in the past year, says its method could be applied to many problems where a complex series of decisions is needed to achieve the best use of resources. Examples include searching for information on a number of databases, designing circuits on microchips, advising fighter pilots under multiple attack, or sending out telephone engineers to fix faults.
The ants will also help to make software 'agents' designed to explore the information superhighways. Peter Cochrane, head ...
To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.
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| 0.950859 | 207 | 3.078125 | 3 |
Computers have their application or utility everywhere. We find their applications in almost every sphere of life–particularly in fields where computations are required to be done at a very fast speed and where data is so complicated that the human brain finds it difficult to cope up with.
As you must be aware, computer now-a-days are being used almost in every department to do the work at a greater speed and accuracy. They can keep the record of all the employees and prepare their pay bill in a matter of minutes every month. They can keep automatic checks on the stock of a particular item. Some of the prominent areas of computer applications are:
[B]In Tourism:[/B] Hotels use computers to speed up billing and checkout the availability of rooms. So is the case with railways and airline reservations for booking tickets. Architects can display their scale models on a computer and study them from various angles and perspectives. Structural problems can now be solved quickly and
[B]In Banks: [/B]Banks also have started using computers extensively. Terminals are provided in the branch and the main computer is located centrally. This enables the branches to use the central computer system for information on things such as current balance,deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, etc. MICR encoded cheques can be read and sorted out with a speed of 3000 cheques per minute by computers as compared to hours taken by manual sorting. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) allows a person to transfer funds through computer signals over wires and telephone lines making
the work possible in a very short time.
[B]In Industry:[/B] Computers are finding their greatest use in factories and industries of all kinds. They have taken over the work ranging from monotonous and risky jobs like welding to highly complex jobs such as process control. Drills, saws and entire assembly lines can be computerized. Moreover, quality control tests and the manufacturing of products, which require a lot of refinement, are done with the help of computers. Not only this, Thermal Power Plants, Oil refineries and chemical industries fully depend on
computerized control systems because in such industries the lag between two major events may be just a fraction of a second.
[B]In Transportation:[/B] Today computers have made it possible for planes to land in foggy and stormy atmosphere also. The aircraft has a variety of sensors, which measure the plane’s altitude, position, speed, height and direction. Computer use all this information to keep the plane flying in the right direction. In fact, the Auto–pilot feature has made the work of pilot much easy.
[B] In Education:[/B] Computers have proved to be excellent teachers. They can possess the knowledge given to them by the experts and teach you with all the patience in the world. You may like to repeat a lesson hundred times, go ahead, you may get tired but the computer will keep on teaching you. Computer based instructions (CBI) and Computer Aided Learning (CAL) are common tools used for teaching. Computer based encyclopedia such as Britannica provide you enormous amount of information on anything.
[B]In Entertainment:[/B] Computers are also great entertainers. Many computer games are available which are like the traditional games like chess, football, cricket, etc. Dungeons and dragons provide the opportunity to test your memory and ability to think. Other games like Braino and Volcano test your knowledge.
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The Art of Computer Programming
Author : Donald E. Knuth
, Computer Science Department
, Stanford University
Publisher : Addison-Wesley
Publication Date : 14 October 2001
Terms and Conditions:
|Donald E. Knuth wrote:
|All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher, except that the official electronic file may be used to print single copies for personal (not commercial) use.
In many places throughout this book we will have occasion to refer to a computer's internal machine language. The machine we use is a mythical computer called "MMIX
- is very much like nearly every general-purpose computer designed since 1985, except that it is, perhaps, nicer. The language of MMIX is powerful enough to allow brief programs to be written for most algorithms, yet simple enough so that its operations are easily learned.
The reader is urged to study MMIX carefully, since MMIX language appears in so many parts of this book. There should be no hesitation about learning a machine language; indeed, the author once found it not uncommon to be writing programs in a half dozen different machine languages during the same week. Everyone with more than a casual interest in computers will probably get to know at least one machine language sooner or later. Machine language helps programmers understand what really goes on inside their computers. And once one machine language has been learned, the characteristics of another are easy to assimilate. Computer science is largely concerned with an understanding of how low-level details make it possible to achieve high-level goals.
One of the principal goals of Knuth's books is to show how high-level constructions are actually implemented in machines, not simply to show how they are applied. The author explains coroutine linkage, tree structures, random number generation, high-precision arithmetic, radix conversion, packing of data, combinatorial searching, recursion, etc., from the ground up.
View/Download The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1, Fascicle 1
| Book's website
| MMIX software
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| 0.928982 | 464 | 3.234375 | 3 |
For each of the following, identify the network architecture or architectures (peer-to-peer, client/server, or directory services) that most closely matches the specified requirements.
Question 1 a) Your company is in the business of offering high speed Internet Access along with other services like Web Hosting. You are the product manager who designs product and service plans to small and medium business in downtown. You realize that offering one product-price plan to all is...
Implement a simple java search and replace stream editor program. The editor will read an input text file, perform a series of replacements, and output the result of these replacements. Full detailed program specifications are attached below. Please provide javadoc commenting. Your program...
4. Input the selling prices of all homes in Botany Bay sold during the year 2002 and determine the median selling price. The median of a list of N numbers is The middle number of the sorted list, if N is odd. The average of the two middle numbers in the sorted list, if N is even. (Hint:...
Design a flowchart using a loop and an array to read in 10 integers from the keyboard. Then display them. Also provide the pseudocode.
As a PC support technician for a small organization, it s your job to support the PC s, the small network, and the users. One of your coworkers, Jason, comes to you in a panic. His Windows XP system won t boot, and he has lots of important data files on several locations on the drive. He...
Use the rand function to produce two positive one- digit integers.
how does air sacs of birds make them lighter
Ask a new Computer Science Question
Tips for asking Questions
- Provide any and all relevant background materials. Attach files if necessary to ensure your tutor has all necessary information to answer your question as completely as possible
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- 1. Identify and describe Trust/Security Domain boundaries that may be applicable to personal computer (workstation) security in a business context.
2. This is a C++ codelab question.
- The "origin" of the cartesian plane in math is the point where x and y are both zero. Given a variable, origin of type Point-- a structured type with two fields, x and y, both of type double, write one or two statements that make this variable's field's values consistent with the mathematical notion of "origin".
- Assume two variables p1 and p2 of type POINT, with two fields, x and y, both of type double, have been declared. Write a statement that reads values for p1 and p2 in that order. Assume that values for x always precede y.
- In mathematics, "quadrant I" of the cartesian plane is the part of the plane where x and y are both positive. Given a variable, p that is of type POINT-- a structured type with two fields, x and y, both of type double-- write and expression that is true if and only the point represented by p is in "quadrant I".
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| 0.900487 | 671 | 2.625 | 3 |
|a gadget; dingus; thingumbob.|
|an arrangement of five objects, as trees, in a square or rectangle, one at each corner and one in the middle.|
|denoting, relating to, or forming part of time sharing of property: time-share villas|
in data processing, method of operation in which multiple users with different programs interact nearly simultaneously with the central processing unit of a large-scale digital computer. Because the central processor operates substantially faster than does most peripheral equipment (e.g., video display terminals, tape drives, and printers), it has sufficient time to solve several discrete problems during the input/output process. Even though the central processor addresses the problem of each user in sequence, access to and retrieval from the time-sharing system seems instantaneous from the standpoint of remote terminals since the solutions are available to them the moment the problem is completely entered.
Learn more about time-sharing with a free trial on Britannica.com.
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Computer Science 111. Foundations of Computing Theory
Discrete mathematics represents the core mathematical and problem-solving principles in computer science education. It is not possible to make creative and effective use of computers without involving oneself in mathematical considerations. This course introduces many of the mathematical concepts that appear later in the computer science major. Everyday scenarios are related to discrete topics including algorithms, networks and data communication, parity and error, finite state machines, regular expressions, matrices, propositional logic, Boolean algebra, sets and relations in databases, graphs and trees. Students use these techniques to solve real-world problems, such as forming SQL queries, designing shortest-path communications between cell towers and pattern matching across entire genomes and volumes of English text.
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A programmer often invests a lot of time to the pursuit of knowledge on the system they program in, for example, a programmer writes specific instructions within the bound of the a computer’s languages frameworks, syntax, and semantics to develop application that users used. All the details of engineering the application is hidden to the user and all the details of the computer engineering is hidden from the programmer who write instruction for the computer to follow. To become an expert in one’s field, dedication to the pursuit of background information is often necessary in interdisciplinary topics. As a programmer the need to understand the computer from the computer engineering point of view is the key, where the engineering sees a computer as a well designed network of circuit logical operand doing computation at a binary level. As a programmer at Dynamic Digital Advertising (DDA) that implement e-commerce web applications, the need for some preliminary know on how the ColdFusion server interprets the source code of my application is necessary. With this set of knowledge the designing and implementation will be influenced and prevent bugs and less debugging of an application.
Entry by: reggie
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| 0.916748 | 226 | 2.765625 | 3 |
No Marshmallows, Just Term Papers
THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE
As technology continues to advance, computers are becoming more part of everyday life. Computers are everywhere at work, at school, and at home .Many daily activities either involve the use of or depend on information from a computer. This maybe because computers are used in almost every field and profession like education and office works to perform large number of computer application .It also the best solution for providing information and a way of communications in every individual and gives better understanding of some events that can arouse the interest of some particular subject matter.
The advancement of technology has been playing important roles in the world today. Computers are initially used for exclusive purposes such as scientific and engineering, calculations, leisure and entertainment. One of its specific purposes is to store and manipulate data to useful information. And able to build a computerize system, just like the Computerized Registration System to improve the manual system.
The computerized world is a highly efficient one, which processing the big quantities of data and keeping .The extensive records will not be a problem to a post industrialized society, likewise the unreliable and slow processing and preparing student record and enrollment summary of report.
In this study, the software that is being used is Visual Fox Pro and MySQL are windows based programming language. It is one of the simplest and easiest ways to create application and programs. It will serve as a powerful tool in keeping and analyzing our records.
Also, this study is based and focused not only on the process of the registrar system in Sta. Cecilia College but also in its student information system.
This study aims an effective means of processing information and retrieving data aside from being orderly used in...
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| 0.93084 | 356 | 2.890625 | 3 |
View your list of saved words. (You can log in using Facebook.)
Computer capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. By manipulating combinations of binary digits (seebinary code), it can perform mathematical calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns. See alsoanalog computer.
This entry comes from Encyclopædia Britannica Concise. For the full entry on digital computer, visit Britannica.com.
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| 0.816242 | 103 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Making Web Applications More Efficient with a Graph Database
This week, at the 38th International Conference on Very Large Databases—the premier database conference—researchers from MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory presented a new system that automatically streamlines websites’ database access patterns, making the sites up to three times as fast. And where other systems that promise similar speedups require the mastery of special-purpose programming languages, the MIT system, called Pyxis, works with the types of languages already favored by Web developers.
Pyxis solves all three problems. It automatically partitions a program between application server and database server, and it does it in a way that can be mathematically proven not to disrupt the operation of the program. It also monitors the CPU load on the database server, giving it more or less application logic to execute depending on its available capacity.
Pyxis begins by transforming a program into a graph, a data construct that consists of “nodes” connected by “edges.” The most familiar example of a graph is probably a network diagram, in which the nodes (depicted as circles) represent computers, and the edges (depicted as lines connecting the circles) represent the bandwidth of the links between them. In this case, however, the nodes represent individual instructions in a program, and the edges represent the amount of data that each instruction passes to the next.
“The code transitions from this statement to this next statement, and there’s a certain amount of data that has to be carried over from the previous statement to the next statement,” Madden explains. “If the next statement uses some variable that was computed in the previous statement, then there’s some data dependency between the two statements, and the size of that dependency is the size of the variable.” If the whole program runs on one computer, then the variable is stored in main memory, and each statement simply accesses it directly. But if consecutive statements run on separate computers, the data has to make the jump with them.
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| 0.928093 | 427 | 2.875 | 3 |
15-499: Algorithms and Applications
Carnegie Mellon University, Computer Science Department
This course covers how algorithms and theory are used in "real-world"
applications. The course will cover both the theory behind the
algorithms and case studies of how the theory is applied.
We will cover the following topics:
We will start by talking about information theory and why it plays a
critical role in data compression. We will then go into many data
compression techniques and algorithms including, Huffman codes,
arithmetic codes, Lempel-Ziv and gzip, Burrows-Wheeler and bzip, and
transform coding and JPEG/MPEG. We will also talk about recent work
on compressing structured data such as graphs and triangulated meshes.
These techniques are full of interesting theory.
We will talk both about algorithms and protocols. Protocols we will
cover will include private and public key cryptography, digital
signatures, secure hash functions, authentication, and digital cash.
Algorithms and applications we will cover will include Rijdael (the
new standard for private key cryptography), RSA, ElGamal, Kerberos,
Error Correcting Codes
Error correcting codes are perhaps the most successful application of
algorithms and theory to real-world systems. Most of these systems,
including DVDs, DSL, Cell Phones, and wireless, are based on early
work on cyclic codes, such as the Reed-Solomon codes. We will cover
cyclic codes and their applications, and also talk about more recent
theoretical work on codes based on expander graphs. Such codes could
well become part of the next generation of applications, and also
are closely related to other theoretical areas.
Indexing and Searching
Requirements and Grading Criteria
Assignments: We will have 6 written assignments during
the semester, one for each topic (2 for compression). All students
have to write these up individually.
We will have one group project.
The idea of the project is to implement some algorithm and run
experiments on it.
You will have to give the instructor
a one page outline of what you plan to do by April 1, no joke.
You will then present your project during the last week of class, and
hand in a short writeup (3-5 pages) by Friday May 2.
More information to come.
Midterm and Final:
We will have a midterm (March 11) and a 3 hour final.
Readings: Readings will vary from topic to topic and
you should look at the Readings, Notes and Slides
page to see what they are.
A small sample of companies that sell products that use various algorithms:
Help on giving presentations:
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Excellent book, Very useful reference
Rather than being a boring book , Beautiful Architecture, is a well-written and very informative collection of interesting example from real life that should be known by anyone with interest in this field. Even if the systems presented in the book are on different platforms, using totally different technologies, and developed in different periods of time, all share some important aspects related to the architecture.
The book is divided in five parts. The first part is a general presentation on what is an architecture and an example of two software systems, very similar from many aspects like size, appliance, programming language, operating system and even so, one was aborted and one is used in our days. The first one was abandoned mainly because the lake of the design from the binging, hard to add new features, and the amount of effort required to rework, refactor, and correct the problems with the code structure had become prohibitive. The second one, is still in production, still being extended and changed daily. The actual architecture for the second one it is remarkably similar to the original design, with a few notable changes, and a lot more experience to prove the design was right.
The second part is about the "Enterprise Application Architecture". In this part is 4 systems are presented: the scaling problem faced in case of a massively multiplayer online games, the grow of a system for image storage and retrieval for retail offerings of portraits, an example resource-oriented system in which is presented the importance of Web Services in an enterprise application, and in the last chapter the Facebook application system is presented, and how the Facebook Platform was created.
Part three is about System Architecture. It starts by presenting the Xen virtualization platform that has grown from an academic research effort to major open source project. A large part of its success is due to it being released as open source. Then a fault tolerance system is presented, by reviewing the Tandem Operating System designed between 1974 and 1976 and shipped between 1976 and 1982. Chapter nine presents JPC, an x86 PC Emulator in Pure Java. Another Java implementation is presented in chapter ten: Jikes RVM is a successful research virtual machine, providing performance close to the state-of-the-art in a flexible and easy-to-extend manner.
In the fourth part, the End-User Application Architectures are presented. The GNU Emacs text editor architecture is described, and also a comparison with other software like Eclipse and Firefox is provided. Then the KDE project, one of the biggest Free Software, is presented in chapter twelve.
Languages and Architecture are presented in the last part of the book. This parts starts with a comparison between functional and object-oriented programming, continue with some examples of object-oriented programming and ends with some thoughts on beautiful buildings with problems.
From the beginning of a project is very important to have a clear view of the architecture and technologies used, because after some iterations is really hard, or in some situation impossible, to change the entire architectures and in some cases ignoring the architecture can lead to a project fail. A good conclusion for the book would be that: "An architecture influences almost everything that comes into contact with it, determining the health of the codebase and also the health of the surrounding areas."
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Paper: IBM Placement Paper (Technical)
1. what does vector processing do?
2. What is the use of software configuration management?
3. what command is used to append two files using who that is listed by ls;
4. if there is a problem in a network during transmission which is used to detect that?
a. protocol analyzer, b. SNMP....
5. In C, x-=y+1 how will u represent it..
6. What does Trigger do?
7. In which topology we use less amount of cables.
a. ring, b. bus, c. star, d. mesh
8. Which sorting techniques is best for already sorted array...?.
Ans: bubble sort
9. Which is said to be a real-time system.?
a. credit card system
b online flight reservation system
c bridge control system...not sure
10. decimal to octal conversion problem? ans A
11. A person having a/c number, a/c name, bank name, a/c type.. which is the primary among the above?
12. why data integrity is used?
13. if a primary key is an attribute of another one table means........
a. candidate key
b. foreign key
c. super key
d. composite key
14. int (*a). Explain this expression
15. Difference between 0123 and 123 in c
Ans : 40
16. in c r+ is used for
a. read only
b. writing only
c. both 1 and 2
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| 0.830658 | 333 | 3.0625 | 3 |
The Future of High-Performance Computing
by Richard F. Sincovec
Rich Sincovec relaxes outside Building 6025, headquarters for ORNL's Computer Science and Mathematics Division. Photograph by Tom Cerniglio.
The World Wide Web, the graphical part of the Internet, has created a new environment for research and communication. Today most users employ the Web to search for and view information from remote databases. The infrastructure, which includes algorithms, tools, and software to utilize fully the potential of the Web for computational science, is in its infancy. However, it is expected to grow rapidly as enhanced capabilities become available for use or retrieval of remote and distributed program libraries and databases, for remote and distributed execution, and for remote and distributed visualization activities.
Browsers, including those compatible with Sun Microsystems Java programming language, have become the norm for accessing information on the Web. Given current trends in Web use and the rapidity with which advances are realized, it is tempting to envisage a world in which the Web is the universal medium for computing. In such a world, applications would not be constructed from scratch or even built using standard software libraries; instead they would be put together using prefabricated components available through the Web. For example, Java, which has an object-oriented approach, permits software components to be easily constructed and used together to create complete applications. These may be operated in either a stand-alone mode or as applets (mini-programs written in Java) that can be run over the Web to enable “programming in the large.” Likewise, multimedia interfaces will evolve that will provide the user access to “a global meta-computer” that will enable access to the computing resources required without the need to worry about where or how the work is done. Problem-solving environments (PSEs) are created by using these technologies in concert with each other.
Funding is now available from several U.S. agencies to support the design and development of PSEs. A PSE is a computing environment that will provide all the computational and informational resources needed to solve problems within a specific domain. Some examples of questions that a PSE might address are “How do I design a new material with specified properties?” “How do I remediate a specific contaminated site?” and “What investment should I make now?” For each problem domain, there is a separate PSE. Some non-Web-based PSEs already exist; however, future PSEs are likely to use software that becomes available on the Web.
Sincovec surveys the ORNL campus near the Swan Pond, part of the view for many computer scientists at the laboratory.
A multimedia user interface represents a PSE to the user. The interface will present a coherent view of the problem domain and hide the intrinsic details of the underlying computing infrastructure. PSE will use the language of the target class of problems and avoid, to the extent possible, information that requires specialized knowledge of the underlying computer hardware or software. PSE will provide a system that is closer to the scientists problem than to general-purpose parallel hardware and systems software while still providing a complete environment for defining and solving problems in the problem domain.
The PSE multimedia interface will provide the scientist with a set of tools for exploring all aspects of the problem. PSE will also provide a visual editor for creating new applications or modifying existing applications using software available on the Web. The tools will enable modifications of existing codes and facilitate the integration of codes developed by other scientists working in the problem domain. PSE will have features that will allow the researcher to include advanced solution methods, to easily incorporate novel solution methods, and to automatically select solution methods.
The PSE multimedia interface will also permit the scientist to follow the progress of the computation, to track extended problem-solving tasks, and to review them easily. Additionally, PSE will provide the user with the flexibility to use visualization, holography, sound, or new breakthrough techniques to understand the results better. PSE will be further enhanced by existing projects at ORNL in electronic notebooks and videoconferencing that should provide improved collaborative tools. PSEs will not only facilitate a more efficient use of existing distributed computing resources but also, and even more important, will significantly enhance scientists productivity by enabling them to bypass the time-consuming computational aspects of their work so that they can concentrate on the scientific aspects. Ideally, they will be free to spend more of their time analyzing results rather than setting up problems for the computing environment. PSE facilitates the transparent use of software developed at other sites, thereby enabling rapid deployment of new and enhanced applications.
PSE will also enable collaborative problem solving with scientists at other locations. Collaborative activities can include interactive visualization and remote steering of experiments through distributed applications by multiple collaborators. PSE might also involve resources other than computing resources, such as specialized scientific instruments coupled with appropriate collaborative and control capabilities. Interaction with the virtual environment can be expected to involve new mechanisms for interaction between humans and computers. Overall, PSEs will have the potential to create a framework that is all things to all people: they solve simple or complex problems, support rapid prototyping or detailed analysis, and are useful in introductory computer education or at the frontiers of science.
What Is Required to Develop a PSE?
Current projects at ORNL and within other organizations in software components and tools provide the foundation for creating PSEs. Recent work in fault tolerance and task migration is essential for a robust PSE. Current projects are also exploring how to integrate different tools and program components at the proper level of abstraction so that the resulting PSE is both sufficiently flexible and easy to use. PSEs require computer networks that possess adequate speed and band-width. Minimal network latency and maximum network reliability are also essential, as are security and authentication mechanisms that are uniform throughout the virtual computing environment. Finally, as free-market computing becomes more dominant, accounting mechanisms with audit trails will be necessary for proper user billing and fraud prevention. Ultimately, computing resources will be paid for as they are used, and they will be universally accessible.
Seamless Computing Environment
The development of PSEs using the Web depends on the development of an underlying seamless computing environment (SCE). SCE provides the middle ware between PSEs and library routines, databases, and other resources that are available on the Web. SCE assigns, coordinates, and schedules the resources required by PSE. Specifically, SCE addresses such functions as job compilation, submission, scheduling, task migration, data management, and monitoring. Using the SCE interface, the user specifies the job to be performed, along with required resources. The interface acts as an intelligent agent that interprets the user input to assign computing resources, identify storage requirements, and determine database needs, all within constraints imposed by the user with respect to cost and problem completion. The intelligent agent may choose to pass the job to more distant agents. Those agents then interact with local agents to assign or perform the work. The user will be able to specify unique requirements, such as computer architecture, including parallel computers with a specified number of processors, specific domain-dependent databases, and the maximum cost the user is willing to pay to solve the problem. The interface will provide information on progress and resources being consumed while the job is being executed.
SCE, which has agents that are programmed to optimize the use of distributed resources, will provide more efficient use of existing computing resources, including workstations and high-performance computers. More importantly, new scheduling environments will enable computations to be performed where they can be done most effectively, in a manner transparent to the user. The distributed nature of SCE provides fault-tolerant capabilities.
Computing, visualization, and mass storage systems that make up the distributed computing environment must be linked in a seamless manner so that a single application can use the power of multiple computers, use data from more than one mass storage system, store results on more than one mass storage system, and link visualization resources so users can view the results using desktop virtual reality environments.
SCE must provide a secure and robust distributed computing infra-structure that has scalable shared files, global authentication, and access to resources at multiple Web sites. PSE and SCE will most likely be based on object-oriented methodologies.
A Research Agenda for the Internet
Exploiting the power of the Internet through the use of PSEs and SCEs requires a broad research agenda to help create
- multimedia user interfaces (MMUIs) that support the problem and computing domain;
- a scheduling environment to enable the most effective performance of computations at a location transparent to the user;
- a secure and robust distributed computing infrastructure that features security and authentication mechanisms that are uniform throughout the accessible environment and that enable user access to resources at multiple sites;
- storage and search tools to find applicable resources, including codes, documents, and data in multimedia databases;
- new programming paradigms, languages, compilers, and mapping strategies;
- machine and software abstractions;
- scalable shared file system and transparent access to remote databases;
- code reusability coupled with tools that enhance reuse and enable a layered approach to application development;
- tools to support code development, testing, and validation in the proposed environment;
- domain-specific environments, including hierarchy of object-oriented abstractions;
- repository research, including indexing, storage, search, security against viruses, and some insurance of portability;
- remote collaboration tools, including computational steering tools; and
- accounting mechanisms and audit trails.
Economic Model for PSEs Based on SCE
Within PSE, the scientist specifies a problem to be solved, the resources required, and the maximum amount of money available to solve the problem within a specified time. When PSE submits its requirements to SCE, SCE assigns the problem requirements to an intelligent software agent (ISA) that attempts to solve the problem within the specified cost and time constraints. If the job cannot be done locally, the ISA passes the requirements on to remote ISAs (RISAs). RISAs interact with other ISAs in bidding to perform the work. The local ISA selects the RISA that submits the lowest bid to perform the work in the specified time frame. Upon completing the job, the ISA that runs the job charges the scientist for the resources used. If the job uses third-party software, ISA charges the user and remits the fee to the bank account of the software owner.
In one vision of the future, a nomadic computing environment would enable you to go anywhere and use everything. You would have a persistent electronic presencethat is, always “me” online. You would also be able to expect 100% network availability, ubiquitous wireless access, and ultrahigh bandwidth nets for research.
When will it happen? Soon! The Center for Computational Sciences is currently laying the groundwork for an SCE. ORNL and other government laboratories are working on various projects that provide the fundamental building blocks. Computer hardware and software vendors are providing new products that directly support the development of PSEs and SCEs. Computer scientists and applied mathematicians are developing the concepts, tools, and algorithms. The funding agencies are creating programs that support the design and development of PSEs. Because of the rapid rate of technology development in computing and networking, you will not have to wait very long.
RICHARD F. SINCOVEC was director of ORNLs Computer Science and Mathematics Division until he left for San Antonio, Texas, in August 1997. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in applied mathematics from Iowa State University. Before joining ORNL in 1991, he had been director of NASAs Research Institute for Advanced Computer Science in Ames, California. He also has been professor and chairman of the Computer Science Department at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, manager of the Numerical Analysis Group at Boeing Computer Services, professor of computer science and mathematics at Kansas State University, and a senior research mathematician at Exxon Production Research. He has also been affiliated with the Software Engineering Institute of Carnegie-Mellon University, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, and Hewlett-Packard. He is the coauthor of five books that cover topics in software engineering, Ada, Modula-2, data structures, and reusable software components. He is a member of the Association for Computing Machinery and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), and he is editor-in-chief of the SIAM Review.
Next article | Contents | Search | Mail | Review Home Page | ORNL Home Page
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|Undergrad Catalog StKate.edu|
COMPUTERS FOR MULTIMEDIA AND ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS (2 cr.)
Learn how a computer works while using applications such as word processors to make professional publications and presentation packages to make quick videos. Also make interactive web pages with nothing more than Notepad and a web browser. Learning the underlying computer concepts helps you get the most out of computer applications. The foundations include history, hardware, languages and impact on society, introduction to structures programming and algorithms, and the use of software packages such as word processing, presentation, and web browsers.
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Problem Solving Environments
Welcome to the Problem Solving Environments Home Page
This site contains information about Problem Solving Environments (PSEs),
research, publications, and related topics.
What are PSEs?
"A PSE is a computer system that provides all the computational
facilities needed to solve a target class of problems. These
features include advanced solution methods, automatic and semiautomatic
selection of solution methods, and ways to easily incorporate novel
solution methods. Moreover, PSEs use the language of the target class
of problems, so users can run them without specialized
knowledge of the underlying computer hardware or software. By exploiting
modern technologies such as interactive color graphics, powerful
processors, and networks of specialized services, PSEs can track
extended problem solving tasks and allow users to review them easily.
Overall, they create a framework that is all things to all people: they
solve simple or complex problems, support rapid prototyping or
detailed analysis, and can be used in introductory education or at the
frontiers of science."
From "Computer as Thinker/Doer: Problem-Solving Environments
for Computational Science" by Stratis Gallopoulos, Elias Houstis
and John Rice (IEEE Computational Science and Engineering,
This web page was created in 1994
You are visitor
since November 12, 1998
[ Reading List ]
[ Conferences ]
Projects, Applications & Tools ]
[ Purdue Publications ]
[ Related Information ]
Comments, questions, suggestions?
Contact Ann Christine Catlin
Last modified: Fri Mar 19 8:03:00 EST 1998
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Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.
Compete | FAQ | Contact Us
Here you will learn about System Dynamics and how it impacts the world around us. This field is becoming increasingly important and can have vast influences on how our society works. By knowing and understanding systems, we will be able to make predictions using models of the systems. These models can be an accurate way to predict how the system will act over a long period of time.
2003 Gold Medal
2003 Interactive Learning
19 & under
Computers & the Internet > Programming
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The Latest Streaming News: Computer Science updated minute-by-minute
Bookmark this page and come back often
The Latest from the BLOGOSPHERE
Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or CompSci) is the scientific and mathematical approach to computation, and specifically to the design of computing machines and processes.
A computer scientist is a scientist who specialises in the theory of computation and the design of computers.
Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as computational complexity theory, which studies fundamental properties of computational problems, are highly abstract, while others, such as computer graphics, emphasize real-world applications. Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to description of computations, while the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of programming languages and complex systems, and human-computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
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| 0.891803 | 217 | 2.875 | 3 |
|Algorithms and Data Structures|
The text book for the course is Data Structures and Algorithms in Java by Michael T. Goodrich and Roberto Tamassia. It is essential that you have a copy of this book. (Note: I sometimes refer to the book as DSAJ).
The authors have made available a rich body of supporting material for this book. On the web, each chapter has a summary with cool applets, source code, and teaching aids. There are overhead slides for each chapter. The support for the book is excellent.
The book also takes into consideration
software engineering aspects of data structures and algorithms. One issue
important to the book is the idea of software design patterns.
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We can ask for "the fat book on computers I skimmed last week." We will get different responses to a query about "apples" if we are computer scientists, farmers, or in the process of filling out a grocery list. We do not get the same undesirable results each time we search the Web for a particular topic.
Data representation. The subsystem stores information encountered by its users using an extensible data model that links arbitrary objects via arbitrarily named arcs. There are no restrictions on object types or names. Users and the system alike can aggregate useful information regardless of its form (text, speech, images, video). The arcs, which are also objects, represent relational (database-type) information as well as associative (hypertext-like) linkage. For example, objects and arcs in A's data model can represent B's knowledge of interest to A—and vice versa.
Data acquisition. The subsystem gathers as much information as possible about the information of interest to a user. It does so through raw acquisition of data objects, by analyzing the acquired information, by observing people's use of it, by encouraging direct human input, and by tuning access to the user.
Automatic access methods. The arrival of new data triggers automated services, which, in turn, obtain further data or trigger other services. Automatic services fetch web pages, extract text from postscript documents, identify authors and titles in a document, recognize pairs of similar documents, and create document summaries that can be displayed as a result of a query. The system allows users to script and add more services, as they are needed.
Human access methods. Since automated services can go only so far in carrying out these tasks, the system allows users to provide higher quality annotations on the information they are using, via text, speech, and other human interaction modalities.
Automated observers. Subsystems watch the queries that users make, the results they dwell upon, the files they edit, the mail they send and receive, the documents they read, and the information they save. The system exploits observations of query behavior by converting query results into objects that can be annotated further. New observers can be added to exploit additional opportunities. In all cases, the observations are used to tune the data representation according to usage patterns.
Haystack is a platform for creating, organizing and visualizing personal information. It uses RDF as its primary data modeling framework. Haystack makes it easy for users to manage documents, e-mail messages, appointments, tasks, and other information. It provides maximum flexibility in describing and organizing data, the freedom to group related items together (regardless of the programs used to edit the items), ease in manipulating and visualizing information in ways appropriate to the task at hand, and the ability to delegate tasks to agents. (David Karger, Theory of Computation)
The Semantic Web is an extension of the current Web in which information is given a well-defined meaning, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation. Data on the Web is defined and linked in a way that it can be used for more effective discovery, automation, integration, and reuse across various applications. The Semantic Web Activity is an initiative of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), with the goal of extending the current Web to facilitate Web automation, universally accessible content, and the 'Web of Trust'. (Tim Berners-Lee, Eric Miller, World Wide Web Consortium)
START is a natural language question answering system that provides untrained users with speedy access to knowledge. START parses incoming questions, matches them against its knowledge base, and presents the appropriate information segments to the user. START's knowledge base contains text (automatically annotated by a preprocessor that detects context-independent linguistic structures), images (annotated by hand), and databases. START uses Omnibase, a universal data source interface, to help it parse queries containing database attributes and their values. (Boris Katz, InfoLab Group)
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| 0.892 | 813 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Monday 20 May 2013
Let your computer work for science
using BOINC and distributed computing!
Most of the time your computer is idle or running far below its maximum. You can donate this unused processing power to scientific projects using distributed computing.
Basically, you give some of your computer's power to compute a small piece of a big project. Joining millions of small computers provides the power of a (very) big one.
There are many projects including medical research (modeling the proteins structure, fight against malaria, genome study, AIDS, cancer research, molecular chemistry), climate (planetary scale modeling, evolution forecasts), various scientific projects (astronomy, magnetism, fluids dynamics), mathematics...
The projects programs are handled by a dedicated software called BOINC (Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing).
To participate you must download and install the BOINC software.
Once Boinc is installed, you must join one or more scientific projects and your computer will communicate with the project server to get work units (WU).
After completion of the work unit, the Boinc client sends the result to the project server and dowloads a new unit.
On the other hand, there is a more ludic part : for each completed unit you receive an amount of points (credits).
The goal is thus to accumulate the credits and to get a better place in the national or international rankings.
Everybody knows that "the union makes the force" so the participants usually join their efforts in teams, mainly the national ones.
You can then achieve better visibility in the ranking; so Belgium is #19 in the World ranking.
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| 0.906066 | 333 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Databases and Information
Information processing is a big
problem in modern society because several interrelated issues
arise that have to do with the need for:
- integration of data from different sources;
- navigation through information;
- learning and knowledge acquisition from
- decision making support;
- information visualization in computational
- storing, accessing and processing data
in computational platforms;
- handling non traditional information, e.g.
environmental, geographical, cartographic, etc;
- confronting the non traditional structure
-or lack of structure of new kinds of information, e.g. complex
objects or Web pages.
All these problems with different restrictions
define different types of databases. We focus our research on
the three last problems, which include multimedia retrieval, spatial
information, semistructured data, and Web agents. At the heart
of them is combinatorial pattern matching, a research area that
studies from a combinatorial point of view how to search for given
patterns in regular and discrete structures such as sequences
or graphs. This area should be distinguished from classical pattern
matching, which considers continuous elements and uses different
Distributed Systems and Networks
We call a distributed system any multi-processor system where
each processor has a local memory, not shared with the rest of
the processors. The only way of communicating between processors
is by sending messages through a network. To give a higher-level
interface to the programmer, we need to build a distributed runtime
software. The main focus is on the CS problems, leaving out the
hardware implementation and the physical network layer. However,
research on protocols for particular high-speed networks is included.
A key issue in this area is scalability.
With the success of Internet, we must face now the possibility
of a global distributed system covering the whole world (sometimes
called mega-programming), and the algorithms used must scale.
Another key issue is parallelism. After two decades
of active research in parallel hardware and software techniques,
new approaches to parallel computing are emerging. On the one
hand, hardware is converging to a distributed memory model composed
of a set of memory-processor pairs which communicate with each
other by passing messages through a communication network. We
can see this trend at the global level in the Internet, and at
the local level in technologies of low cost such as clusters of
personal computers. On the other hand, algorithmic design must
make no assumptions about the particular features of the hardware
so that portability across different platforms can be ensured.
Moreover, it is enforced that the algorithmic design be driven
by models of computation which allow accurate performance prediction
and embrace a simple software engineering methodology. It is worthwhile
then to review new models of parallel computation in order to
determine which are most suitable for different Web computing
applications and to develop new strategies based on the specific
features of these models.
Specific Technical Goals
All the problems addressed have the unified goal of seeing
the Web as a multimedia database.
Along the exposition we include our previous work on these problems.
In all the problems outlined below we expect three main types
- new models,
- new algorithms or techniques, and
- new specific applications.
Comparing multimedia objects
Multimedia data are quite different from traditional data, in
the sense that they do not represent "discrete" information.
Rather, they represent continuous signals of the real world which
are sampled and quantized. One of the most important consequences
of this fact is that there is no point in searching multimedia
data by exact equality, as traditional data would be searched.
Rather, we need mechanisms to search it by "similarity",
that is, find objects which are similar enough to a sample object.
Combinatorial pattern matching
in images and audio.
The signal processing community has traditionally addressed the
problem of measuring the similarity between two images or audio
segments (or parts thereof) despite of slight differences due
to scale, orientation, lighting, stretching, etc. (in the first
case) or timing, volume, tone, noise, etc. (in the second case).
They have used an approach where the object is seen as a continuous
signal to be processed.
A recent alternative approach to pattern matching
in audio and images relies on combinatory rather than on signal
processing. The audio or image is seen as a one or two dimensional
text, where one or two dimensional patterns are sought. Several
results on searching images permitting rotations, scaling, pixel
differences and stretching have been obtained, in many of which
we have been involved. The same has happened in searching music
files, using techniques derived from the large body of knowledge
acquired in the field of pattern matching of biological sequences.
Although the degree of flexibility obtained is still inferior
to that of the signal processing approach, much faster search
algorithms have been obtained. These results are rather encouraging
and we plan to pursue more in this line.
Approximate text searching.
The text, on the other hand, can also be considered as a medium
that can be queried by similarity, as opposed to searching exact
strings. Approximate text searching regards the text as a stream
of symbols and seeks to retrieve occurrences of user entered patterns
even when they are not correctly written (in the pattern or in
the text). This is mainly to recover from errors due to spelling,
typing, optical character recognition, etc. We have devoted a
lot of research to this problem and plan to continue working on
faster algorithms and their adaptation to the particular problematic
of the Web search engines.
Similarity access methods
In all the cases above, the problem is not solved just by
developing fast and accurate algorithms to compare images, audio
clips, texts, etc. Given a user query, there will be millions
of elements in the multimedia database, and we cannot afford comparing
them one by one. Moreover, queries can be more complex than just
a measure of similarity, as they can involve complex relations
among several objects. Efficient access methods are necessary
that permit fast retrieval of those elements that match the query
criteria. Only with such a technology can we hope for a world-scale
Web multimedia database. We plan to contribute to this research
in several aspects.
Top of page
Answering structural queries.
We refer to a structural query as one that is expressed by a set
of spatial objects and a set of relations for each pair of these
objects. Query by sketches, by examples, or by extended SQL commands
in Geographic Information Systems are examples of structural queries.
Objects in these queries are not necessarily described by their
spatial extents in an Euclidean space but by, for example, their
distinguishing features (e.g., color, texture, shape, size) or
by their semantic classifications (e.g., building and road). Spatial
relations are usually a subset of topological, orientation, and
distance relations. Answering a structural query implies to find
instances of objects in the database that satisfy the spatial
constraints. As opposed to previous work on answering structural
queries we plan to combine semantics of objects with their spatial
characteristics and interrelations for query processing.
Search algorithms for metric
Similarity searching is a research subject that abstracts several
of the issues we have mentioned. The problem can be stated as
follows: given a set of objects of unknown nature, a distance
function defined among them that measures how dissimilar the objects
are, and given yet another object called the query, find all the
elements of the set which are similar enough to the query. We
seek for indexing techniques to structure the database so as to
perform as few distance evaluations as possible when answering
a similarity query.
Several of the problems we have mentioned can be
converted into a metric space search problem:
- when finding images, audio or video clips "close"
to a sample query;
- in approximate text searching;
- in information retrieval we define a similarity
between documents and want to retrieve the most similar ones
to the query;
- in artificial intelligence applications, for
labeling using the closest known point;
- in pattern recognition and clustering;
- in lossy signal compression (audio, images, video)
to quickly find the most similar frame already seen; etc.
All these applications are important to search the
- permits indexing the Web to search for similar images and
- permits coping with the poor quality of the texts that exist
in the Web;
- permits quickly finding Web pages relevant to a query;
- permit understanding the content of images and text semantics
to enable more sophisticated searching;
- permits better compression of multimedia data, which is essential
for transmission over a slow network like Internet.
Metric space searching is quite young as an area
by itself. For this reason, it is still quite immature and open
to developments in new algorithms and applications. We have done
intensive research on this subject in the last years and plan
to continue in the framework of this project.
Top of page
Handling semistructured information
The widespread penetration of the Web has converted HTML into
a de-facto standard for exchanging documents. HTML is a simplification
of SGML, a structured text specification language formerly designed
with the aims of a universal language for exchanging and manipulating
structured text. A recent derivation of SGML, called XML, is rapidly
gaining space in the community. It is quite possible that XML
will in the future replace HTML, and the research community is
putting large efforts in standardization, definition of a suitable
query language, etc. on XML.
The structure that can be derived from the text
is in no case similar to a relational one, which can be separated
in fixed fields and records, and tabulated accordingly. Texts
have more complex and fuzzy structure, which in the case of the
Web is a graph. Designing and implementing suitable query and
manipulation languages for structured text databases, including
for the Web, is an active research activity. There are currently
several proposals for a query language on XML. We have contributed
to the area of structured text searching and to the particular
case of efficiently implementing XQL.
We plan to continue working in efficient query languages
over XML, developing prototypes to query XML data. The ability
of efficiently querying XML (and HTML as a simpler case of it)
will open the door to enhancements of current Web search engines
so as to incorporate predicates on the structure of the documents.
Top of page
Mathematical Modeling and
Simulation of the Web
The last decade has been featured by an ever-increasing demand
for applications running on the Internet that are able to efficiently
retrieve and process information scattered on huge and dynamic
repositories like the Web. However, it is well-known that predicting
detailed behavior of such applications is extremely difficult
since the Internet not only grows at an exponential rate, but
it also experiences changes in use and topology over time. How
to make sensible performance analyses of software artifacts interacting
with such a complex and large system is indeed an open question.
The whole problematic resembles scaling conditions in statistical
physics wherein interesting phenomena arise only in sufficiently
large models. A large and good enough model has a chance to exhibit
"rare'' critical fluctuations that seem to emerge regularly
in the real Internet. Clearly, analytical approaches become quickly
inadequate in such situations. Thus, simulation validated against
empirical data is potentially the only tool that can enable the
analysis of alternative designs under different scenarios.
Currently the problem of modeling and simulating
the global Internet is receiving little attention. As a result,
no work has been done in the development of realistic simulation
frameworks for predicting the performance of information retrieval
systems running on the Internet. In the immediate, we anticipate
unique opportunities for productive research on the development
of more suitable strategies for scanning the whole Web and their
associated simulation models, which allow these strategies to
be analyzed and re-designed before their actual implementation
and testing. Suitable simulation models can certainly allow one
to explore current and future trends in the ever-moving Internet,
under conditions that are impossible to reproduce at will in the
One specific problem is to understand the structure
and characteristics of the Web, including its temporal behavior
as well as usage behavior. The latter implies analysis of logs
and Web data mining. Another important problem is to traverse
the Web to gather new and updated pages. This is a hard scheduling
problem that can be modeled mathematically and simulated.
Top of page
Distributed Computing Environments
The complex distribution of computing power
in the Internet makes it impossible to use the traditional programming
paradigms to develop Web Computing applications. New approaches
are being explored by our group, using the Mobile Agent paradigm.
The main idea is to program small agents that migrate from one
machine to another, using a small fraction of processing power
at each stage, collecting information and making decisions based
on their knowledge. From time to time, they may come back to their
original creator machine, if a database is being built.
Much research concerning agents
is being done around the world. However there is still a surprisingly
low number of available platforms implementing them. We have built
a reflective platform in Java (called Reflex) that provides a
functional environment to test these ideas, with dynamic behavior.
Agents are a powerful paradigm
for Web Computing,. However, many issues are still open to provide
a reliable developing platform: they must be robust (fault-tolerant),
handle remote objects (remote method invocation, garbage collection),
migrate with their state between heterogeneous machines (thread
migration), support replicated objects (consi possible. Parallel computing can then
be an effective tool for the development of high-performance servers
which are able to process thousands of requests per minute. Web
based applications pose new challenges in this matter. For example,
little research has been done so far in the efficient parallel
processing of read-only queries on Web documents. For transactional
servers, we anticipate new research topics such as the efficient
synchronization of sequences of read/write operations coming from
a large number of concurrent clients/agents using the services
provided by the server site. Similarities with the problem of
event synchronization in parallel simulation are evident and it
is worthwhile to investigate the extent to which new techniques
developed in this field can be applied.
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The following HTML text is provided to enhance online
readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML.
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as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy.
Engaging Privacy and Information Technology in a Digital Age
information that can be gathered and stored and the speed with which that information can be analyzed, thus changing the economics of what it is possible to do with information technology. A second trend concerns the increasing connectedness of this hardware over networks, which magnifies the increases in the capabilities of the individual pieces of hardware that the network connects. A third trend has to do with advances in software that allow sophisticated mechanisms for the extraction of information from the data that are stored, either locally or on the network. A fourth trend, enabled by the other three, is the establishment of organizations and companies that offer as a resource information that they have gathered themselves or that has been aggregated from other sources but organized and analyzed by the company.
Improvements in the technologies have been dramatic, but the systems that have been built by combining those technologies have often yielded overall improvements that sometimes appear to be greater than the sum of the constituent parts. These improvements have in some cases changed what it is possible to do with the technologies or what it is economically feasible to do; in other cases they have made what was once difficult into something that is so easy that anyone can perform the action at any time.
The end result is that there are now capabilities for gathering, aggregating, analyzing, and sharing information about and related to individuals (and groups of individuals) that were undreamed of 10 years ago. For example, global positioning system (GPS) locators attached to trucks can provide near-real-time information on their whereabouts and even their speed, giving truck shipping companies the opportunity to monitor the behavior of their drivers. Cell phones equipped to provide E-911 service can be used to map to a high degree of accuracy the location of the individuals carrying them, and a number of wireless service providers are marketing cell phones so equipped to parents who wish to keep track of where their children are.
These trends are manifest in the increasing number of ways people use information technology, both for the conduct of everyday life and in special situations. The personal computer, for example, has evolved from a replacement for a typewriter to an entry point to a network of global scope. As a network device, the personal computer has become a major agent for personal interaction (via e-mail, instant messaging, and the like), for financial transactions (bill paying, stock trading, and so on), for gathering information (e.g., Internet searches), and for entertainment (e.g., music and games). Along with these intended uses, however, the personal computer can also become a data-gathering device sensing all of these activities. The use of the PC on the network can potentially generate data that can be analyzed to find out more about users of PCs than they
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| 0.952903 | 600 | 2.53125 | 3 |
simulation to mpls networks by opnet
Concept of software reuse
1. Java programmers can use class hierarchies for the purposes of inheritance. For example, given a Tree class, we could define Conifer and Deciduous sub classes that inherit from the parent Tree class as you can see here: For this learning event, you should develop a similar class...
A(n) ____ data type can store a variable amount of text or combination of text and numbers where the total number of characters may exceed 255.
Pretend you are ready to buy a new computer for personal use. First, take a look at ads from various magazines and newspapers and list terms you don't quite understand. Look these terms up and give a brief written explanation. Decide what factors are important in your decision as to which...
Activities of the business modeling discipline examine the information needs of the user, the ways in which those needs are being... Activities of the business modeling discipline examine the information needs of the user, the ways in which those needs are being addressed (if any), and...
What security issues must be resolved now which cannot wait for the next version of Window to arrive?
What will following segment of code output? int x = 5; if (x = 2) cout << "This is true!" << endl; else cout << "This is false!" << endl; cout << "This is all...
. Most people can t grasp the size of the value 2128. Let s put it another way. If the Internet governing body assigned 1 million Internet addresses every picosecond, how long would they be able to assign addresses (give your answer in years).
four types of requirements that may be defined for a computer-based system
Ask a new Computer Science Question
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- 1. Identify and describe Trust/Security Domain boundaries that may be applicable to personal computer (workstation) security in a business context.
2. This is a C++ codelab question.
- The "origin" of the cartesian plane in math is the point where x and y are both zero. Given a variable, origin of type Point-- a structured type with two fields, x and y, both of type double, write one or two statements that make this variable's field's values consistent with the mathematical notion of "origin".
- Assume two variables p1 and p2 of type POINT, with two fields, x and y, both of type double, have been declared. Write a statement that reads values for p1 and p2 in that order. Assume that values for x always precede y.
- In mathematics, "quadrant I" of the cartesian plane is the part of the plane where x and y are both positive. Given a variable, p that is of type POINT-- a structured type with two fields, x and y, both of type double-- write and expression that is true if and only the point represented by p is in "quadrant I".
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MAKING IT BETTER: EXPANDING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH TO MEET SOCIETY'S NEEDS
What Makes Large-Scale IT Systems So Difficult to Design, Build,and Operate?
Large number of components—Large IT systems can contain thousands of processors and hundreds of thousands or even millions of lines of software. Research is needed to understand how to build systems that can scale gracefully and add capacity as needed without needing overall redesign.
Deep interactions among components—Components of large IT systems interact with each other in a variety of ways, some of which may not have been anticipated by the designers. A single misbehaving router can flood the Internet with traffic that will bring down thousands of local hosts and cause traffic to be rerouted worldwide. Research is needed to provide better analytical techniques for modeling system performance and building systems with more comprehensible structures.
Unintended and unanticipated consequences of changes or additionsto the systems—For instance, upgrading the memory in a personal computer can lead to timing mismatches that cause memory failures that in turn lead to loss of application data, even if the memory chips are themselves perfectly functional. In this case it is the system that fails to work, even though all its components work. Research is needed to uncover techniques or architectures that provide greater flexibility.
Emergent behaviors—Systems sometimes exhibit surprising behaviors that arise from unanticipated interactions among components. These behaviors are “emergent” in that they are unspecified by any individual component and are the unanticipated product of the system as a whole. Research is needed to find techniques for better analyzing system behavior.
Constantly changing needs of the users—Many large systems are longlived, meaning they must be modified while preserving some of their own capabilities and within the constraints of the performance of individual components. Development cycles can be so long that requirements change before systems are even deployed. Research is needed to develop ways of building extendable systems that can accommodate change.
Independently designed components—Today's large-scale IT systems are not typically designed from the top down but often are assembled from off-the-shelf components. These components have not been customized to work in the larger system and must rely on standard interfaces and, often, customized software. Modern IT systems are essentially assembled in each home or office. As a result, they are notoriously difficult to maintain and subject to frequent, unexplained breakdowns. Research could help to develop architectural approaches that can accommodate heterogeneity and to extend the principles of modularity to larger scales than have been attempted to date.
Large numbers of individuals involved in design and operation—When browsing the Internet, a user may interact with thousands of computers and hundreds of different software components, all designed by independent teams of designers. For that browsing to work, all of these designs must work sufficiently
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By Rick Rashid, Chief Research Officer, Microsoft Research.
In the early days of computer science, there was a common conceit that many of the important problems computers could solve would be solved by careful analysis and software that would be largely deterministic in its behaviour. There was a belief that if we had enough rules, we could understand and translate language, understand speech, recognize images, predict the weather, and perhaps even understand human behaviour. I will discuss how our ability to collect, store, and process vast amounts of data on an unprecedented scale gives rise to a new paradigm for solving problems—not just in the area of natural human interfaces, but also in search, weather, traffic, and health.
As chief research officer, Rick Rashid oversees worldwide operations for Microsoft Research. Under his leadership, Microsoft Research conducts both basic and applied research across disciplines that include algorithms and theory; human-computer interaction; machine learning; multimedia and graphics; search; security; social computing; and systems, architecture, mobility and networking.
This article was published on Sep 14, 2011
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When accessing a web-page, how does the data (images, text, ...) get from the web-server to your computer, across the Internet? Which protocols make "the net work", and upon which algorithms and paradigms are those protocols constructed?
Sending information across a (dynamic) network, such as the Internet, in an optimal fashion depends both on the topology of the network, as well as on physical constraints, challenging the design of adaptive algorithms.
Different options are available, each having a numerus clausus.
This course takes place between October and January.
The main topic of this lesson is to present applications for mobile phones. In this course, to avoid architecture problem between Android, IOS and so on, we
show how to develop web applications on smartphones either as a webpage or as a native application.
Prerequisite : None
In 2011, the number of web sites was approximately 155000000 compared to the 54000000 of 2004. Moreover, these sites offer more and more personnalized services: agregators, shared workspace or blogs. This new deal parallels the increase of well-suited technologies meeting these demands.
This course aims at tackling the relevant development problems from a practical point of view. Among the techniques:
- Object oriented programming in PHP.
- Introduction to data bases through MySQL.
This course is mainly composed of programming labs. The students will have to build a long term project like the development of a Web application dynamically maintaining a library (clients, stock, booking, etc.), a blog web site, etc.
During the labs, some of the key aspects of modern computer science and its industrial realizations will be approached.
Prerequisite : INF 311-421 ou INF 321, INF 431 strongly recommended.
The Modal efficient programming has two goals. Learn how to implement quickly a program and how to find the quickest algorithm and implementation for a given problem. This course will develop the programming skills required for some job offers in computer science (for example Google). The idea is that methods in project management for software engineering can only be understood after some programming experience. As for the course content, we will review a large number of algorithms for combinatorial problems, graph problems and computational geometry. In addition the students will implement these algorithms and solve problems from the ACM programming contest (ICPC). We will also train for team work and read source code.
Prerequisite : None
The goal of this MODAL is to explore three questions:
- How does one write network-enabled applications, such as a file-sharing application, an on-line game or even a web-server?
We will explore the programming principles, constraints and primitives, needed to develop communicating systems, as well as basic considerations for distributed algorithms enabling e.g. Skype and IRC;
- How does the Internet really work?
We will explore the protocols for communicating between two computers on the Internet, as well as the protocols for managing the Internet and ensuring that no matter where we are, we can always access www.carlabruni.com routing, DNS, .... We will explore both the algorithmic underpinnings that make the Internet work, as well as how they manifest themselves in actual protocols.
- What are the technologies behind terms such as "switch", "router", "hub", "IPv6", "VPN" etc?
This MODAL is composed of a small number of "background lectures", followed by a selection of "technology lectures", with topics chosen in consultation between students and teachers. During the lab exercises students, in groups of 2-3, will undertaking developing a project: a "wireless ad-hoc network" among laptops and cell-phones, a distributed file-sharing application, a chat-system, a distributed web-server....
Prerequisite : None
Today, images are not only consumables anymore: we produce them every day. And every day, we discover new applications: virtually walking in the street (Google Streetview); browsing our own photos in 3D (Microsoft PhotoSynth); searching automatically for our friends in them (face recognition in Google Picasa); and so on.
The computational photography MODAL introduces novel and playful interactive techniques that reinvent the experience of creating, sharing and consuming visual content
Initial lessons will introduce common knowledge and techniques. They will be illustrated on computer. The major part of the course will consist of programming assignments. Students will have to design their own solutions, requiring previously seen techniques as well as specific ones.
Prerequisite : None.
Nowadays, many control softwares implement safety critical functions in systems like airplanes, trains or nuclear power plants. A software bug may have catastrophic consequences, as was the case for the first flight of the Ariane 5 launcher.
This Modal proposes a practical introduction to the techniques for the verification of software systems similar to those that can be found in real embedded systems. For the Lab sessions, we will use the Lego Mindstorms robots, and the Lejos programming language.
The amphis will first present the notion required for the Lab sessions and will introduce the mathematical foundations required to understand software verification (including indecidability and its consequences on software verification, common program reasoning techniques such as abstract interpretation or model checking, practical use of these techniques in real systems). These notions will be put to work in the Lab sessions in order to verify simple properties about the robots motion and reaction.
Rerequisite : None
Experiments in Biology lead to a large amount of information. This local information allows the reconstruction of complex structures, these being complex because of their size or their architecture. The large-scale information processing of the data allows the building of descriptive or explicative models for biological phenomena.
Many software packages of current use are built from simple programmatic methods. We will learn to extend these methods and apply them to real examples. We could envision addressing problems such as: pathological gene detection, high-throughput sequencing, and genome reconstruction.
This modal can be seen in two different ways:
1- a set of programming projects in a field not being computer science
2- a concrete introduction to bioinformatics.
Evaluation mechanism : The validation of this module relies on a project except for efficient programming which has a classical examination.
Last Modification : Friday 6 April 2012
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Have you ever wondered how your GPS can find the fastest way to your destination, selecting one route from seemingly countless possibilities in mere seconds? How your credit card account number is protected when you make a purchase over the Internet? The answer is algorithms. And how do these mathematical formulations translate themselves into your GPS, your laptop, or your smart phone? This book offers an engagingly written guide to the basics of computer algorithms. In Algorithms Unlocked, Thomas Cormen—coauthor of the leading college textbook on the subject—provides a general explanation, with limited mathematics, of how algorithms enable computers to solve problems.
Readers will learn what computer algorithms are, how to describe them, and how to evaluate them. They will discover simple ways to search for information in a computer; methods for rearranging information in a computer into a prescribed order (“sorting”); how to solve basic problems that can be modeled in a computer with a mathematical structure called a “graph” (useful for modeling road networks, dependencies among tasks, and financial relationships); how to solve problems that ask questions about strings of characters such as DNA structures; the basic principles behind cryptography; fundamentals of data compression; and even that there are some problems that no one has figured out how to solve on a computer in a reasonable amount of time.
About the Author
Thomas H. Cormen is Professor of Computer Science and former Director of the Institute for Writing and Rhetoric at Dartmouth College.
“Algorithms are at the center of computer science. This is a unique book in its attempt to open the field of algorithms to a wider audience. It provides an easy-to-read introduction to an abstract topic, without sacrificing depth. This is an important contribution and there is nobody more qualified than Thomas Cormen to bridge the knowledge gap between algorithms experts and the general public.”
—Frank Dehne, Chancellor’s Professor of Computer Science, Carleton University
“Thomas Cormen has written an engaging and readable survey of basic algorithms. The enterprising reader with some exposure to elementary computer programming will discover insights into the key algorithmic techniques that underlie efficient computation.”
—Phil Klein, Professor, Department of Computer Science, Brown University
“Thomas Cormen helps readers to achieve a broad understanding of the key algorithms underlying much of computer science. For computer science students and practitioners, it is a great review of key algorithms that every computer scientist must understand. For non-practitioners, it truly unlocks the world of algorithms at the heart of the tools we use every day.”
—G. Ayorkor Korsah, Computer Science Department, Ashesi University College
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<urn:uuid:47e76767-3324-493f-8ce3-ec1c1d7f2391>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/algorithms-unlocked
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en
| 0.909502 | 552 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Representations and operations on basic data structures. Arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, and recursion; binary search trees and balanced trees; hash tables, dynamic storage management; introduction to graphs. An object oriented programming language will be used.
Overall Rating:4 Stars
Thanks, enjoy the course! Come back and let us know how you like it by writing a review.
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<urn:uuid:fc3c4bf5-b804-4b03-8a8a-f47e53433576>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.chegg.com/courses/sdsu/CS/24671
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en
| 0.857335 | 78 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Visit additional Tabor Communication Publications
August 01, 2011
Computer systems are being tasked with addressing a proliferation of graph-based, data intensive problems in areas ranging from medical informatics and social networks. As a result, there has been an ongoing emphasis on research that addresses these types of problems.
A four-year National Science Foundation project is taking aim at developing a new computer system that will focus on solving complex graph-based problems that will push supercomputing into the exascale era.
At the root of the project is Jeanine Cook, an associate professor at New Mexico State University's department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and director of the university's Advanced Computer Architectre Performance and Simulation Laboratory.
Cook specializes in micro-architecture simulation, performance modeling and analysis, workload characterization and power optimization. In short, as Cook describes, she creates “software models of computer processor components and their behavior to use these models to predict and analyze performance of future designs.”
Her team has developed a model that could improve the way current systems work with large unstructured datasets using applications running on Sandia systems.
It was her work while on sabbatical with Sandia's Algorithms and Architectures group in 2009 that led to the $2.7 million NSF collaborative project. Cook developed processor and simulation tools and statistical performance models that identified performance bottlenecks in Sandia applications.
As Cook explained during a recent interview:
“Our system will be created specifically for solving [graph-based] problems. Intuitively, I believe that it will be an improvement. These are the most difficult types of problems to solve, mainly because the amount of data they require is huge and is not organized in a way that current computers can use efficiently.”
Full story at Las Cruces-Sun News
In quieter times, sounding the bell of funding big science with big systems tends to resonate further than when ears are already burning with sour economic and national security news. For exascale's future, however, the time could be ripe to instill some sense of urgency....
In a recent solicitation, the NSF laid out needs for furthering its scientific and engineering infrastructure with new tools to go beyond top performance, Having already delivered systems like Stampede and Blue Waters, they're turning an eye to solving data-intensive challenges. We spoke with the agency's Irene Qualters and Barry Schneider about..
Large-scale, worldwide scientific initiatives rely on some cloud-based system to both coordinate efforts and manage computational efforts at peak times that cannot be contained within the combined in-house HPC resources. Last week at Google I/O, Brookhaven National Lab’s Sergey Panitkin discussed the role of the Google Compute Engine in providing computational support to ATLAS, a detector of high-energy particles at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).
05/10/2013 | Cleversafe, Cray, DDN, NetApp, & Panasas | From Wall Street to Hollywood, drug discovery to homeland security, companies and organizations of all sizes and stripes are coming face to face with the challenges – and opportunities – afforded by Big Data. Before anyone can utilize these extraordinary data repositories, however, they must first harness and manage their data stores, and do so utilizing technologies that underscore affordability, security, and scalability.
04/15/2013 | Bull | “50% of HPC users say their largest jobs scale to 120 cores or less.” How about yours? Are your codes ready to take advantage of today’s and tomorrow’s ultra-parallel HPC systems? Download this White Paper by Analysts Intersect360 Research to see what Bull and Intel’s Center for Excellence in Parallel Programming can do for your codes.
In this demonstration of SGI DMF ZeroWatt disk solution, Dr. Eng Lim Goh, SGI CTO, discusses a function of SGI DMF software to reduce costs and power consumption in an exascale (Big Data) storage datacenter.
The Cray CS300-AC cluster supercomputer offers energy efficient, air-cooled design based on modular, industry-standard platforms featuring the latest processor and network technologies and a wide range of datacenter cooling requirements.
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<urn:uuid:2a1347a1-a694-4090-846f-56e4fe70dffa>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.hpcwire.com/hpcwire/2011-08-01/research_targets_graph-based_computing_problems.html
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en
| 0.921249 | 881 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Microsoft has launched a new technical computing initiative, dubbed "Modeling the World," in an effort designed to bring supercomputing power and resources to a much wider group of scientists, engineers, and analysts who are working to address some of science's most difficult challenges through modeling and prediction.
According to Microsoft's Bob Muglia, President, Server & Tools Business, "Our goal is to unleash the power of pervasive, accurate, real-time modeling to help people and organizations achieve their objectives and realize their potential. We are bringing together some of the brightest minds in the technical computing community across industry, academia, and science at www.modelingtheworld.com to discuss trends, challenges, and shared opportunities."
The initiative focuses on Microsoft’s three areas of technical computing investment:
- Cloud: Bringing technical computing power to scientists, engineers, and analysts through cloud computing to help ensure processing resources are available whenever they are needed -- reliably, consistently, and quickly. Supercomputing work may emerge as a “killer app” for the cloud.
- Easier, consistent parallel programming: Delivering new tools that will help simplify parallel development from the desktop to the cluster to the cloud.
- Powerful new tools: Developing powerful, easy-to-use technical computing tools that will help significantly speed discovery. This includes working with customers and industry partners on innovative solutions that will bring our technical computing vision to life.
According to Muglia, "New advances provide the foundation for tools and applications that will make technical computing more affordable and accessible where mathematical and computational principles are applied to solve practical problems. One day soon, complicated tasks like building a sophisticated computer model that would typically take a team of advanced software programmers months to build and days to run, will be accomplished in a single afternoon by a scientist, engineer ,or analyst working at the PC on their desktop. And as technology continues to advance, these models will become more complete and accurate in the way they represent the world. This will speed our ability to test new ideas, improve processes, and advance our understanding of systems."
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<urn:uuid:6c935523-014b-4f64-80e5-325503601e9a>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.drdobbs.com/tools/modeling-the-world/224900185
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en
| 0.937156 | 422 | 2.890625 | 3 |
This approach of relying on examples — on massive amounts of data — rather than on cleverly composed rules, is a pervasive theme in modern A.I. work. It has been applied to closely related problems like speech recognition and to very different problems like robot navigation. IBM’s Watson system also relies on massive amounts of data, spread over hundreds of computers, as well as a sophisticated mechanism for combining evidence from multiple sources.
The current decade is a very exciting time for A.I. development because the economics of computer hardware has just recently made it possible to address many problems that would have been prohibitively expensive in the past. In addition, the development of wireless and cellular data networks means that these exciting new applications are no longer locked up in research labs, they are more likely to be available to everyone as services on the web.
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<urn:uuid:e3801c34-dbc9-4814-9064-b20152760ef8>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.dnate.com/2011/02/computer-beats-human-at-jeopardy.html
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en
| 0.975395 | 170 | 2.984375 | 3 |
A valuable text for introductory course work in computer science for mathematicians, scientists and engineers. This book demonstrates that Mathematica
is a powerful tool in the study of algorithms, allowing the behavior of each algorithm to be studied separately. Examples from mathematics, all types of science, and engineering are included, as well as computer science topics. This book is also useful for Mathematica
users at all levels.
Computers and Science | Mathematica
's Programming Language | Iteration and Recursion | Structure of Programs | Abstract Data Types | Algorithms for Searching and Sorting | Complexity of Algorithms | Operations on Vectors and Matrices | List Processing and Recursion | Rule-Based Programming | Functions | Theory of Computation | Databases | Object-Oriented Programming | Appendix A: Further Reading | Appendix B: More Information about Mathematica
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<urn:uuid:7406f1b4-4826-4dd5-9348-6395406853d9>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.wolfram.com/books/profile.cgi?id=3635
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en
| 0.885595 | 180 | 3.171875 | 3 |
A solution that meets technical as well as operational needs while considering issues like security, manageability and performance is defined as software architecture. It is also defined as a set of rules that are needed to understand the system in terms of software elements and the relation between them. Computer science is complex. Choosing the right data structures and algorithms will initially solve the problem. But with increasing complexity in designs, the data structures and algorithms are not sufficient for a software system. Software architecture is required to design a complex system. Some common software architectural styles are pipe and filter, data abstraction and object-oriented organization, event based implicit implication, layered systems, repositories, blackboard, table-driven interpreters, heterogeneous architectures, interpreted program, client-server and peer-to-peer.
Software architecture can be studied based on four key principles which are:
In this kind of architecture each component has a combination of inputs and outputs. The components are called filters. The input data is read and processed to form larger streams. The outputs become the inputs of the next filter in the pipeline. UNIX shell programs are the best example for pipe and filter architecture.
The object-oriented approach is widely in use. Data operations and representations are encapsulated into an abstract data type or object. All the components in this architecture are represented as objects. The objects are invoked by functions and procedures. The representation is preserved by the object and it is hidden from other objects.
In this kind of architecture, the routines or the functions are explicitly invoked for the components to interact with each other. An event can be registered by other components by connecting a procedure with the event. The system invokes all the registered procedures when an event is announced. The invocation of procedures is caused implicitly.
This architecture operates hierarchically. Each layer only communicates with immediate layers “above” and “below” it. A few layered architecture systems have their inner layers hidden from the outer layers. But a few functions may have access to the inner layers. In these types of systems, a virtual machine is implemented at some layer. The protocols define the connectors based on the interaction of the layers.
This architectural style can be classified as having two distinct types of components. The first one is the central data structure representing the present state, the other is the collection of components that are independent and operate on the central data store. Each system can have different interactions between the repository and the external components.
A virtual machine is produced as software in an interpreter organization. The pseudo-program includes the program and the interpreter’s analog (activation record). The interpretation engine has both the definition of the interpretation engine and its current execution state. The interpreter has 4 components: an interpretation engine, a memory that contains the pseudo-code to be interpreted, a representation of the current state of the interpreter program and a representation of the interpretation engine in its control state.
All the different architectural styles can be combined to achieve heterogeneous style of architecture. Hierarchy helps to combine the architecture. The internal structure of a component may be completely different from the organized architectural style.
There are many more architectural styles; some are widely used while some are specific to the domains. The lesser-known architectural patterns can be classified as
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<urn:uuid:fcc68c94-de86-4c56-9056-44b5cdee6906>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.innovateus.net/science/what-are-types-software-design-architecture
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132729/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00023-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.939084 | 659 | 3.671875 | 4 |
This course covers the essential concepts, principals, techniques, and mechanisms for the design, use and implementation of computerized database systems. Concentration will be on the Relational model, with an overview of the other significant models, Hierarchical and Network. The query language SQL will be studied in some detail. Planning and design of databases through the ER model and normalization are also covered. Most assignments will be done using ORACLE Database software. Thus the student will be introduced to the ORACLE system and gain familiarity with its components.
By providing a balanced view of theory and practice, the material covered should give the student an understanding and use of practical database systems. CS 275 provides practical examples of concepts taught in other Computer Science courses, including locking and buffer management (Operating Systems), data structuring (Data Structures), indexing and query processing algorithms (Algorithms), and their use in solving database problems.
|Introduction to Databases||1.1 - 1.6||SQL: Data Definition||6.1 - 6.6|
|Database Environment||2.1 - 2.6||Entity-Relationship Modeling||11.1 - 11.6|
|The Relational Model||3.1 - 3.4||Enhanced E-R Modeling||12.1|
|The Relataional Algebra||4.1||Normalization||13.1 - 13.9|
|SQL: Data Manipulation||5.1 - 5.3||Transaction Management||20.1 - 20.3|
A term project involving the implementation of a database is associated with the course. This is a group project, with group sizes of 2 to 3 persons. The project plan and its design are due on Tuesday, February 19th (January 29th).
Printable version here.
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<urn:uuid:0bcb3b75-27e0-4a9c-8ba8-6df0a6f4c222>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://people.stfx.ca/mvanbomm/cs275/outline.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701370254/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104930-00010-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.858556 | 376 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Processing is an open source programming language and environment for people who want to program images, animation, and interactions. It is used for learning, prototyping, and production. It is created to teach fundamentals of computer programming within a visual context and to serve as a software sketchbook and professional production tool. Processing is developed by artists and designers as an alternative to proprietary software tools in the same domain. This workshop will introduce participants to the basic building blocks of programming and assist them in developing simple artistic applications.
- About Us
- Matricules Archives
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<urn:uuid:b95e5bcc-3857-439e-b38f-6b2c16881517>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.studioxx.org/en/ateliers/processing
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705097259/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115137-00064-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.924863 | 111 | 3.109375 | 3 |
CS 04225: Data Structures for Engineers
The course features programs of realistic complexity. The programs utilize data structures (strings, lists, graphs, stacks) and algorithms (searching, sorting, etc.) for manipulating these data structures. The course emphasizes interactive design and includes the use of microcomputer systems and direct access data files.
Wanda M. KunkleNaN Stars
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<urn:uuid:dd229e5c-5afa-442c-9f74-9eeed9ca0e01>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.chegg.com/courses/rowan/CS/04225
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711605892/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516134005-00021-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.854207 | 113 | 3.015625 | 3 |
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